 Origin of secondary electrons (SE) [i.e., what are they?

]
When the electron beam interacts with the specimen, it generates multiple signals such as
backscattered electrons, secondary electrons, X-rays and auger electrons. Generally in SEM, the
accelerated electron beam (5 – 30) KV strikes the specimen surface and produces an interaction
volume. The shape and the size of the interaction volume depend upon electron beam energy as
well as the types of the specimens. Depending on the beam energy, The beam penetration
approximately to few tens of nanometers to few microns in the specimen. The spot size may be
at 2 nm diameter; however, the scattering events are random. As shown in figure 7.2. the
interaction processes between the beam and the specimen (elastic scattering, inelastic scattering
and electron excitation) have a direct influence on the type of the signal, Electron range, depth of
ionization distribution in addition to the secondary and backscattered emissions. Secondary
electrons are basically generated by multiple of inelastic scattering processes which lead to
energy loss in the incident beam’s electrons. Elastic scattering occurs if the scattered electrons of
the specimen has deflected without losing energy. This happens when an electron beam interacts
or passes through the positive field of the nucleus of an atom of the specimen. However, Inelastic
scattering happens when the incident electrons lose some of their energies in the process. During
the inelastic scattering, some of the electrons interact with the atoms of the specimen to generate
low energy electrons known as secondary electrons SE. secondary electrons have a range of
energy (0 – 50 eV) and these electrons are used to study the surface topology of the specimen.

 Energy distribution of SE

SE Energy Distribution

The energy distribution of the emanating electrons from a specimen is observed over all rang
of E. The secondary electrons that escape the specimen surface usually have a very low kinetic energy. When the
high energy electron beam penetrates the specimen, it can knock out weakly bounded outer shell electrons of
metals, semiconductors and insulators atoms (Streitwolf, 1959). The significant difference of the beam
energy (KeV) to the specimen electrons (eV) in a collision event, a small portion of beam kinetic
energy is possible to transfer to the specimen electrons. It is possible that fast secondary
electrons are produced from tightly bounded electron atom with energy equal to almost half of
the incident beam energy. However, during SEM imaging these electrons have less contribution
compared to the slow secondary electrons.
The secondary electrons that emitted from the specimen have energy below 50 eV. the
distribution of the secondary electrons energy is generally peaked in the rang (2 – 5 eV), fig
3.17b. although secondary electron energy can be up to 50 eV, most of secondary electrons
(90%) have an energy with less than 10 eV. A small portion of backscattered electrons is
included in secondary electrons region and thus counted as secondary electrons. But the effect
of this portion is negligible.

This figure shows the energy spectrum of the collected signal from SEM as a result of the
interaction between the electron beam and the specimen. It shows a high energy loss (inelastic
scattering) which reflected the secondary electrons as well as low energy loss of BSEs.
 Secondary Electron Yield
The average number of secondary electrons emitted of the specimen from each incident
electron defined as secondary electron yield. If the generated secondary electrons are
within the escape range of the specimen, the secondary electron yield is high. As last
figure shows that secondary electrons have energy less than 50 eV. high resolution
imaging in the SEM are taken by SE1. However, the resolution depends on the spot size
of the incident beam. Although SE11 is contributing to the surface imaging in SEM, but
the resolution of SE11 is less than SE1. The emission of SE11 signal from the specimen
depends on the atomic number of the specimen. SE11 signal is about 1.5 times larger
than SE11 for high atomic number material, whereas in the low atomic number materials,
the SE11 is about 5 times higher. Basically, the noise in the SEM signal is coming from
the interaction between the backscattered electrons with the SEM parts such as the
specimen chamber, objective lens etc. the signal strength of secondary electrons depends
upon specimen orientation with respect to ETD. If the specimen is tilted toward the ETD
such that the analyzed surface signals can directly collected by ETD and the intensity is
significantly enhanced. Moreover, for some hidden features like steps, corners or edges
secondary electron signal is enhanced because of more electrons are in the escape range.
This phenomenon is known as edge effect.
The total secondary electrons coefficient 𝛿 is given by
𝑛𝑆𝐸 𝑖𝑆𝐸
𝛿= =
𝑛𝐵 𝑖𝐵
Where
𝑛𝑆𝐸 and 𝑛𝐵 are the number of the generated secondary and total electrons from the specimen respectively. 𝑖
refers to the corresponding current.
  Escape Depth of SE

Secondary electrons have low kinetic energy which only enable them to leave the surface from shallow escape
depth. All the random electron trajectories inside the specimen are associated in the production of the
secondary electrons. Since, secondary electrons rely on inelastic scattering, as they pass through a specimen
their energy continually decrease. Although if the secondary electrons happen to reach the specimen surface,
they still need enough kinetic energy (several electron volts) to overcome the potential surface ( work function
) of the specimen.
The produced secondary electrons due to inelastic scattering are heavy attenuated when they try to escape the
specimen surface. Thus, the probability of the secondary elections to leave the specimen surface is given by
−𝑧
𝑝(𝑧) = 0.5 . exp( )
𝜆
where p is the probability, z is the depth below the surface where the
secondary electron is produced, and λ is the escape depth of the secondary electron. Seiler (1967).
The escaping depth λ changes with different materials. It is smaller with metal approximately 1 nm
whereas, it is up to 20 nm in isolators. Secondary electrons energy determine the mean free path, in such that
secondary electron energy range (0-50 eV) corresponded to a specific range of λ. Above values of λ can be used
for rough estimation. Inelastic scattering of secondary electron mainly occurs with conduction electrons which
cause significant large range of escape depth in insulators, however, in metal the escape depth is much smaller.
This is due to that the amount of conduction electrons are extremely less in insulators than metals. has been
calculated by in 1974 Koshikawa and Shimizu have calculated the escape probability of secondary electrons as
a function of depth. Fig. 3.19, shows a sharp decreasing in the escape probability with depth. In the range of
10-30 KV, secondary electron escape depth is much smaller than the backscattered escape depth as shown Fig.
3.16. the escape depth of secondary electron is almost about 1:100 to the escape depth of backscattered
electron. Even though, the collected secondary electrons signal has information about the shallow escape
depth, but the imaging surface with fine features is complicated to be obtained. Secondary electron are
produced throughout the interaction volume due to the interaction between the beam and the specimen,
however, only the electron within the escape depth can carry the information and leave the specimen, then
signal will be detected by a detector. as shown in figure 3.20, secondary electron can be observed by two
different processes.

1.secondary electron which are produced along the incident electron trajectories can be observed within the 5λ
escape depth. Drescher et al. (1970), are defined the secondary electron which are generated with incident
electron beam as SE1. SE1 signal carries information about lateral sptial resolution of the beam and the
sampling depth of the secondary electrons.
2. the backscattered electrons approach the surface by elastic scattering can also produce secondary electrons
that can be escape if they are within the escape depth 5λ. Those secondary electrons which are produced with
backscattered electrons are called SE11.
(Drescher et al.,1970). As SE11 is produced by backscattered electrons so the SE11 signal carries information
about the backscattered electrons. Therefore, the change in SE11 signal is resulted from the change of
backscattered signal. Moreover, lateral and depth distribution characteristics of backscattered electrons can be
seen in SE11 signal, which made it a low-resolution signal. Therefore, the outcome information from SE1 and
SE11 is quite different. Secondary electron escape depth is independent of incident electron beam energy, and
when the beam energy is less than 5 KeV, the interaction volume range of backscattered electrons also reduces.
If η + δ = 1, the secondary electrons escape depth and backscattered electrons sampling depth are roughly
equal. The increase in the production pf secondary electrons within the escape depth of the electron beam is
resulted from the increase of δ at low electron beam energy.
 The number of inelastic scattering event happens to decrease as the beam energy decrease.
Here an example for that, in Si K-shell ionization cannot occurred if the accelerating voltage
is less than 1.84 KV. Figure 7.5. demonstrates a schematic diagrams of the interaction
volume between the electron beam and the specimen in the electron scanning microscope
SEM. Beam trajectories show that the secondary electrons secondary electrons are mainly
confined to the surface of the specimen with different physical origins. SE1 are generated
within the top surface area around the electron beam while SE11 are resulted of the
different inelastic events away from the incident electron beam. SE111 are generated from
the objective lens. It also shows that backscattered electrons trajectories exhibit deeper
scattering events.

 Types of secondary electrons Signal (SE1, SE2, SE3, SE4)

The signals produced in SEM due to the incident electron beam-specimen can be used to infer various
types of information pertaining to specimen. In imaging mode, signals are generated by secondary
electrons. The latter are produced by the electron beam-specimen interaction. In addition, noise is
produced by secondary electrons emitted at a spot far from where the incident beam strikes the specimen.

For secondary electrons, SE1 and SE2 represent signal arising from the spot where the beam hits the
specimen. On the other hand, Noise is represented by SE3 and SE4 electrons produced by backscattered
electrons BS1 and BS2 incident upon the metallic parts of the SEM. Noise is normally depicted as a
"blurry" image lacking in vivid features. In addition, noise can be produced when the electrons is incident
upon parts of the SEM column (e.g., objective lens) to produce unwanted secondary electrons. Faulty
electronics may also generate noise during the processing of the signal. For more details, see the article by
Joy (1984). A way of expressing the relationship between true versus extraneous signal is the signal to
noise ratio (S/N). Whenever noise rises to an unacceptable level (based on a poor quality image), the
signal to noise ratio is said to be low. One must therefore either reduce the noise or raise the signal to
achieve a satisfactory image. Since it is more difficult to reduce the noise level, most microscopists
attempt to raise the amount of signal from the specimen. Ways of increasing signal from the specimen are
described later in this chapter (Major Operational Modes of the SEM).
 Effect of Beam Energy on secondary electrons Yield
 SE Yield with Primary Beam Energy

Secondary electrons coefficient increases as the energy of the electron beam decreases. Table 3.5
demonstrates experimental values for the secondary electrons coefficient from Au and Al over a range of
beam energy.

Table 3.5. Secondary Emission as a Function of Energy

Element 5 keV 20 keV 50 keV

Al 0.4 0.14 0.05
Au 0.7 0.2 0.1

At low incident beam energy “below 5 KeV” the secondary electron coefficient starts to
increase significantly. It can be interpreted based on the electron beam range.
the escape depth of secondary electrons is shallow (~ nm), so the entire population of
secondary electrons, generated by incident electrons at depths beyond the escape range,
are not utilized for imaging. When the incident beam energy is reduced below 10 keV, the
incident electron range
gets increasingly shallower. Hence, greater proportion of the secondary electrons are
generated close to the surface and are able to escape. When the beam energy is low, the
incident electron range gets totally shallow and a vast majority of the incident trajectory
happens within the shallow escape range. This results in large values of δ.
When δ is increased, an upper (or 2nd) crossover point arises, symbolized as E2,
where η + δ approaches unity. When the incident electron beam energy is reduced, η
+ δ rises above unity. , this i9mplies that a greater number of electrons escaping
from the surface owing to backscattering and secondary emission than are being
produced by the beam itself! As E0 is reduced, the
rise in η + δ ultimately attains a peak, which could potentially be approximately 5–20
for certain materials, for instance, insulators. As the beam energy is lowered even
further, the value of η + δ falls until the lower (or first) crossover
point E1 is attained. Below E1, η + δ falls when the beam
energy is lowered. In general, E1 is lower than 1 keV and is rather challenging to
quantify. Values of E2 have been tabulated for various materials in Table 3.6. The
value of E2 lies in the range of 0.5–2 keV in the case of organic materials,
whilst E2 is significantly greater for inorganic materials, being within the limits of 2–4
keV.
 Effect of Atomic Number on secondary electrons Yield
 Effect of Tilt on secondary electrons Yield (including edge effect)
Specimen Tilt Dependence of SE
When the specimen is tilted at increasing angles,θ increases obeying a mathematical
relation that can be approximated relatively well using a secant function (Kanter, 1961):
δ(θ) = δ0 sec θ, (3.16)
where δ0 represents the δ value at a zero-angle tilt (normal incidence); this behavior
is demonstrated in Fig. 3.22a. The secant function relationship is easil;y comprehended
with reference to the simple argument elucidated in Fig. 3.22b. Suppose that secondary
electrons generated along the incident beam trajectory
within a distance R0 of the surface can escape. As elaborated upon in the subsequent
section, this escape range is extremely shallow. Therefore, the incident
beam electrons do not undergo elastic scattering within this distance and
thus lose very little energy, such that the secondary production distance remains virtually
constant. When the specimen is tilted to an angle of θ, the length R of the
incident electron path within a distance of R0 from the surface increases
as R = R0 sec θ. Since the generation and escape of secondary electrons are both
proportional to the path length, the secondary electron coefficient rises governed by a
secant relationship. However, this argument is missing certain details because
secondary electrons might be generated by the beam electrons when they backscatter.
As expounded above, backscattering rises with the angular tilt. This further contributes
to the increasing δ at large values of tilt angles.
When the incident beam energy is lowered to values approximately near
E2, the secant-type relationship illustrated by Eq. (3.16) does not apply. The
backscattered and secondary electrons have relatively similar ranges, which essentially
implies that all secondary electrons produced within the interaction volume can escape.
When the tilt angle is increased, the primary electron range within the escape depth
remains relatively unchanged. Hence, no additional secondary production is obtained in
the secondary escape range.

 Angular distribution of SE
Angular Distribution of SE
The emission of secondary electrons is governed by a cosine function of
φ , which is an angle measured from the surface normal. Upon tilting the specimen,
however, the backscattered and secondary electrons exhibit different behaviors with
 respect to their angular emissions. In the case of backscattered electrons, the angular
distribution is asymmetric and peaks in the forward
scattering direction, due to elastic scattering being greatly preferred in
the forward scattering direction. On the other hand, for the secondary electrons, the
angular distribution remains as a cosine relative to the local surface normal. This
relationship arises from the fact that secondary electrons are produced isotropically by
the incident electrons independent of tilt. Even though the total secondary electron
coefficientδ rises when the tilt is increased, the emission angular distribution remains
unchanged. This arises from the fact that the distribution of path lengths out of the
specimen obeys a 1/ cosφ distribution relative to the surface normal regardless of the
tilt.

 Formation of Topographic Contrast with secondary electrons (i.e., Secondary Electron Imaging)
 Contrast and ThreeDimensionalityof the SEM Image

The threedimensional appearance of SEM images is due to differences in contrast between

various structural features of the specimen when they are displayed on the viewing monitor.
Contrast arises when different parts of the specimen generate differing amounts of secondary
electrons when the electron beam strikes them. Areas which generate large numbers of secondary
electrons will appear brighter than areas that generate fewer secondary electrons. The yield of
secondary electrons by these various areas may be influenced by several conditions. The
orientation of the specimen topography relative to the electron beam and secondary electron
detector greatly affects the yield of secondary electrons. As illustrated in Figure 7.16, certain
areas of the specimen (designated "D" in the figure) will not be struck by the beam and will not
yield any secondary electrons. These areas will appear dark on the display monitor. Areas such as
"I" in Figure 7.16 will be struck by the beam, but since they face away from the detector, fewer
secondary electrons will be collected and intermediate levels of brightness will be displayed.
Optimal yields of secondary electrons would come from areas that are struck by the beam and
face the detector ("B" in the figure). These areas would appear as highlights in the image. A
second condition that affects the yield of secondary electrons is the angle that the beam enters the
specimen surface. If the beam enters a specimen at a 90 degree angle, the beam penetrates
directly into the specimen and any secondaries generated below a certain depth will not be able to
escape. On the other hand, if the beam strikes the specimen in a grazing manner, then the beam
does not penetrate to a great depth and more secondaries will be able to escape since they are
closer to the surface. Since rounded objects are more likely to be grazed by the electron beam
than would flat objects, round areas usually appear to have a sharp bright line around them due to
the enhanced yield of secondaries (see Figure 7.17). In a third situation, thin, raised areas of the
specimen usually appear much brighter than broad, flat areas. This phenomenon is termed the
edge effect since it takes place along sharp edges or peaks in the specimen. These areas appear
brighter because the secondary electrons are able to escape from all sides of the thin areas in
the projection (Figure 7.18). An example of a specimen demonstrating pronounced edge effect is
also shown in Figure 7.19.
Other conditions that may affect contrast in a specimen include: The distribution of elements
with different atomic numbers. Higher atomic numbered elements have a greater yield of
secondary and backscattered electrons than do elements with lower atomic numbers. Higher
atomic numbered elements therefore appear brighter in the SEM. Higher accelerating voltages
 result in lower contrast due to greater beam penetration and enhanced secondary yield from all
parts of the topography. If more
contrast is needed than can be obtained using the SEM contrast controls, then lower accelerating
voltages should be used.
Charge accumulation (charging) on incompletely coated or nongrounded areas of the specimen
will result in an increase in contrast. For instance, large areas that are suspended by a thin stalk
tend to build up a static charge from the electron beam and cannot dissipate the charge rapidly
enough through the thinned portion. This may cause the deflection of the beam so that it strikes
other areas to generate an excessive amount of secondary electrons. Likewise, naturally magnetic
areas in a specimen may either deflect or attract the beam to affect the yield of secondary
electrons. When crystals are oriented along certain lattice planes relative to the beam, an
enhanced yield of secondaries may result in an increase in brightness along these
lattice planes so that certain crystals will appear much brighter than others.

Angus-Nanocharacterisation-2015

SE imaging
Bozolla-1999-Electron_Microscopy

Golstein