PSAF

Skills level
ICAN
Public Sector Accounting and Finance
The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria
i
SKILLS LEVEL: PUBLIC SECTOR ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE
Published by
The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria
PC 16, Idowu Taylor Street
Victoria Island
Lagos, Nigeria
Email: [email protected]
www.ican-ngr.org
ISBN 977-978-53303-9-7
© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria, December 2014
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
scanning or otherwise, without the prior permission in writing of The Institute of Chartered
Accountants of Nigeria, or as expressly permitted by law, or under the terms agreed with the
appropriate reprographics rights organisation.
You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same
condition on any acquirer.
Notice
The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria has made every effort to ensure that at the time
of writing the contents of this study text are accurate, but neither the Council of the Institute of
Chartered Accountants of Nigeria, nor its management or employees shall be under any liability
whatsoever for any inaccurate or misleading information this work could contain.
www.ica nig.org
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Skills level

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Foreword
The business environment has been undergoing rapid changes caused, in the main,
by globalisation and advancement in Information Technology. The impact of these
changes on the Finance function and the skills set needed by professional Accountants
to perform their various tasks have been profound. These developments have made it
inevitable for the Institute’s syllabus and training curriculum to be changed to align
its content with current and future needs of the users of Accounting services.
Although the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria (ICAN) traditionally changes

its syllabus and training curriculum every five years, it had to embark on a
comprehensive review of its 2010 Syllabus in 2012, that is, barely two years into the
syllabus! Through a World Bank-sponsored twinning programme with the Institute of
Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW), the Project Implementation
Committee, the Examinations and Students Affairs Committees worked assiduously
to produce a new 3-level, 16-subject ICAN syllabus. As approved by the Council,
Examinations under the new syllabus will commence with the November 2014 diet.
It is instructive to note that the last two syllabus review exercises were accompanied
with the publication of study packs. Indeed, when the first and second editions of
study packs were produced, the performances of professional examination candidates
significantly improved. In an effort to consolidate on these gains and to further enhance
the success rates of students in its qualifying examinations, the Council approved that
a new set of learning materials (study packs) be developed for each of the new subjects.
The Council also resolved to wholly finance the project since it was outside the scope
of the World Bank grant. Although these learning materials may be regarded as the
third edition, they are completely different in content, innovation and quality.
While ICAEW developed the Case Study learning material, eleven of the new learning
materials were contracted to Emile Woolf International, UK. Also, renowned writers
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and reviewers which comprised eminent scholars and practitioners with tremendous
experiences in their areas of specialisation, were sourced locally to develop learning
materials for four of the new subjects because of their local content. In effect, for the
first time, there are now ICAN learning materials (study packs) for Case Study and
Business Law. The 16 subjects are as follows:
FOUNDATION LEVEL
1. Quantitative Techniques in Business EWI
2. Financial Accounting EWI
3. Management Information EWI
4. Business Law Locally developed
5. Business and Finance EWI
SKILLS LEVEL
6. Financial Reporting EWI
7. Audit and Assurance EWI
8. Taxation Locally developed
9. Performance Management EWI
10. Management, Governance and Ethics EWI
11. Public Sector Accounting and Finance Locally developed
PROFESSIONAL LEVEL
12. Corporate Reporting EWI
13. Advanced Audit and Assurance EWI
14. Strategic Financial Management EWI
15. Advanced Taxation Locally developed
16. Case Study ICAEW
As part of the quality control measures, the output of the writers and reviewers were
subjected to further comprehensive review by an editorial board.
Although the study packs were specially produced to assist candidates preparing for
the Institute’s Professional Examinations, we are persuaded that students of other
professional bodies and tertiary institutions will find them very useful.
Isma’ila M. Zakari, BSc, mni, FCA Mr. Sunday A. Bammeke, BSc, FCA
Chairman, Professional Examinations Chairman, Students’ Affairs
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Skills level

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Acknowledgement
The Institute is deeply indebted to the underlisted locally-sourced rewriters, reviewers

and members of the editorial board for their scholarship and erudition which led to
the successful production of these new study packs. They are:
Taxation
1. Enigbokan, Femi Writer/Lead Reviewer
2. Clever, Tony Writer
3 Kajola, Sunday Writer
Advanced Taxation
1. Sobande, David Writer/Lead Reviewer
2. Owoyele, Olusola Writer
3. Egbedina, Olayide Writer

1. Osonuga, Timothy Writer/Lead Reviewer
2. Taiwo, Rafiu Writer
3. Agbeyangi, Babatunde Writer
4. Oladeji, Sunday Reviewer
5. Aregbeyen, Omo Writer
6. Adebayo, Ademola Writer
Business Law
1. Oladele, Olayiwola.O. Writer/Lead Reviewer
2. Emiaso, Miakpo Writer
3. Olaiya, Marian Writer
4. Oresanya, Lekan Writer
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The Institute also appreciates the services of its staff and the typesetter, Ogunbiyi
Babatunde Julius, that provided secretarial support.
Editorial Board
Ismaila Muhammadu Zakari, B.Sc, FCA, mni 2nd DVP/Chairman,
Sunday Abayomi Bammeke, B.Sc, FCA Council member
Abel Aig. Asein, B.Sc, MSc, MBA, ACA Deputy Registrar, Technical Services
John Irabor Evbodaghe, MBA, FCA Director, Examinations
I.B. Momoh, FCA Assistant Director, Prof. Exams
Folake Olawuyi, BA. M.Sc Assistant Director, Student Affairs
Rotimi A. Omotosho, FCA

Registrar / Chief Executive
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List of Abbreviations
AfDB African Development Bank

AGF Accountant-General of the Federation
AGW Annual General Warrant
AICPA American Institute of Certified Public Accountants
AIE Authority to Incur Expenditure
ARR Accounting Rate of Return
AuGF Auditor-General for the Federation
BPP Bureau of Public Procurement
CAMA Companies and Allied Matters Act
CBA Cost-Benefit Analysis
CCB Code of Conduct Bureau
CCT Code of Conduct Tribunal
CDF Capital Development Fund
CEA Cost Effectiveness Analysis
CF Contingency Fund
CRF Consolidated Revenue Fund
DCF Discounted Cash Flow
DFSW Development Fund Special Warrant
DFAGW Development Fund Annual General Warrant
DFSGW Development Fund Reserve Expenditure Warrant
DFSW Development Fund Supplementary Warrant OR
Development Fund Special Warrant
DFVW Development Fund Virement Warrant
DVEAB Departmental Vote and Expenditure Allocation/Analysis Book
EFCC Economic and Financial Crimes Commission
FAAC Federation Account Allocation Committee
FCT Federal Capital Territory
FEPA Federal Environmental Protection Agency
FGPC Finance and General Purposes Committee
FIRS Federal Inland Revenue Service
FRC Fiscal Responsibility Commission
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GAAFR Government Accounting Auditing and Financial Reporting

GAAP Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
ICPC Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences
Commission
IFAC International Federation of Accountants
IMF International Monetary Fund
INTOSAI International Organisation of Supreme Audit Institution
IPSAS International Public Sector Accounting Standards
IRR Internal Rate of Return
MDA Ministries Departments and Agencies
MOFI Ministry of Finance Incorporated
MTEF Medium Term Expenditure Framework
NASS National Assembly
NCDP National Commission on Development and Planning
NCPP National Council on Public Procurement
NEC National Economic Commission/National Executive Council
NPC National Population Commission
NPV Net Present Value
PAYE Pay - As - You - Earn
PBS Performance Budgeting System
PDFGW Provisional Development Fund General Warrant
PENCOM National Pension Commission
PFA Pension Fund Administrator
PFC Pension Fund Custodian
PGW Provisional General Warrant
PHCN Power Holding Company of Nigeria
PIN Personal Identification Number
PPBS Planning, Programming Budgeting System
PBS Performance Budgeting System
PSAF Public Sector Accounting and Finance
PTDF Petroleum Technology Development Fund
PV Present Value
REW Reserve Expenditure Warrant
RMAFC Revenue Mobilization Allocation and Fiscal Commission
SCG Supplementary Contingencies Warrant
SGW Supplementory General Warrant
SJLGAAC State Joint Local Government Account Allocation Committee
SSEW Supplementary Statutory Expenditure Warrant
VAT Value Added Tax
VW Virement Warrant
ZBB Zero-Base Budgeting
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Syllabus & Examination Questions Format
(A) EXAMINATION QUESTION FORMAT
1. Each paper in Foundation level shall consist of two sections A and B
Section A: Shall comprise twenty (20) compulsory multiple-choice

questions which shall cover the entire contents of the
syllabus. This section shall make up 20% of the total marks.
Section B: Shall comprise six open-ended questions (essay,

computational or scenario-based) carrying 20 marks each
of which candidates will be required to answer any 4.
2. Skills and Professional levels shall comprise open-ended questions

(essay, scenario-based or computational) only as follows:
Section A: One (1) compulsory question of 30 marks.

Section B: Three (3) questions of 20 marks each out of which a
candidate is expected to attempt any two (2).
Section C: Three (3) questions of 15 marks each out of which a
candidate is expected to attempt any two (2).
(B) UNITS 6
(C) CONTENTS
Purpose
An understanding of the public sector environment, legal framework and
financial authorities that support the compilation of reliable financial accounts
for the public sector and evaluation of the financial performance of the Nigerian
economy.
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Content and Competences
A. FRAMEWORK AND CONCEPT 20%
1. The Constitutional and Regulatory Framework of Public Sector

Accounting
Explain the importance of the constitutional, legislative and regulatory
context of public sector accounting with specific emphasis on:
(i) The constitutional provisions on revenue, revenue allocation and
public expenditure (Federal, State and Local Governments
(ii) The provision of the Finance (Control and Management) Act of
1958, as amended.
(iii) Financial Regulations for Federal and State Governments, and
the Financial Memoranda for Local Government Councils.
(iv) Federal Treasury Accounting Manual
(v) Fiscal Responsibility Act, 2010
(vi) Public Procurement Act, 2007
(vii) The Generally Accepted Accounting Principles applicable to the
Public sector, Local and International Sources.
(viii) Nigerian Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI)
(ix) Ethical issues in public sector accounting
(x) Structure, governance and standard setting process of IPSASB
2. Public Sector Accounting Concepts and Pronouncements

Discuss:
(i) Accounting concepts, bases and principles relevant to public
sector accounting.
(ii) The concept of funds, its relationship to the entity concept and its
implications for income measurement and valuation.
(iii) Professional pronouncements on public sector accounting by the
United Nations, the International Committee on Public Sector
Financial Management, Chartered Institute of Public Finance and
Accountancy (CIPFA) and International Federation of Accountants
(IFAC)
(iv) Standardization of Federal and State Governments reporting
formats in Nigeria
(v) Cash and Accruals basis accounting and public sector accounting
(vi) Relevant International Public Sector Accounting Standards
(IPSAS)
(vii) Emerging issues in Nigerian public sector
B PLANNING AND BUDGETING 20%
Planning and Budgeting in Public Sector

(a) Planning and Budgeting
(i) Describe and explain the Medium-Term Expenditure
Framework
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SYLLABUS & EXAMINATION QUESTIONS FORMAT
(ii) Describe the objectives/uses of annual budget in the public

sector
(iii) Differentiate and compile different types of budgets using:
 Line – Item Budgeting System
 Traditional/Incremental Budgeting System
 Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS)
 Programme Performance Budgeting System (PBS)
 Zero – Based Budgeting System (ZBB)
(b) Differentiate between Rolling Plans and Perspective Plans

(i) Relationship between rolling and perspective plans with
PPBS.
(ii) Linkages between the perspective plan, rolling plan and
the annual budgets Zero–Based
(c) Describe Budgeting Process and Budgetary Control

(i) Stages in the Budget Cycle
(ii) Procedure for Budget Execution and Achievement of Target
(iii) Vote Book and Expenditure Control
(iv) Revenue Control Procedures
(d) Appraise projects in the public sector using

(i) Cost-benefit analysis
(ii) Cost-outcome analysis
(iii) Cost-effectiveness analysis
(iv) Net present value and internal rate of return
(v) Dimensions of project performance such as availability,
efficiency, outcome, effectiveness and accessibility.
C. REPORT AND AUDIT 30%
1. Public Sector Accounting and Financial Reporting

(a) Public Sector Accounting Processes
(i) Compile Treasury Cash Book and Transcripts
(ii) Describe Cash Management and Borrowing Guidelines
(iii) Describe types of vouchers and their uses
(iv) Describe and prepare bank reconciliation statement
(v) Prepare or/and describe using approved standard
formats, the following:
 Subsidiary Accounts – Deposit, Advance,
Remittance/Cash Transfers
 Loss of public sector fund
 Payroll Accounting and Pension Fund
 Accounting for Foreign Mission
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(b) Prepare Statutory Financial Statements in Federal and State

Treasury:
(i) Cash Flow Statement, Consolidated Revenue Fund,
Development Fund and Statement of Assets and
Liabilities
(ii) Prepare Statutory Financial Statements in Local
Government Councils
(iii) Accounting for public sector contract
 Fundamental principles for procurement in the
public sector
 Tendering procedures on Construction/Contract,
Goods and Services.
 Approving authority and limit.
 The role of Procurement Planning Committee.
 Contract payment procedures
 Due process
(c) Interpret public sector financial statements using relevant and

appropriate techniques.
2. Accounting for Public Sector Organizations and Government

Business Entity
(a) Describe the general nature of and differences among these
bodies.
(b) Describe the financial provisions of enabling laws for relevant
utilities, authorities, parastatals, boards, corporations,
agencies and tertiary educational institutions.
(c) Compile for the relevant utilities, authorities,
parastatals, boards, corporations, agencies and tertiary
educational institutions:
(i) Statement of Financial Position
(ii) Statement of Financial Performance
(iii) Statement of Changes in Net Assets/Equity
(iv) Statement of Cash flow
(v) Explanatory Notes
3. Public Sector Audit

(a) State and explain the legal requirements for audit in the public
sector and the roles of the Accountant General and Auditor
General.
(b) Explain the processes of appointing Auditors in the public sector.
(c) Explain the basic steps in the process of auditing public sector
financial statements.
(d) Explain the concept of public accountability in the public sector
(e) State and explain the financial guidelines for the operation of
public sector
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(f) Explain the financial responsibilities of public sector officers.

(g) State the nature and types of financial control in public sector.
(h) Explain the Financial Control Institutions within the public sector
including their functions and procedures:
 Ministry of Finance, Office of the Accountant-General of
the Federation, Budget Office, Expenditure Control Unit/
Fund Section.
(i) State and explain the roles of National and State Assemblies and
Local Government Councils in financial management and control.
(j) Explain the financial management and virement procedures.
(k) Evaluate and explain generally the application of International
Standards of Supreme Audit Institutions (ISSAI) standards for
assurance and audit and their relationship with Nigerian/
International Standards on Auditing (NSA’s/ISA’s).
(l) State and explain in context the role of value for money audit.
D. FINANCE 30%
(a) The economic environment and role of the public sector.

(i) Assess and evaluate the performance of the Nigerian
economy.
(ii) Describe the role of the public sector in the economy
(iii) Describe the objectives of fiscal responsibilities.
(b) Main sources of revenue and capital finance.
State and explain the types of revenue
(i) Federation Accounts Revenue
(ii) Federal Public Sector Independent Revenue
(c) Identify and explain the roles of revenue collection agencies
(i) Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC)
(ii) Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS)
(iii) State Board of Internal Revenue Service
(iv) Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR)
(v) Nigerian Customs Service (NCS)
(d) Evaluate the role of the Federation Accounts Allocation Committee
(i) Composition and functions
(ii) Bases of revenue allocation
(e) Identify the charges to the Consolidated Revenue Fund
(f) State and evaluate the revenue collection procedures and
monitoring
(g) Identify and explain grants as source of revenue to State and
Local governments
(h) Assess and evaluate the expenditure and revenue framework of
public finance
(i) Assess Borrowing policy and public debts
(i) Funded and unfunded debts
xiii
(ii) External loans: Multilateral, Paris Club, London Club,

promissory notes, others.
(j) Evaluate the debt management strategies
(i) Loans pooling and consolidation.
(ii) Loan re-scheduling
(iii) Debt-equity swap
(iv) Debt forgiveness
(v) Principles and practice of federalism, fiscal federalism,
fiscal capacity and needs in multi-level public sector
structures.
(k) Evaluate inter-public sectoral fiscal relations, Nigeria’s
experience with revenue allocation.
Applicable Accounting Standards:
IPSAS IFRS Standa rd

 IPSAS 1 IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements
 IPSAS 2 IAS 7 Cash Flow Statements
 IPSAS 3 IAS 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting
Estimates and Errors
 IPSAS 4 IAS 21 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates
 IPSAS 5 IAS 23 Borrowing Costs
 IPSAS 6 IAS 27 Consolidated and Separate Financial Statements
 IPSAS 7 IAS 28 Investments in Associates
 IPSAS 8 IAS 31 Interests in Joint Ventures
 IPSAS 9 IAS 18 Revenue from Exchange Transactions
 IPSAS 10 IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies
 IPSAS 11 IAS 11 Construction Contracts
 IPSAS 12 IAS 2 Inventories
 IPSAS 13 IAS 17 Leases
 IPSAS 14 IAS 10 Events After the Reporting Date
 IPSAS 15 IAS 32 Financial Instruments: Disclosure
 IPSAS 16 IAS 40 Investment Property
 IPSAS 17 IAS 16 Property, Plant & Equipment
 IPSAS 18 IAS 14 Segment Reporting
 IPSAS 19 IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities & Contingent Assets
 IPSAS 20 IAS 24 Related Party Disclosures
 IPSAS 25 IAS 19 Employee Benefits
 IPSAS 26 IAS 36 Impairment of Cash-Generating Assets
 IPSAS 27 IAS 41 Agriculture
 IPSAS 28 IAS 32 Financial Instruments: Presentation
 IPSAS 29 IAS 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement
 IPSAS 30 IFRS 7 Financial Instruments: Disclosures
 IPSAS 31 IAS 38 Intangible Assets
 IPSAS 32 IFRIC 12 Service Concession Arrangements: Grantor
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IPSAS WITHOUT IFRS EQUIVALENT
 IPSAS 21 Impairment of Non-Cash-Generating Assets

 IPSAS 22 Disclosure of Financial Information About the General
Government Sector
 IPSAS 23 Revenue from Non-Exchange Transactions (Taxes and
Transfers)
 IPSAS 24 Presentation of Budget Information in Financial Statements
 Cash Basis IPSAS Cash Basis
• All new standards and laws may be examined after six months from the date of issue.
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Table of Contents
Front Page .............................................................................................................. i

Foreword ............................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgement ................................................................................................ v
List of Abbreviations .......................................................................................... vii
Syllabus and Examination Questions Format ...................................................... ix
Table of Contents ............................................................................................... xvii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC SECTOR ACCOUNTING AND

FINANCE ............................................................................................... 1
1.0 Purpose ........................................................................................... 2
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 2
1.2 Objectives of Public Sector Accounting ............................................ 3
1.3 Users of Public Sector Accounting Information ................................ 4
1.3.1 The Importance of Public Sector Accounting Information
to Users ................................................................................ 5
1.4 The Constitutional and Regulatory Framework of
Public Sector Accounting .................................................................. 5
1.5 Concepts and Principles Applicable to Public Sector Accounting
and Finance ..................................................................................... 7
1.6 Bases of Public Sector Accounting .................................................... 7
1.6.1 The Cash Basis...................................................................... 8
1.6.1.1 Advantages of Cash Basis ......................................... 8
1.6.1.2 Disadvantages of the Cash Basis. .............................. 8
1.6.1.3 Modified Cash Basis ................................................. 9
1.6.2 Accrual Basis........................................................................ 9
1.6.2.1 Advantages of Accrual Basis ..................................... 9
1.6.2.2 Disadvantages of Accrual Basis ................................ 9
1.6.2.3 Modified Accrual Basis .............................................. 9
1.6.3 Commitment Basis .............................................................. 10
1.6.3.1 Advantages of Commitment Basis .......................... 10
1.6.3.2 Disadvantages of Commitment Basis ...................... 10
1.7 Comparison between Government Accounting and
Private Sector Accounting .............................................................. 11
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1.8 Chapter Review ............................................................................. 11

1.9 Worked Examples .......................................................................... 12
1.9.1 Questions ............................................................................. 12
1.9.2 Suggested Solutions ............................................................ 12
CHAPTER 2: ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR ............................ 1 7

2.0 Purpose ......................................................................................... 18
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 18
2.2 Concept of Accountability in the Public Sector ............................... 18
2.2.1 Rendering of Account .......................................................... 18
2.2.2 Holding to Accounts ............................................................ 18
2.3 Fiscal Transparency ...................................................................... 19
2.4 IMF Code of Good Practices and Fiscal Transparency ..................... 19
2.5 Conditions that Facilitate the Promotion of Public Accountability .. 20
2.6 Measures in Place to Enhance Public Accountability ..................... 20
2.7 Why There Still Exists No Effective Public Accountability
in Nigeria...................................................................................... 21
2.8 Chapter Review ............................................................................. 22
2.9 Worked Examples.......................................................................... 23
2.9.1 Questions ............................................................................ 23
2.9.2 Suggested Solutions ........................................................... 23
CHAPTER 3: FINANCE OFFICERS OF GOVERNMENT.................................. 2 5

3.0 Purpose ......................................................................................... 26
3.2 Introduction ................................................................................... 26
3.3 Accountant-General of the Federation (AGF) ................................. 26
3.4 Powers/Duties of the Accountant-General of the Federation ........... 26
3.5 Functions of the Accountant-General of The Federation (AGF) ....... 27
3.6 The Auditor-General for the Federation (AuGF) ............................. 28
3.7 Powers/Functions of the Auditor-General for the Federation .......... 28
3.8 Accounting Officers ....................................................................... 30
3.9 Functions of the Accounting Officer................................................ 30
3.10 Sub-Accounting Officer .................................................................. 31
3.11 Functions of the Sub-Accounting Officer ........................................ 31
3.11.1 Treasury Cash Book ............................................................. 32
3.12 Revenue Collector .......................................................................... 34
3.13 Functions of the Revenue Collector ................................................. 34
3.14 Imprest Holder .............................................................................. 36
3.15 What is an imprest?....................................................................... 36
3.16 Types of Imprest ............................................................................. 36
3.17 Conditions for Operating an Imprest .............................................. 37
3.18 Officer Controlling Expenditure ..................................................... 40
3.19 Functions of Officer Controlling Expenditure .................................. 40
3.20 Vote Book Or Departmental Vote Expenditure
Allocation Book (DVEAB) ............................................................... 40
3.21 Reasons for Keeping a Vote Book ................................................... 40
3.22 Definition of Terms ........................................................................ 42
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.22.1 Below-The-Line Accounts .................................................... 42

3.22.2 Federal Pay Officer ............................................................. 42
3.22.3 Above-The-Line Accounts .................................................... 43
3.22.4 Financial Regulations / Accounting Manual ....................... 43
3.22.5 Budgetary Control Concept .................................................. 43
3.22.6 Token Vote ........................................................................... 43
3.22.7 Account Current................................................................... 43
3.22.8 Children’s Separation Domicile Allowance (SDR) ............... 43
3.23 Chapter Review ............................................................................. 43
3.24 Worked Examples .......................................................................... 44
3.24.1 Questions ............................................................................ 44
CHAPTER 4: SOURCES OF GOVERNMENT REVENUE ................................. 4 5

4.0 Purpose ......................................................................................... 46
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 46
4.2 Government Revenue and Sources ................................................. 46
4.3 Revenue Collection Agencies in Nigeria ......................................... 47
4.3.1 Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) ............... 47
4.3.2 Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS) ............................... 48
4.3.3 States Board of Internal Revenue Service (SBIRS) .............. 49
4.3.4 Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) ......................... 49
4.3.5 Nigeria Customs Service (NCS) ........................................... 51
4.3.5.1 Core Functions ......................................................... 51
4.3.5.2 Other Functions ...................................................... 51
4.4 Sources and Classifications of Government Revenue in Nigeria ..... 52
4.4.1 Federation Account Revenue Heads .................................... 52
4.5 Federation Accounts Allocation Committee - FAAC. ........................ 54
4.6 State Joint Local Government Account Allocation
Committee - SJLGAAC. ................................................................... 55
4.6.1 Composition ........................................................................ 55
4.6.2 Sources of Revenue Payable to the
Federation Account-Heads ITO 3. ........................................ 55
4.7 Federal Government Account or Consolidated Revenue Fund ......... 56
4.7.1 Federation Account and Consolidated Revenue Fund
in Diagrams ....................................................................... 56
4.7.2 Analysis of the Various Sources of Revenue Payable to CRF 57
4.7.3 Charges to the Consolidated Revenue Fund ......................... 58
4.8 Value-Added Tax (VAT) .................................................................. 58
4.9 Development Fund ........................................................................ 59
4.9.1 Charges from the Development Fund .................................. 59
4.10 Contingency Fund .......................................................................... 60
4.10.1 Charges on the Contingency Fund ....................................... 60
4.11 Chapter Review ............................................................................. 62
4.12 Worked Examples ......................................................................... 62
4.12.1 Questions ............................................................................ 62
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CHAPTER 5: AUTHORIZATION OF GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE, CONTROL

OF GOVERNMENT REVENUE AND FUND ACCOUNTING .................. 6 9
5.0 Purpose ......................................................................................... 70
5.1 Authorization of Government Expenditure ..................................... 70
5.1.1 Recurrent Expenditure Warrants ......................................... 70
5.1.2 Capital Expenditure Warrants ............................................... 72
5.3 Revenue Control............................................................................. 74
5.4 Funding Principles ........................................................................ 74
5.4.1 Classification of Funds ........................................................ 75
5.4.2 Types of Funds..................................................................... 75
5.5 Chapter Review ............................................................................. 76
5.6 Worked Examples .......................................................................... 76
5.6.1 Questions ............................................................................ 76
CHAPTER 6: EXPENDITURE CONTROL ........................................................ 8 1

6.0 Purpose ......................................................................................... 82
6.1 Need for Control ............................................................................. 82
6.1.1 The Executive Control .......................................................... 82
6.1.2 The Legislative Control........................................................ 83
6.1.3 Auditor-General for the Federation ..................................... 83
6.1.4 Ministry of Finance Control ................................................. 83
6.1.5 Controls by Warrants ........................................................... 83
6.1.6 The Treasury Control - Office of the Accountant-General
of The Federation (OAGF) .................................................... 84
6.1.7 Inspectorate Division .......................................................... 84
6.1.8 Internal Audit ..................................................................... 84
6.1.9 Departmental Control Over the Budgeted Expenditure........ 84
6.2 Public Accounts Committee ............................................................ 84
6.3 Chapter Review ............................................................................. 85
6.4 Worked Examples .......................................................................... 85
6.4.1 Questions ............................................................................ 85
CHAPTER 7: PREPARATION OF VOUCHERS ...................................... 8 9

7.0 Purpose ......................................................................................... 90
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 90
7.2 Types of Vouchers........................................................................... 90
7.2.1 Payment Vouchers .............................................................. 90
7.2.1.1 Essential Features of a Valid Payment Voucher ...... 90
7.2.1.2 Rules Guiding Issuance of Payment Vouchers ......... 91
7.2.1.3 Loss of a Payment Voucher ...................................... 92
7.2.2 Receipt Vouchers ................................................................ 92
7.2.2.1 Format of Receipt Voucher. ...................................... 92
7.2.3 Adjustment Vouchers .......................................................... 93
7.3 Chapter Review ............................................................................. 93
7.4 Worked Examples .......................................................................... 93
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.4.1 Questions ............................................................................ 93

CHAPTER 8: FUNCTIONS OF THE CASH OFFICE ........................................ 9 7

8.0 Purpose ......................................................................................... 98
8.1 Functions of the Cash Office ........................................................... 98
8.3.1 Format of Treasury Cash Book (TF153A) ............................. 99
8.3 Checking the Cash Book ................................................................. 99
8.4 Cash Withdrawals from Bank ........................................................ 99
8.5 Cheque Summary Register .......................................................... 100
8.6 Security and Custody of Accounting Books and Documents .......... 100
8.7 Maintenance of Adequate Cash Control Measures ........................ 101
8.8 Preparation of Bank Reconciliation Statements ........................... 101
8.8.1 Documents Required for the Preparation of a
Bank Reconciliation Statement ........................................ 102
8.8.2 Procedures for Carrying Out Bank Reconciliation
Exercises ........................................................................... 102
8.9 Importance of Bank Reconciliation. ............................................. 103
8.10 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 104
8.11 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 105
8.11.1 Questions .......................................................................... 105
8.11.2 Suggested Solutions ......................................................... 108
CHAPTER 9: PREPARATION OF MONTHLY TRANSCRIPTS OF

A SELF-ACCOUNTING UNIT ................................................... 11 3
9.0 Purpose ....................................................................................... 114
9.1 Preparation of Monthly Transcript ............................................... 114
9.2 Types/Classes of Transcript ........................................................... 114
9.3 Documents Required to Accompany Transcript ............................ 115
9.4 Self-Accounting Unit ................................................................... 115
9.4.1 Conditions to be Fulfilled for a Ministry to be
Self-Accounting ................................................................ 115
9.4.2 Advantages of a Self-Accounting Unit ............................... 115
9.4.3 Disadvantages of the Operation of Self-Accounting Units . 115
9.5 Sub-Self Accounting Units ........................................................... 116
9.6 Non-Self Accounting Unit ............................................................ 116
9.7 Procedures for the Preparation of a Transcript ............................. 116
9.8 Certificate of Cash and Bank Balances ......................................... 119
9.9 Monthly Cash and Bank Balances as at 31 January 20xx ............ 119
9.10 Breakdown of Expenditure .......................................................... 119
9.11 Posting of the Main Ledger .......................................................... 119
9.12 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 120
9.13 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 120
9.13.1 Questions ......................................................................... 120
xxi
CHAPTER 10: TREASURY FINAL ACCOUNTS ............................................. 12 3

10.0 Purpose ....................................................................................... 124
10.1 The Office of the Accountant-General of the Federation (Treasury)124
10.2 Preparation of Federal Government Accounts .............................. 128
10.3 Financial Statement Division ...................................................... 129
10.3.1 Note on National (Or Public) Debts .................................. 129
10.3.2 Statement No. 2 - Statement of Assets and Liabilities ....... 131
10.4. Statement No. 3.0 - Statement of Consolidated Revenue Fund ..... 133
10.4.1 Note on Recurrent Revenue ............................................... 133
10.4.2 Note on Recurrent Expenditure ......................................... 133
10.5 Statement No.4 - Statement of Development Fund (or Capital
Expenditure) ............................................................................... 135
10.6 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 137
10.7 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 137
10.7.1 Questions .......................................................................... 137
CHAPTER 11: STORES AND STORES ACCOUNTING ................................. 14 5

11.0 Purpose ....................................................................................... 146
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 146
11.2 Stores Classification .................................................................... 146
11.2.1 Allocated Stores ................................................................ 146
11.2.2 Unallocated Stores ............................................................ 147
11.2.3 The Purposes of Unallocated Stores .................................. 147
11.2.4 Further Classification of Stores.......................................... 147
11.3 Maximum and Minimum Levels .................................................. 147
11.4 Cost of Stores ............................................................................... 147
11.4.1 Fixed Price Method ........................................................... 148
11.4.2 Last Known Price Method .................................................. 148
11.5 Stores Accounting ........................................................................ 148
11.5.1 Use of Shortfalls and Excesses Account or Price
Adjustment Account. ......................................................... 148
11.6 Storekeeper’s Records ................................................................. 149
11.7 Receipt of Stores .......................................................................... 149
11.8 Payments for Stores ..................................................................... 150
11.9 Transfer of Stores ......................................................................... 150
11.10 Issues of Stores ............................................................................ 150
11.11 Stores Issue For Manufacture or Conversion ................................. 150
11.12 Condemned Stores ....................................................................... 151
11.13 issue of Stores: on Payment ......................................................... 151
11.14 Functions of the Store Keeper ...................................................... 151
11.15 Procedures for StoreS Procurement .............................................. 151
11.16 Handing Over of Stores ................................................................ 152
11.17 Procedures for Reporting Loss of Stores ....................................... 152
11.17.1 Actions to be Taken by the Store Keeper
(Officer In-Charge) ......................................................... 152
11.17.2 Actions to be Taken by the Head of Department .............. 152
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11.17.3 Actions to be Effected by the Accounting Officer ............. 153

11.17.4 Actions to be Taken by the Accountant-General............... 153
11.18 Accounting Treatment of Loss of Government Stores or Funds ...... 154
11.19 Stock Taking ................................................................................ 154
11.19.1 Closure of Store during a Survey ..................................... 155
11.19.2 Procedures for Store Survey/Stock-Taking ....................... 155
11.20 Board of Survey and its Purpose ................................................. 155
11.20.1 The Convener of a Board of Survey on Cash/Bank
Balances, Stamps and Imprest Amount/Accounts ........... 156
11.20.2 Composition of the Board of Survey ................................. 156
11.20.3 Procedural Activities for the Conduct of Surveys ............ 156
11.20.4 Contents of Survey Reports ............................................. 156
11.21 Board of Enquiry ......................................................................... 157
11.21.1 Definitions ..................................................................... 157
11.21.2 Circumstances which warrant setting up a Board of
Enquiry .......................................................................... 157
11.21.3 When is a Board of Enquiry not necessary? .................... 157
11.21.4 Terms of Reference .......................................................... 157
11.21.5 The Convener of the Board of Enquiry ............................. 157
11.21.6 Composition of the Board ................................................ 158
11.21.7 Procedure of Board of Enquiry ........................................ 158
11.22 Contents of the Board’s Report ..................................................... 158
11.23 Remission of Copies of the Board’s Reports .................................. 159
11.24 Action Taken on the Board of Enquiry’s Report ............................ 159
11.25 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 159
11.26. Worked Examples ........................................................................ 159
11.26.1 Questions ........................................................................ 159
11.26.2 Suggested Solutions ....................................................... 161
CHAPTER 12 ACCOUNTING REQUIREMENTS FOR THE LOCAL

GOVERNMENT ........................................................................ 16 3
12.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 164
12.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 164
12.3 Sources of Revenue of a Local Government Council ...................... 165
12.3.1 Statutory Sources of Revenue ......................................... 165
12.3.2 Permissive Sources of Revenue ...................................... 166
12.3.3 Incidental Sources of Revenue........................................ 166
12.4. Assessment of Tenement Rates .................................................... 166
12.4.1 Annual Value Method ..................................................... 166
12.4.2 Capital Value Method ..................................................... 167
12.5 Statutory Allocation ..................................................................... 167
12.6 Administration of Local Government Councils ............................. 167
12.6.1 Chairman as Accounting Officer ..................................... 167
12.6.2 Vice-Chairman and Supervisors .................................... 168
12.6.3 Treasurer ........................................................................ 168
12.6.4 Secretary to the Local Government ................................. 169
12.6.5 Director of General Services Administration................... 169
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12.6.6 Act No. 3 of 1991: Basic Constitutional and Transitional

Provisions (Amendment) Act No.3 of 1991 ..................... 170
12.7 The Council Legislature ............................................................... 170
12.7.1 Election of Leaders in the Council ................................... 171
12.7.2 Meetings of the Local Government Council ..................... 171
12.8 Council Clerk ................................................................................ 171
12.9 Appointment of Supervisors ........................................................ 171
12.10 Types of Expenditure Incurred by the Local Government Council .. 172
12.10.1 Highlights of the Accounting Procedures ........................ 172
12.11 The Typical Local Government Council Final Accounts ................. 172
12.11.1 The Typical Format of a Statement of Revenue &
Expenditure ................................................................... 173
12.11.2 Format of Statement of Assets and Liabilities ................. 173
12.12 Accounting policy peculiar to Local Government Councils ............ 177
12.13 Financial Control of Local Government Councils .......................... 177
12.13.1 Internal Controls ............................................................ 178
12.13.2 External Controls ............................................................ 178
12.14 Problems/Limitations of Local Government Councils .................... 178
12.15 Local Government Council’s Spending Limit ................................ 178
12.15.1 Conditions/Procedures for Disbursing Money .................. 179
12.16 Objectives of Grants-In-Aid System ............................................. 179
12.17 Fee Charging Policies In Local Government Councils ................... 179
12.18 Distribution of Revenue in the Federation Account ...................... 179
12.19 Budgeting and Budgetary Control................................................ 180
12.20 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 180
12.21 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 180
12.21.1 Questions ........................................................................ 180
CHAPTER 13: BUDGETING AND BUDGETARY CONTROLS ........................ 19 1

13.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 192
13.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 192
13.2 The Purposes of Budget ............................................................... 192
13.3 Methods of Preparing Budgets by Government in Nigeria ........... 193
13.3.1 Traditional/Line Items/Incremental Budgeting ................. 193
13.3.2 Advantages of Line-Item Budgeting Method .................... 194
13.3.3 Disadvantages of the ‘Line-Item’ Budgeting Method ........ 194
13.4 ‘Zero-Base Budgeting’ Technique (ZBB) ...................................... 194
13.4.1 Advantages of Zero-Base Budgeting ............................... 195
13.4.2 Disadvantages/Problems of Zero-Base Budgeting ........... 196
13.5 Planning, Programming and Budgeting System (PPBS). ............. 196
13.5.1 The Main Steps in Planning, Programming and
Budgeting System .......................................................... 197
13.5.2 Advantages of Planning, Programming and
13.5.3 Disadvantages of Planning, Programming and
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13.6 Performance Budgeting ............................................................... 198

13.7 Periodic Budgeting ...................................................................... 198
13.8 Flexible Budget ........................................................................... 198
13.9 Capital Expenditure Budget ......................................................... 198
13.10 Base Estimate ............................................................................. 198
13.11 Rolling Plan or Continuous budgets ............................................. 199
13.11.1 Rolling Budget ................................................................ 199
13.11.2 Perspective Planning ...................................................... 199
13.12 Factors which Militate against the Budgeting System
in the Public Sector ...................................................................... 199
13.13 Committed Growth ....................................................................... 201
13.14 Procedure for Preparation and Approval of Budgets .................... 201
13.14.1 The Ministerial or Pre-Treasury Board Phase .................. 201
13.14.2 Executive Council Phase .................................................. 201
13.14.3 The National or State House of Assembly/
Legislative Phase ........................................................... 202
13.14.4 Presidential/Governor’s Assent ....................................... 202
13.15 Reserves/Estimates ...................................................................... 202
13.16 Supplementary Estimates ........................................................... 202
13.16.1 Conditions for Approving Supplementary Funds .......... 202
13.17 Uses of Budgets ........................................................................... 203
13.18 Personnel Cost Budget (PCB) ........................................................ 204
13.19 Overhead Cost Budget ................................................................. 210
13.20 Revenue Budget .......................................................................... 211
13.20.1 Purposes of Revenue Budget .......................................... 211
13.21 Functions of the Ministry of Budget and Planning/ Department
Of Planning, in The Presidency. ................................................... 212
13.22 Budgetary Control ........................................................................ 212
13.22.1 Objectives of Budgetary Control ...................................... 212
13.23 Cash Budgeting ........................................................................... 213
13.23.1 Advantages of Preparing Cash Budgets .......................... 213
13.23.2 Preparing Cash Budgets .................................................. 213
13.24 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 217
13.25 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 217
13.25.1 Questions ........................................................................ 217
CHAPTER 14: GOVERNMENT CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS AND

PROCUREMENTS.................................................................... 22 5
14.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 226
14.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 226
14.2 Contract Payment Vouchers .......................................................... 226
14.2.1 Payments for Contracts and Procurements ....................... 227
14.2.2 Implementation of the E-Payment Procedure .................... 227
14.2.3 Contract Registers ............................................................. 227
14.2.4 Attachments to Contract Payment Vouchers....................... 228
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14.3 The Tenders’ Board on Contracts .................................................. 228

14.3.1 Types of Tenders’ Boards ................................................... 228
14.3.1.1 Ministerial Tenders Board .............................................. 229
14.3.1.2 Armed Forces/Ministry of Defence Tenders Board
Composition ................................................................... 229
14.3.1.3 Nigeria Police Tenders and Purchasing Board
(Ministerial)................................................................... 230
14.4 Powers of Boards of Corporations and Parastatals over Tenders ... 230
14.5 Federal Executive Council ............................................................ 230
14.6 Tender Splitting ........................................................................... 231
14.7 Competitive Tenders..................................................................... 231
14.8 Bid Security ................................................................................. 232
14.9 Performance Bond Guarantee ...................................................... 232
14.10 Procurement Plan ........................................................................ 232
14.11 Services of International Agents .................................................. 232
14.12 Mobilisation Fee .......................................................................... 232
14.13 Interest on Delayed Payment ....................................................... 232
14.14 Registration of Contractors/Suppliers ........................................... 233
14.15 Audit Inspection .......................................................................... 233
14.16 Operation of Tender Boards ......................................................... 233
14.17 Notice OF Invitation..................................................................... 233
14.18 Selective Tenders ......................................................................... 233
14.19 Deposit for Tender ........................................................................ 234
14.20 Tender Procedure ......................................................................... 234
14.21 Award of the Contract ................................................................. 234
14.22 Post Contract Award Activities ..................................................... 234
14.23 Terms on Contract ........................................................................ 235
14.24 Operation Of The Public Procurement Act, 2007 .......................... 235
14.24.1 Procurement In Government ........................................... 235
14.24.2 Membership of National Council on
Public Procurement (NCPP) ............................................ 236
14.24.3 Bureau of Public Procurement (BPP) ............................... 236
14.25 Fundamental Principles Of Public Procurement ......................... 237
14.25.1 Procurement Methods (Goods and Services) ................... 238
14.25.2 Invitation to Bids ........................................................... 238
14.25.3 National Competitive Bidding ........................................ 238
14.25.4 International Competitive Bidding ................................. 238
14.26 Due process Guidelines on Government Contracts ........................ 238
14.27 Revised Guidelines and Thresholds on Public Procurements ....... 238
14.28 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 241
14.29 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 241
14.29.1 Questions ........................................................................ 241
CHAPTER 15: AUDITING OF GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTS .......................... 24 5

15.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 246
15.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 246
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15.2 Types of Audit .............................................................................. 246

15.2.1 External Audit ................................................................ 246
15.2.2 Internal Audit................................................................. 246
15.2.3 Annual/Statutory Audit .................................................. 247
15.2.4 Ad-Hoc or Special Audit ................................................. 247
15.2.5 Pre-payment Audit ......................................................... 247
15.2.5.1 The Objectives of Pre-payment Audit are: ......... 247
15.2.6 Post-Payment Audit ........................................................ 247
15.2.7 Value-for-Money Audit ................................................... 247
15.2.8 Interim Audit ................................................................. 249
15.2.9 Final Audit ..................................................................... 249
15.2.10 Management Audit ........................................................ 249
15.2.11 Operational or Systems Audit ......................................... 249
15.2.12 Vouching Audit ............................................................... 249
15.2.13 Verification Audit ............................................................ 249
15.3 Factors Contributing to an Effective Audit .................................... 249
15.4 Office of the Auditor-General for the Federation .......................... 250
15.4.1 The Public Accounts Committee (PAC): .............................. 250
15.5 Functions of External Audit .......................................................... 250
15.5.1 Steps Taken In Auditing Financial Statements ............... 250
15.6 Reliance of the External Auditor on the Internal Auditor’s Work .. 251
15.7 assurance engagement ............................................................... 252
15.7.1 Contents of Assurance Report ............................................ 252
15.8 The Objectives of Internal Auditing ............................................. 252
15.8.1 The Scope of Internal Audit Functions ............................ 252
15.8.2 The Role of a Government Internal Auditor in the
Presidential System ....................................................... 253
15.9 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 256
15.10 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 256
15.10.1 Questions ........................................................................ 256
CHAPTER 16: LOSS OF GOVERNMENT FUND........................................... 26 1

16.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 262
16.1 Definition of Loss ......................................................................... 262
16.2 Types of Losses............................................................................. 262
16.3 Responsibility of Accounting Officer In the Event of Loss
of Fund ...................................................................................... 262
16.4 The Federal Losses Committee ..................................................... 263
16.4.1 Composition Of The Federal Losses Committee .................. 263
16.5 Board Of Enquiries ...................................................................... 263
16.5.1 Criteria For Constitution of Board of Enquiries................... 264
16.6 Accounting Treatment of Loss of Government Fund ...................... 264
16.7 Accounting Entries....................................................................... 264
16.8 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 266
16.9 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 266
16.9.1 Questions .......................................................................... 266
xxvii
CHAPTER 17: GOVERNMENT ADVANCES .................................................. 27 1

17.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 272
17.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 272
17.2 Advances ..................................................................................... 272
17.2.1 Non-Personal Advances ................................................... 272
17.2.2 Personal Advances ........................................................... 273
17.2.2.1 Salary and Rent Advances ................................ 273
17.2.2.2 Motor Vehicle Advance/Refurbishing Loan ........ 273
17.2.2.3 Correspondence Advances ................................ 274
17.2.2.4 Bicycle Advances .............................................. 274
17.2.2.5 Advances for Estacode for Overseas Tours ......... 275
17.2.2.6 Spectacle Advances .......................................... 275
17.2.2.7 Advances to Retiring Officers ........................... 275
17.3 General Rule ............................................................................... 275
17.4 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 276
17.5 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 276
17.5.1 Questions ....................................................................... 276
CHAPTER 18: PENSIONS AND GRATUITY ................................................. 27 9

18.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 280
18.1 Definition of Terms ...................................................................... 280
18.2 Application of The Provisions of the Pensions Act,
No.102 Of 1979 ........................................................................... 281
18.2.1 Conditions For Granting Retirement Benefits .................... 281
18.3 Statutory Age of Retirement ........................................................ 281
18.4 Notice of Withdrawal or Retirement ............................................. 281
18.5 Qualifying Service for Pension and Gratuity ................................ 281
18.6 The Armed Forces act No. 103 of 1979 ......................................... 282
18.7 Death Gratuity ............................................................................. 282
18.8 Minimum and Maximum Pension................................................ 282
18.9 Death Gratuity in course of service .............................................. 282
18.9.1 Where an Officer Is Killed ................................................. 282
18.9.2 Limitations ....................................................................... 283
18.10 Illustration .................................................................................. 283
18.11 Definition of a Child..................................................................... 284
18.12 Transfer of Service ....................................................................... 284
18.13 Merger of Service......................................................................... 284
18.14 Minimum Years for Collecting Pension ......................................... 284
18.15 Non-Pensionable Service ............................................................. 285
18.16 Pension & Gratuity: Table Applicable With Effect From 1/6/92 ..... 285
18.16.1 Derived Formula ............................................................ 286
18.17 General Information ................................................................... 286
18.18 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 287
18.19 Worked Examples ....................................................................... 287
18.19.1 Questions ........................................................................ 287
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CHAPTER 19: PAYROLL ACCOUNTING AND PENSION FUND291

19.0 Purpose 292
19.1 Payroll Accounting in the Public Sector........................................ 292
19.1.1 Procedure for Approval by Accountant- General ................ 292
19.1.2 Custody of Personal Emoluments Records Cards (PERC) .... 293
19.1.3 Action by Salaries Section on Payroll ................................ 293
19.1.4 Action by Internal Audit Unit ............................................ 294
19.2.5 Action by Cash Office ........................................................ 294
19.2 Pension Reform Act 2014 ............................................................. 294
19.2.1 Objectives of the New Pension Reform Act, 2014............... 294
19.2.2 S 5(1) Exemption from New Pension Reform Act 2014 ...... 295
19.2.3 National Pension Commission ........................................... 295
19.2.4 Powers of the Commission ................................................ 295
19.2.5 The Principal Objective of the Commission ....................... 296
19.2.6 Composition of National Pension Commission ................... 297
19.2.7 The Rates of Deductions .................................................... 297
19.2.8 Withdrawal from Retirement Savings Account .................. 297
19.2.9 Age of Contributor ............................................................. 298
19.2.10 Payment of Retirement Benefits ...................................... 298
19.2.11 Death of Employee .......................................................... 299
19.2.12 Where an Employee is Missing ...................................... 299
19.2.13 Exemption from Tax ........................................................ 299
19.2.14 Contribution under the Scheme ....................................... 299
19.2.15 Exemption from the Scheme ........................................... 299
19.2.17 Transfer from One Employment to the Other ................... 300
16.2.18 Pension Fund Administration .......................................... 300
19.2.18.1 Prescribed Structure of Pension
Fund Administration ....................................... 300
19.2.19 Pension Fund Custodians ................................................ 301
19.2.20 Failure to Open Retirement Savings Account .................. 301
19.2.21 Failure to Deduct or Remit Contributions ........................ 301
19.2.22 Investment of Pension Funds ........................................... 302
19.2.23 Dispute Resolution .......................................................... 302
19.2.24 Penalties for Misappropriation of Pension Fund .............. 302
19.3 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 302
19.4 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 303
19.4.1 Questions .......................................................................... 303
CHAPTER 20: TREASURY INTERNAL CONTROL QUESTIONNAIRES ........ 30 9

20.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 310
20.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 310
20.2 The Benefits of Questionnaires and Reports ................................. 310
20.3 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 321
xxix
CHAPTER 21: PROFESSIONAL PRONOUNCEMENTS ON GOVERNMENT

ACCOUNTING BY THE UNITED NATIONS .............................. 32 3
21.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 324
21.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 324
21.2 Characteristics of Government Accounting ................................... 325
21.3 The Objectives of Professional Pronouncements .......................... 326
21.4 Alternative Classifications for Government Accounting ................ 327
21.5 Government Accounting In Other Countries ................................. 329
21.5.1 United States of America .................................................. 329
21.5.2 United Kingdom ............................................................... 330
21.6 Some Observations on Government Accounting System
In ‘Third World’ Countries ............................................................ 330
21.7 Features of a Good System of Government Accounting as
contained in a United Nations Manual on Government
Accounting. ................................................................................. 331
21.8 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 332
21.9 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 332
21.9.1 Questions ....................................................................... 332
CHAPTER 22: INVESTMENT APPRAISAL IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR ........... 33 5

22.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 336
22.1 The Nature of Investment Decisions ............................................. 336
22.2 Investment Appraisal .................................................................. 336
22.3 Methods of Investment Appraisal ................................................ 336
22.4 Discussion of the Appraisal Methods ........................................... 337
22.4.1 Accounting Rate of Return ................................................ 337
22.4.2 Pay-back Period Method .................................................... 339
22.4.3 Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) Criteria ................................. 340
22.4.3.1 Net Present Value (NPV) ................................... 340
20.4.3.2 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) ........................... 342
22.6 Investment Decisions in Government ........................................... 347
22.7 Investment Evaluation Techniques in Government....................... 348
22.7.1 Cost-Benefit Analysis ..................................................... 348
22.7.2 Procedures for Conducting Cost-Benefit Analysis ............ 349
22.7.3 Cost Benefit Analysis and Commercial Investment
Appraisal ....................................................................... 350
22.7.4 Similarities between Cost-Benefit Analysis and
Commercial Investment Appraisal Methods ................... 350
22.7.5 Dissimilarities between Cost-Benefit Analysis and
Commercial Investment Appraisal Methods ................... 350
22.7.6 Cost-Benefit Analysis and Project Evaluation ................. 350
22.8. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis - (CEA) .............................................. 352
22.8.1 Procedure of Cost Effectiveness Analysis in the
Appraisal of a Public Project. ......................................... 353
22.8.2 Limitations of Cost-Effectiveness Analysis ...................... 353
22.9 Life Cycle Costing ......................................................................... 353
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22.10 Value Analysis/Value Engineering ............................................... 356

22.11 Problems of Investment Appraisal Methods ................................. 356
22.12 Risk and Uncertainty in Capital Budgeting/
Investment Appraisal .................................................................. 356
22.13 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 358
22.14 Worked Examples ....................................................................... 359
22.14.1 Questions ........................................................................ 359
CHAPTER 23: INTERPRETATION OF ACCOUNTS AND CASH FLOW

STATEMENT ............................................................................ 36 7
23.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 368
23.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 368
23.2 Methods in Use ............................................................................ 368
23.2.1 Straight Forward Criticism or Analytical Review............... 369
23.2.2 Ratio Analysis................................................................... 369
23.3 Cash Flow Statements ................................................................. 371
23.3.1 Data required to prepare cash flow statements................. 371
23.3.2 Key Terms in Cash Flow Statements .................................. 371
23.3.3 Operating Activities .......................................................... 371
23.3.4 Investing Activities ........................................................... 372
23.3.5 Financing Activities .......................................................... 372
23.4 Methods of Preparing Cash Flow Statement ................................. 372
23.5 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 374
23.6 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 375
23.6.1 Questions .......................................................................... 375
CHAPTER 24: PARASTATALS AND PUBLIC ENTERPRISE ACCOUNTING . 37 9

24.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 380
24.1 Parastatals and Public Companies .............................................. 380
24.2 Sources of Income of Parastatals ................................................. 381
24.3 Expenditure ................................................................................. 381
24.4 Main Objectives of Setting up Corporations/Parastatal/
Public Enterprises ....................................................................... 381
24.5 Accounting in the Public Enterprises ........................................... 382
24.5.1 Financial Statements ..................................................... 382
24.6 Classes of Government Enterprises .............................................. 385
24.7 Audit of Government Enterprises ................................................. 386
24.8 Types of Accounts ......................................................................... 386
24.9 Hospital Accounting .................................................................... 387
24.10 Sources of Revenue ...................................................................... 388
24.11 Development and Property Corporations ..................................... 389
24.11.1 Main Sources of Income of Corporations .......................... 389
24.11.2 The Expenditure incurred by Corporations Include .......... 389
24.11.3 Development and Property Accounting ........................... 390
xxxi
24.12 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 394

24.13 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 394
24.13.1 Questions ........................................................................ 394
CHAPTER 25: ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT AND THE ROLE OF

THE PUBLIC SECTOR ............................................................. 40 3
25.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 404
25.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 404
25.1.1 Microeconomics And Macroeconomics .............................. 404
25.1.2 Private Versus Public Sector .............................................. 405
25.2 Public Sector In The Nigerian Economy ....................................... 405
25.3 The Macroeconomic Objectives .................................................... 406
25.4 Government Economic Policies .................................................... 406
25.5 The Economic Role of the Public Sector ........................................ 407
25.6 The Objectives of Privatisation and Commercialization in
Nigeria ...................................................................................... 408
25.7 Appraisal of the Performance of the Nigerian Economy ............... 409
25.8 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 410
25.9 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 410
25.9.1 Questions .......................................................................... 410
CHAPTER 26: PUBLIC DEBT AND ITS MANAGEMENT IN NIGERIA .......... 41 5

26.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 416
26.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 416
26.1.1categorization of Public Debt ............................................. 416
26.2 General Causes of Public Debt ..................................................... 418
26.3 Consequences of Public Debt ....................................................... 419
26.3.1 The Good Effects of Public Debt ......................................... 419
26.3.2 Adverse Effects of Public Debt ........................................... 419
26.4 Public Debt Management ............................................................ 420
26.5 Nigeria’s Public Debt................................................................... 421
26.5.1 Nigeria’s Domestic or Internal Debt ................................. 421
26.5.2 Sources of Nigeria’s Domestic Debt .................................. 421
26.5.3 Instruments of Domestic Borrowing .................................. 422
26.5.4 Causes of Domestic Debt ................................................... 422
26.5.5 Management of Internal Or Domestic Debt ....................... 423
26.5.6 Economic Indicators of Domestic Debt .............................. 423
26.6 External or Foreign Debt .............................................................. 423
26.6.1 Types Of External Debt ...................................................... 423
26.6.2 Sources Of External Debt .................................................. 424
26.6.3 Causes of Increased External Debt Burden ........................ 425
26.6.4 External Debt Management .............................................. 425
26.6.5 Guidelines on External Borrowing .................................... 427
26.6.6 Conditions for Borrowing .................................................. 427
26.6.7 Getting out of External Debt Trap ...................................... 428
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26.7 Causes of Nigeria’s Debt Crisis .................................................... 430

26.8 Approaches to Solving Debt Problems in Nigeria ........................ 431
26.9 Debt Conversion Programme ....................................................... 431
26.10 Objectives of Debt Equity Swap or Debt Conversion Programme . 432
26.11 Categories of Eligible Transactions for Debt Conversion ............... 432
26.12 Priorities within Eligible Transaction Categories ........................ 432
26.13 Problems of Debt Conversion Programme .................................... 433
26.14 Minimising the Problems of Debt Conversion Programme ........... 433
26.15 General Obligation Bonds ........................................................... 433
26.16 Special Assessment Bond ............................................................ 433
26.17 Documentation for State Government Debt Instrument
Project -Tied Debt ........................................................................ 433
26.18 Problems Facing State Government in Financing Projects
through Capital Market ................................................................ 434
26.19 Special Requirements for Revenue Bonds ................................... 434
26.20 Debt Ratio ................................................................................... 434
26.21 Paris Club .................................................................................... 435
26.22 The Principles of Paris Club Rescheduling ................................... 435
26.22.1 The Principle Of Imminent Default ................................ 436
26.22.2 The Principle Of Burden Sharing ................................... 436
26.22.3 The Principle Of Conditionality ....................................... 436
26.23 Foreign Aid .................................................................................. 436
26.24 Trends in Nigeria’s Public Debt ................................................... 436
26.25 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 438
26.26 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 438
26.26.1 Questions ........................................................................ 438
CHAPTER 27: ETHICAL ISSUES IN PUBLIC SECTOR ACCOUNTING

AND FINANCE ........................................................................ 44 4
27.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 442
27.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 442
27.2 Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) ................... 442
27.2.1 Composition ................................................................... 442
27.2.2 Duties ............................................................................ 443
27.2.3 Powers ........................................................................... 444
27.2.4 Offences and Convictions................................................ 445
27.3 The Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Act, 2000 ........ 445
27.3.1 Composition of the Commission ...................................... 445
27.3.2 Appointment of Members ............................................... 446
27.3.3 Removal of Members ..................................................... 446
27.3.4 Immunities .................................................................... 446
27.3.5 Duties of the Commission ............................................... 446
27.3.6 Offences and Penalties ................................................... 447
27.4 Code of Conduct for Public Officers ............................................... 448
27.4.1 Restrictions on Specified Officers ................................... 449
27.4.2 Prohibition of Foreign Accounts ...................................... 449
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27.4.3 Retired Public Officers/Certain Retired Public Officers ... 449

27.4.4 Gifts or Benefits In-Kind ................................................. 449
27.4.5 Bribery of Public Officers ............................................... 449
27.4.6 Abuse of Powers ............................................................. 449
27.4.7 Membership of Societies ................................................ 449
27.5 Paragraph 11 of the Fifth Schedule, Part 1 .................................. 450
27.6 Code of Conduct Bureau ............................................................... 450
27.6.1 Composition ................................................................... 450
27.6.3 Powers of the Code of Conduct Bureau ............................ 450
27.7 Code of Conduct Tribunal ............................................................ 451
27.7.1 Punishments Imposed by the Tribunal .............................. 451
27.8 Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, (NEITI)
ACT, 2007 ..................................................................................... 451
27.9 General Rule ............................................................................... 455
27.10 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 456
27.11 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 456
27.11.1 Questions ........................................................................ 456
CHAPTER 28: TOWARDS NATIONAL FISCAL RESPONSIBILITY ............... 46 5

28.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 466
28.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 466
28.2 Fiscal Responsibility Commission ............................................... 466
28.2.1 Composition of the Commission ....................................... 466
28.2.2 Powers of the Fiscal Responsibility Commission ............... 467
28.3 Medium-Term Expenditure Framework ........................................ 467
28.3.1 Content of the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework ....... 467
28.3.2 Preparation of the Medium-Term Expenditure
Framework ....................................................................... 468
28.4 Aggregate Expenditure Ceiling .................................................... 469
28.5 Application of the act to the states and Local Governments ......... 469
28.6 Annual budget and the medium-term expenditure framework.... 469
28.7 Budgetary Execution and Achievement of Targets ....................... 469
28.8 Monitoring Budget Implementation ............................................ 470
28.9 Public Revenue ............................................................................ 470
28.10 Public Expenditure ...................................................................... 470
28.10.1 Conditions For Increasing Government Expenditure ........ 471
28.11 Debt and Indebtedness ................................................................ 471
28.12 Interpretation of Borrowing ......................................................... 471
28.13 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 471
28.14 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 472
28.14.1 Questions ........................................................................ 472
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 29: FISCAL FEDERALISM AND INTERGOVERNMENT

FISCAL RELATIONS IN NIGERIA ........................................... 47 5
29.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 476
29.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 476
29.2 Concepts of Fiscal Federalism...................................................... 476
29.3 Elements of Fiscal Federalism ..................................................... 477
29.3.1 The Rationale for Adopting A Federal Structure in
A Country ....................................................................... 477
29.3.2 Objectives of Fiscal Relations ........................................ 477
29.3.3 The Expenditure Assignment Function ........................... 478
29.3.3.1 Centralisation versus Decentralisation in
Fiscal Federalism .............................................. 479
29.3.4 The Efficiency of free Migration from one
Jurisdiction to Another ................................................... 480
29.3.5 Revenue Allocation ........................................................ 481
29.3.6 Principles for Intergovernmental Transfers .................... 483
29.4 Intergovenment Fiscal Relations in Nigeria ................................ 483
29.4.1 Profile of Fiscal Federalism in Nigeria ........................... 483
29.4.2 Overview of Revenue Sharing in Nigeria ....................... 484
29.4.3 Problems of Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations
in Nigeria. ...................................................................... 492
29.5 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 494
29.6 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 494
29.6.1 Questions .......................................................................... 494
CHAPTER 30: INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SECTOR ACCOUNTING

STANDARDS (IPSAS) GROUP A
(IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4,11, 12, 13 AND 14) ................................. 49 9
30.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 500
30.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 500
30.2 Objectives of the IPSASB ............................................................. 500
30.3 Membership of the IPSASB .......................................................... 500
30.4 Due Process ................................................................................. 500
30.5 Provisions of Each Ipsas .............................................................. 501
30.5.1 IPSAS 1:Presentation of Financial Statements................ 501
30.5.2 IPSAS 2: Cash Flow Statement........................................ 505
30.5.3 IPSAS 3 : Accounting Policies, Changes In Accounting
Estimates and Errors ...................................................... 510
30.5.4 IPSAS 4: The Effects of Changes In Foreign
Exchange Rates .............................................................. 512
30.5.5 IPSAS 11: Construction Contract ..................................... 514
30.5.6 IPSAS 12: Inventories ..................................................... 516
30.5.7 IPSAS 13: Leases ............................................................ 520
30.5.8 IPSAS 14: Events after the Reporting Date ..................... 525
30.5.8.1 Introduction ...................................................... 525
xxxv
30.6 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 528

30.6.1 Questions .......................................................................... 528

STANDARDS (IPSAS)533
GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23) ............... 53 3
31.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 534
31.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 534
31.2 Provisions of the IPSAS ................................................................ 534
31.2.1 IPSAS 5: Borrowing Costs ............................................... 534
31.2.2 IPSAS 6: Consolidated And Separate Financial
Statements ..................................................................... 535
31.2.3 IPSAS 7: Investment In Associates .................................. 539
31.2.4 IPSAS 8: Financial Reporting of Interests
In Joint Ventures ............................................................ 540
31.2.5 IPSAS 20: Related Party Disclosures ............................... 542
31.2.6 IPSAS 21: Impairment of Non-Cash-Generating Assets .. 545
31.2.7 IPSAS 22: Disclosure of Financial Information about
The General Government Sector ..................................... 550
31.2.8 IPSAS 23 Revenue from Non-Exchange Transactions
(Taxes And Transfer) ...................................................... 552
31.3 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 555
31.4 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 555
31.4.1 Questions .......................................................................... 555

STANDARDS (IPSAS)
GROUP C (IPSAS 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 AND 24) ................... 55 9
32.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 560
32.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 560
32.2.1 IPSAS 9: Revenue From Exchange Transactions ............. 560
32.2.2 IPSAS 10: Financial Reporting In Hyper Inflationary
Economies ...................................................................... 562
32.2.3 IPSAS 15: Financial Instruments: Disclosure And
Presentation ................................................................... 564
32.2.4 IPSAS 16: Investment Property ...................................... 567
32.2.5 IPSAS 17: Property, Plant and Equipment ...................... 573
32.2.6 IPSAS 18: Segment Reporting ........................................ 576
32.2.7 IPSAS 19: Provisions, Contingent Liabilities
and Contingent Assets .................................................... 580
32.2.8 IPSAS 24: Presentation of Budget Information In
Financial Statement ...................................................... 585
32.3. Chapter Review ........................................................................... 587
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32.4 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 587

32.4.1 Questions .......................................................................... 587

STANDARDS (IPSAS)591
GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31 AND 32)591
33.0 Purpose ...................................................................................... 592
33.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 592
33.2.1 IPSAS 25: Employee Benefits ......................................... 592
33.2.2 IPSAS 26: Impairment of Cash Generating Assets .......... 599
33.2.3 IPSAS 27 Agriculture...................................................... 602
33.2.4 IPSAS 28: Financial Instruments: Presentation ............. 604
33.2.5 IPSAS 29: Financial Instruments: Recognition and
Measurement ................................................................. 606
33.2.5 Derognition of A Financial Asset .................................... 609
33.2.6. Ipsas 30: Financial Instruments: Disclosures (IPSAS 30 Is
Based on IFRS 7) ............................................................ 611
33.2.7 IPASAS 31: Intangible Asset
(IPSAS 31 is Based on IAS 38)........................................ 613
33.2.8 IPSAS 32: Service Concession Arrangements: Grantor616
33.3 Chapter Review ........................................................................... 618
33.4 Worked Examples ........................................................................ 619
33.4.1 Questions .......................................................................... 619
APPENDIX I: GLOSSARY OF TERMS ........................................................ 635
APPENDIX II: STUDY AND EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES .......................... 635
APPENDIX III: CASE STUDY WITH SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS .................... 641
APPENDIX IV: BIBLOGRAPHY .................................................................. 645
INDEX .................................................................................................... 647
xxxvii
Skills level
CHAPTER
1
Introduction to Public Sector

Accounting and Finance
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Objectives of Public Sector Accounting
4. Users of Public Sector Accounting Information
5. The Constitutional and Regulatory Framework of Public Sector
Accounting
6. Concepts and Principles Applicable to Public Sector Accounting and
Finance
7. Bases of Public Sector Accounting
8. Comparison between Government Accounting and Private Sector
Accounting
9. Chapter Review
10. Worked Examples
1
INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC SECTOR

ACCOUNTING & FINANCE
1.0 PURPOSE
After studying this chapter, readers would be able to:
(a) enumerate the objectives of Public Sector Accounting;
(b) identify the various users of Public Sector Accounting information;
(c) demonstrate a good grasp of the constitutional and regulatory framework
as well as the concepts, principles and bases of Public Sector Accounting.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The simplest definition of ‘Public Sector’ is “all organisations which are not
privately owned and operated, but which are established, run and financed by
Government on behalf of the public.” This definition conveys the idea that the
public sector consists of organisations where control lies in the hand of the
public, as opposed to private owners, and whose objectives involve the provision
of services, where profit making is not a primary objective. Performance
measurement in the public sector is hindered by the lack of profit motive,
multiple objectives and presence of intangible services whose benefits are
difficult to quantify.
Accounting generally is a scientific study in which records of expenditure and

income of a company, individuals or Government are kept coupled with other
useful information for planning, decision making and control. Government
accounting, on the other hand, is composite activities of analyzing, recording,
summarizing, reporting and interpreting the financial transactions of
Government Ministries, Departments and Agencies. It is clear from this
description that the Government, like any business organisation, should give
an account of its activities to the various stakeholders/shareholders.
R A Adams (2004) in his book “Public Sector Accounting and Finance Made
Simple” defines Public Sector Accounting as “a process of recording,
communicating, summarizing, analyzing and interpreting Government
financial statements and statistics in aggregate and details; it is concerned
with the receipts, custody and disbursement and rendering of stewardship on
public funds entrusted”.
The above definition shares some features with the universally accepted
definition of financial accounting. Accounting is universal, whether in
2
INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC SECTOR ACCOUNTING & FINANCE
Government, private or public limited liability companies. The essential

requirement is to record all historical costs and income, which when processed
further, become useful information necessary for current appraisal, future
decision-making and performance control.
Basically, public finance is the study of the role of the government in the
economy. It is the definitive branch of economics which assesses the government
revenue and government expenditure of the public Authorities and the
adjustments of one or the other to achieve desirable effects and avoid
undesirable ones.
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF PUBLIC SECTOR ACCOUNTING

The main purposes of Public Sector Accounting are:
(a) Ascertaining the legitimacy of transactions and their compliance with
the established norms, regulations and statutes.
(b) Providing evidence of stewardship.
(c) Assisting planning and control.
(d) Assisting objective and timely reporting.
(e) Providing the basis for decision-making.
(f) Enhancing the appraisal of the efficiency of management.
(g) Highlighting the various sources of revenue receivable and the
expenditure to be incurred.
(h) Identifying the sources of funding capital projects.
(i) Evaluating the economy, efficiency and effectiveness with which Public
Sector Organisations pursue their goals and objectives.
(j) Ensuring that costs are matched by at least equivalent benefits accruing
therefrom.
(k) Providing the details of outstanding long-term commitments and
financial obligations.
(l) Providing the means by which actual performance may be compared
with the target set.
(m) Proffering solutions to the various bottlenecks and/or problems identified.
A further analysis of the most significant objectives of Public Sector Accounting

enumerated above is as follows:
(a) Determining the legitimacy of transactions and their compliance

with the statutes and accepted norms: Public Sector disbursements
should accord with the provisions of the Appropriation Acts and Financial
Regulations. There should be due authorisations for all payments so as
to avoid the commission of acts of misappropriation.
(b) Providing evidence of stewardship: The act of rendering stewardship

is being able to account transparently and diligently for resources
entrusted. Government and Public Sector operators are obliged to display
due diligence and sense of probity in the collection and disposal of public
funds.
3
(c) Assisting planning and control: The future faces a lot of risks and
uncertainties. Mapping out plans prevents an organisation from drifting.
Plans of actions provide the focus of activities which are being pursued.
The unforeseen circumstance is built into plans so as to prevent or at
least reduce corporate failure. Public Sector establishments should act
in accordance with the ‘mandate theory’ of governance. Control measures
are adjuncts to skilful planning. They assist in avoiding unnecessary
deviations from the pursuit of the original objectives set.
(d) Ensuring objective and timely reporting: Users of Public Sector
Accounting information are anxious to bridge their knowledge gaps of
what Government is doing. They definitely treasure prompt and accurate
statistics to evaluate the performance of Government.
(e) Evaluating the costs incurred and the benefits derivable: In
Public Sector Organisations, it is difficult to measure costs and benefits
in financial terms in all respects. The analysis of Cost-Benefit assesses
the economic and social advantages (benefits) and disadvantages or
inconveniences (costs) of alternative courses of actions, to ensure that
the comfort of the citizens is well catered for.
1.3 USERS OF PUBLIC SECTOR ACCOUNTING INFORMATION

The users of Public Sector Accounting information may be discussed under the
following two categories:
(a) Internal Users - This group is made up of:

(i) The Executive, such as the President of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria, the Governors of the States and Chairmen of the Local
Government Councils.
(ii) The Federal Ministers and State Commissioners.
(iii) Top Administrators of Government Departments, e.g. The
Permanent Secretaries and Directors.
(iv) The Chief Executives of Government Business Entities/Parastatals
such as Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) and the
Nigeria Ports Authority (NPA) etc.
(v) Subordinates who oil the administration wheels.
(vi) The organised labour unions in the public service.
(b) External Users- This group comprises:

(i) The National Assembly.
(ii) The members of the public.
(iii) Governments, apart from the one that is rendering the report.
(iv) Foreign countries.
(v) Foreign financial institutions such as International Monetary
Fund (IMF), World Bank, Department for International
Development (DFID), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
etc.
4
(vi) Creditors, both local and foreign.

(vii) Researchers.
(viii) Political parties, trade unions and Civil Liberty Organisations.
1.3.1 THE I MP O RTA NC E O F P UB L I C S E C TO R A C C O UNT I NG

INFORMATION TO USERS
The internal users require accounting information in order to ascertain
the various levels of regulatory compliance and whether actual
expenditure is in accordance with the budget. They like to ascertain
whether or not adequate safeguards are available for the protection of
public resources. Conversely, the external users require accounting
information to ascertain the financial viability of the public sector
organisations and the efficiency and effectiveness of management. Both
the internal and external users want to know whether the accounting
information enhance the quality, consistency, and transparency of public
sector financial reporting.
1.4 THE CONSTITUTIONAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK OF PUBLIC

SECTOR ACCOUNTING
Public Sector Accounting is governed by the following regulatory frameworks:
(a) Nigerian Constitution: The 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic
of Nigeria is one of the legal frameworks that regulate the receipts and
disbursements of public funds.
The sections of the Constitution quoted above authorise the receipts and
payments of Government, the allocation of revenue, the audit of public
accounts and other financial matters. For ease of reference, some specific
sections of the 1999 Constitution and their provisions are listed below:
Section 80 - Establishment of the Consolidated Revenue Fund
(CRF).
Section 81 - Authorisation of expenditure from the CRF.
Section 82 - Authorisation of expenditure in default of
appropriations.
Section 83 - Establishment of the Contingencies Fund.
Section 84 - Remuneration of Statutory Officers.
Section 84(4) - Comprehensive list of Statutory Officers.
Section 85 - Audit of public accounts.
Section 86 - Appointment of the Auditor-General for the
Federation.
Section 87 - Tenure of office of the Auditor-General for the
Federation.
Section 88 - Power to conduct investigation by the National
Assembly.
Section 89 - Power as to matters of evidence.
Section 149 - Declaration of assets and liabilities and oaths of
office.
5
Section 153 - List of Statutory Commissions.

Section 162 - Establishment of the Federation Accounts.
Section 163 - Allocation of other revenue.
Section 164 - Federal grants-in-aid of State revenue.
Section 168 Provision with regard to payments
(b) Audit Ordinance of 1956 or Act of 1956: Section 13, sub- sections
1 - 3 mandate the Accountant-General of the Federation to furnish the
Auditor-General for the Federation with the country’s financial
statements.
(c) Finance (Control & Management) Act of 1958, Cap 144, 1990.
This governs the management and operation of government funds. It
regulates the accounting system, the books of accounts to be kept and
the procedures to be followed in the preparation of accounts and financial
statements.
(d) Financial Regulations: These are the accounting manual of

Government Ministries / Extra-Ministerial Departments which deals with
financial and accounting matters. They set out the procedures and steps
to be followed in treating most of Government transactions.
According to FR 105, The Minister of Finance shall issue from time to

time financial regulations which shall be in accordance with existing
laws and policies of government. The financial regulations so issued
shall generally apply to the Federal Public Service which term means
ministries, extra-ministerial offices and other arms of government.
(e) Finance/Treasury Circulars: These are administration tools which

are used to amend the existing provisions of Financial Regulations,
Public Service rules and the introduction of new policy guidelines.
(f) Public Procurement Act, 2007

This is an Act which establishes the National Council on Public
Procurement (NCPP) and the Bureau of Public Procurement (BPP) as the
regulatory authorities responsible for the monitoring and oversight of
public procurement, harmonising the existing government policies by
regulating, setting standards and developing the legal framework and
professional capacity for public procurement in Nigeria. The Act sets
standards for organising procurements, methods of procurement of
works, goods, consultancy and non-consultancy services as well as the
procurement approval thresholds for the Bureau of Public Procurement,
Tenders Boards and Accounting Officers for all Ministries, Departments
and Agencies.
6
(g) Fiscal Responsibility Act, 2007

This Act provides for the prudent management of the Nation’s resources,
ensures long-term macro-economic stability of the national economy,
secures greater accountability and transparency in fiscal operations
within a medium-term fiscal policy framework, and the establishment
of the Fiscal Responsibility Commission to ensure the promotion and
enforcement of the Nation’s economic objectives. The Act emphasises
the preparation of Medium-Term Expenditure Framework, Annual
Budget, Budgetary Execution and Achievement Targets, Collection of
Public Revenue, Public Expenditure, Debt and Indebtedness, Borrowing,
Transparency and Accountability.
(h) Other laws guiding Public Sector Accounting and Finance

Other laws guiding Public Sector Accounting and Finance include the
Pension Reform Act of 2004 as amended in the Pension Reform Act of
2014, The Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences
Commission (ICPC) Act of 2000, Economic and Financial Crimes
Commission (Establishment) Act, 2002, Nigeria Extractive Industries
Transparency Initiative (NEITI) Act 2007 Appropriation Acts, Code of
Conduct Bureau and Tribunal Act, 1991 and Money Laundering Act, 1995.
(i) The Financial Regulations (2009 Edition)

The Financial Regulations are powerful control tools used in the public
sector fund management. They are the accounting manuals of the three
tiers of Government designed to guide the management of public funds.
The rules spell out the system concerning the receipts and disbursements
of funds and the procedures to ensure good accountability, prevention
and early detection of frauds and errors and other financial malpractices.
1.5 CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES APPLICABLE TO PUBLIC SECTOR

ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE
Concepts have been defined as broad basic assumptions which underline the
preparation of financial statements of an enterprise. Public Sector Accounting
is an integral but separate branch of Financial Accounting, sharing in common
many concepts and principles applicable in the private sector. These concepts
include: Consistency, Materiality, Periodicity, Duality, Entity, Historical Cost and
Going Concern etc.
1.6 BASES OF PUBLIC SECTOR ACCOUNTING

There are three bases under which the financial statements of a public sector
enterprise are compiled. These are:
(a) The Cash basis.
(b) The Accrual basis.
(c) The Commitment basis.
(d) Modified Cash basis
(e) Modified Accrual basis
7
1.6.1 The Cash Basis

It is the basis of accounting under which revenue is recorded only when
cash is received, and expenditure recognised only when cash is paid,
irrespective of the fact that the transactions might have occurred in the
previous accounting period. Non-Accountants such as General Managers
of Government Corporations and Police Superintendents are often called
upon to perform some accounting duties or supervise bookkeeping work.
Such people need a simple method, which can be operated easily.
1.6.1.1 Advantages of Cash Basis

The advantages of this basis include the following:
(a) It is simple to understand.
(b) It eliminates the existence of debtors and creditors.
(c) It permits easy identification of those who authorize
payments and collect revenue.
(d) It allows for comparison between the amount provided in
the budget and that actually spent.
(e) It saves time and is easy to operate.
(f) It permits the delegation of work in certain circumstances.
(g) The cost of fixed assets is written off in the year of purchase,
resulting in fewer accounting entries.
1.6.1.2 Disadvantages of the Cash Basis.

(a) It takes unrealistic view of financial transactions as only
the settlement of liabilities is recognised. For example,
there are four stages through which a spending decision
passes. These are:
(i) Issue of order or contract for the supply of goods or
services.
(ii) Supply of goods or services - acknowledgment of
liability.
(iii) Settlement of the amount of the good or service
received.
(iv) Consumption of value.
The cash basis of accounting records only stage

(iii) while the accrual basis takes care of stages
(ii), (iii) and (iv). The commitment basis records
stages (i) to (iv).
(b) It does not provide for depreciation since assets are written
off in the year of purchase.
(c) It does not convey an accurate picture of the financial
affairs at the end of the year.
(d) The cash basis cannot be used for economic decisions as
it tends to hide basic information. For example, some of
8
the missing information relate to fixed assets, debtors and

creditors.
(e) It does not accord with the ‘matching concept.’
1.6.1.3 Modified Cash Basis

Under this basis, the books of accounts are left open for a
maximum of three months after the end of the year, so as to
capture substantial amount of income or expenses relating to
the year just ended.
1.6.2 Accrual Basis

Under this basis, revenue is recorded when earned and expenditure
acknowledged as liabilities when known or benefits received,
notwithstanding the fact that the receipts or payments of cash have taken
place wholly or partly in other accounting periods. Accrual basis is
practised in the private sector and all parastatals such as Power Holding
Company of Nigeria (PHCN) and Customs Services. The reason for this is
that private sector concerns are profit-oriented. It is therefore necessary
to estimate how much profit has been earned in each period, with a
view to keeping invested assets intact and making periodic distributions
to shareholders by way of dividends. In the public sector, the main
consideration is the enhancement of the standard of living of the people.
1.6.2.1 Advantages of Accrual Basis

The advantages of this basis can be summarised as follows:
(a) It takes a realistic view of financial transactions.
(b) It reveals an accurate picture of the state of financial affairs
at the end of the period.
(c) It could be used for both economic and investment
decision-making as all parameters for performance
appraisal are available.
(d) It aligns with the ‘matching concept.’
(e) It makes allowances for the diminution in the value of
assets used to generate the revenue of the enterprise.
1.6.2.2 Disadvantages of Accrual Basis

(a) It is very difficult to understand, especially by Non-
Accountants.
(b) It does not permit easy delegation of work in certain
circumstances.
1.6.2.3 Modified Accrual Basis

This is the basis under which revenue is recorded when received
and not earned while expenditure is recorded once its liability
is incurred. It means that cash basis is used for recording revenue
while accrual basis is adopted for expenditure.
9
The modified accrual basis operates as follows:

Revenue is recorded when cash is received, except for:
(a) Revenue which is susceptible to accrual, and
(b) Revenue of a material amount which has not been
received at the normal time it should.
Expenditure is recorded on accrual basis, except in the
cases of:
(a) Disbursements for inventory items which may be
considered as expenditure at the time the items are
utilised.
(b) Interest on long-term debt commonly accounted for in debt
service funds, and recorded as expenditure on its due date.
1.6.3 Commitment Basis

It is a basis that records anticipated expenditure evidenced by a contract
or a purchase order. In public sector financing, budgetary and accounting
systems are closely related to the commitment basis.
1.6.3.1 Advantages of Commitment Basis

Commitment accounts kept on a memorandum basis have several
advantages. These include:
(a) A separate payment tabulation is available when
required.
(b) Adjustments occurring when actual expenditure has been
obtained does not affect the final accounts.
(c) It is an aid to financial control. A commitment is regarded
as a charge which has been made on a budget provision.
(d) It takes a realistic view of financial transactions.
(e) It reveals an accurate picture of the state of financial affairs
at the end of the period.
(f) It is used for both economic and investment decision-
making, as all parameters for performance appraisals are
available.
(g) It aligns with the ‘matching concept.’
(h) It makes allowance for the diminution in the value of assets
employed to generate the revenue of the enterprise.
1.6.3.2 Disadvantages of Commitment Basis

The system of Commitment Basis of Accounting has the following
disadvantages:
(a) The system involves extra work. Actual figures have to be
substituted for the commitment provisions to finally determine
the running balances under the sub-heads of expenditure.
(b) Over-expenditure is more under commitment basis in the
expectation that Government may finally release fund to settle
the legal obligations.
10
(c) At the year end, all commitments that are the subject of unfulfilled
orders will have to be written back to reflect the exact picture of
the transactions which took place during the year.
(d) Balances which ought to have lapsed in the Vote Book at the end
of the year may be spent by issuing local purchase orders to
exhaust the votes.
1.7 COMPARISON BETWEEN GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTING AND PRIVATE

SECTOR ACCOUNTING
(a) The main objective of a commercial enterprise is to maximize profit
while that of Government is to provide adequate welfare to the people
at reasonable costs.
(b) Government revenue is derived from the public in the form of taxation,
fines, fees etc., whereas business concerns obtain their income principally
from the sales of goods and services.
(c) In Government, financial transactions are recorded on ‘cash basis’ while
in commercial organizations, it is on accrual basis.
(d) In Public Sector Accounting, tangible fixed assets such as land and
building, plant and machinery are not shown in the balance sheet,
whereas in private sector accounting these are reflected, showing the
historical cost, accumulated depreciation and the net book value of each.
(e) In Public Sector Accounting, current assets such as stocks and debtors
are not shown in the balance sheet. Debtors and creditors are not
reckoned with until money is received or paid. The current assets and
current liabilities are shown in private sector accounting system.
(f) In Government there is no Annual General Meeting of stakeholders/
shareholders, unlike the situation with commercial enterprises. What
Government does is to hold public briefing on specific issues.
(g) In Public Sector Accounting, what operates substantially is fund
accounting. However, in private sector accounting, the proprietary
approach is adopted.
(h) Public Sector Accounting thrives rigidly on the budgetary approach,
whereas in private sector accounting budgeting is embraced as a very
potent control instrument.
1.8 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter discussed the introductory aspect of Public Sector Accounting and
Finance, with emphasis on the objectives, users of accounting information,
constitutional and regulatory framework as well as concepts, principles and
bases of accounting.
11
1.9 WORKED EXAMPLES
1.9.1 Questions
(1) The users of Government Accounting information and financial
reports can be classified into two categories, namely: the internal
and the external. Discuss
(2) Government financial reporting helps to satisfy the information
needs of a variety of users. State the principal users of government
financial reports and their needs.
(3) Compare and contrast Public Sector Accounting and Private Sector
Accounting.
(4) Outline the Constitutional and Regulatory Framework of Public
Sector Accounting.
1.9.2 Suggested Solutions

1 The following are five distinct internal and external users of
Government financial reports and the purposes for which they
are required:-
Internal Users
(i) The Executives and their Advisers.
(ii) Top Administrators of Government Departments.
(iii) Managers of Government units.
(iv) Subordinates who are delegated with control tasks.
(v) Various ad-hoc and other Committees set up by
Government to examine specified functions.
External Users
(i) The Legislative Houses.
(ii) The general public.
(iii) Researchers and representatives of the media.
(iv) Sectional groups within the population such as trade
unions and political parties.
(v) Foreign interests, such as foreign friendly countries, foreign
investors and creditors.
Purposes for which the reports are required

(i) Planning: To serve as a basis for planning.
(ii) Controlling: To serve as a basis for controlling.
(iii) Decision making: To serve as a basis for decision-making.
(iv) To give evidence of financial accountability;
(v) To ascertain the propriety of transactions and their
conformity with the established rules.
(vi) To serve as a basis for appraisal of the performance of
management and staff of Government.
12
A critical examination of the information content reveals that it cannot

meet the needs of all the users. For instance, some users have the right
to considerable extra information, Some have a need for detailed
accounting reports relating to specified parts of Government. Others need
the information for planning, controlling and decision-making. The
content and type of information required differ for each purpose, and
from one user to another.
For the first purpose, information is needed to show that the relevant
laws have been observed, that actual expenditure incurred is in
accordance with the appropriations and that adequate safeguards exist
for the protection of public assets. The internal users and a few of the
external users are more concerned with the above. The current balance
sheet and other underlying records provide these information.
As regards the second purpose, information of an economic nature is

necessary, supplying the costs, revenue of Government and programmes
of activity. Most external users need information of economic nature for
planning, controlling and decision-making. However, most economic
information are lost or not provided under the cash basis of accounting
as the costs of fixed assets are written off in the years of purchase.
Information on debtors and creditors are not available. It is therefore
difficult to provide information on profitability, liquidity and efficiency
positions which are necessary for the effective decision making process
of the users.
2. (a) Legislative and Other Government Bodies

Legislative and governing bodies grant authority to governments and
other units to administer public financial affairs and resources and
subsequently hold them accountable. They are primary users of
government financial reports. They look to financial reports to provide
information to help them assess the government’s stewardship of
resources, compliance with legislation and other authorities, state of
finance and performance.
(b) The Public

Legislatures and governing bodies of units are accountable to the public
who provide the revenue and resources necessary for government
operations. The members of the public receive government services and
are beneficial owners of the public money and property. Such members
of the public are tax payers and recipients of goods or services provided
by the government. The members of the public seek information on how
well government had managed the national financial affairs and
resources, and on the overall economic impact of government activities.
13
(b) Investors and Creditors

Investors in government securities and enterprises and other creditors
provide financial resources to governments. Governments are interested
in providing investors and creditors with information which are useful
in evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of government agencies.
Sometimes, investors and creditors seek specific information in addition
to the general purpose of financial reporting.
(c) Other Governments, International Agencies and other resource providers,

e.g. IMF, ADB, OAU, ECOWAS. Similar to investors and creditors, other
Governments, international agencies and resource providers are
interested in the state of finances of a Government or unit. In addition,
they are interested in plans and priorities of such units or Governments.
(d) Economic and Financial Analysts

Economic and financial analysts, including the financial media review,
analyse and disseminate information to other users such as legislators
and the public. They use the information provided to analyse and
evaluate financial and economic issues.
(e) Internal Managers, Policy Makers and Administrators

They use the information provided for control purposes, decision, the
assessment, allocation and use of resources.
(3) Comparison Between Government Accounting And Private Sector

Accounting:
(a) The main objective of a commercial enterprise is to maximize
profit while that of Government is to provide adequate welfare to
the people at reasonable costs.
(b) Government revenue is derived from the public in the form of

taxation, fines, fees etc., whereas business concerns obtain their
income principally from the sales of goods and services.
(c) In Government, financial transactions are recorded on cash basis

while in commercial organizations, it is on accrual basis.
(d) In Public Sector Accounting, tangible fixed assets such as land

and building, plant and machinery are not shown in the balance
sheet, whereas in private sector accounting these are reflected,
showing the historical cost, accumulated depreciation and the
net book value of each.
(4) (a) Nigerian Constitution
14
(b) Audit Ordinance of 1956 or Act of 1956

(c) Finance (Control & Management) Act of 1958, Cap 144, 1990.
(d) Financial Regulations.
(e) Finance/Treasury Circulars.
(f) Public Procurement Act, 2007
(g) Fiscal Responsibility Act, 2007
(e) In Public Sector Accounting, current assets such as stocks and

debtors are not shown in the balance sheet. Debtors and creditors
are not reckoned with until money is received or paid. The current
assets and current liabilities are shown in private sector
accounting system.
(f) In Government there is no Annual General Meeting of

stakeholders/shareholders, unlike the situation with commercial
enterprises. What Government does is to hold public briefing on
specific issues.
(g) In Public Sector Accounting, what operates substantially is fund

accounting. However, in private sector accounting, the proprietary
approach is adopted.
(h) Public Sector Accounting thrives rigidly on the budgetary

approach, whereas in private sector accounting budgeting is
embraced as a very potent control instrument.
15
16
CHAPTER
Skills level
2
Accountability in the Public Sector
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Concept of Accountability in the Public Sector
4. Fiscal Transparency
5. IMF Code of Good Practices and Fiscal Transparency
6. Conditions that Facilitate the Promotion of Public
Accountability
7. Measures to Enhance Public Accountability
8. Why There Still Exists No Effective Public Accountability in
Nigeria
9. Chapter Review
10. Worked Examples
17
ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE PUBLIC

SECTOR
2.0 PURPOSE
(a) explain the concepts of accountability and fiscal transparency;
(b) enumerate the IMF code of good practices and fiscal transparency;
(c) discuss conditions that facilitate the promotion of public accountability;
and
(d) comment on public sector accountability measures and practices in
Nigeria.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
There are 36 States and 774 Local Government each of which are allocated
allocation resources every month aside from major allocation to the Federal
Government without commensurate provision of the public with adequate social
amenities. The chapter differentiates between accounting in the public sector
and private sector and the concept of public accountability.
2.2 CONCEPT OF ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR

Accountability is an obligation to answer for the execution of one’s assigned
responsibilities. It is the requirement to provide explanation about the
stewardship of public money and how this money has been used.
Accountability comprises two distinct components:

(a) Rendering of accounts;
(b) Holding to account.
2.2.1 RENDERING OF ACCOUNT

It is by rendering of accounts that the information about the behaviour of a
public organisation can be obtained. This means that without rendering of
accounts, there can be no accountability.
2.2.2 HOLDING TO ACCOUNTS

This involves the exercise of judgment and power over public officials. Public
accountability can be achieved only if those who receive the accounts have
power and ability to take actions on the basis of those accounts.
18
ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
Accountability is not just about the responsibility of public officers and the
institutions to the people they support to serve but also includes a willingness
on the part of the office holder to submit to scrutiny appropriate to the office he
is holding. The principal means by which government department discharge
its accountability responsibility is through public reporting which leads us to
the concept of fiscal transparency.
2.3 FISCAL TRANSPARENC Y

This is the aspect of accountability which requires government to carry out all
aspects of budgeting responsibilities with openness, trust, basic values and
ethical standards so that it will have nothing to hide from public. Where a
government has something to hide, public reporting is more likely to be
infrequent, unreliable and less comprehensive in order to hide material facts.
2.4 IMF CODE OF GOOD PRACTICES AND FISCAL TRANSPARENCY

The IMF stipulates a number of code of good practices and transparency. These
include:
(a) Clarity of Roles and Responsibilities: The government sector should

be separated from the rest of the public sector and from the rest of the
economy. Also policy and management roles within the public sector
should be clearly stated and publicly disclosed.
(b) Open Budget Process: There should be clear procedures for budget
execution, monitoring and reporting. The budget preparation should be
guided by well-designed macroeconomic and fiscal policy objectives.
(c) Public Availability of Information: The public should be provided

with comprehensive information on past, current and projected fiscal
activity on major fiscal risks. The central government should publish
information on the level and composition of its debts and financial assets,
significant non-debt liabilities and natural resource assets. Fiscal
information should be presented in a way that facilitates policy analysis
and promotes accountability.
(d) Assurances of Integrity:

(i) Fiscal data should meet accepted data quality standards and
budget forecasts and updates should reflect recent revenue and
expenditure trends, underline macroeconomic development.
(ii) Data in fiscal reports should be internally consistent and

reconciled with relevant data from other sources. Major revisions
to historical fiscal data and any changes to data classification
should be explained.
(iii) Ethical standards of behaviour for public servants should be clear

and made public.
19
(iv) Purchases and sales of public assets should be internally audited and
audit procedures should be open to review.
(v) Fiscal information should be independently scrutinised. All public
finances and policies should be subject to scrutiny by national audit body
or an equivalent organisation that is independent of the executive.
The national audit body or equivalent organisation should submit all reports,
including its annual report to the legislature and publish them.
2.5 CONDITIONS THAT FACILITATE THE PROMOTION OF PUBLIC

ACCOUNTABILITY
In addition to the two conditions of rendering of accounts and holding to account,
earlier discussed, the following conditions will also facilitate the promotion of
public accountability.
(a) Existence of democratic institutions that allow for changes in leadership
through free and fair elections. The assumption that public
accountability will be enhanced by a civilian government replacing a
military government will remain a mirage as long as the leadership
can always ‘dance’ to the legislators ‘tunes’ coupled with the ability to
rig elections unabated. And as such, public accountability can never be
enhanced.
(b) The existence of leadership that genuinely believes in and committed

to the notion of public accountability and will therefore ensure that the
laws to safeguard public fund are enforced irrespective of the might of
the public officer concerned.
(c) Public accountability needs the presence of active investigative media

that will help to keep the leadership on their toes
(d) Public accountability will be enhanced if the generality of the populace

do not believe that embezzlement of public funds is parts of the “political
manifesto” which the political leaders must achieve while in office at
the detriment of the original manifesto.
(e) Urgently address the issue of poverty through poverty reduction targeted
government expenditures. The impoverished and unemployed persons
that rely solely on political leaders for survival are more likely to view
accountability of political leaders as ability to provide for their needs
irrespective of the source of the money.
2.6 MEASURES IN PLACE TO ENHANCE PUBLIC ACCOUNTABILITY

The following are the major measures in place to enhance public accountability
in Nigeria:
(a) The Fiscal Responsibility Act 2007
(b) The Public Procurement Act 2007
(c) The Freedom of Information Act 2011. This was signed into law on 28th
May, 2011. It is expected to enhance transparency and accountability in
the county.
20
(d) Nigeria Code of Conduct Bureau

(e) Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission
(ICPC)
(f) Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC)
(g) Public Accounts Committee of the two Houses of the National Assembly
(h) Office of Auditor- General for the Federation and Office of Auditors-
General in the States and Local Governments.
(i) Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI) Act 2007.
(j) Revenue and Inspectorate Departments of the Office of Accountant-
General of the Federation.
(k) Office of Special Adviser on Project Monitoring in the Presidency
2.7 WHY THERE STILL EXISTS NO EFFECTIVE PUBLIC ACCOUNTABILITY IN

NIGERIA
(a) Nigeria still ranked lowly in corruption perception index. The 2010
Transparency International Corruption Perception Index show that
Nigeria ranked 134 out of 138 countries survey, scoring 2.4 out of 10.
(b) Nigeria still rated lowly for Budget Transparency International Budget
Partnership. The 2010 Budget Index Scored Nigeria 18 out of 100
compared to Ghana and Liberia with 54 and 40 points respectively.
(c) The continuing existence of special government funds
The special government accounts include:
S/N Other Funds

i 10% Cocoa Levy
ii 5 % Sugar Development Levy
iii 10% Rice Levy
iv 7% Port Levy
v 2% Nat. Automotive Council Levy
vi ECOWAS Levy
vii 1% Comprehensive Import Supervision Scheme (CISS) Pool
Levy
viii 0.5% Nigerian Export Supervision Scheme (NESS) Levy
ix 2% Education Pool Account
x Service Charge Pool Account
xi EFCC Recovery Fund
xii 10% Steel Pool Levy Account
xiii 100% Cigarette Levy
xiv Customs Textile Levy Pool
xv IMPL Committee on FGN Landed Property
xvi Cement Levy (Nigeria Customs Service)
xvii 25% Husk Brown Rice Levy Pool Account
xviii 30% Levy on Sanitary Pool Account
xix 30% Levy on Wines Spirits
21
S/N Other Funds

xx Cheque Operational Account
xxi Pension Bond Redemption Fund
xxii Consolidated Pool Account
xxiii MOFI Optional Account
xxiv Monitisation (Fixed Assets)
xxv FCT House Sales Proceeds Account
xxvi Monitisation (Motor Vehicle)
xxvii 65% Wheat Flour Levy Pool Account
xxviii 15% Wheat Grain Levy Pool
xxix FGN Signature Bonus Account (Dollar Denominated)
(d) There also exists special accounts with off-shoot from the Federation
Account. They include:
 1.68% FGN Development of Natural Resources
 1% FGN share of Derivation and Ecology
 0.5% FGN Stabilisation Account
These funds do not require appropriations from National Assembly and

the government does not render account to the public for the funds.
The government should take a look at these special accounts and off-
load them into the national budget. Where the government decides not
to off-load all of them, it should render annual accounts to the National
Assembly and the public on the use of the accounts retained.
(e) Non-provision of penalties for breaches of Fiscal Responsibility Act.

Unless this particular area is addressed soon, the purpose of enacting
the act may be defeated.
(f) Non-establishment of National Council on Public Procurement. Since

the Public Procurement Act came into existence in 2007, the provision
of the Act requires the establishment of National Council on Public
Procurement which is to be headed by the Minister of Finance, has not
been complied with. This is the council that the BPP is supposed to report
persistent breached of the Procurement Act to.
2.8 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter has discussed public sector accountability. The concept of
accountability was clarified and the need for fiscal transparency in public
accountability rationalized. The code of good practices for public sector
accountability and fiscal transparency as spelt out by the IMF were outlined.
The general set of conditions that facilitate public sector accountability and
some of the measures in place to enhance public accountability in Nigeria
were then highlighted. Some reasons why there has been no effective public
accountability in Nigeria were identified.
22
2.9 WORKED EXAMPLES

2.9.1 Questions
(1) (a) What is Accountability?
(b) Differentiate clearly in relation to Public Accountability between
Rendering of Accounts and Holding to Accounts.
(2) (a) What is Fiscal Transparency?

(b) Enumerate four (4) IMF Code of Good Practices on Fiscal
Transparency.
(3)(a) State five (5) conditions that facilitate the promotion of Public
Accountability.
(b) State six (6) of the measures put in place by the Federal
Government of Nigeria to enhance Public Accountability.

(1) (a) Accountability is the requirement to provide explanation in a
record and accounting format with relevant documents if
required on public funds received and disbursement of such
funds.
(b) Rendering of accounts is the process of showing how public

funds received have been spent while Holding to account is
the exercise of judgement and power over public officials.
(2) (a) FISCAL TRANSPARENCY

This is the aspect of accountability which requires
government to carry out all aspects of budgeting
responsibilities with openness, trust, basic values and ethical
standards. So that it will have nothing to hide from public.
Where a government has something to hide, public reporting
is more likely to be infrequent, unreliable and less
comprehensive in order to hide material facts.
(b) IMF CODE OF GOOD PRACTICES AND FISCAL TRANSPARENCY

(i) Clarity of Roles and Responsibilities
(ii) Open Budget Process
(iv) Public Availability Of Information:
(v) Assurances Of Integrity:
(3) (a) CONDITIONS THAT FACILITATE THE PROMOTION OF PUBLIC

ACCOUNTABILITY
(i) Availability of democratic institutions that allow for changes
in leadership through free and fair elections.
23
(ii) The existence of leadership that genuinely believes and

committed to the notion of public accountability and will
therefore ensure that the laws to safeguard public fund are
enforced irrespective of the might of the public officer
concerned.
(iii) Public accountability needs the presence of active

investigative media that will help to keep the leadership on
their toes
(iv) Public accountability will be enhanced if the generality of

the populace do not believe that embezzlement of public
funds is part of the “political manifesto” which the political
leaders must achieve while in office at the detriment of the
original manifesto.
(v) Urgently address the issue of poverty through poverty

reduction targeted government expenditures.
(b) MEASURES PUT IN PLACE TO ENHANCE PUBLIC

ACCOUNTABILITY
(a) The Fiscal Responsibility Act 2007
(b) The Public Procurement Act 2007
(c) The Freedom of Information Act 2011. This was signed

into law on 28th May, 2011. It is expected to enhance
transparency and accountability in the county.
(d) Nigeria Code of Conduct Bureau
(e) Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences

Commission (ICPC)
(f) Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC)
(g) Public Accounts Committee of the two Houses of the

National Assembly
(h) Office of Auditor- General for the Federation and Office of

Auditors-General in the States and Local Governments.
(i) Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative

(NEITI) Act 2007.
(j) Revenue and Inspectorate Departments of the Office of

Accountant-General of the Federation.
(k) Office of Special Adviser on Project Monitoring in the

Presidency
24
CHAPTER
Skills level
3
Finance Officers of Government

Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Accountant-General of the Federation (AGF)
4. Powers of the Accountant-General of the Federation
5. Functions of the Accountant-General of the Federation (AGF)
6. The Auditor-General for the Federation (AuGF)
7. Powers of the Auditor-General for the Federation
8. Accounting Officers
9. Functions of the Accounting Officer
10. Sub-Accounting Officer
11. Functions of the Sub-Accounting Officer
12. Revenue Collector
13. Functions of the Revenue Collector
14. Imprest Holder
15. What is an Imprest?
16. Types of Imprest
17. Conditions for Operating an Imprest
18. Officer Controlling Expenditure
19. Functions of Officer Controlling Expenditure
20. Vote Book or Departmental Vote Expenditure Allocation Book
(DVEA Book)
21. Reasons for Keeping a Vote Book
22. Definition of Terms
23. Chapter Review
24. Worked Examples
25
FINANCE OFFICERS OF GOVERNMENT
3.0 PURPOSE
After studying this chapter, readers should be able to:
(a) identify the various Finance Officers, their powers, functions and
responsibilities; and
(b) use appropriate terminologies in Public Sector Accounting and Finance.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Chapter One of the Financial Regulations (FR) lists the following Government
Officers that have financial responsibilities:
(a) Accountant - General of the Federation (AGF);
(b) Auditor - General for the Federation (AuGF);
(c) Accounting Officers (AO);
(d) Sub-Accounting Officers (SAO);
(e) Revenue Collector (RC);
(f) Imprest Holder (IH); and
(g) Officer Controlling Expenditure (OCE).
3.3 ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL OF THE FEDERATION (AGF)

In accordance with Government Financial Regulations, the Accountant-General
of the Federation is the Chief Accounting Officer of the receipts and payments
of the Federation, saddled with the responsibility of general supervision of the
accounts of all Ministries and Extra-Ministerial Departments, and the
preparation of Annual Financial Statements of the Nation, as may be required
by the Honourable Minister of Finance. He or his representative shall have
access at any reasonable time to all documents, information and records that
are needed for the preparation of the accounts of every Ministry and Extra-
Ministerial Department.
3.4 P O W E RS / DUTI E S O F TH E A C C O UN TA NT- GE N E RA L O F THE

FEDERATION
According to Government Financial Regulations 106 (2009 Edition), the
Accountant-General of the Federation has the following duties:
(a) Power of access to books and records of all Ministries at any reasonable
time.
(b) Power to request for information and explanation necessary for his duties.
(c) Power to carry out special/ad-hoc investigations in any Ministry.
Note: Reference to Ministries include Extra-Ministerial Departments.
26
3.5 FUNCTIONS OF THE ACCOUNTANT- GENERAL OF THE FEDERATION

( A GF)
The functions of the Accountant-General of the Federation as contained in
Financial Regulations 107 include:
(a) serve as the Chief Accounting Officer for the receipts and payments of
the government of the federation;
(b) supervise the accounts of federal ministries, extra-ministerial offices
and other arms of government;
(c) collate, prepare and publish statutory financial statements of the federal
government and any other statements of accounts required by the
Minister of Finance;
(d) manage federal government Investments;
(e) maintain and operate the accounts of the Consolidated Revenue Fund,
Development Fund, Contingencies Fund and other Public Funds and
provide cash backing for the operations of the Federal Government;
(f) maintain and operate the Federation Account;
(g) establish and supervise Federal Pay Offices in each state capital of the
federation;
(h) conduct routine and in-depth inspection of the books of accounts of
federal ministries, extra-ministerial offices and other arms of
government to ensure compliance with rules, regulations and policy
decisions of the federal government;
(i) approve and ensure compliance with accounting codes, internal audit
guides and stock verification manuals of federal ministries, Extra-
ministerial offices and other arms of government;
(j) investigate cases of fraud, loss of funds, assets and store items and other
financial malpractices in ministries/extra-ministerial offices and other
arms of government;
(k) provide financial guidelines through the issuance of treasury circulars
to federal ministries/extra-ministerial offices and other arms of
government to ensure, strict compliance with existing control systems
for the collection, custody and disbursements of public funds and stores;
(l) supervise and control the computerisation of the accounting
system in the federal ministries, extra-ministerial offices and
other arms of government;
(m) carry out revenue monitoring and accounting;
(n) issue officially approved forms bearing Treasury numbers for use in all
federal ministries, extra-ministerial offices and other arms of
government to ensure uniformity;
(o) formulate the accounting policy of the federal government;
(p) service public debt and loans; and
(q) organise training of accounts and internal audit personnel in all federal
ministries, extra-ministerial offices and other arms of government.
27
3.6 THE AUDITOR-GENERAL FOR THE FEDERATION (AuGF)

In accordance with the provisions of Government Financial Regulations, this is
the officer responsible under the 1999 Constitution of the Federation, for the
audit and reports on the public accounts of the Federation, including all persons
and bodies established by law entrusted with the receipts, custody, issue, sale,
transfer or delivery of any stamps, securities, stores or other property of the
Government of the Federation and for the certification of the annual accounts
of the Nation. He is given free hand to examine the accounts in such a manner
as he may deem fit. At the end of the audit, he is expected to write a report,
stating whether in his opinion:
(a) The accounts have been properly kept.
(b) All public funds have been fully accounted for, and the rules and
procedures applied are sufficient to secure effective check on the
assessment, collection and proper allocation of revenue.
(c) Monies have been expended for the purposes for which they were
appropriated and the expenditure have been made as authorised.
(d) Essential records are maintained, and the rules and procedures applied
are sufficient to safeguard public property and funds.
The appointment and removal of the Auditor - General for the Federation is
legally recognised in S.86 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria. That is, he/she is:
(a) appointed by Mr. President, subject to confirmation by the National
Assembly;
(b) the above appointment is based on the recommendation of the Federal

Civil Service Commission;
(c) once appointed, he/she cannot be removed from office, except where he/
she can no longer perform the functions of the office due to ill-health,
death, gross misconduct or where the terms of his/her office has expired
(if he/she has served for 35 years or has attained the age of 60 years,
whichever is earlier).
3.7 POWERS/FUNCTIONS OF THE AUDITOR- GENERAL FOR THE

FEDERATION
In accordance with Government Regulations, the Auditor-General for the
Federation has the following powers:
(a) Power of access to books and records of all Ministries and Extra-
Ministerial Departments, at reasonable times.
(b) Power to request for information and explanations necessary for his duties.
28
(c) Power to carry out special/ad-hoc investigations in any Ministry and

Extra-Ministerial Department.
(i) According to Government Financial Regulations 109 (2009

Edition) The Auditor-General for the Federation shall carry out
the following statutory functions:
 Financial Audit in accordance with extant laws in order
to determine whether government accounts have been
satisfactorily and faithfully kept.
 Appropriation Audit- to ensure that funds are expended
as appropriated by the National Assembly.
 Financial Control Audit – to ensure that laid down
procedures are being observed in tendering, contracts and
storekeeping with a view to preventing waste, pilferage
and extravagance.
 Value-for-Money (Performance) Audit – to ascertain the
level of economy, efficiency and effectiveness derived from
government projects and programmes.
(ii) The scope of work of the Auditor-General include:

 audit of the books, accounts and records of federal
ministries, extra-ministerial offices and other arms of
government;
 vetting, commenting and certifying audited accounts of
all Parastatals and government statutory corporations in
accordance with the Constitution of the Federation;
 audit of the accounts of federal government establishments
located in all states of the federation including all Area
Councils in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja;
 audit of the Accountant-General’s Annual Financial
Statements;
 auditing and certifying the Federation Account;
 deliberation, verification and reporting on reported cases
of loss of funds, stores, plants and equipments as
stipulated in the Financial Regulations;
 pre and post auditing of the payment of pensions and
gratuities of the retired military and civilian personnel;
 periodic checks of all Government Statutory Corporations,
Commissions, Authorities, Agencies, including all persons
and bodies established by an Act of the National Assembly;
and
 revenue audit of all government institutions.
29
3.8 ACCOUNTING OFFICERS

In accordance with Government Financial Regulations, Accounting Officers are
the Permanent Secretaries of the Ministries and Heads of Extra-Ministerial
Departments. They are saddled with the responsibility of the day-to-day
financial affairs of the Ministries and Extra-Ministerial Departments.
3.9 FUNCTIONS OF THE ACCOUNTING OFFICER

(a) The Term “Accounting Officer” means the Permanent Secretary of a
ministry or the head of extra-ministerial office and other arms of
government who is in full control of, and is responsible for human,
material and financial resources which are critical inputs in the
management of an organization.
(b) The Accounting Officer shall:

(i) be responsible for safeguarding of public funds and the
regularity and propriety of expenditure under his control,
(ii) observe and comply fully with the checks and balances spelt out
in the existing Financial Regulations which govern receipts and
disbursement of Public Funds and other assets entrusted to his
care and shall be liable for any breach thereof; and
(iii) note that his accountability does not cease by virtue of his leaving
office and that he may be called upon at any time to account for
his tenure as Accounting Officer.
The functions of the Accounting Officer shall include:

(a) ensuring that proper budgetary and accounting systems are established
and maintained to enhance internal control, accountability and
transparency;
(b) ensuring that the essential management control tools are put in place
to minimize waste and fraud;
(c ) rendering monthly and other financial accounting returns and
transcripts to the Accountant-General of the Federation required by the
Financial Regulations;
(d) ensuring the safety and proper maintenance of all government assets
under his care;
(e) ensuring personal appearance before the Public Accounts
Committee to answer audit queries to ministry/extra-ministerial
department or agency;
(f) ensuring accurate collection and accounting for all public moneys
received and expended;
(g) ensuring prudence in the expenditure of public funds;
(h) ensuring that proper assessments, fees, rates and charges are made
where necessary;
(i) ensuring that internal guides, rules, regulations, procedures are
adequately provided for the security and effective check on the
assessment, collection and accounting for revenue;
30
(j) ensuring that any losses of revenue are promptly reported and
investigated;
(k) ensuring that all revenue collected are compared with the budgeted
estimates with a view to highlighting the variances, positive or otherwise
and the reasons for them; and
(l) ensuring that any revenue collected are not spent, but remitted to the
appropriate authorities promptly. In compliance with their special role
under the Public Procurement Act, all accounting officers of ministries,
extra – ministerial offices and other arms of government are hereby
charged with the following responsibilities.
They shall:
(a) preside over the activities of their Tenders Boards for the proper planning
and evaluation of tenders and execution of procurements;
(b) ensure that adequate appropriation is available for procurements in
their annual budget;
(c) integrate their entity’s procurement expenditure into its yearly budget;(d)
ensure the establishment of a procurement planning committee over
whose activities they shall preside;
(e) constitute a procurement evaluation committee for the efficient
evaluation of tenders;
(f) constitute a Procurement Committee;
(g) render annual returns of procurement records to the Bureau of Public
Procurement;
(h) liaise with the Bureau of Public Procurements to ensure the
implementation of its regulations; and
(i) ensure compliance with the provisions of the Public Procurement Act by
their organizations, failing which they shall be personally liable for
any breach or contravention thereof, whether or not such breach or
contravention was caused by them in person, their subordinates or any
person to whom they may have delegated their responsibilities.
3.10 SUB-ACCOUNTING OFFICER

In accordance with Government Regulations, this officer who is entrusted with
the receipts, custody and disbursements of public funds, is required to maintain
one of the recognized cash books, together with such other books that may be
required by the Accountant-General.
Example includes Sub - Treasurer of the Federation, Federal Pay Officer (FPO),
Police Pay Officer(PPO), Custom Area Pay Officer(CAPO), Director of Finance
and Accounts(DFA), etc.
3.11 FUNCTIONS OF THE SUB-ACCOUNTING OFFICER

According to Government Regulations, the functions of the Sub-Accounting
Officer, are as follows:
31
(a) Ensuring that the proper system of accounts as prescribed by the

Accountant-General is established.
(b) Exercising supervision over the receipts of public revenue and ensuring
prompt collection.
(c) Promptly bringing into account, under the proper heads and sub-heads
of the estimates or other approved classifications, all receipts, whether
revenue or other wise.
(d) Ensuring that proper provision is made for safe keeping of public funds,
securities, stamps, receipts, tickets, licences and other valuable
documents.
(e) Exercising supervision over all officers under his authority who are
entrusted with the receipts and expenditure of public funds and taking
precautions by putting in place efficient checks against the occurrence
of fraud, embezzlement and carelessness.
(f) Supervising the expenditure of Government and ensuring that no
payment is made without proper authorisation.
(g) Promptly charging in his accounts under proper Heads and Sub-Heads
all disbursements.
(h) Checking all cash and stamps in his care to reconcile the amounts with
the balances in the cash book and stamp register.
(i) Promptly bringing to account as a receipt, any cash or stamp found in
excess of the balance shown in the cash book or stamp register.
(j) Making good any minor deficiency not caused by theft or fraud, in the
cash or stamps, for which he is responsible and thereafter reporting in
writing to the Minister of Finance.
(k) Promptly preparing such financial statements as are required by law or
the Minister of Finance.
(l) Maintenance of cash book.
3.11.1 TREASURY CASH BOOK

One of the main functions of Sub - Accounting Officer as stated above is
the maintenance of treasury cash book, which is expressly stated in FR
201, that a Sub - Accounting Officer should keep a treasury cash book.
The treasury cash book is a permanent record of accounts which is used

to record all receipts, revenue and payments made by an organization.
This treasury cash book is divided into two parts, namely: - debit and
credit sides and each side contains eight columns, totalling 16 columns.
Revenue and receipts are recorded on the debit (Dr) side, while payments
and expenditure are entered on the credit (Cr) side with particular for
all entries. The treasury cash book is to be balanced daily with cash
specifications shown for each day. The signature of the Head of Accounts
or Central Pay Officer will be taken as certifying the accuracy as well as
correctness of the entries and cash balance.
32
ILLUSTRATION 3-1
EXAMPLE OF TREASURY CASH BOOK T.F.153A
Inset Ministry and Section

TRV From Classifica- Treasury No of Gross Cash Bank Treasury Dept. To Classifica- Payee Cheque Gross Deduction Bank
No/ Whom tion Receipt Bank No. No. Whom tion H/ Bank No. Amount or Cash or Net
Date Received H/Sub- No Credit Paid Sub-
Head Slip N N N Head N N N
Source: Appendix 9 of Financial Regulations (Revised to 31 December, 2009)
ILLUSTRATION 3-2
In the Ministry of Finance of Giko State where you are an Accounts Supervisor,
the following transactions took place in a typical day of the month of December,
20XX:
Messrs A. Ayotunji and Amusat paid N80,000 and N500,000 being tax, and
contractor’s registration fee, respectively. Treasury receipt numbers 65 and 66
dated 16/9/20X1 were accordingly issued.
The payments which were in bank draft numbers logo bank C184860 and
C160868 dated 25/9/20X1, were received into Head 1001, Sub-heads 419 and
420.
On 26 September, 20X1, the State Ministry of Education made payments for

feeding students and WAEC examination fees, totalling N10,000,000 and
N40,000,000 respectively, through the CBN cheque numbers A/B 846264 and
A/B 946270. The payment vouchers were numbered 60 and 63, respectively.
The payment by the Ministry of Education was charged to Head 2004, Subheads
7 and 9, respectively.
Required:
(a) Draw both the debit and credit sides of a typical Treasury Cash Book.
(b) Post the above-stated transactions into the Cash Book. (Ignore balances
b/f and c/f).
33
SUGGESTED SOLUTION 3-2
GIKO STATE MINISTRY OF FINANCE

MAIN TREASURY CASH BOOK FOR THE MONTH OF SEPTEMBER, 20X1
TRV From Classifi Treasury No Of Gross Cash Bank Treasury Dept To Whom Classifi Payee Cheque Gross Deduction Bank
No/ Whom cat ion Receipt Bank PV No. PV Paid -cation Bank No Amt. or Cash or
Date Received H/Sub- No Credit No. H/Sub- Net
Head Slip Head
N000 N000 N000 N000

16/9 Mr Ayo 1001/ 65 C184 80 — 80
419 860
20x1
16/9 1001/ 66 C184
20x1 Amusat 420 868 500 — 500
16/9 General 2001 — A/B
Payments /7 846
264 10,000 10,000
20x1 40
16/9 43 Pay to 2004 — A/B
WAEC /9 946
270 40,000 40,000
20x1
3.12 REVENUE COLLECTOR

This is an officer, apart from a Sub-Accounting Officer, who keeps official receipts
and collects specified forms of revenue on behalf of the Government. He is
expected to keep a cash book. The Revenue Collector must not expend money
out of his collection. He, therefore, has to account for the collections received
intact.
3.13 FUNCTIONS OF THE REVENUE COLLECTOR

(a) Exercising supervision over the receipt of public revenue and ensuring
their prompt lodgement into the banks.
(b) Promptly reflecting in the accounts, under the proper Heads and
Subheads of the estimates, all monies collected by him on behalf of
Government.
(c) Seeing that proper provision is made for the custody of public funds and
securities.
(d) Supervision of all the officers under his authority who are entrusted
with the receipts, custody and disbursement of public funds.
(e) Maintenance of efficient internal checks against the occurrence of
malpractices.
(f) Checking all cash and stamps in his care; agreeing the amount with the
balances in the Cash Book and Stamps Register.
(g) Making good any minor deficit which is not caused by theft or fraud
and reporting accordingly in writing to the appropriate officer, e.g.
Minister of Finance.
34
ILLUSTRATION 3-3
FORMAT OF REVENUE COLLECTOR’S CASH BOOK
Date Revenue Classification From Whom Amount Date Treasury Amount

Receipt Head/S-Head Received N Receipt N
No No
Source: Appendix 6, Financial Regulations (Revised to 31 December, 2009)
ILLUSTRATION 3-4
Mr. Ajonibode, a revenue collector, in the Magistrate Court of Doly Local
Government, submits the following information, for the month ended 30 June,
2008:
Date Prayer Reasons for payment Amount

N
2/6/2008 Mrs. Mariam Gidado Declaration of age 400.00
3/6/2008 Niger Killah Court fine 2000.00
5/6/2008 Mr. Ibrahim Limoh Court fine 8000.00
7/6/2008 Gani Waidi Court proceeding document 800.00
9/6/2008 Beko Ishola Court proceeding document 1200.00
13/6/2008 Mrs. Kudirat Eniola Declaration of age 400.00
21/6/2008 Yaro Balam Court fine 1500.00
30/6/2008 Mrs. Adio Court proceeding document 500.00
The money collected is shown under Head 200, with the following Sub-heads:
(a) Declaration of age 01
(b) Court fine 04
(c) Court proceeding document 07
Mr. Ajonibode deposited the takings to the Sub Accounting Officer on 29 June
2008 and was issued with treasury receipt number M 400201. The receipts
used by him were N800401 to N800450. The one issued to Mrs. Mariam Gigado
was N800417.
On the assumption that receipt number N800423 was cancelled and re-issued;
and review, write up the revenue collector’s cash book and state how to treat
the cancelled receipt.
35
MAGISTRATE COURT OF WYSE LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Revenue Collector’s Cash Book for the Month ended 30 June, 2008.
Date Revenue Classification From Whom Amount Date Treasury Amount

Receipt Head S/head Receivable
Received N Receipt N
No No
2/6/2008 N800417 200----001 Mrs.M.Gidado 400.00 29/6/2004 M400201 14,300.00
3/6/2008 N800418 200----419 Niger Kilah 2000.00
5/6/2008 N800419 200----419 Mr.I. Limoh 8000.00
7/6/2008 N800420 200----005 Gani-Waidi 800.00
9/6/2008 N800421 200----005 Beko Ishola 1200.00
13/6/2008 N800422 200----001 Mrs.K.Eniola 400.00
21/6/2008 N800424 200----419 Yaro Baloon 1500.00
30/6/2008 N800425 200----005 Mrs. Adio 500.00 30/6/2004 Bal. c/d 500.00
14800.00 14,800.00
Balance b/d 500.00
Tutorial:
The closing balance of N500 is the value of the receipt No. N800425 which was
collected and issued after 29/6/2004 when takings were deposited with the
Sub-accounting officer.
3.14 IMPREST HOLDER

According to Government Regulation, this is an officer other than a Sub-
Accounting Officer, who is charged with the disbursement of public money
whose vouchers cannot be presented immediately to a Sub-Accounting Officer.
He has to keep an Imprest Cash Book.
3.15 WHAT IS AN IMPREST?

An imprest is defined as a small amount of money set aside to meet petty cash
payments, the vouchers of which cannot be presented to a Sub-Accounting
Officer immediately. An imprest holder is therefore a petty cashier who handles
such float of money and keeps necessary records for restoration to the earlier
amount granted, at the appropriate time.
3.16 TYPES OF IMPREST
There are two types of imprest, namely:
(a) Standing Imprest: This imprest is operated from the commencement

to the end of a financial year (1 January to 31 December of each year).
On the last working day of the year, an account is rendered and all
unspent balances lapse.
36
(b) Special Imprest: This imprest is operated from the commencement of

a financial year until the objectives for which it is set up have been
achieved. Upon the attainment of such objectives, an account will be
rendered and all unspent balances shall lapse.
3.17 CONDITIONS FOR OPERATING AN IMPREST

(a) Any Ministry which intends to operate an imprest has to apply in writing
to the Accountant-General of the Federation, stating the amount and
purpose for which it is required.
(b) The Accountant-General of the Federation and the Accounting Officer of

the Ministry or Extra - Ministerial Department will issue imprest after
the Minister of Finance has conveyed the authority in the Annual General
Imprest Warrant.
ILLUSTRATION 3-5
EXAMPLE OF IMPREST HOLDER’S CASH BOOK
Date Reimburse No. of Bank Cash Bank Date To Whom P.V. No No. of Cash Bank Analysis
ment Details Credit Slip Payable cheque
N N issued N N
Source: Appendix 10, Financial Regulations (Revised to 31 December, 2009)
ILLUSTRATION 3-6
The monthly float granted is N80,000. The main cashier reimburses any amount
spent on the last day of each month. The following transactions took place in
the month of November, 2008:
N
November 1 Tea and sugar 4,000
“ 3 Purchase of petrol 800
“ 4 Postal services 2,000
“ 5 Postage stamps 1,000
“ 6 Envelopes 2,000
“ 8 Purchase of petrol 1,000
“ 9 Gift 4,000
“ 12 Purchase of petrol 800
“ 13 Postage stamps 200
“ 15 Alhaji Giwa - ledger account 16,000
“ 16 Olamide - ledger account 10,000
“ 17 Waste paper basket 600
“ 18 Purchase of stationery 4,000
“ 19 Purchase of engine oil 1,000
“ 19 Toll gate fees 80
“ 21 Aruna - ledger account 12,000
37
“ 24 Tea and sugar 4,000

“ 25 Biscuits 1,200
“ 27 Calculator 1,400
“ 30 Petrol and engine oil 2,000
“ 30 Servicing of official car 1,200
Required:
(a) Enter the above transactions in a petty cash book, having analysis
columns for motor expenses, postages and stationery, office
entertainment, sundry expenses and ledger column.
(b) Show the books of accounts to be credited and debited by the main and
imprest cashiers at 1 December, 2008, following fresh reimbursement.
38
OFFICE OF THE STATE COMMISSIONER

IMPREST HOLDER’S CASH BOOK
Date Reimbur No of Cash Bank Date To Whom P.V Classifi Cash Bank A N A L Y S I S
sement Bank Payable No. cation Motor Postages Stationery Office Sundry Ledger
Details Credit N N N N Expenses Entertain Expenses
Slip ment
1/11 Reimbur 80,000 = 1/11/2008 Tea and sugar 4,000 4,000
20XX sement
3/11/2008 Petrol 800 800
4//11/2008 Postal 2,000 2,000
Services
5/11/2008 Postage 1,000 1,000
Stamps
6/11/2008 Envelops 2,000 2,000
8/11/2008 Petrol 1,000 1,000
9/11/2008 Gift 4,000 4,000
12/11/2008 Petrol 800 800
13/11/2008 Postage 200 200
39
Stamps
15/11/2008 Alhaji Giwa 16,000 16,000
Musa
16/11/2008 Olamide 10,000 10,000
17/11/2008 Basket 600 600
18/11/2008 Stationery 4,000 4,000
19/11/2008 Engine Oil 1,000 1,000
19/11/2008 Tollgate fee 80 80
21/11/2008 Mr. Aruna 12,000 12,000
24/11/2008 Tea and Sugar 4,000 4,000
25/11/2008 Biscuits 1,200 1,200
27/11/2008 Calculator 1,400 1,400
30/11 Reimbur 30/11/2008 Petrol 2,000 2,000
20xx sement 69,280 30/11/2008 Servicing of
Car 1,200 1,200
_____________ 30/11/2008 Balance c/f 80,000___________________________________________________________________
149,280 = 149,280 6,880 3,200 7,400 13,200 600 38,000
bal.b/d 80,000
3.18 OFFICER CONTROLLING EXPENDITURE

This is an officer in charge of the various vote-heads of each Ministry or Extra-
Ministerial Department, saddled with the responsibility of monitoring
Government expenditure and ensuring that there is no extra-budgetary
spending.
3.19 FUNCTIONS OF OFFICER CONTROLLING EXPENDITURE

(a) Supervision of Government expenditure and ensuring that no payment
is made without proper authority.
(b) Promptly charging in his account under proper Heads and Sub-heads
all disbursements.
(c) Ensuring that all books are correctly posted and kept up to date.
(d) Producing when required by the Accountant-General and the Auditor-
General, all cash, stamps, etc., in his custody.
(e) Ensuring that funds are available under the appropriate Head and Sub-
heads, to meet payments of specific vouchers.
(f) Effective monitoring of Government expenditure.
(g) Ensuring that there is no extra-budgetary spending.
(h) Ensuring that there is adequate security over the custody of public funds.
(i) Maintenance of the vote book.
3.20 VOTE BOOK OR DEPARTMENTAL VOTE EXPENDITURE ALLOCATION

BOOK (DVEAB)
A vote book is a memorandum accounts book used for monitoring Government
expenditure and ensuring that there is no extra-budgetary spending. It is the
duty of every officer controlling expenditure to keep a vote book. A vote book
has 15 columns. At the top left hand side of the vote page, the head, sub - head
and the type of service are indicated. On the right hand side, the authority and
the authorized amount will be written, i.e. PGW/AGW and AIE number and the
amount should be stated. On no account should two types of services be recorded
together, e.g., sub - head 3, should not be made to accommodate any other
services such as sub - head 4.
3.21 REASONS FOR KEEPING A VOTE BOOK

(a) For effective monitoring of Government expenditure.
(b) To show uncommitted balance at a glance.
(c) To highlight Government’s creditors or liabilities.
(d) To ensure that funds are available in the appropriate Heads and Sub-
heads to meet payments due.
(e) To ensure that there is no extra-budgetary spending.
40
ILLUSTRATION 3-7
Example of a Vote Book
Head_______________________ VoteBook Authorised Appropriation:
Sub-head___________________ AGW________________________
Service_____________________ AIE_________________________
OTHERS_____________________
TOTAL______________________
EXPENDITURE LIABILITY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Line Date PV Part Pay Total Bal. Liab. Liab. Liab. Outs Rem- Bal. Line Line
No. No icu ment Pay Ref. Incur Clea tandin- arks Avail. No. No.
lars ment ed red g Liab.
ILLUSTRATION 3-8
The following transactions were recorded in a DVEA book of the Ministry of

Education in respect of the purchase of stationery, thus:
1/8/20xx Authorized appropriation for the year is N1,000,000.

2/8/20xx Paid N45,000 for the purchase of stationery from Odunuga
Bookshop on PV No. 004.
6/8/20xx N50,000 paid on PV No. 0005 for the supply of stencils from
Abiola Bookshop.
10/8/20xx Issued LPO number 0044 to Lambus Bookshop for the supply of
photocopying papers, for N100,000.
18/8/20xx Settled Lambus on account on P.V number 0006.
23/8/20xx Paid N20,000 for stapling pins and staplers from Orita Bookshop,
on P.V number 00007.
26/8/20xx P.V 0007 for N120,000 was raised for payment for typing sheets
to CSS Bookshop.
27/8/20xx Issued LPO number 00045 for N300,000 for supply of duplicating
papers, to Olorus Stores Limited.
30/8/20xx Settled N300,000 on P.V number 0008 for the purchase of carbon
papers, to Dossy Book shop.
31/8/20xx Paid Olorus Stores Limited on account on P.V number 0009.
The SW/AIE/RIE number is 04. The Head and subhead for stationery is 502/05.
41
FEDERAL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
Head —502 Vote BookAuthorised Appropriation

Sub-head—005 AGW-N1,000,000
Service—Stationery AIE______________________
OTHERS__________________
TOTAL____________________
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Line Date P.V Particulars Payment Cumm. Balance Liability Liability Liability Outstan Remarks Uncomm Line Line
No. No. Payment Ref Incurred Cleared ding Liability ited Bal. No. No.
1. 1/8/20xx Authorized - - 1,000,000 - - - - - 1,000,000 1

Appropriation
2. 2/8/20xx 004 Odunuga BK 45,000 45,000 955,000 - - - - - 955,000 2
3. 6/8/20xx 0005 Abiola BK 50,000 95,000 905,000 - - - - - 905,000 3
4. 10/8/20xx - - 95,000 905,000 LPO 100,000 - 100,000 LPO 805,000 4
0044 Issued to
Lambus
5. 18/8/20xx 0006 Lambus 100,000 195,000 805,000 - - 100,000 - Settleme 805,000 4 5

nt to
Lambus
6. 23/8/20xx 0007 Orita BK 20,000 215,000 785,000 - - - - - 785,000 6
7. 26/8/20xx 0007 CSS BK 120,000 335,000 665,000 - - - - - 665,000 7
8. 27/8/20xx - - 335,000 665,000 LPO 300,000 - 300,000 LPO Issued 365,000 8
00045 to Olorus
9. 30/8/20xx 0008 Dossy BK 300,000 635,000 365,000 - - - - - 65,000 9
10. 31/8/20xx 0009 Olorus 300,000 935,000 65,000 - - 300,000 - Settlement 65,000 10
Stores Ltd. to Olorus
3.22 DEFINITION OF TERMS

These may be discussed, as follows:
3.22.1 Below-The-Line Accounts

These are the accounts created and controlled by the Accountant-General
of the Federation, of which at the time of preparation of the budget, the
exact amount of income receivable and expenditure incurrable cannot
be reasonably ascertained. The expenditure under the accounts is not
budgeted for in the estimates. Examples include touring and spectacle
advances, loans and deposits. In this case, deposits refer to money held
on behalf of third parties. The term also includes remittances and cash
transfers in respect of the Nigerian Army, Police and Para-Military
Organisations.
3.22.2 Federal Pay Officer

This is an officer who is in charge of a Federal Pay Office in the State.
He performs the same functions as those of a Sub-Accounting Officer.
However, although the Sub-Accounting Officer is at the headquarters of
each Ministry, the Federal Pay Officer handles the processing of all
financial transactions between the Federal and State Governments, the
42
Local Government Councils and all branches of the Federal Government

Ministries in the States wherever located.
3.22.3 Above-The-Line Accounts

These are the expenditures budgeted for in the estimate. At the time of
preparation of the budget they can reasonably be ascertained as to the
exact amount of income receivable and expenditure incurrable.
Examples of costs which may be budgeted for are salaries and overhead
expenses. Revenue items anticipated include collections for customs and
excise duties.
3.22.4 Financial Regulations / Accounting Manual

They are the rules governing the management of public funds. The rules
deal with the procedures to be adopted for the receipts and disbursements
of public funds and how to ensure accountability. Financial Regulations
could be regarded as the accounting manual of Government as they
state all the guidelines, rules and instructions to be followed, to ensure
legal and wise spending.
3.22.5 Budgetary Control Concept

The concept simply states that Government should not undertake any
action without a prior budget for it. The concept assumes that all
Government revenue and expenditure must be budgeted for.
3.22.6 Token Vote

It is a notional provision for a Head or Sub-head of an expenditure or
revenue in an estimate. ‘Token vote’ is often represented by the symbol
‘10e’. It is a reminder to provide money for the activity function as soon
as possible.
3.22.7 Account Current

This is the balance on account between two or more persons (principal
and his agent), showing what is due from one person to another. Account
Currents are often used to take care of transactions between the Federal
and State Governments and their Agencies.
3.22.8 Children’s Separation Domicile Allowance (SDR)

This is an allowance payable if an officer is separated from his children
as a result of the following developments:
(a) If he is an expatriate officer.
(b) Where an officer is being posted to serve overseas.
3.23 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter dealt with the various powers and functions of the Finance Officers
of Government and key instruments which they use and definitions of terms in
43
Government Accounting. It stressed the importance of the powers and functions

of the Accountant-General and those of the Auditor-General.
3.24 WORKED EXAMPLES

3.24.1 Questions
(1) Ministers, Commissioners, Directors-General and Chairmen of
Local Government Councils were made Accounting Officers by
the Civil Service and Local Government Reform Act 43 of 1988.
Required:
Define the word “Accounting Officer”.
List the functions of an Accounting Officer.
3.24.2 Suggested Solution

(1) (a) An Accounting Officer is the Permanent Secretary of
each Ministry or Head of an Extra-Ministerial
Department.
(b) The functions of the Accounting Officer are:

(i) Maintenance of proper books of accounts.
(ii) Establishment of functional system of internal
control.
(iii) Establishment of Internal Audit Department as an
integral part of the internal control system.
(iv) Ensuring that revenue is collected as at when due.
(v) Ensuring that all money collected is properly
accounted for.
(vi) Supervising all officers entrusted with the receipts,
custody and disbursement of public funds.
(vii) Ensuring that there are adequate securities over
the custody of Government Funds.
44
CHAPTER
Skills level
4
Sources of Government Revenue
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Government Revenue and Sources
4. Revenue Collection Agencies in Nigeria
5. Sources and Classifications of Government Revenue
in Nigeria
6. Federation Accounts Allocation Committee-FAAC.
7. State Joint Local Government Account Allocation
Committee-SJLGAAC
8. Sources of Revenue Payable to the Federation Account
9. Federal Government Account or Consolidated
Revenue Fund
10. Value-Added Tax (VAT)
11. Development Fund
12. Contingency Fund
13. Chapter Review
14. Worked Examples
45
SOURCES OF GOVERNMENT REVENUE
4.0 PURPOSE
(a) identify the general sources of government revenue;
(b) discuss the major revenue collection agencies of the government;
(c) list the sources and classification of government revenue in Nigeria and
their groupings into the Consolidated Revenue Fund, the Federation
Account, the Development Fund and the Contingencies Fund;
(d) trace the transfer of appropriations from the Federation Account and
the Consolidated Revenue Fund, into the Development Fund and
Contingencies Fund; and
(e) distinguish the different revenue fund/account and prepare them with
relevant information.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Government requires revenue to perform its various functions. Hence,
government strives to generate the revenue that it requires. This chapter,
therefore, discusses the sources of government revenue generally and
specifically in Nigeria.
4.2 GOVERNMENT REVENUE AND SOURCES

Government revenue refers to the income generated by the government through
various incomes inside and outside the particular government. The following
are the general sources of revenue of various governments:
(a) Taxation: is a compulsory levy imposed by the government where no

direct benefit is received by citizens from the government. The levy is
usually payable at different rates depending on the nature of economic
activity conducted by an individual or firm.
(b) Fees: these are payments made by users of public services on a cost
sharing basis.
(c) Fines: refer to the penalties imposed by government against law

breaches, i.e. any person or firm from which has been proved guilty by
law must be exposed to specific fines as compensation for the destruction
made by the person or firm and the collected amount being revenue for
the government.
46
(d) Grant: refer to non-payable money received by the government from

another government with the aim of helping such government either to
improve or to start a project which is of great importance to the society
of such government.
( e) Foreign Investment: sometimes government may decide to invest

beyond its boundary provided there is a proof for sustainable and
profitability cash flow. The obtained amounts after operation constitute
revenue for the particular government.
(f ) Public Debt or borrowing: becomes an important source of income

to the government when revenue collected from taxes and other sources
is not adequate to cover government expenditure. Such borrowings
become more necessary in times of financial crises and emergency like
war, droughts, etc. Public debt may be raised internally or externally.
Internal debt refers to public debt floated within the country, while
external debt refers to loans floated outside the country.
(g) Sales of National Assets: selling national assets through

privatisation programmes has constituted a significant source of
government revenue across the globe. Revenue from this source is usually
used to improve finances or invest in new infrastructure and other key
priorities.
4.3 REVENUE COLLECTION AGENCIES IN NIGERIA

Several Agencies are responsible for revenue collection from the various sources
we have discussed for the government in Nigeria. The major ones are discussed
as follows:
4.3.1 Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC)

NNPC came into being on the 1st of April 1977 through Decree No 33,
following the the dissolutions and mergers of the then Nigeria National
Oil Corporation (NNOC) (Established by Decree No 18 of 1971) and the
Federal Ministry of Petroleum Resources.. The establishment of NNPC
was meant to optimize the use of scarce indigenous human resources
available in the oil industry.
NNPC has sole responsibility for upstream and downstream

developments, and is also charged with regulating and supervising the
oil industry on behalf of the Nigerian Government. In 1988, the
corporation was commercialised into 11 strategic business units,
covering the entire spectrum of oil industry operations: exploration and
production, gas development, refining, distribution, petrochemicals,
engineering, and commercial investments. Its specific functions and
roles include inter alia;
47
(a) exploration and production, refining, purchasing and marketing

of petroleum, its products and by-products;
(b) providing and operating pipelines, tanker-ships and other
facilities for the conveyance of crude oil;
(c) constructing, equipping and maintaining tank farms;
(d) research and development; and
(e) doing anything for the purpose of giving effect to agreements
entered into by the federal government with a view to seeking
participation by the government or the corporation in activities
connected with petroleum.
4.3.2 Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS)

The Federal Inland Revenue Service started as part of a colonial tax
organization under the name the Inland Revenue Department of
Anglophone West Africa. The department’s scope of administration
covered Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone and the Gambia. In 1943, the
Nigerian Inland Revenue Department was carved out of the Inland
Revenue Department of Anglophone West Africa and established as an
autonomous body under the supervision of the Commissioner of Income
Tax.
Under the old tax administration structure as prescribed by the

Companies Income Tax Act, Vol. IV, Cap. 60, Laws of the Federation of
Nigeria 1990, the Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS) was the
operating arm of the Federal Board of Inland Revenue (FBIR).
However, Federal Inland Revenue Service (Establishment) Act No. 13
of 2007 formally established the Federal Inland Revenue Service. The
same Act also established the Federal Inland Revenue Service Board
to have overall supervision of the Service. This Board replaced the
Federal Board of Inland Revenue.
The FIRS is to control and administer the different taxes (Companies

Income Tax Act, Petroleum Profits Tax Act, and Value Added Tax Act;
Personal Income Tax Act in respect of residents of the Federal Capital
Territory, members of Nigeria Police Force, members of Armed Forces of
Nigeria as well as staff of ministry of foreign affairs and non-residents;
and Capital Gains Tax Act and Stamp Duty Act in respect of residents of
the Federal capital territory, corporate bodies and non-residents) and
laws specified in the First Schedule or other laws made from time to
time by the National Assembly or other regulations made there under
by the Government of the Federation and to account for all taxes
collected. Accordingly, the FIRS has been striving to operate a transparent
and an efficient tax system that optimises tax revenue collection
and voluntary compliance.
48
4.3.3 States Board of Internal Revenue Service (SBIRS)

At the state level, the Personal Income Tax Act, 1993 established the
States Board of Internal Revenue Service (SBIRS) with responsibility
for personal income taxes of individuals and non corporate bodies except
residents of the Federal Capital Territory, members of Nigeria Police
Force, members of Armed Forces of Nigeria as well as staff of ministry
of foreign affairs and non-residents. In addition, it has responsibilities
for Capital Gains Tax Act and Stamp Duty Act except those aspects
relating to residents of the Federal capital territory, corporate bodies
and non-residents. Generally, the States Board of Inland Revenue Service
has the power to and be responsible for:
(a) Assessing, Collecting and Accounting for all taxes, fees, and levies
in the State. The Commissioner of Finance is to prescribe the
manner the Board is to account for the taxes, fees and levies
collected;
(b) Supervise the collection of all revenues due to the State
Government with other ministries, extra Ministerial Department,
Parastatals and Government Companies.
(c) Revise all obsolete rates collectable by the Board and initiate
review and advice the Governor on it.
(d) Liaise on tax and revenue matters with the Federal Governments
directly through the Joint Tax Board and make recommendations
where appropriate to the Joint Tax Board on Tax policy, tax reform,
tax registration, tax treaties and exemption as may be required
from time to time.
(e) To administer the provisions of the Personal Income Tax Act 1993
as amended and relevant tax laws in the State.
(f) To generally, control the management of the service on matters
of policy subject to the provisions of the edicts and imposing
discipline on employees of the State Internal Revenue Service.
4.3.4 DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM RESOURCES (DPR)

At the onset, petroleum matters were handled by the Hydrocarbon Section of
the Ministry of Lagos Affairs, which reported directly to the Governor-General.
The Unit kept records on matters relating to exploration, and importation of
petroleum products. It also enforced safety and other regulations on matters
which were then mostly products importation and distribution. As the activities
of the petroleum industry expanded, the Unit was upgraded to a Petroleum
Division within the Ministry of Mines and Power.
The Petroleum Division grew to become the Department of Petroleum Resources

in 1970. In 1971, a new body – The Nigerian National Oil Corporation (NNOC)
– was created to handle direct commercial operational activities in the oil
industry on behalf of the Federal Government, while the Department of Petroleum
49
Resources in the Federal Ministry of Mines and Power continued to exercise

statutory supervision and control of the industry.
In 1975, the Department was upgraded to a Ministry and named the Ministry
of Petroleum and Energy which was later renamed the Ministry of Petroleum
Resources.
Decree 33 of 1977 merged the Ministry of Petroleum Resources and the Nigerian
National Oil Corporation (NNOC) to form the Nigerian National Petroleum
Corporation (NNPC), in order to conserve the then scarce manpower in the oil
industry. This decree also created the Petroleum Inspectorate as an integral
part of the NNPC, and entrusted it with the regulation of the petroleum industry.
In 1985, the Ministry of Petroleum Resources was re-established, but the

Petroleum Inspectorate remained within the Nigerian National Petroleum
Corporation until March, 1988 when the Nigerian National Petroleum
Corporation was re-organised. By this re-organisation, the Petroleum
Inspectorate was excised from the NNPC and transferred to the Ministry of
Petroleum Resources as the Technical arm and renamed the DPR.
DPR has the statutory responsibility of ensuring compliance to petroleum laws,

regulations and guidelines in the Oil and Gas Industry. The discharge of these
responsibilities involves monitoring of operations at drilling sites, producing
wells, production platforms and flow stations, crude oil export terminals,
refineries, storage depots, pump stations, retail outlets, any other locations
where petroleum is either stored or sold, and all pipelines carrying crude oil,
natural gas and petroleum products, while carrying out the following functions,
among others:
(a) Supervising all Petroleum Industry operations being carried out under
licences and leases in the country;
(b) Monitoring the Petroleum Industry operations to ensure that they are
in line with national goals and aspirations including those relating to
flare down and Domestic Gas Supply Obligations;
(c) Ensuring that Health Safety& Environment regulations conform to

national and international best oil field practice;
(d) Maintaining records on petroleum industry operations, particularly on

matters relating to petroleum reserves, production/exports, licences and
leases;
(e) Advising Government and relevant Government agencies on technical

matters and public policies that may have impact on the administration
and petroleum activities;
(f) Processing industry applications for leases, licences and permits;
50
(g) Ensuring timely and accurate payments of Rents, Royalties and other
revenues due to government; and
(h) Maintaining and administering the National Data Repository (NDR).
4.3.5 Nigeria Customs Service (NCS)

The Nigeria Customs Service – a paramilitary organisation, has existed
since a little over a century ago under the British Colonial administration
when Mr. T. A. Wall, was appointed in the year 1891, as the Director-
General of Customs for the collection of inland Revenue in Niger Coast
Protectorate. His appointment formalized the duties which the
Department had been performing under the Royal Niger Company. The
name Department of Customs and Excise emerged in 1922 when the
first Comptroller of Customs and Excise, Federation of Nigeria was
appointed. Towards the end of 1945, the Customs and Excise Preventive
service was established under the leadership of Mr. Nicol – a Briton.
The Nigeria Customs Service statutory functions can be broadly classified

into two main categories namely, core and other functions:
4.3.5.1 Core Functions

The two core functions are:
(a) Collection of Revenue i.e. Import and Excise Duties and
Accounting for same.
(b) Prevention and suppression of smuggling.
4.3.5.2 Other Functions

The category of others function include:
(a) Implementation of Government Fiscal Measures
(b) Generation of statistical data for planning purpose
(c) Trade Facilitation
(d) Implementation of bilateral and multilateral agreements
entered into by government
(e) Collection of levies and charges
(f) Collaborative functions with government Agencies
including CBN, Police, NDLEA, SON, NAFDAC, FIRS, etc.
In addition to these core and group of other functions, the Service

also supports the combating of:
(a) Illegal commercial activities and trade in illicit goods, e.g.
import of fake and sub-standard goods
(b) Infraction on Intellectual Property Rights
(c) Illegal international trade in endangered species
(d) Illegal trade in arms and ammunition
51
(e) Money laundering
(f) Traffic of illicit drugs
(g) Illegal trade in cultural Artifacts.
(h) Importation of pornographic materials
(i) Importation of toxic and hazardous substances.
4.4 SOURCES AND CL ASSIFICATIONS OF GOVERNMENT REVENUE IN

NIGERIA
The Federal Government derives its revenue from different sources, kept in
the Consolidated Revenue Fund. Prior to the 1989 budget, the Federal
Government derived its revenue through the following Heads:
Head 1: Indirect Taxes.
Head 2: Direct Taxes.
Head 3: Mining.
Head 6: Direct Allocation.
Head 7: Direct Taxes (PAYE).
Head 8: Licences and Land Revenue.
Head 9: Mining (Solid Minerals).
Head 10: Fees.
Head 11: Earnings and Sales.
Head 12: Rent of Government Property.
Head 13: Interests and Repayments (General).
Head 14: Interests and Repayments (State Government).
Head 15: Reimbursements.
Head 16: Armed Forces.
Head 17: Miscellaneous.
However, with the 1989 Budget, the Federal Government revenue sources were
classified into two groups, viz:
(a) Federation Account Revenue Heads, and
(b) Federal Government Account Revenue Heads.
The above classification was again modified in 1994 fiscal year, as follows:
(a) Federation Account Revenue Heads;
(b) Value-Added Tax (VAT), and
(c) Federal Government Account Revenue Heads.
4.4.1 Federation Account Revenue Heads

The Federation Account was established by Section 162 of the 1999
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The Federation Account
is one into which shall be paid all revenue collected by the Government
of the Federation, except the proceeds from the PAYE of the personnel of
the Armed Forces of the Federation, the Nigeria Police Force, Foreign
Service Officers and Residents of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
52
The Federation Account is a distributable pool account from which

allocations are made to the Federal, State and Local Government Councils
on such terms and in a manner prescribed by the law. Currently, the
figure in the pool is distributed, using the revenue allocation formulas
over the years as shown in the table below.
REVENUE ALLOCATION FORMULA
ITEMS Initial Revised 1990 Jan. June May July March

1981 1981 uary 1992 (1st Ex- 2nd Ex- 2004
Act 1/ Act 1992 to ecutive ecutive Modifi
April Order)* Order)* ed from
2002 FMF)
2/*
Federal Government 55.0 55.0 50.0 50.0 48.5 56.0 54.68 52.68
State Government 26.5 30.5 30.0 25.0 24.0 24.0 24.72 26.72
Local Government 10.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.60 20.60
Special Funds 8.5 4.5 5.0 5.0 7.5
-(a) Derivation
(Oil-Producing States)* 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 0 0
-(b) Dev. Of Mineral
Producing Areas 3.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 3.0 0 0 0
-(c) Initial development
of FCT Abuja 2.5 0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 0 0
-(d) General Ecological
problems 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 0 0 0
-(e) Stabilisation 0 0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0 0 0
-(f) Savings 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-(g) other Special
Projects 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
1. Nullified by Supreme Court in October 1981

* From the 1999 Constitution, the 13% Derivation provision is accounted
for before the revenue is allocated into the federation account.
2. the current revenue formula is based on the modified grant from the
Federal Ministry of Finance, which came to effect in March, 2004
NOTES:
 13% of revenue derived from oil sources goes to the States from which it
is obtained, in consonance with the principle of derivation.
 7% and 4% of the gross revenue in the Federation Account are allocated
to the Customs Service and Federal Inland Revenue Services,
respectively.
 The rates stated above are “first line charges.” That is, 13% derivation
source is adjusted (deducted) in the oil sector revenue received from the
total oil proceeds; 11% (7% plus 4%) of other revenue receipts are taken
out of the non-oil collections.
53
 Whatever remains in the Federation Account distributable pool is shared

between the three tiers of Government.
 The allocations to the 36 States is distributable, net of the adjustments
in the earlier three notes or bullets. Abuja is considered a State, to make
37 ‘States’ which will share 26.72%.
 The Local Government allocation from the net balance is shared between
the 774 Local Governments in Nigeria.
 The allocation to the 36 States and Abuja treated as a ‘State’ for this
purpose, is redistributed from 1990 till date, using the following criteria;
40% on the equality of all States;
40% on population;
10% on independent revenue effort.
10% on social development-Education (4.0%), Health (3.0%), and Water (3.0%)
100%
4.5 FEDERATION ACCOUNTS ALLOCATION COMMIT TEE - FAAC.

Federation Accounts Allocation Committee (FAAC) was set up by Allocation of
Revenue (Federation Account, etc.) Act, Cap. A15, LFN 2004 to deliberate upon
and allocate funds from the Federation Account to the three tiers of Government
(Federal, State and Local Governments. The Federation Accounts Allocation
Committee (FAAC) meeting is normally divided into two sessions, namely
(a) Technical Session
(b) Plenary Session
Membership of Federation Accounts Allocation Committee (FAAC)

Technical Session
(a) Accountant-General of the Federation- Chairman
(b) States’ Accountant-General
(c) Representatives of the following Agencies:
(i) Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC)
(ii) Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS)
(iii) Nigeria Custom Service (NCS)
(iv) Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR)
(v) Revenue Mobilization, Allocation and Fiscal Commission
(vi) Federal Ministry of Finance
(vii) Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN)
(viii) National Planning Commission
(ix) Office of States and Local Government Affairs
(x) Office of the Vice President
(xi) Directorate of Military Pension
(xii) Office of Head of Service of the Federation
(xiii) Department of Civil Pension
54
Functions of Technical Session

(a) To consider the accounting returns of revenue Collecting Agencies
(b) To deliberate and consider the revenue available for distribution
(c) To make recommendation to the Plenary session for the adoption of the
revenue to be shared to the three tiers of the government
(d) To consider any other issues sent from the Plenary Session.
Membership of Federation Accounts Allocation Committee (FAAC)

Plenary Session
(a) The Honourable Minister of Finance- Chairman
(b) The States’ Commissioners of Finance
(c) The Accountant-General of the Federation
(d) The States Accountant-General
(e) Representatives of the thirteen Organisations mentioned under
membership of Federation Accounts Allocation Committee (FAAC)
Technical Session
4.5.1 Functions of FAAC.

(a) To ensure that allocations made to the States from the Federation
Account are promptly and fully paid into the Treasury of each
component, on such bases and terms prescribed by law.
(b) To submit annual report of its performance/activities to the
National Assembly.
4.6 STATE JOINT LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACCOUNT ALLOCATION COMMITTEE

- SJLGAAC.
This Committee was set up to ensure equitable distribution of the statutory
allocations to local governments from the Federation Account and 10% of the
internally generated revenue of the appropriate State Governments are shared
to the beneficiaries, in accordance with the 1999 Constitution, using stipulated
criteria which include Equality, Population, Primary School Enrolment and
Internally Generated Revenue.
4.6.1 Composition
(a) The Permanent Secretary for Local Government Affairs;
(b) All the Chairmen of the Local Governments in the States;
(c) A representative of the Accountant - General of the State, and
(d) The Federal Pay Officer in the State.
4.6.2 Sources of Revenue Payable to the Federation Account-Heads

1TO 3.
These are:
(a) Head 1- Direct Taxes: These are payable by the individuals
and firms such as company income tax, petroleum profit tax,
capital gain tax, back duty assessment, and personal income tax
of foreigners residing in Nigeria.
55
(b) Head 2 - Indirect Taxes: These are taxes on goods and services
in the form of custom and excise duties, forfeiture penalties, VAT,
etc.
(c) Head 3 - Mining: These are oil pipeline licence fees, rents of
mining rights, mining fees, royalties on minerals, NNPC earnings
from direct sales, penalties for gas flared, and rent of oil well.
4.7 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT ACCOUNT OR CONSOLIDATED REVENUE FUND

The Consolidated Revenue Fund (CRF) was established by Section 80 of the
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999. Except those revenue
items which are specifically designated to other funds, all others shall be paid
into the Consolidated Revenue Fund. The various sources of income credited to
the CRF as well as charges thereto are shown in the diagram below.
4.7.1 Federation Account and Consolidated Revenue Fund in

Diagrams
Head 1: Direct Taxes  FEDERATION
Head 2: Indirect Taxes  ACCOUNT
Head 3: Mining  REVENUE HEADS
Head 6: Share from Federation


Account
Head 7: Direct Taxes (PAYE) 
Head 8: Licences and Internal Pensions and

 
Revenue Gratuities
Head 9: Mining (Solid Minerals) 
Head 10: Fees 
Head 11: Earnings and Sales  CONSOLIDATED Salaries and
Head 12: Rent of Government  REVENUE FUND  Allowances of
Head 13: Interests and Repayments Statutory Officers


- General
Head 14: Interests and Repayments

- State 
Head 15: Armed Forces  All Heads of Recurrent


Head 16: Reimbursements Expenditures
Head 17: Miscellaneous 
56
4.7.2 Analysis of the Various Sources of Revenue Payable to CRF

Analyses of various sources of income are given below:
(a) Head 6-Direct allocation from the Federation Account at the
prevailing rate.
(b) Head 7-Direct Taxes: These include PAYE of the Armed Forces
and Police Personnel, Foreign Service Officers and Residents of
the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
(c) Head 8-Licence & Internal Revenue: These are realized from
the issues of licences, e.g. arms and ammunition licence fees,
goldsmith licence fees, radio & T.V Licence fees, gold dealer’s
licence fees.
(d) Head 9-Mining: These include mining fees, rent of mineral

lands, royalties on gold, tin, iron ore, and coal mines.
(e) Head 10-Fees: They are fees received on services rendered by

Government officials, e.g., court fees, court fines and medical
fees.
(f) Head 11-Earnings and Sales: Earnings and sales are derived
from the use and subsequent disposal of Government property,
e.g. sales of stores, publications and stamps, commission on
money order and poundage on postal orders.
(g) Head 12-Rent of Government Property: The incomes include

rent on Government quarters, land and buildings.
(h) Head 13-Interest & Repayments (General): These are

interest and repayment of loans granted to individuals by the
Government, Corporations, and Government companies. An
example is the repayment of motor vehicle loans.
(i) Head 14-Interest & Repayments (State): They are interest

and repayment of loans granted to the State Governments.
(j) Head 15-Armed Forces: The sales of Armed Forces’ property

such as old vehicles and stores constitute revenue.
(k) Head 16-Reimbursements: These are refunds for services

rendered to the State and Local Government Councils, Public
Corporations and other Statutory Bodies by the Federal
Government officers. Examples are reimbursements of audit fees
and refunds of overpayments made to Government workers.
57
(l) Head 17-Miscellaneous: These are other sources of revenue,

apart from those stated above. Examples are overpayments
refunded, lapsed deposits.
All the revenues discussed above are paid into the Consolidated Revenue
Fund.
4.7.3 Charges to the Consolidated Revenue Fund

These are expenditure items chargeable to the Consolidated Revenue
Fund. The charges to the Consolidated Revenue Fund are grouped as
follows:
(a) All Recurrent Expenditure Heads in the approved
estimates, e.g. personnel cost, overhead cost and servicing of
national debts.
(b) Salaries and Consolidated Allowances of Statutory

Officers: These are expenditures chargeable directly to the
Consolidated Revenue Fund, irrespective of budget approval.
Statutory Officers include:
Chairman / Director-General / Commissioners of the following
bodies:
(i) Police Service Commission.
(ii) Public Complaints Commission
(iii) Public Service Commission
(iv) Nigerian Law Reform Commission
(v) Independent National Electoral Commission.
(vi) Auditor - General for the Federation.
(vii) President and Justices of the Federal Court of Appeal
(viii) Chief Judge and Judges of the Federal High Court
(ix) Chief Justice and Justices of the Supreme Court.
(c) Pension and Gratuity. These are the entitlements of both statutory
and non-statutory officers, including members of the Armed
Forces.
4.8 VALUE-ADDED TAX (VAT)

VAT is a tax imposed on value which the supplier or seller of good/services add
to the goods/services before selling it. The introduction of VAT was necessitated
by the need to boost the revenue of the government from non-oil sources
following the fluctuations in oil revenue due to the glut in the international
market. VAT was introduced in 1994 fiscal year with the promulgation of VAT
Decree No. 102 of 1993 at the rate of 5% and is being administered by Federal
Inland Revenue Service (FIRS).
58
4.9 DEVELOPMENT FUND

The existence of the Development Fund was solidified by the 1999 Constitution
of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, although created earlier by Section 25 of
the Finance (Control & Management) Act of 1958. The Fund was established
for the purpose of capital development projects. The sources of money accruing
to the Development Fund could be divided into four, viz:
(a) Contribution from the Consolidated Revenue Fund: These are

yearly transfers of money from the Consolidated Revenue Fund, in the
Federal Government’s wisdom, notwithstanding that the Constitution
does not expressly state this.
(b) External Grants: These are usually received from foreign countries
and non- financial institutions.
(c) External Loans: These may come from such foreign bodies as the
International Monetary Fund (IMF).
(d) Internal Loans: These are loans raised and retired within the country.
They may be long-term loans, raised through development stocks, or
short-term loans through Treasury Certificates, (which have a life span
of two years,) and Treasury Bills which mature in 91 days.
4.9.1 Charges from the Development Fund

The charges from the development fund may also be categorized into four
main classes, thus:
(a) Summary of Capital Expenditure Payments: This is expenditure incurred

for the provision and maintenance of infrastructural amenities such as
the construction of bridges and dams.
(b) General Administration: These are expenditure items made for the
provision and maintenance of Army Barracks/Police Stations, Staff
Houses, Motor Vehicles and Hospitals.
(c) External Financial Obligations: They are disbursements made for

expenditure incurred to provide financial assistance to countries which
are in need. The relief may be in form of donations, grants and aids, to
neighbouring countries.
(d) Loans made to State Governments in Nigeria: There are different types
of loans which the Federal Government grants to the States, for
developmental purposes.
59
The sources of finance into and the disbursements from the Development
Fund can be diagrammatically represented, as follows:
Contribution External External Internal Loans

from Grant Loans
Consolidated
Revenue Fund
 
 
DEVELOPMENT FUND
 


Summary of General External Loans made to
capital Administration Finance State Governments
Expenditures Expenditure Obligations
4.10 CONTINGENC Y FUND

The Contingency Fund has its legality under Section 81 of 1979, and 1989
Constitutions and Section 83 of the 1999 Constitution. The Fund is set up to
meet unforeseen expenditure urgent situations occasioned by natural disasters.
The Contingency Fund derives its income from the Consolidated Revenue Fund.
4.10.1 CHARGES ON THE CONTINGENCY FUND

A charge will arise on contingent grounds in exceptional cases where virement
is not possible, and where an application for additional provision reveals that
the issue of funding cannot be delayed without causing serious injury to public
interest. The need cannot wait till a Supplementary Appropriation Act is passed.
ILLUSTRATION 4-1
(a) Distinguish between Federation Account and Consolidated Revenue Fund

(CRF).
(b) Prepare Federation Account and Consolidated Revenue Fund from the
following information:
INFLOWS N’000
Import duties 400,000
Export duties 300,000
Excise duties 200,000
Petroleum profits tax 80,000,000
Companies income tax 71,000,000
PAYE: deductions from the emolument of the Armed Forces 400,000
Police personnel 30,000
60
Residents of Abuja 20,000

Dividend from Federal Government Investments 120,000
Outflows:
Remuneration of Statutory Officers 13,800,000
Recurrent expenditure 1,500,000
Transfer to: Development Fund 2,500,000
Contingency Fund 20,000
Note: The revenue allocation formula is:

Federal Government 52.68%
State Government 26.72%
Local Government 20.60%
(a) FEDERATION ACCOUNT FOR THE MONTH ENDED 31/1/200X

N’000
Import Duties 400,000
Export Duties 300,000
Excise Duties 200,000
Petroleum Profits Tax 80,000,000
Companies Income Tax 71,000,000
TOTAL INCOME 151,900,000
DISTRIBUTION: N’000
Fed. Govt: 52.68% of 151,900,000 80,020,920
State Govt: 26.72% of 151,900,000 40,587,680
Local Govt: 20.60% of 151,900,000 31,291,400
151,900,000
(b) CONSOLIDATED REVENUE FUND

FOR THE MONTH ENDED 31/12/200X
INFLOWS:
PAYE tax deductions from the emoluments of the following:
N’000 N’000
(i) Armed Forces Personnel 400,000
(ii) Police Personnel 30,000
(iii) Residents of Abuja 20,000 450,000

Dividends from Federal
Government Investments 120,000
Share from Federation Account 80,020,920
TOTAL INCOME 80,590,920
61
Less: OUTFLOWS:
Remuneration of Statutory Officers 13,800,000
Recurrent expenditure 1,500,000
Transfers: Development Fund 2,500,000
Contingency Fund 20,000 (17,820,000)
Bal. c/f 62,770,920
4.11 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter has discussed the general sources of revenue of various
governments and the nature and classification of the specific sources of
Government Revenue in Nigeria. Emphasis was on inflows and outflows of
income to the Federation Account, the Consolidated Revenue Fund, the
Development Fund and the Contingency Fund. The major revenue collection
agencies of the Government of Nigeria were also highlighted.

4.12.1 Questions
1. (a) What is government revenue?
(b) What are the general sources of revenue of various governments?
2. (a) How will you describe the Federation Account,?

(b) What are the sources of revenue into this account and how has it
been administered over the years?
3. How many revenue heads are payable into the Consolidated Fund
Account, and which line of expenditures is it used to finance?
4. (a) What is the purpose of the Development Fund Account

(b) What are the sources of money accruing into it and the main
charges against the Fund?

1. (a) Government revenue refers to the income generated by the
government through various incomes inside and outside the
particular government.
(b) The general sources of revenue of various governments include:
(i) Taxation: is a compulsory levy imposed by the

government where no direct benefit is received by citizens
from the government. The levy is usually payable at
different rates depending on the nature of economic
activity conducted by an individual or firm.
( ii ) Fees: these are payments made users of public services

on a cost sharing basis.
62
( iii) Fines: refer to the penalties imposed by government

against law breaches, i.e. any person or firm from which
has been proved guilty by law must be exposed to specific
fines as compensation for the destruction made by the
person or firm and the collected amount being revenue
for the government.
(iv) Grant: refer to non-payable money received by the

government from another government with the aim of
helping such government either to improve or to start a
project which is of great importance to the society of such
government.
(v ) Foreign Investment: sometimes government may decide

to invest beyond its boundary provided there is a proof for
sustainable and profitability cash flow. The obtained
amounts after operation constitute revenue for the
particular government.
(vi) Public Debt or borrowing: becomes an important source

of income to the government when revenue collected from
taxes and other sources is not adequate to cover
government expenditure. Such borrowings become more
necessary in times of financial crises and emergency like
war, droughts, etc. Public debt may be raised internally
or externally. Internal debt refers to public debt floated
within the country, while external debt refers to loans
floated outside the country.
(vii) Sales of National Assets: selling national assets

through privatisation programmes has a constituted a
significant source of government revenue across the globe.
Revenue from this source is usually used to improve
finances or invest in new infrastructure and other key
priorities.
2. (a) The Federation Account is the account into which is paid all
revenues collected by the Government of the Federation, less the
proceeds from the PAYE of the personnel of the Armed Forces of
the Federation, the Nigeria Police Force, Foreign Service Officers
and Residents of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. It is also
the distributable pool account from which allocations are made
to the Federal, State and Local Government Councils on such terms
and in a manner prescribed by the law.
63
(b) The sources of revenue into this account are:
(i) Direct Taxes
(ii) Indirect Taxes; and
(iii) Mining Rents (oil)
(c) The administration of the federation account has been on a

continuous shifting basis. Between 1948 and today, nine
commissions, six military decrees, one act of the legislature, two
Supreme Court judgments, and three executive orders have been
resorted to in defining and modifying the sharing of the federation
account. Table 1 below presents an historical overtime of the
administration of the federation account from 1981 till date. From
the Table, it is observed that the share of the Federal Government
which stood at 55.0% in 1981 declined to 48.5 % by June 1992
and up till April 2002. It then increased to 56.0% through executive
order by May of the same year. It declined again to about 54.7%
by another executive order by July 2002. This was further revised
downwards to 52.7% by March 2004 via yet another executive
order. Similar fluctuations have attended the share of the states
and local governments. Another major highlight of the table is
the discontinuation of revenue allocation to special fund,
derivation and others from year 2002.
64
REVENUE ALLOCATION FORMULA
ITEMS Initial Revised 1990 Jan. June May July March

1981 1981 uary 1992 (1st Ex- 2nd Ex- (Mod-
Act 1/ Act 1992 to ecutive ecutive ified
April Order)* Order)* from
2002 FMF)
2/*
Federal Government 55.0 55.0 50.0 50.0 48.5 56.0 54.68 52.68
State Government 26.5 30.5 30.0 25.0 24.0 24.0 24.72 26.72
Local Government 10.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.60 20.60
Special Funds 8.5 4.5 5.0 5.0 7.5
-(a) Derivation
(Oil-Producing States)* 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 0 0
-(b) Dev. Of Mineral
Producing Areas 3.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 3.0 0 0 0
-(c) Initial development
of FCT Abuja 2.5 0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 0 0
-(d) General Ecological
problems 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 0 0 0
-(e) Stabilisation 0 0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0 0 0
-(f) Savings 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-(g) other Special
Projects 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

* From the 1999 Constitution, the 13% Derivation provision is accounted
for before the revenue is allocated into the federation account.
2. the current revenue formula is based on the modified grant from the
Federal Ministry of Finance, which came to effect in March, 2004.
(3) (a) The Consolidated Revenue Fund (CRF) was established by Section
80 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999.
All revenues not specifically designated to other funds go into
the Consolidated Revenue Fund.
(b) The revenue head payable into the Consolidated Fund Account
include the following:
Head 6: Direct Allocation i.e. share of the Federation
Account
Head 7: Direct Taxes (PAYE).
Head 8: Licences and Land Revenue.
Head 9: Minning (Solid Minerals).
Head 10: Fees.
Head 11: Earnings and Sales.
Head 12: Rent of Government Property.
Head 13: Interests and Repayments (General).
65
Head 14: Interests and Repayments (State Government).

Head 15: Reimbursements.
Head 16: Armed Forces.
Head 17: Miscellaneous.
And the lines of expenditure that it is used to finance are:

 Pension and Gratuities
 Salaries and allowances of statutory officers; and
 All Heads of Recurrent expenditure
Note: all these revenue heads and lines of expenditure must be briefly
explained. In addition, an illustration of the inflows and outflows
using diagram would be an advantage
(4) (a) The Fund was established for the purpose of facilitating the
execution of capital development projects.
(b) The sources of money accruing to the Development Fund are:

(i) Contribution from the Consolidated Revenue Fund: These
are yearly transfers of money from the Consolidated
Revenue Fund, in the Federal Government’s wisdom,
notwithstanding that the Constitution does not expressly
state this.
(ii) External Grants: These are usually received from foreign

countries and Non -financial institutions.
(iii) External Loans: These may come from such foreign bodies
as the International Monetary fund (IMF).
(iv) Internal Loans: These are loans raised and retired within
the country. They may be long-term loans, raised through
development stocks, or short-term loans through Treasury
Certificates, (which have a life span of two years,) and
Treasury Bills which mature in 91 days.
While the charges from the development fund include:

 Capital Expenditure Payments: This is expenditure
incurred for the provision and maintenance of
infrastructural amenities such as the construction
of bridges and dams.
 General Administration: These are expenditure

items made for the provision and maintenance of
Army Barracks/Police Stations, Staff Houses, Motor
Vehicles and Hospitals.
66
 External Financial Obligations: They are

disbursements made for expenditure incurred to
provide financial assistance to countries which are
in need. The relief may be in form of donations,
grants and aids, to neighbouring countries.
 Loans made to State Governments in Nigeria: There

are different types of loans which the Federal
Government grants to the States, for developmental
purposes.
Note: A diagrammatic illustration of the inflows and outflows

into and from this account would be an advantage.
67
68
CHAPTER
Skills level
5
Authorization of Government
Expenditure, Control of Government
Revenue and Fund Accounting
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Authorization of Government Expenditure
3. Revenue Control
4. Funding Principles
5. Chapter Review
6. Worked Examples
69
AUTHORIZATION OF GOVERNMENT
EXPENDITURE, CONTROL OF
GOVERNMENT REVENUE AND FUND
ACCOUNTING
5.0 PURPOSE
(a) identify and discuss the various financial authorities responsible for
the efficient implementation of the budget.
(b) explain the importance of revenue control techniques and those of Fund
Accounting in the Public Sector.
5.1 AUTHORIZATION OF GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE

Every expenditure of Government must be properly authorised and approved.
The authority which confers power on the Officer controlling expenditure or a
vote, to incur expenditure, is called “Warrants.” All Warrants should be issued
and signed by the Minister of Finance.
Warrants can be divided into two groups, viz:
(a) Recurrent Expenditure Warrants
(b) Capital Expenditure Warrants.
5.1.1 Recurrent Expenditure Warrants

Recurrent Expenditure Warrants are authorisations issued by the
Minister of Finance to disburse from the Consolidated Revenue Fund.
The Recurrent Expenditure Warrants under discussion are:
(a) Provisional General Warrant (PGW)
(b) Annual General Warrant of Recurrent Expenditure (AGW/RE)
(c) Supplementary General Warrant of Recurrent Expenditure (SGW/RE)
(d) Reserve Expenditure Warrant (REW)
(e) Supplementary (Contingencies) Warrant (SCW)
(f) Supplementary (Statutory Expenditure) Warrant (SSEW)
(g) Virement Warrant (VW)
(a) Annual General Warrant (A.G.W.) of Recurrent Expenditure:

This authorizes the Accountant-General of the Federation to release funds
for the payment of personal emolument and other services provided for
in the approved estimate/budget. It also authorizes the officers
70
AUTHORIZATION OF GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE, CONTROL OF GOVERNMENT REVENUE AND FUND ACCOUNTING
controlling expenditure votes to incur expenditure for these purposes.

However, the Minister of Finance may exclude from the Annual General
Warrant any item of expenditure on which he desires to exercise special
control. The original copy of the Warrant is addressed to the Accountant-
General, while the duplicate is forwarded to the Auditor- General.
(b) Provisional General Warrant (P.G.W.): This is issued at the beginning

of the financial year before the Appropriation Act comes into operation.
It provides for the continuation of services of Government on a scale not
exceeding the level of these services in the previous financial year. The
Warrant will be in operation for a maximum period of six months or
until the Appropriation Act comes into effect, whichever is shorter.
The amount expendable under the Provisional General Warrant must

not be more than the sum expended during the same period in the
previous year. Such money spent shall not exceed the amount specified
in the approved budget and any such money utilised shall be set-off
against the amounts provided in the Appropriation Act when it comes
into operation. Original copy of the Provisional General Warrant is
addressed to the Accountant-General of the Federation and duplicate
copy forwarded to the Auditor-General for the Federation.
(c) Supplementary General Warrant (S.G.W.): The Warrant is issued

for additional personal emolument and other services provided for in
the approved supplementary estimates. Moreover, the Minister of
Finance may exclude from the Supplementary General Warrant any item
of expenditure on which he desires to exercise special control. The
original copy of a Supplementary General Warrant is addressed to the
Accountant-General and signed copy goes to the Auditor-General for
the Federation.
(d) Reserve Expenditure Warrant (R.E.W.): This authorizes the release

of funds included in the approved annual or supplementary estimates
but excluded from the A.G.W. or S.G.W. It is the release of fund which the
Minister of Finance had initially withheld in order to exercise special
control.
(e) Supplementary (Contingencies) Warrant: This is issued in

exceptional cases where:
(i) Virement is not possible
(ii) Application for additional provision reveals such high degree of
urgency that the issue of funds cannot be postponed until a
Supplementary Appropriation Act is passed. Contingencies Fund
Warrants must first be issued by the Minister of Finance,
authorising the Accountant-General to transfer necessary funds
from the Contingencies Fund to the Consolidated Revenue Fund.
71
Thereafter, a Supplementary (Contingencies) Warrant must be

issued, authorizing expenditure from the Head and Sub-Heads
concerned.
(f) Virement Warrant (V.W.)

This is issued when, as a result of unforeseen circumstances during the
time the annual estimates were being approved, an additional provision
is required under a particular Sub-Head and an equivalent amount can
be saved under another Sub-Head of the same Head. However, Virement
Warrants should not be used to create a new Sub-Head or for items
disallowed by the Budget or Estimate Committee.
To be successful, applications for virements should:
(i) be in writing;
(ii) state that a particular sub-head is in deficit;
(iii) state that another sub-head is in surplus;
(iv) indicate that both sub-heads are within the same economic Head;
(v) state that after the transfers, the other sub-heads will not be in
deficit;
(vi) state that Virement Warrants are not sought to create new sub-
heads.
(g) Supplementary (Statutory) Expenditure Warrants

Supplementary (Statutory) Expenditure Warrants authorize additional
expenditure over and above that included in the Annual General Warrant
and Supplementary General Warrant, from votes chargeable to
Consolidated Revenue Fund by legislation, other than Appropriation Acts.
The original copy of a Supplementary (Statutory) Expenditure Warrant
is addressed to the Accountant-General and a signed copy transmitted
to the Auditor-General. It is customary for the Ministry of Finance to
notify the officers who are in control of the relevant votes of the
supplementary expenditure made available.
5.1.2 Capital Expenditure Warrants

These are issued as authorisations for disbursement from the
Development Fund (DF). Such expenditure may not be incurred except
on the authority of any of the following Warrants issued by the Minister
of Finance, viz:
(i) Provisional Development Fund General Warrant (PDFGW);
(ii) Development Fund Annual General Warrant (DFAGW);
(iii) Development Fund Supplementary General Warrant (DFSGW);
(iv) Development Fund Reserved General Warrant (DFRGW);
(v) Development Fund Supplementary Warrant (DFSW);
(vi) Development Fund Special Warrant (DFSW);
(vii) Development Fund Virement Warrant (DFVW);
72
(a) Development Fund Annual General Warrant (DFAGW)

This authorizes the Accountant-General of the Federation to issue
funds for expenditure on capital projects, as contained in the
approved Capital Estimate, and mandates the Officers controlling
expenditure votes to disburse on the capital projects envisaged.
The authority to incur expenditure will be conveyed after the
National Assembly has approved the Capital Expenditure Budget.
(b) Provisional Development Fund General Warrant: This is

issued before the approval of the Capital Estimates by then
National Assembly at the beginning of the financial year. It
authorises the payment from the Development Fund of such
amount that is necessary for carrying on the projects for which
expenditure have been authorised in the previous financial year,
for a period of six months or until the authority of the National
Assembly has been obtained, whichever is shorter.
(c) Development Fund Supplementary General Warrant
(DFSGW): The DFSGW authorises the AGF to issue funds, and
the officers controlling votes concerned to incur expenditure, on
projects as sanctioned by the National Assembly in resolutions
approving supplementary capital estimates. The Honourable
Minister of Finance may exclude from DFSGW any item of
expenditure included in Supplementary Capital Estimates over
which it is desired to exercise special control.
(d) Development Fund Reserved Expenditure Warrant : A
DFREW authorises the release of funds in the approved Annual
or Supplementary Capital Estimates, but excluded from the
DFAGW & DFSGW, i.e. it is the release of funds which the HMF
initially withheld in order to exercise special control.
(e) Development Fund Supplementary Warrant: A DFSW
authorises additional expenditure over and above that which is
included in the DFAGW or DFSGW for purposes of revote capital
expenditure which was provided for in the previous financial year
but not fully expended in that year, accelerate the provisions of
funds already formally allocated but not voted for a project and
also accelerate the completion of a specific capital project.
(f) Development Fund Special Warrant: A DFSW is issued in
exceptional cases where:
(i) Virement is not possible
(ii) Provision for the release of additional funds reveals such
high degree of urgency that the release of funds cannot be
postponed until a Supplementary Capital Estimate is
approved. If the issue of fund is postponed, it will cause
serious injury to the public interest. The amount to be
73
expended under this Warrants must not exceed the balance

of the Development Fund remaining after all other
expenditures provided for in the Capital Estimate have
been incurred.
(g) Development Fund Virement Warrant:

The Warrant permits the issue of additional funds necessary for
the completion of a capital project, for which money already
allocated in the Estimate is not enough to complete the project.
There must however be sufficient offsetting savings in the amounts
appropriated for other projects in the same Economic
Programmed Section. The limitations imposed for the issuance
of the Development Fund Virement Warrant include:
(i) Re-allocation can be made only within the same Head of
expenditure in the Capital Estimates.
(ii) The re-allocation must not give rise to a new principle or
policy.
(iii) It cannot be used to provide funds for new projects.
Note that all Warrants are issued in two copies. The original
copies are forwarded to the Accountant-General of the
Federation and the duplicate copies to the Auditor-General
for the Federation. A notification to the effect that a Warrant
has been issued shall also be published in the Federal
Office Gazette.
5.3 REVENUE CONTROL

The term “Revenue Control” describes the various checks put in place to ensure
that all moneys due are received and accounted for. The revenue control system
in the public sector is designed to have the following elements:
(a) Periodic monitoring.
(b) Policing the Revenue Administration System to ensure that services are
not rendered without charges being levied.
(c) Timely issuance of demand notices and follow-up action to track down
debts.
(d) Timely issuance of all revenue documents.
(e) Prompt lodgment into the bank of all moneys received.
(f) Establishment of authority limits for revenue handling.
(g) Establishment of functional system of internal controls and constant
review of procedures.
5.4 FUNDING PRINCIPLES

Fund Accounting is one of the fundamental principles underlying Government
Accounting. For stewardship purposes, the income of Government is categorized
into series of funds. Each Fund caters for a specific welfare activity of
Government. The word ‘Fund’ has been defined as “a separate fiscal and
74
accounting entity in which resources are held, governed by special regulations,

separated from other funds and established for specific purposes.”
5.4.1 Classification of Funds

Funds can be classified into three categories, namely:
(a) Government Funds: They are used to accrue for resources which
are derived from the general tax and revenue powers of
Government. Examples are debt service fund, special fund and
revolving fund.
(b) Proprietary Funds: These are funds used to account for the
resources derived from the business activities of Government
and its Agencies such as the Parastatals.
(c) Fiduciary Funds: These are used to account for resources held
and managed by Government in the capacity of a custodian or
trustee. Such funds are Petroleum Technology Development Fund,
Trust and Agency Fund and Pension Trust Fund.
5.4.2 Types of Funds

(a) General Fund: It is a fund established for resources which are
devoted to financing the general administration or services of
Government. It is also called Consolidated Revenue Fund. Section
5 of the Finance (Control and Management) Act of 1958) Cap
144, 1990 stipulates that the management of the Fund shall be
in accordance with the requirements of the Constitution of Nigeria.
(b) Capital Project Fund: This is a Fund created to accommodate
resources meant for the acquisition of capital assets or facilities.
It is also known as Development Fund. It came into existence by
virtue of Section 18 of Finance (Control and Management) Act of
1958.
(c) Special Fund: It is a Fund created for specific purposes, e.g.
South African Relief Fund, African Staff Housing Scheme Fund
(A.S.H.S.).
(d) Trust Fund: It is a Fund whose resources are held by Government
as a trustee. It is used for the purpose stated in the Trust Deed,
e.g. Petroleum Technology Development Fund and Research
Foundation Fund.
(e) Contingency Fund: It is a Fund whose resources are meant for
expenditure or anticipated expenditure of uncertain amounts. An
example is the expenditure on natural disaster. Section 15 of the
Finance (Control and Management) Act 1958 brought the Fund
into existence.
(f) Inter-Governmental Service Fund: This is established to
provide service to other Funds, e.g. Government Clearance Fund
which helps to maintain (transitionally) the balance between
the Federal Government and other State Governments in respect
of transactions.
75
(g) Revolving Fund: Revolving Fund is also known as Working

Capital Fund. It is created to finance services provided by a
designated unit to other Departments within a single
Governmental set-up. An example of a Revolving Fund is
Revolving Loan Fund.
(h) Self-liquidating Fund: This is a Fund into which resources are

transferred periodically and out of which any money or amount
left has to be transferred to a current fund, e.g. Deposit Fund.
Deposits are moneys held on behalf of third parties.
5.5 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter discussed the various Financial Authorities, divided into Recurrent
and Capital Expenditure Warrants. It also dealt with revenue control techniques
and Fund Accounting.
5.6 WORKED EXAMPLES
5.6.1 Questions
(1) Briefly define the word “Fund” and list eight different types of Funds
you know. Where the Appropriation Act has not come into operation at
the beginning of any year, what statutory provision is made for carrying
on the services of Government?
(2) (a) What is warrant?

(b) (i) Define Recurrent Expenditure Warrants
(ii) List 8 types of Recurrent Expenditure Warrant
(c) (i) Define Capital Expenditure Warrant
(ii) List 7 types of Capital Expenditure Warrant
(3) The following trust funds to be managed by Wazobia Trustees were

created on January 3, 2013 with the amounts stated below:-
N’000
Kolaq Foundation Fund 5,000
Ajai Scholarship Fund 10,000
Laji Children Fund 15,000
On the same day, investments were made on these funds as follows :

Kolaq Foundation Fund- 400,000 Unique shares of N1.00 each were
purchased at N4.00 each.
Ajai Scholarship Fund – 1.000,000 Bangam Shares were purchased at
N3.00 each.
Laji Children Fund – 1,685,000 shares of Stoker were purchased at
N5.00 each.
76
Other transactions during the year are as follows:-

Expenses on Kolaq Foundation Fund – N750,000
Scholarship awards under Ajai Fund cost N900,000.
450,000 shares in Stoker were sold for N2,500,000
Required to:
(i) Write all the Trust Fund Accounts relating to this transaction in the book
of Wazobia Trustee showing the Funds accounts and Investment accounts
separately.
(ii) Prepare Consolidated Balance Sheet for the funds.

1. (a) The word ‘Fund’ could be defined as a separate, fiscal and accounting
entity governed by special regulations separated from other funds and
established for a specific purpose.
Types of Funds
There are 8 different types of funds, namely:
(a) Consolidated Revenue Fund
(b) Development Fund
(c) Contingencies Fund
(d) Special Fund
(e) Trust Fund
(f) Inter-governmental Service Fund
(g) Revolving Fund
(h) Self liquidating Fund
(b) Where the Appropriation Act has not come into operation at the beginning
of the year, the statutory provision made for carrying on the services of
the government is known as “Provisional General Warrant (PGW).’’
The Provisional General Warrant is an authority, empowering the
Accountant-General and the Officer Controlling expenditure to release
funds for the payment of personal emolument and other services pending
the approval of the Budget. However, the Provisional General Warrant
will be in operation for a maximum period of four (4) months or until
the Budget had been approved, which ever is earlier. Also, the amount
expendable under the Warrant must not be more than the same amount
spent during the same period in the previous year. The only exception
to this rule is payment made as salaries and allowances.
2 (a) Warrant is the authority issued by the Minister of Finance and directed to
the Accountant-General or to the Officer controlling expenditure to incur
expenditure on items that have approved in the budget estimate.
77
(b) i Recurrent Expenditure Warrants are authorisations issued by the

Minister of Finance to disburse from the Consolidated Revenue Fund to
meet items of recurrent expenditure that have been approved in the
estimate.
ii Types of Recurrent Expenditure Warrant
 Provisional General Warrant (PGW)
 Annual General Warrant of Recurrent Expenditure (AGW/RE)
 Supplementary General Warrant of Recurrent Expenditure (SGW/RE)
 Reserve Expenditure Warrant (REW)
 Supplementary (Contingencies) Warrant (SCW)
 Supplementary (Statutory Expenditure) Warrant (SSEW)
 Virement Warrant (VW)
(c) i Capital Expenditure Warrants: These are issued as authorisations for

disbursement from the Development Fund (DF). Such expenditure may
not be incurred except on the authority of any of the following Warrants
issued by the Minister of Finance,
ii Types of Capital Expenditure Warrant
 Provisional Development Fund General Warrant (PDFGW);
 Development Fund Annual General Warrant (DFAGW);
 (Development Fund Supplementary General Warrant (DFSGW);
 Development Fund Reserved General Warrant (DFRGW);
 Development Fund Supplementary Warrant (DFSW);
 Development Fund Special Warrant (DFSW);
 Development Fund Virement Warrant (DFVW);
3. WAZOBIA TRUSTEE
TRUST FUND ACCOUNTS
N’000 N’000
(i) Bank Account
3/1/2013 Kolaq Foundation Fund 5,000
3/1/2013 Ajai Scholarship Fund 10,000
3/1/2013 Lagi Children Fund 15,000
3/1/2013 Kodaq Foundation Fund
Investments
3/1/2013 Ajai Scholarship Fund investment 1,600
3/1/2013 Laji Children Fund Investment 3,000
Proceed from Disposals of 8,425
Laji Investment 2,500
Kolaq Foundation Fund 750
Ajai Scholarship Fund 900
Balance c/d ______ 17,825
32,500 32,500
Balance b/d 17,825
78
(ii) Kolaq Foundation Fund

N’000 N’000
3/1/2013 Bank 5,000
Bank 750
Balance c/d 4,250 _____
5,000 5,000
Balance b/d 4,250
(iii) Ajai Scholarship Fund

N’000 N’000
3/1/2013 Bank 10,000
Bank 900
Balance c/d 9,100 ______
10,000 10,000
Balance b/d 9,100
(iv) Laji Children Fund

N’000 N’000
3/1/2013 Bank 15,000
Profit on disposal of
Investment 250
Balance c/d 15,250
15,250 15250
Balance b/d 15,250
(v) Kolaq Foundation Fund Investment N’000 N’000

3/1/2013 Bank 1,600
Balance c/d 1,600
1,600 1,600
Balance b/d 1,600
(vi) Ajai Scholarship Fund Investment N’000 N’000

3/1/2013 Bank 3,000
Balance c/d _____ 3,000
3,000 3,000
Balance b/d 3,000
(vii) Laji Children Fund Investment N’000 N’000

3/1/2013 8,425
Disposal of Laji Children
Fund Investment 2,250
Balance c/d 6,175

8,425 8,425
Balance b/d 6,175
79
(viii) Laji Children Fund Investment

Disposal N’000 N’000
Laji Children Fund Investment 2,250
Bank Proceed from disposal 2,500
Laji Children Fund
(Profit or Disposal) 250
2,500 2,500
(b) WAZOBIA TRUSTEES

CONSOLIDATED BALANCE SHEET ASSETS
N’000
Kolaq Foundation Fund Investment 1,600
Ajai Scholarship Fund Investment 3,000
Laji Children Fund Investment 6,175
Bank Balance 17,825
28,600
FINANCED BY:
N’000
Kolaq Foundation Fund 4,250
Ajai Scholarship Fund 9,100
Laji Children Fund 15,250
28,600
80
CHAPTER
Skills level
6
Expenditure Control
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Need For Control
3. Public Accounts Committee
4. Chapter Review
5. Worked Examples
81
EXPENDITURE CONTROL
6.0 PURPOSE
(a) rationalize the need for expenditure control;
(b) identify the various types of controls exercised over Government
expenditure; and
(c) describe the expenditure control processes of the government.
6.1 NEED FOR CONTROL

Expenditure control could be defined as the strings of coordinated actions which
have to be taken to ensure that all expenditures are ‘wholly’, ‘necessarily’,
‘reasonably’ and ‘exclusively’ incurred for the purposes for which they are
meant. The following are the basic controls exercised over Government
expenditure:
(a) The Executive Control.
(b) The Legislative Control.
(c) The Ministry of Finance Control.
(d) The Treasury Control (Office of the Accountant - General of the Federation)
(e) The Departmental Control.
(f) Office of the Auditor - General for the Federation.
6.1.1 The Executive Control

The Executive comprises the President and his cabinet members who
have the responsibility for the efficient and effective control of the
administration of the country - politically and economically. The
Constitution created two other arms of government, called the Legislative
and the Judiciary for purposes of checks and balances. All measures
and policies taken by the President are subject to the approval of the
Legislature within the ambit of the Constitution.
Consequently, in accordance with Section 81(1) of the Constitution, “The

President shall cause to be prepared and laid before each House of the
National Assembly at anytime in each financial year, estimates of
revenue and expenditure of the Federation for the following financial
year.”
The President, in order to satisfy the provisions of the Constitution also

appoints a Cabinet Committee on Estimates, to advise him on the
contemplated policy measures. The policy measures contemplated are
then transmitted to the Budget Department in the Presidency. This
82
EXPENDITURE CONTROL
development in turn leads to the issuance of guidelines on the

preparation of the Budget. As a result, effective supervision is exercised
on all the Agencies involved in budget operation. Any Unit of the
Government whose requirements are higher than the ‘control figures’
already issued, is invited to defend the excess request.
6.1.2 The Legislative Control

The National Assembly is the Supreme Authority on matters of the
Nation’s finance. The control exercised by the Legislature is both ‘ante-
natal’ and ‘post-natal’. The ‘ante-natal’ control is in the sense in which
the Legislature considers and approves the Estimates submitted to it by
the President. ‘Post-natal’ control is the review of transactions after
payment. No amount of public fund may be spent without the approval
of the National Assembly. However, Section 82 of the 1999 Constitution
empowers the President to spend from the Consolidated Revenue Fund
to carry on the administration of Government of the Federation for not
more than six (6) months or until the coming into operation of the
Appropriation Act, whichever is earlier.
6.1.3 Auditor-General for the Federation

The Auditor-General for the Federation scrutinizes all accounts and
records of the money collected and spent and reports to the National
Assembly appropriately on the instances of waste, extravagance,
inefficiency or fraud. It is observed that the Auditor-General’s duty is
post-payment audit, except in the matters relating to pension and
gratuity payments on which he performs pre-payment audit. This is in
addition to the regularity and compliance audit that he carries out as a
duty.
6.1.4 Ministry of Finance Control

When Ministries/Departments require money to pay for services, they
normally apply to the Minister of Finance, for such funds. The tradition
is that once a year, the Ministries and Parastatals present Estimates to
cover their needs and requirements which are expected to be prudent,
necessary and reasonable in accordance with the Financial Regulations
and Appropriation Act. The Minister passes the Consolidated Revenue
and Expenditure Estimates to the President who will present them to
the Federal Executive Council for approval before they are forwarded to
the National Assembly as Appropriation Bill.
6.1.5 Controls by Warrants

Although the Estimates and Appropriation Acts guide the disbursement
of public funds, the release of money is subject to issuance of relevant
Warrants by the Finance Minister, for the expenditure. The Warrant
authorizes the Accountant-General to release fund from the Consolidated
Revenue Fund or Development Fund. The system of Warrant gives the
83
Executive greater control over the issuance of funds than would be offered
by a system which relies solely on the provisions of the Appropriation
Acts.
6.1.6 The Treasury Control - Office of the Accountant- General of

The Federation (OAGF)
The Accountant-General has overall responsibility for the total
expenditure of Government. His office would keep necessary books of
accounts to record all the receipts and expenditure of the various
Ministries and Departments. The Treasury Department exercises some
measure of supervision and checks over the accounting records of the
Non-Self Accounting Units.
6.1.7 Inspectorate Division

Inspectorate Officers from the Office of the Accountant - General of the
Federation visit the various Ministries and Departments to evaluate the
system of internal control. They do this to ensure that the accounting
system and maintenance of various books of accounts conform to the
approved regulations and procedures.
6.1.8 Internal Audit

This is another aspect of control exercised in any organisation. The
Treasury dispatches Internal Auditors to the Ministries and Self-
Accounting Departments to appraise the effectiveness of the existing
internal checks and report upon any inadequacy discovered.
6.1.9 Departmental Control Over the Budgeted Expenditure

A Departmental Vote Expenditure Allocation Book (D.V.E.A. Book) is a
record of payments made and liabilities incurred under the Votes or
Funds approved for each Ministry or Extra-Ministerial Department. A
Vote Book is maintained for each Head or Sub-Head of expenditure. It is
an integral part of the Budgetary Control System. The Book is designed
to facilitate vote watching to ensure that expenditure incurred are not
in excess of appropriation. Over-expenditure of departmental vote
amounts to reckless use of public funds and is seriously frowned at by
Government.
It is the duty of the Officer who is controlling the Vote to thoroughly

investigate, without delay, payments or charges which appear in the
schedules drawn up by the Accountant-General, which do not appear in
the Vote Books particularly with a view to the prevention and detection
of fraudulent payments.
6.2 PUBLIC ACCOUNTS COMMIT TEE

The 1979 and 1989 Constitutions brought into existence the Public Accounts
Committee. The purpose of the Committee is to expose waste, corruption or
84
EXPENDITURE CONTROL
inefficiency in the handling of public funds or projects. It is empowered to

examine the audited accounts of the Federation and those of public offices as
well as the Auditor-General’s report thereon.
6.3 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter dealt with Expenditure Control, with emphasis on the various forms
of control over Government expenditure. These include the Executive,
Legislative, Ministry of Finance, the Treasury and Departmental Controls.
6.4 WORKED EXAMPLES

6.4.1 Questions
(1) What are the main roles of the National Assembly in planning
and monitoring of public expenditure?
(2) The following are the basic controls exercised over Government
Expenditure:
(a) The Executive Control
(b) The Legislative Control
(c) The Treasury Control
(d) Inspectorate Division Control
(e) Internal Audit
(f) Office of the Auditor-General of the Federation
Required: Explain 4 of the controls listed above.

( 1 ) The main roles of the National Assembly in Planning and
Monitoring of Government Expenditure are:
(a) Ratification of the monetary and fiscal policies adopted
by the Executive.
(b) Compilation and ultimate approval of the Nation’s Budget.
(c) Ratification of the appointment of the Auditor-General.
(d) Appointment of the Public Accounts Committee.
(e) Monitoring of the implementation of the Budget.
(f) Guiding against Extra-Budgetary spending, and ensuring
that money is expended on the purpose for which it is
meant.
(2) (a) The Executive Control
The Executive comprises the President and his cabinet members

who have the responsibility for the efficient and effective control
of the administration of the country politically and economically.
The Constitution created two other arms of government, called
the Legislative and the Judiciary for purposes of checks and
balances.
85
The President, in order to satisfy the provisions of the Constitution

also appoints a Cabinet Committee on Estimates, to advise him
on the contemplated policy measures. The policy measures
contemplated are then transmitted to the Budget Department in
the Presidency. This development in turn leads to the issuance of
guidelines on the preparation of the Budget. As a result, effective
supervision is exercised on all the Agencies involved in budget
operation. Any Unit of the Government whose requirements are
higher than the ‘control figures’ already issued, is invited to
defend the excess request.
(b) THE Legislative Control

The National Assembly is the Supreme Authority on matters of
the Nation’s finance. The control exercised by the Legislature is
both ‘ante-natal’ and ‘post-natal’. The ‘ante-natal’ control is in
the sense in which the Legislature considers and approves the
Estimates submitted to it by the President. ‘Post-natal’ control is
the review of transactions after payment. No amount of public
fund may be spent without the approval of the National Assembly.
However, Section 82 of the 1999 Constitution empowers the
President to spend from the Consolidated Revenue Fund to carry
on the administration of Government of the Federation for not
more than six (6) months or until the coming into operation of
the Appropriation Act, whichever is earlier.
( c) The Treasury ControL

The Accountant-General has overall responsibility for the total
expenditure of Government. His office would keep necessary books
of accounts to record all the receipts and expenditure of the
various Ministries and Departments. The Treasury Department
exercises some measure of supervision and checks over the
accounting records of the Non-Self Accounting Units.
(d) Inspectorate Division

Inspectorate Officers from the Office of the Accountant - General
of the Federation visit the various Ministries and Departments to
evaluate the system of internal control. They do this to ensure
that the accounting system and maintenance of various books of
accounts conform with the approved regulations and procedures.
( e) Internal Audit
This is another aspect of control exercised in any organisation.
The Treasury dispatches Internal Auditors to the Ministries and
Self-Accounting Departments to appraise the effectiveness of the
86
EXPENDITURE CONTROL
existing internal checks and report upon any inadequacy

discovered.
(f ) Departmental Control over the Budgeted Expenditure

A Departmental Vote Expenditure Allocation Book (D.V.E.A. Book)
is a record of payments made and liabilities incurred under the
Votes or Funds approved for each Ministry or Extra-Ministerial
Department. A Vote Book is maintained for each Head or Sub-
Head of expenditure. It is an integral part of the Budgetary Control
System. The Book is designed to facilitate vote watching to ensure
that expenditure incurred are not in excess of appropriation. Over-
expenditure of departmental vote amounts to reckless use of
public funds and is seriously frowned at by Government.
It is the duty of the Officer who is controlling the Vote to thoroughly

investigate, without delay, payments or charges which appear
in the schedules drawn up by the Accountant-General, which do
not appear in the Vote Books particularly with a view to the
prevention and detection of fraudulent payments.
(g) Auditor-General for the Federation

The Auditor-General for the Federation scrutinizes all accounts
and records of the money collected and spent and reports to the
National Assembly appropriately on the instances of waste,
extravagance, inefficiency or fraud. It is observed that the Auditor-
General’s duty is post-payment audit, except in the matters
relating to pension and gratuity payments on which he performs
pre-payment audit. This is in addition to the regularity and
compliance audit that he carries out as a duty.
87
88
CHAPTER
Skills level
7
Preparation of Vouchers
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Types of Vouchers
4. Chapter Review
5. Worked Examples
89
PREPARATION OF VOUCHERS
7.0 PURPOSE
(a) identify the various types of vouchers in use;
(b) state the essential features of a valid voucher; and
(c) explain the duties of the Accounting Officers with respect to the use of
payment vouchers.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
A voucher is a document which evidences a receipt or payment of money.
Specifically, Government Financial Regulation states that all payments must
be by means of the prescribed form.
7.2 TYPES OF VOUCHERS

Vouchers may be classified into three categories, viz:
(a) Payment Vouchers.
(b) Receipt Vouchers.
(c) Adjustment Vouchers.
7.2.1 PAYMENT VOUCHERS

Any money to be paid by the Government must be supported with a payment
voucher. This is to serve as an evidence that payment is made for goods
purchased or services rendered. Vouchers are prepared at the point where
payments are to be effected.
7.2.1.1 ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A VALID PAYMENT VOUCHER

A valid payment voucher must contain the full particulars of such services
rendered or goods purchased like date, serial number, quantity and price. It
has to be supported by relevant documents such as invoices, local purchase
Orders and letter of authority. The following are the essential features of a
well-prepared payment voucher:
(a) Date of the voucher, which indicates its life span.
(b) Classification code, i.e. Head and Sub-Head of expenditure.
(c) Amount in words and figures.
(d) Voucher number.
(e) Description of payment.
(f) Name and address of payee / beneficiary.
(g) Supporting documents, such as local purchase orders, invoices,
store receipt vouchers and contract agreements.
90
(h) Authority, such as the signature of the officer controlling

expenditure and the type of Warrant which will release the money.
(i) Signature of the cashier.
(j) Signature of the payee.
(k) Voucher certification, which indicates the following, in a box:
Prepared by:..................................................
Checked by:...................................................
Entered into Vote Book by:............................
Passed by:.....................................................
Paid by:.........................................................
Authorised by:...............................................
(l) Cheque number, where the payment is by cheque

(m) Cashier’s stamp ‘PAID’ which prevents re-presentation of the voucher
for payment.
ILLUSTRATION 7-1
FORMAT OF A PAYMENT VOUCHER

Head...............................................Station:...............................………..
Sub-Head...........................................................................................…..
Voucher Serial No............................ Amount N:....................................
Name of Beneficiary:..............................................................................
Address:..........................................................................................……..
Date Description of payment Rate Amount payable

N N
- Authority by: (i) Warrant.................................................................
(ii) Officer Controlling Expenditure............................
- Amount in words........................................................................................
- Signature of payee.....................................................................................
- Signature of Cashier...................................................................................
I certify that the above voucher has been entered in my Vote Book
.....................................................................................
Signature of Officer Authorising Expenditure
7.2.1.2 RULES GUIDING ISSUANCE OF PAYMENT VOUCHERS

According to Financial Regulations, a Sub-Accounting Officer may not make
payment against a voucher unless:
(a) The voucher is certified for payment by the officer who is
authorized to do so.
(b) The voucher is stamped “checked and passed” for payment and
duly signed by the checking officer, stating the name of his station.
91
(c) The voucher is stamped, “Entered in the Vote Book” and the Officer
keeping the Vote Book duly signs it.
Government Financial Regulations specify the rules which should be
strictly observed in the preparation of payment vouchers, as follows:
(a) Vouchers shall be made in ink or ball point pens or indelible pencils or
shall be type-written. All copies must be legible.
(b) No erasure of any kind, whether in typescript or manuscript. Use of

correcting fluid is not allowed.
(c) A single thick horizontal line shall be drawn immediately before and
immediately after the Naira (N) figure. Where it appears in words, space
shall not be allowed.
Where a payment voucher is presented to the Sub-Treasury or Cash Office for

the purpose of obtaining cash for payment to be made elsewhere, as in the
case of payment of salaries, a cheque/cash order form has to be signed by the
Officer authorizing the voucher, bearing the signature of the Officer authorized
to receive the cheque or cash. A separate cheque/cash order form is required
for each voucher.
7.2.1.3 LOSS OF A PAYMENT VOUCHER

Whereas a payment voucher is reported lost, the following procedures should
be followed:
(a) prompt investigation should be carried out;
(b) it should be established whether payment has been made on it or not;
(c) it should be ascertained whether or not the cash drawn is still on hand;
(d) report should be made by the Accounting Officer to the Accountant-
General, stating the circumstances of the loss
7.2.2 RECEIPT VOUCHERS

A receipt voucher is a documentary evidence that the sum stated thereon has
been received. Any receipt into the Government purse must be supported with
“Treasury Form 15” (Pay-In-Form) with attached “Treasury Receipt Book 6”
before it is regarded as an authentic receipt voucher.
7.2.2.1 Format of Receipt Voucher.
Head:__________________ Receipt No:_______________

Sub - Head:__________________ Date:____________________
Received From:________________________________________________
The Sum of:_______________________ N__________________________
Being Payment for:_____________________________________________
Signature of Cashier:___________________________________________
Signature of the Payee:_________________________________________
92
7.2.3 ADJUSTMENT VOUCHERS

Adjustment voucher is a documentary evidence of formal entries which enables
transfers to be made from one account to another without actual receipt or
payment of Cash.
Adjustment voucher is used in any of the following circumstances:

(a) Payment for Inter-Ministerial Services.
(b) Correction of accounting errors arising from misclassification.
(c) Ultimate allocation of unallocated stores.
(d) Carrying out adjustments or transfers between accounts.
Adjustments are usually initiated by the creditor department and sent to the
debtor department for acceptance of the charge.
The following particulars are required on an adjustment voucher:

(a) Reason for the transfer or adjustment, with full reference to the
original debit or credit being adjusted.
(b) Voucher number.
(c) Month of Account.
(d) Particulars of Treasury or Audit Query, where the adjustment is
as a result of such an investigation.
7.3 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter discussed payment vouchers, receipt vouchers and adjustment
vouchers. Emphasis was stressed on the essential features of valid vouchers and
the duties of the Accounting Officers with respect to payment vouchers. The actions
to be taken in the event of loss of payment vouchers was also discussed.
7.4 WORKED EXAMPLES

7.4.1 Questions
1. (a) What is a payment voucher?
(b) Enumerate the Essential Features of a valid Payment Voucher
(c) List 3 uses of Adjustment Voucher
2. (a) List 10 types of vouchers used in Public Sector Accounting

(b) In the event of loss of an already raised payment voucher, what
are the procedures to be followed:
(c) List 5 documents required to accompany a Contract Payment
Voucher.

(1) (a) A payment voucher is the document prepared to serve as
evidence that payments made for purchase of goods and
services rendered are properly authorized and approved.
(b) Essential Features of a valid payment voucher are:
93
(i) Date of the voucher which indicates the life span

(ii) Classification code i.e. Head and subhead
(iii) Amount in words and figure
(iv) Voucher Number
(v) Description of payment
(vi) Name and address of beneficiary
(vii) Supporting documents such as local purchase orders, invoices
store, receipt, vouchers and contract agreement
(viii) Authority for the release of the money paid
(ix) Signature of Cashier
(x) Signature of beneficiary
(xi) Voucher Certificate indicated in a box
(xii) Cheque number, where payment is by cheque
(xiii) Cashiers stamp “PAID” which prevents re-presentation of the
voucher for a second time.
VOUCHER CERTIFICATE
Prepared By……........................................................................
Checked By……………………………………………………..
Entered into Vote Book By…………………………………….
Passed By………………………………………………………
Paid By…………………………………………………………
Authorised By ………………………………………………….
(c) USES OF ADJUSTMENT VOUCHERS

(i) Effecting payments for services rendered by one Ministry or
Department to another
(ii) Adjusting wrong postings of transactions
(iii) Re-classification of transaction
(iv) Allocation of unallocated stores
(2) (a) TYPES OF VOUCHERS USED IN GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTING

(i) Payment Voucher – Pensions
(ii) Pay-In-Voucher
(iii) Journal Voucher
(iv) Receipt Voucher
(v) Adjustment Voucher
(vi) Payment Voucher - Remittance
(vii) Transport Allowance Voucher
(viii) Travelling Allowance Voucher
(ix) Capital Expenditure payment Voucher
(x) Voucher for Non-Government Transport Services
(xi) Payroll Summary Voucher (Non-Pension Employee)
94
(xii) Payroll Summary Voucher (Senior Officers)

(xiii) Payroll Summary Voucher (Junior Officers)
(xiv) Store Issue Voucher
(xv) Store Receipt Voucher
(xvi) Other Charges Payment Voucher
(b) The following procedures should be followed when a raised Payment

Voucher is confirmed lost:
(i) The Accounting Officer must be notified immediately.
(ii) The loss should be investigated, considering all circumstances
leading to that effect.
(iii) The investigation should confirm whether payment has been
effected against the voucher or not.
(iv) Where payment has been made, it should be confirmed whether
the cash withdrawn is still in possession of the payee or not.
(v) Report should be made by the Accounting Officer to the
Accountant-General stating the circumstances of the loss.
(c) The following documents are required to accompany a contract payment

voucher.
(i) The minutes of the meeting of the Tenders Board that awards the
Contract.
(ii) The Certificate of completion of the contract issued by a Competent
site engineer or surveyor.
(iii) Copy of the contract agreement to show that the terms are fully
complied with.
(iv) Letter of award of the contract.
(v) Delivery Note or Stores Receipt Voucher (SRV) where the contract
is supply of items.
(vi) A waybill or invoice or both issued by the contractor.
95
96
CHAPTER
Skills level
8
Functions of the Cash Office

Contents
1. Purpose
3. Functions of The Cash Office
4. Cash Book Entries
5. Checking The Cash Book
6. Cash Withdrawals From Bank
7. Cheque Summary Register
8. Security and Custody of Accounting Books and Documents
9. Maintenance of Adequate Cash Control Measures
10. Preparation of Bank Reconciliation Statements
11. Importance of Bank Reconciliation.
12. Chapter Review
13. Worked Examples
97
FUNCTIONS OF THE CASH OFFICE
8.0 PURPOSE
(a) explain the functions of the cash office;
(b) describe the procedures for the preparation of bank reconciliation
statements.
8.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE CASH OFFICE

The duties of the Cash Office are receiving and paying cash, posting cash
transactions into the cash book, opening a bank account on which cheques are
drawn and providing information on the cash position at a given time. Security
is essential in the management of the cash office. This includes the provision
and partitioning of a cashier’s cage to ensure that only authorized persons are
allowed to move in and out. Effective internal check is also of utmost importance
in the operations of the Cash Office, to minimize fraud and detect errors. Up-
to-date recording of transactions and regular supervision are therefore
required. Maintenance of adequate cash control with respect to establishment
of cash limit, daily banking of all takings, periodic surprise cash count,
installation of raid alarm, establishment of authority limit,. etc.
8.2 CASH BOOK ENTRIES

Cash book entries in respect of cash/cheque payments and receipts are to be
made and postings should be balanced each day. The ruling of the cash book
provides columns for cash and bank transactions and total amount on the
receipts (or debit) side. Gross amount, deductions and net amount payable
appear on the payment (or credit) side. Receipts issued are to be posted on the
left hand side of the cash book. The particulars of the serial numbers, the payees
and classifications are also to be entered. Amount received through bank tellers
or advices should be entered in the bank column and extended to the total
column. Where the amount received is in cash, it is entered in the cash column
and extended to the total column. For payments, the voucher numbers, payees’
names, nature of transactions and cheque details are entered, showing the
gross amounts and deductions (if any).
Cash balances are to be confirmed on a daily basis. The specification of physical

cash retained in the safe must be checked and certified by the Head of the cash
office, before ‘lock up’ at close of business each day. Numbering of vouchers in
the Cash Book has to be properly controlled. Only one set of numbers is to be
used in a month, e.g. 1 - 300.
98
8.3.1 Format of Treasury Cash Book (TF153A)
From Whom Received
Bank Credit Slip No.
Head or Sub Head

Head/Sub Head
TRV NO./DATE
Classification
Classification
Department
Receipt No.
Deduction
To Whom
Treasury
Treasury
Bank or
Amount
Cheque
or Cash
P.V. No.
P.V. No.
Payee
Gross
Bank
Bank
Total
Cash
Paid
Net
No.
N N N N N N
8.3 CHECKING THE CASH BOOK

The regular checking of the cash book is an important exercise in detecting
errors and frauds. The physical cash balance has to be verified daily and
specification certified in the cash book by the close of the office. The Head of
the Central Pay Office or Accounts should undertake confirmation of the postings
in the cash book with the details of the relevant payment vouchers, latest on
the following working day. Payment vouchers have to be scrutinized to confirm
the arithmetical accuracy of the gross amounts, deductions and the net figures,
care should be taken to ensure that the gross amounts are posted as the total
amounts authorized on the vouchers. Receipts are issued for deductions made
and properly classified on the relevant Treasury Form 15, and cash paid should
be for the net amount due.
8.4 CASH WITHDRAWALS FROM BANK

Where cash is to be withdrawn from the bank, a cheque will be issued for the
amount after due authorization processes, but without raising a payment
voucher. The amount is entered as a contra-entry. Where a substantial amount
of cash is held above the authorized maximum, arrangement should be made
to pay the excess into the bank through a teller or paying-in form. This will
also be a contra-entry. A contra entry shows the movement of cash between the
office and the bank and vice-versa.
Where it is necessary to keep a reasonable amount of cash float in the office for
urgent transactions, withdrawal from the bank follows the same procedure.
The amount withdrawn is entered in a cash float register, in addition to the
posting made in the Cash book.
99
8.5 CHEQUE SUMMARY REGISTER

The cheque summary register serves as a useful record for the verification of
bank transactions in the cash book. All cheques issued, money lodged into the
bank account, vouchers raised to cover bank advices, teller particulars and
other transactions, which are already recorded in the cash book, should be
posted into the Cheque Summary Register. The register is balanced daily. The
balances in the register have to agree with those in the cash book. As an internal
check, the person posting the Summary Register should not be the same person
handling the cash book. The Head of Accounts should check the register daily
before the cashier accepts any voucher for payment. He has to ensure that all
the accounting regulations are kept.
8.6 SECURITY AND CUSTODY OF ACCOUNTING BOOKS AND DOCUMENTS

Security documents carry monetary values. Such documents can be used to
defraud the Government if they fall into unauthorised hands or make
government suffer loss if accidentally destroyed. Examples of security
documents are:
(a) Cheque Book.
(b) Treasury Receipt Books 6A and 6B.
(c) Cheque Summary Register.
(d) Cash Book.
(e) Payment Voucher.
(f) Local Purchase Order.
(g) Postal Order.
(h) Money Order.
The security control of cheque books is important in the prevention of fraud.

Issuing and handling of cheques should be limited to a sizeable number of
staff of the Pay Office. Due check of unused leaves in a cheque book should be
undertaken in order to ensure that none has been removed for fraudulent
purposes. Unclaimed cheques which become stale after six months of issuance
are written back.
Cash held in the office, cheque books and all unused control books are to be
kept in a safe or strong room, the keys of which are to be kept under the dual
responsibility of senior officers. Cash books, payment vouchers, cheque
summary registers and all other vital pay office records are to be kept in fire
proof security cabinets to ensure that unauthorized persons do not have access
to them. Specifically, FR 906 states that it is the duty of the Accounting Officer
to ensure that departmental officers who are required to hold public money,
stamps, etc. are provided with proper safe custody facilities.
Used security documents and other accounting records shall be retained for
the following years after use:
100
Documents Period of Retention

(a) Financial warrants, cash books, P/E records,
Permanently
etc;
(b) Revenue collector cash books, original 7 years
payment vouchers, etc.
(c) LPO, book copies of rail or other transport 2 years
warrant, etc
8.7 MAINTENANCE OF ADEQUATE CASH CONTROL MEASURES

Cash control relates to the co-coordinated actions which have to be taken in
order to ensure that all income due to the Government are collected on a timely
basis, and that fraud is prevented. The cardinal objective is to ensure that funds
are not mismanaged or misappropriated.
The following are the various cash control measures adopted in the Ministries
and Parastatals, viz:
(a) Establishment of cash limits.
(b) Daily banking of all takings.
(c) Periodic surprise cash count (cash survey).
(d) Provision of a safe that has to be under dual control.
(e) Installation of ‘raid alarm’.
(f) Installation of counting/sorting machines and mercury light.
(g) Ensuring that sufficient and adequate insurance cover is taken over the
cash limit.
(h) Investment of idle funds.
(i) Establishment of ‘authority limit.’
(j) Balancing of Cash book.
(k) Preparation of bank reconciliation statements.
8.8 PREPARATION OF BANK RECONCILIATION STATEMENTS

Every organization has to keep close watch on its bank account transactions to
guard against fraud or the infiltration of extraneous entries. It exerts the watch
through regular preparation of bank reconciliation statements. In these days
of fast and smart bank deals, the importance of preparing bank reconciliation
statements at regular intervals cannot be overemphasized. Failure to do this
may not only result in heavy loss of funds but sometimes in much more
embarrassing situations.
Reconciliation is the process of resolving the difference between the balance

as per cash book and the balance as per bank statement on the same date and
in respect of the same items of transactions. A bank reconciliation statement is
prepared to reconcile the figures in the bank column of the cash book with
those on the bank statements for the period under review.
101
8.8.1 Documents Required for the Preparation of a Bank

Reconciliation Statement
The documents required are:
(a) Cash Book and Cheque Summary Register.
(b) Bank Statements.
(c) Cheque Stubs.
(d) Paying-in-Slips.
(e) Last Bank Reconciliation Statement.
(f) Debit and Credit Advices.
8.8.2 Procedures for Carrying Out Bank Reconciliation Exercises

The bank reconciliation exercise is done by picking the balance of cash
in the cash book to which are added the values of unpresented cheques
and receipts in bank not in cash book. Payments made by bank not in
cash book and “receipts in cash book not in Bank” (i.e. uncredited
cheques) are deducted. The resultant balance should agree with the
subsisting figure on the bank statement. The following activities are
recommended:
(a) Pick or extract the Cash Book balance at the end of the month.
(b) The previous month’s Bank Reconciliation Statement should be
made available in order to treat the outstanding items such as
unpresented cheques and uncredited lodgements.
(c) Tick debit entries in the Cash Book against credit entries on the
Bank Statements. Conversely tick credit entries in the Cash Book
against the debit entries on the Bank Statements.
(d) Extract the unticked items into the following suggested schedules:
Schedule “A”: Unpresented Cheques.
Schedule “B”: Credits in Bank not in Cash Book.
Schedule “C” Uncredited Lodgements.
Schedule “D”: Debits in Bank not in Cash Book
(e) Prepare the Bank Reconciliation Statement based on the format
suggested.
In summary, bank Reconciliation is made up of four components namely:

(i) Unpresented Cheques: These are cheques issued to payees but
which have not been presented to the bank for payment.
(ii) Credits in the Bank but not in the Cash Book: These are direct
lodgements into the bank for which receipts have not been issued
and which have not been entered in the Cash Book.
(iii) Uncredited Cheques: These are lodgements not yet credited by
the bank as at the end of the month when the bank statement
was received.
(iv) Debits in the Bank but not in the Cash Book: These are withdrawals,
commissions and standing order payments in the bank statement
that were not yet recorded in the Cash Book.
102
ILLUSTRATION 8-1
A Typical Bank Reconciliation Statement
Balance as per Cash Book X

Add: Unpresented Cheques X
Receipts in Bank not in Cash Book X XX
XX
Less: Uncredited Cheques X
Payments in Bank not in Cash Book X XX
Balance as per Bank statement X
8.9 IMPORTANCE OF BANK RECONCILIATION.

(a) It discloses any unauthorized cheque issued and cashed
(b) It reveals any dishonoured cheques for which receipts have been issued
and entered into the cash book;
(c) It discloses fraudulent/fake pay-in-slip purported to have been obtained
for paying into government account;
(d) It reveals any lodgements not credited by the bank either by omission
or commission.
ILLUSTRATION 8-2
The Cash Book of Zolu Local Government showed a debit balance of N502,000
as at 30/9/200X. However, the bank account statement showed a credit balance
of N505,000. On investigation, the following were discovered:
(a) Cheque Numbers 51522 and 32552 for N2,000 and N3,000 respectively,
have not been presented for payment.
(b) Interest on investment of N1,000 has not been posted into the Cash Book.
(c) A sum of N2,000 paid into the bank was credited only after the bank
statement was issued.
(d) Bank charges of N1,000 have not been recorded in the Treasury Cash
Book.
You are required to prepare a Bank Reconciliation Statement
for the Local Government.

ZOLU LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Bank Reconciliation statement as at 30/09/200X
N N
Balance as per Cash Book 502,000
Add Unpresented Cheques (2,000+3,000) 5,000
Interest on investment not in the cash book 1,000 6,000
508,000
Less Uncredited Deposit 2,000
Bank charges 1,000 3,000
Balance as per Bank Statement 505,000
103
TUTORIAL NOTE:
Most of the functions of the cash office described above have however been
modified with the issuance of Treasury Circular TRY/A8&B8/2008, OAGF/CAD/
026/Vol.11/465 dated 22 October 2008 on E-Payment which stipulates that all
payments from all Federal Government Funds should henceforth be made
electronically.
Suggested Procedure for Preparation of Bank Reconciliation Statement

The current practice in preparing monthly bank reconciliation statement
involves:
(a) Preparing Adjusted Cash Book where adjustment will be made for items,
other than unpresented cheques and uncredited lodgements.
(b) Preparing the Bank Reconciliation Statement which adjusts for
unpresented cheques and uncredited lodgements.
ILLUSTRATION 8-3
Adjusted Cash Book
Balance as per Cash Book XXX

Add: Credit items in the Bank Statement
but not in the Cash Book XXX
XXX
Less: Debit items in the Bank Statement XXX
but not in the Cash Book
Balance as per Adjusted Cash Book XXX
Bank Reconciliation Statement
Balance as per Adjusted Cash Book XXX

Add: Unpresented Cheques (To be listed) XXX
XXX
Less: Uncredited Lodgements (To be listed) XXX
Balance as per Bank Statement XXX
This second procedure is commonly used in Parastatals, Boards and

Corporations.
8.10 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter dealt with the functions of the Cash Office, the reasons as well as
the procedures for the preparation of bank reconciliation statements. However
the functions of the cash office have been modified by the introduction of e-
payment.
104
8.11.1 Questions
(1) The cash book of Igwe Local Government Council has a credit
balance of N21,000 on 30 June, 20xx. The bank statement showed
a debit balance of N56, 400. An investigation into the difference
in figures reveals the following information:
The bank had paid N40,000 on 29 June by way of standing order.

A cheque for N103,700 sent to a supplier on 30 June was not
paid by the bank until 6 July, 20xx.
A cheque valued N168, 000, paid into bank on 28/6/20xx was

not credited until 3 July, 20xx.
On 20 June, a cheque for 11,400 received from an insurance

company was posted in the Cash Book as 71, 400.
130, 000 drawn from the deposit account had been shown in the
Cash Book as withdrawal from the current account.
Bank Charges of 1,100 shown in the bank statement had not been
entered in the Cash Book.
You are required to:

(a) Prepare Adjusted Cash Book
(b) Prepare a statement reconciling the amended balance
with the one shown on the bank statement.
(2) The following transactions were recorded in the books of Zamaru

Housing Corporation, for the year ended 31st December, 2008:
N
D.V.R.A Entries
Subventions received 27,500,000
Interest from investments 1,750,840
Rent on property 5,650,175
Ground rent 8,400,500
Saving deposits 3,140,500
Grants for construction of estate 25,650,750
Deposits for land 9,500,300
105
D.V.E.A. Entries
Personnel costs 18,400,500
Travel and transport 3,500,200
Telephone services 1,200,750
Repairs of property 2,434,125
Stationery 450,930
Provision of water for estate 7,150,300
Consultancy services 1,500,630
Training and staff development 500,780
Auditing and staff development 750,000
Entertainment and hospitality 250,000
Construction of estate 17,803,790
Construction of access roads 4,200,300
Cash book balance as at 1/1/08 10,750,000 DR
The General Manager, Finance and Administration, on getting the bank

statement for the month of December is worried that things are not well with
the Corporation’s accounts.
He obtained the approval of management that reconciliations of the accounts

be done by an outside consultant.
You are subsequently appointed for the assignment. Your preliminary

investigations reveal the following information:
(i) 1370 prospective land owners deposited N5,000 each, while 580
deposited N10,000 for high and low density areas of the new estate.
(ii) Included in the payments for the construction of estate are various
duplicated vouchers amounting to N4,500,000.
(iii) The bank balance as per the statement on 31st December 2008 was
N19,780,300.
(iv) Uncredited cheques amounted to N3,450,000 while the unpresented
cheques stood at N2,168,900.
(v) There were some falsifications in the bills for the items bought for the
provision of water. These amounted to N1,780,900.
(vi) Standing order for insurance premium was N100,750 while bank charges
and commission amounted to N72,125.
You are required to prepare the necessary reconciliation statements that
will reveal the extent of fraud that has been committed during the year.
(3) The Ministry of Job Creation and Socials undertook the following transactions
in the month of March, 2007:
(i) March 2: The Accounting Officer received the 1st quarter allocation of
N35 million on General Warrant No AGW 01491/2007.
106
(ii) 200 reams of photocopying papers worth N0.5 million were purchased
by cheque on 3 March and payment voucher No. FJCS/05/2007 was
issued to effect payment.
(iii) March 19: Authority to incur expenditure (AIE) No. 014 was issued to
transfer the sum of N17 million to outstation offices, in respect of
stationery expenditure yet to be backed up by cash.
(iv) March 24: Typers Limited was paid N12.5 million for the supply of 4,000
reams of typing sheets on payment voucher No. FJCS/030/2007.
(v) A supply order No. 27 was issued on 26 March to Komputa Limited for
the supply of computer stationery for N1.25 million.
(vi) March 29: Payment Voucher No. FJCS/030/2007 was cancelled as the
typing sheets supplied did not meet the required specification.
The Head Code No. of the Ministry is 032, while the stationery Sub-head
code is 05.
You are required to pass the transactions for the month through the
Departmental Vote Expenditure Allocation Book.
(4) The following information was submitted by the Sub-accounting officer of the
Federal Ministry of Education for the month ended April 30th 2014
1-4-2014 The sub-accounting officer collected the second quarter
allocation of N3,000,000 in respect of stationeries through
AGN377.
Head of Expenditure is 501 while the sub-head is 007.
3-4-2014 Paid N150,000 for the purchase of Higher Education and Hard
Cover Notebooks on P. V. No 3001 from Abiola Bookshop.
8-4-2014 Paid N175,000 to Ajayi Bookshop for the supply of stencils and
typing sheets on P. V. No 3002.
16-4-2014 Paid N200,000 to Ekanem Bookshop for biros, pencils, rulers,
erasers and mathematical instrument sets on P. V. No 3003.
18-4-2014 Issued an LPO No 4001 to the tune of N400,000 to Abiola
Bookshop for the supply of carbon papers, staple pins,
perforators and gums.
19-4-2014 Issued an LPO No 4002 to Maryam Ventures for the supply of
computer accessories to the tune of N370,000.
22-4-2014 Abiola Books supplied the requested items worth N300,000 as
per their invoice and P. V. No 3004 was raised for payment.
23-4-2014 Paid the sum of N370,000 to Maryam Ventures for the supply of
computer accessories on P. V. No 3006
24-4-2014 Paid the sum of N300,000 on P. V. No 3007 to Jaiye & Sons for
the supply of Flat files and Arch files.
27-4-2014 Issued an LPO No 4003 to Jamganza Bookshop for the supply
of Fine Art materials worth N250,000.
29-4-2014 Paid the sum of N250,000 to Jamganza Bookshop for the items
supplied on P. V. No 3008.
107
30-4-2014 P. V. No 3008 was revoked as a result of supply of obsolete Fine

Art materials by Jamganza.
You are required to post the transactions in a D. V. E. A.
(1) IGWE LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL,

ADJUSTED CASHBOOK FOR THE MONTH ENDED 30 JUNE, 20XX.
Balance B/F 21,000
Wrong posting of cash drawn 130,000 Standing order 40,000
Insurance wrong posting 60,000
Bank Charges 1,100
Balance C/D 7,900
130,000 130,000
IGWE LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL

BANK RECONCILIATION STATEMENT FOR THE
MONTH ENDED 30 JUNE 20XX
N
Balance as per Adjusted cashbook 7,900
Add: Unpresented cheques 103,700
111,600
Less: Uncredited cheques (168,000)
Balance as per Bank statement (56,400)
(2)(a) Zamaru Housing Corporation

Adjusted Cash Book
N DVEA N
Balance b/d 10,750,000 Personnel cost 18,400,500
DVRA Travel and transport 3,500,200
Subvention received 27,500,000 Telephone Services 1,200,750
Interest from Investment 1,750,840 Repairs of properties 2,434,125
Rent on property 5,650,175 Stationery 450,930
Ground rent 8,400,500 Provision of water for estate 7,150,300
Savings deposit 3,140,500 Consultancy services 1,500,630
Grant for construction of estate 25,650,750 Auditing & Accountancy 750,000
Deposit for land 9,500,300 Training & Staff Development 500,780
Entertainment & hospitality 250,000
Construction of estate 17,803,790
Construction of access roads 4,200,300
_________
Balance c/d 34,200,760
92,343,065 92,343,065
Balance b/d 34,200,760 Standing order 100,750
Bank charges 72,125
Balance c/d 34,027,885
34,200,760 34,200,760
108
(b) Bank Reconciliation Statement

N N
Balance as per cash book 34,027,885
Add unpresented cheques 2,168,900
36,196,785
Less uncredited cheques 3,450,000
Expected Balance in Bank 32,746,785
Balance as per Bank Statement (19,780,300)
Cash Shortage 12,966,485
Other Losses: Deposit on Land 1370 x N5,000 = 6,850,000
580 x N10,000 5,800,000
12,650,000
Less amount accounted for 9,500,300 3,149,700
Duplicated vouchers on construction
4,500,000
Falsification of bills on provision 1,780,960
Total fraud committed 22,397,145
109
SUGGESTED SOLUTION TO QUESTION 3
DEPARTMENTAL VOTE EXPENDITURE ALLOCATION BOOK AUTHORISED

HEAD: 032 FEDERAL MINISTRY OF JOB CREATION AND SOCIALS
APPROPRIATION
AGW: 0149 N35M
SUB HEAD: 05
SERVICE: STATIONERY
LINE DATE PV. NO. PARTICULARS PAYMENT CUMM BALANCE LIAB LIAB LIAB OUTSTANDING REMARKS BALANCE LINE LINE
NO N PAYMENT N REF. INCURRED CLEARED LIABILITY N
MILLION N’MILLION MILLION N’ MILLION MILLION
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1 02.03.07 _ Authorised _ _ 35.0 _ _ _ _ _ 35.0 1

Appropriation
110
2 03.03.07 FJCS/05/ Purchase of photocopying 0.5 0.5 34.5 _ _ _ _ _ 34.5 2
2007 papers
3 19.03.07 _ _ 0.5 34.5 AIE No. 014 17.0 _ 17.0 Being fund 17.5 3
transfer to
States
4 24.03.07 FJCS/030 Payment for supply of 4,000 12.5 13.0 22.0 _ _ _ 17.0 _ 5.0 4
2007 reams of typing sheets
5 26.03.07 _ _ _ 13.0 22.0 Supply 1.25 _ 18.25 Being supply 3.75 5
order order issued
No. 27 to Komputa
Limited
6 29.03.07 Reversal of line 4 (12.5) 0.5 34.5 _ _ _ 18.25 _ 16.25 4 6
4 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
TREASURY CASH BOOK FOR THE MONTH OF NOVEMBER 2013
Voucher Fr o m Classifi Tr e a - Bank Bank Cash To t a l Vouc To Classifi Payee Cheque Gross Dedn Bank or
No whom cation sury slip A m o u n t her Whom cation Bank No Amount Or Cash Net
No
N N N N N N
Balance b/d 1,750,000 37,800 1,787,800 Construction
of Classrooms 211/12 UBN 001638 6,600,000 6,600,000
Allocation:
Recurrent Exp. 9,500,000 9,500,000 Salaries UBN 001641 4,000,000 190,000 3,810,000
Capital Exp. 12,500,000 12,500,000 Repair of Motor

Vehicle 18/7 UBN 001618 58,000 58,000
Advanced Deducted:
Salary 15/6 15,000 15,000 Electricity 23/8 UBN 001644 97,000 97,000
Motor Vehicle 15/8 65,000 65,000 Office Building

Mt ce 23/2 UBN 64,000 64,000
111
Correspondence 15/3 60,000 60,000
Surcharge of Senior Cash contra 70,000 70,000

Officer 11/7 50,000 50,000
Bank contra 70,000 70,000

Bank contra 70,000 70,000 Computer
Systems 10/13 UBN 001629 180,000 180,000
Registration for A12701 Printing & 11/24 64,000 64,000

to 731 Stationery
Cash contra 70,000 70,000 Telephone Bill 17/8 9,000 9,000
Computer School 10/16 62,000 62,000 Motor Vehicle 15/107 UBN 001630 6,800,000 6,800,000
Sale of office
Furniture 17/5 A12733 11364 80,000 80,000
Balance c/d 6,247,800 106,800 6,141,000
23,820,000 439,800 24,259,800 24,259,800 439,800 23,820,000
Balance b/d 6,141,000 106,800 6,247,800

112
CHAPTER
Skills level
9
Preparation of Monthly Transcripts of

a Self-Accounting Unit
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Preparation of Monthly Transcripts
3. Types/Classes of Transcripts
4. Documents Expected to Accompany the Transcript
5. Self-Accounting Units
6. Sub-Self Accounting Units
7. Non-Self Accounting Units
8. Procedures for the Preparation of Transcripts
9. Certificate of Cash and Bank Balances
10. Breakdown of Expenditure
11. Posting of the Main Ledger
12. Chapter Review
13. Worked Examples
113
PREPARATION OF MONTHLY
TRANSCRIPTS OF A SELF-ACCOUNTING
UNIT
9.0 PURPOSE
(a) explain the procedure for the preparation of transcripts;
(b) differentiate among Self-Accounting, Sub Self-Accounting and the Non-
Self-Accounting Units; and
(c) prepare a transcript.
9.1 PREPARATION OF MONTHLY TRANSCRIPT

A transcript can be defined as the summary of the total receipts and payments
as posted in the cash book. The preparation of monthly transcripts is an
important aspect of the functions of a Self-Accounting Ministry. It is the only
means by which the information on the cash transactions of a Ministry are
forwarded to the Treasury. A transcript is the final accounts of a Self-Accounting
Unit or a sub Self-Accounting Unit.
9.2 TYPES/CLASSES OF TRANSCRIPT

Transcript can be classified into three, namely:
(a) Main Transcript;
(b) Supplementary Transcript; and
(c) Subsidiary Transcript.
Main transcript is the transcript prepared by the Self-Accounting units and

submitted to the Accountant-General of the Federation on monthly basis. It is
also referred to as cash transcript.
Supplementary transcript is the main adjustment to the main transcript

prepared in conformity with the principle of Double Entry.
Subsidiary transcript is prepared to complement the main transcript. It is used

to correct errors or omissions in the Main Transcript.
It contains both above and below the line account items.
114
PREPARATION OF MONTHLY TRANSCRIPTS OF A SELF-ACCOUNTING UNIT
9.3 DOCUMENTS REQUIRED TO ACCOMPANY TRANSCRIPT

The transcript prepared by a Self Accounting Unit should be forwarded to the
Treasury with the following documents:
(a) Certificate of cash and bank balances.
(b) Schedule of vouchers pre-listed.
(c) Bank reconciliation statement.
(d) Schedule of expenditure.
(e) Schedule of outstanding vouchers.
9.4 SELF-ACCOUNTING UNIT

A Self-Accounting Unit is a Ministry or Extra-Ministerial Department which
has full control over all its accounting records. The Unit relates to the Treasury
(i.e. the Accountant-General’s office), through the preparation of transcripts.
Examples of Self-Accounting Units are:
(a) Ministry of Finance
(b) Ministry of Works
(c) Ministry of Education
9.4.1 Conditions to be Fulfilled for a Ministry to be Self-Accounting

In accordance with Financial Regulations 1202, for any Ministry to be
recognized as a Self-Accounting Unit, it has to satisfy the following
conditions:
(a) It should have adequate qualified personnel.
(b) It should be operating adequate and functional system of internal
control.
(c) It should have an Internal Audit Department.
9.4.2 Advantages of a Self-Accounting Unit

These are:
(a) It relieves top management of work overload.
(b) It speeds up operational decision-making.
(c) It increases flexibility and reduces communication problems.
(d) It increases motivation of the work force and encourages usage
of initiative.
(e) It provides better training for junior management.
9.4.3 Disadvantages of the Operation of Self-Accounting Units

These are:
(a) Co-ordination may be difficult to achieve.
(b) The extended lines of communication could lead to information
overload.
(c) It may be difficult to achieve consistency.
(d) There may be duplication of certain services.
(e) There is the problem of sub-optimality. That is, the maximization
of ministerial goals could be at the expense of the overall
objective of Government.
115
(f) The operation of a Self-Accounting Unit assumes the availability

of adequate and well-qualified managers. This may be difficult
to obtain in practice.
(g) There may be friction or inter-departmental conflicts between
the Ministries where functions are inter-dependent.
9.5 SUB-SELF ACCOUNTING UNITS

A Sub-Self Accounting Unit performs the same functions as those of a Self-
Accounting Unit. However, the difference between the two is that the former
forwards its transcripts to the Treasury, with the following:
(a) Original copy of cash book.
(b) Duplicate copies of payment vouchers.
(c) Certificate of cash and bank balances.
(d) Schedule of vouchers pre-listed.
(e) Bank reconciliation statements.
An example of a Sub-Self Accounting Unit is the Federal Pay Office located in

each States of the Federation.
9.6 NON-SELF ACCOUNTING UNIT

A Non-Self Accounting Unit is a Ministry or Extra-Ministerial Department which
has no control whatsoever over any of its accounting records. The Unit prepares
vouchers, but has to make payments through the Treasury. An example of such
a unit is the Code of Conduct Bureau in a State. A Non-Self Accounting Unit
neither keeps the Treasury Cash Book nor renders transcripts to the Accountant-
General.
9.7 PROCEDURES FOR THE PREPARATION OF A TRANSCRIPT

The procedures are as follows:
(a) Obtaining Original Cash book folios:

The first step in the preparation of a transcript is to obtain the cash book
and all the receipt and payment vouchers, which have been posted in a
particular month. The various vouchers have to be checked into the cash
book to ensure correctness and proper treatment. This is necessary in
order to eliminate errors and irregularities which may later create
problems in balancing the two sides of the transcript.
(b) Pre-listing of the Vouchers:

The vouchers should be sorted into their different classifications, i.e
Heads and Sub-heads, for the purpose of pre-listing, to obtain the totals
of each classification on a daily basis.
(c) Posting into the Analysis Book:

The totals are then entered into an analysis book with columns for each
classification extended into the grand total column for all the
116
transactions. The operation is done on a daily or weekly basis. At the

end of each month, the total for each classification is obtained by casting
the various figures. The figure of balance obtained should then be
compared with that shown in the Cash Book. Unless there is a mistake
somewhere, the two figures should agree.
(d) Scheduling:
This involves recording the various vouchers according to the
classifications which show serial numbers and gross amounts.
(e) Generation of the Monthly transaction:

The monthly transcript is prepared from the figures in the analysis book
and the voucher schedules. The balance brought forward from the
previous month is the opening item. The transcript entries are closed
with the balance carried down for the month. The balance should also
agree with the cash book closing figure for the month.
ILLUSTRATION 9-1
FORMAT OF A TRANSCRIPT
FEDERAL MINISTRY OF JAICOM AND LEADWAYS TRANSCRIPT FOR THE
MONTH ENDED 31 JANUARY, 200X.
Head Su b - D e s c ri p ti o n / Am o un t Su b - To ta l H e a d S u b - D e s cri p tio n / Am o u n t Su b - To ta l
Head P a rtic u la r s. N ’0 0 0 To ta l N’000 H e a d Pa r ti cu l a rs . N ’0 0 0 To ta l N ’0 0 0
N ’0 0 0 N ’0 0 0
B a l an c e b /f Ba l a n ce b /f
To ta l fo r To ta l fo r
H e a d Be l o w Head
th e li n e Be l o w th e
To ta l B e lo w To ta l Be l o w
th e li n e th e l i ne
To ta l To ta l
R e ve n u e R e ve n ue
ILLUSTRATION 9-2
The Ministry of Men’s Affairs has the following transactions in its financial
records, for the month of June, 200X:
REVENUES: N’000
8011 Licence to marry 600,000
8012 Licence for hunting 800,000
8013 Delivery licence 1,400,000
1001 Education fees 700,000
1002 Medical fees 1,640,000
1003 Registration fees 1,340,000
117
BELOW THE LINE REVENUES:

Codes
1001 Refund of marriage advance 76,000
1005 Repayment of motor vehicle loan 260,000
1007 Repayment of correspondence advance 150,000
1009 Repayment of salary advance 26,000
EXPENDITURES:
Codes
2001/01 Personnel costs - salaries 1,460,000
2001/02 Local transport and travelling 160,000
2001/03 Miscellaneous expenses 150,000
2001/04 Overhead costs 344,000
2001/05 Research expenses 66,000
2001/06 Enlightenment campaign 94,000
BELOW-THE-LINE EXPENDITURES:
Codes
2001 Loans for wedding gowns 74,000
2002 Advances (Personal) 85,100
2003 Housing loans 294,000
2004 Beijing advance 166,000
The opening balance for the month is:

Receipts side 1,894,000
Prepare the Transcript for the month.

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF MEN’S AFFAIRS:
TRANSCRIPT FOR THE MONTH ENDED 30 JUNE 200X.
Head S u b De s cr i pt i on Amount Sub Total Head Sub De s cr i pt i on Amount Sub Total
Head To t a l Head To t a l
N’ 0 0 0 N’ 0 0 0 N’ 0 0 0 N’000 N’ 0 0 0 N’ 0 0 0
Bal. b/f 1,894 Bal. b/fwd
80 11 License to marry 600 2001 1 Personnel Cost 1,460

80 12 License to hunting 800 2001 2 Local Transport 160
80 13 Delivery licence 1,400 2,800 2001 3 Micellaneous
Expenses 150
10 01 Education Fees 700 2001 4 Overhead cost 344
10 02 1,640 2001 5 Research
Expenses 66
10 03 1,340 3,680 2001 6 Enlighenment
Campaign 94 2,274
B EL OW T HE L I N E B EL OW T HE L I N E
1001 Refund of Marriage
Advance 76 2001 Loan for wedding 74
1005 Repayment of M/ gown
Vehicle Loan 260 2002 Advance (personal) 85.1
Repayment Corres- Housing Loan 294
pondence Advance 150 2003 Rehabilitation
1009 Repayment of Advance 166 619 2,893
salary advance 26 512 6,992
Bal. c/d 5,993
6,992 6,992 8,886 2,893 2,893 8,886
B al . b/d 5,993
118
9.8 CERTIFICATE OF CASH AND BANK BALANCES

This is a confirmation statement that the cash and bank balances indicated in
the cash book are correct. The certification is usually made by the Officer
supervising the cashier.
9.9 MONTHLY CASH AND BANK BALANCES AS AT 31 JANUARY, 20XX

I hereby state the p(vi) Statement No.4: Statement of Capital Development
Fund position of my cash book with regard to show the cash and bank balances
for the month of January 20xx
Cash Balance:
Opening Balance as at 1/1/20xx X
Add: Total receipts for the month X
XX
Less: Total payments for the month (X)
Closing balance as at 31/1/20xx XXX
Bank Balance:
Opening Balance as at 1/1/20xx X
Add: Total receipts for the month X
XX
Less: Total payments for the month (X)
Closing balance as at 31/1/20xx XXX
“I certify that at the end of January 20xx, my cash book had a cash balance of
......, which was the same with the amount of physical cash available, and a
bank balance of .........., which has subsequently been reconciled with the Central
Bank of Nigeria Nil balance”.
9.10 BREAKDOWN OF EXPENDITURE

Only the totals of Heads of classifications in the recurrent expenditures are
recorded. Consequently, a statement of expenditures by sub-heads should be
prepared and transmitted along with the transcript. The monthly totals are to
be shown along with the transactions (undertaken by other Ministries or Federal
Pay Office) which have been incorporated in the accounts. The certificate of
cash and bank balances, bank reconciliation statements of internal bank
adjustment, breakdown of expenditures and vouchers are to accompany the
transcript to the Treasury.
9.11 POSTING OF THE MAIN LEDGER

A main ledger is to be kept in a Self-Accounting Ministry or Extra-Ministerial
Department to record transactions relating to ‘below the line’ accounts and
others controlled by the Accountant-General of the Federation. The main ledger
is another form of the Treasury general ledger. The totals of the transactions
recorded in the main ledger are to be posted and balanced monthly. The
accounts which are kept in the main ledger are: Cash Account, Imprest Account,
119
Internal Bank Adjustment Account, Deposit Account, Personal Advances Account,

Non-Personal Advances Account and Cash Transfer Accounts. Reconciliation is
done monthly of the accounts in the main ledger with those of the Treasury
general ledgers and whatever accounts for differences between the two ledgers
are to be highlighted for follow-up action.
9.12 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter discussed the procedures for the preparation of transcripts, which
are the final accounts of Self-Accounting and Sub-Self-Accounting Units. Clear
distinction was also made between the various accounting Units.

9.13.1 Questions
(1) (a) Outline the stages involved in the preparation of
Transcripts.
(b) During the month of March 2008, the following
transactions took place in the Ministry of Transition of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria:
March 1 Opening balances carried over from last month were

N173,893 (Debit) and N57,982 (Credit).
March 1 P.V 0391 for N13,320 on sub-head 3 for general repairs.
March 7 P.V 0392 for N17,180 on sub-head 2 for stationery.
March 7 P.V 0393 for N9,329 on Sub-head 4 for utility.
March 9 R.V 003 amounting to N59,800 was received in respect of
tender registration to be charged to Head 5 sub-head 1001.
March 21 P.V 0394 for N52,000 on salaries for junior staff on Sub-
head 1.
March 25 P.V 0395 for N20,000 for motor vehicle maintenance on
Sub-head 10.
March 27 P.V 0396 for N97,200 for salaries for senior staff on Sub-
head 1.
March 29 R.V 005 for N17,300 was received as repayment of Motor
Vehicle Advances on Sub-head 06428.
March 30 P.V 0397 for N37,800 for maintenance of motor vehicle on
Sub-Head 10.
March 31 R.V 007 for N17,893 received for housing deposits on Head
5 Sub-head 1005.
You are required to prepare a Transcript for the Ministry of Transition for
the month ended 31 March 2008.
(2) (a) Give the conditions to be fulfilled for a ministry to be classified

as ‘Self-accounting unit’.
(b) Give the procedures required for the preparation of a Transcript.
(3) List out documents required to be transmitted along with transcripts.
120

(1) (a) Stages in the preparation of Transcripts:
(i) Collation of payment and receipt vouchers together with the main
cash book.
(ii) Ticking of voucher content to the cash book content to ensure
completeness, corrections and accuracy of entries and postings
into the cashbook.
(iii) Sorting of vouchers into heads and sub-heads.
(iv) Prelisting of vouchers sub-head by sub-head and agree total with
the cash book.
(v) Posting into analysis book under heads and subheads.
(vi) Balancing of analysis book.
(vii) Compilation of transcript.
(viii) Preparation of voucher schedule.
(b) MINISTRY OF TRANSITION

TRANSCRIPT FOR THE MONTH ENDED 31 MARCH, 2008.
RECEIPTS PAYMENTS
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Head Sub- Particulars Amount Sub- Total Head Sub- Particulars Amount Sub Total
Head Total Head Total
Balance b/f 173,893 Balance b/f 57,982
5 1001 Tender 2 Stationery 17,180
Registeration 59,800
on Fee
1005 Housing 3 General
Deposits 17,893 77,693 Repairs 13,320
4 Utility 9,329
1 Salaries:
Junior Staff 52,000
BELOW-THE- Salary:
LINE Senior Staff 97,200 149,200
064- Repayment 10 Motor
28 of motor Vehicle
Vehicle Maintenance 20,000
advance 17,300 17,300
268,886 Motor Vehicle
Maintenance 37,800 57,800
Balance c/f 35,925 246,829

304,811 304,811
Balance 35,925
2a) The following conditions are to be fulfilled for a ministry to be classified

as ‘Self-accounting’ in accordance with Financial Regulations 1202:
(i) Such ministry should have adequate qualified personnel;
(ii) There should be adequate and functional system of internal

control operating in the ministry and;
(iii) The ministry should have a vibrant internal audit department
121
2(b) The following are the procedures to be followed when preparing a

transcript:
(i) Obtain original cash book folio: The first step is to obtain
the cash book and all the receipt and payment vouchers posted
in a given month. Such vouchers have to be checked side-by-
side the cash book to ensure correctness and proper treatment.
This will eliminate errors and irregularities which may later
create problems in balancing the two sides of the transcripts.
(ii) Pre-listing of vouchers: Vouchers should be sorted into their

different classifications of ‘heads’ and ‘sub-heads’, for the purpose
of pre-listing, to obtain the totals of each classification on a daily
basis.
(iii) Posting into the Analysis book: The next sequence is to enter
the totals into an analysis book with columns for each classification
extended into the grant total column for all the transactions. This
operation is carried out routinely. At the end of each month, the
total for each classification is obtained by re-checking the various
figures. A comparison of the figure of the balance obtained
against that of the cash book is then made to ascertain their
correctness.
(iv) Scheduling: This involves the recording of various vouchers

according to the classifications showing serial numbers and gross
amounts.
(v) Generation of monthly transcript: The monthly transcript is

prepared from the figures in the analysis book and the vouchers
schedules. The balance brought forward from the previous month
is the opening item. The transcript entries are closed with the
balance carried down for the month.
(vi) The following documents are required to be transmitted along

with transcripts:
(a) Bank Reconciliation Statement.
(b) Cash and Bank Certificates – They are required to certify
that actual cash and bank balances agree with the cash
book and bank statement balances.
(c) Original copies of cashbook.
(d) Breakdown of expenditure.
(e) In limited self-accounting unit, the duplicate copies of
vouchers should also accompany the transcript.
(f) List of outstanding vouchers
122
CHAPTER
Skills level
10
Treasury Final Accounts

Contents
1. Purpose
2. The Treasury Department
3. The Organogram of the Office of the Accountant-General of the
Federation
4. Preparation of Federal Government Accounts
5. Final Accounts Unit
6. Revised Financial Statements
7. Objectives of International Public Sector Accounting Standards
(IPSAS) of The International Public Sector Accounting Standards
Board
8. Chapter Review
9. Worked Examples
123
10
TREASURY FINAL ACCOUNTS
10.0 PURPOSE
After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to;
(a) list the rules and regulations guiding the preparation of financial
statements as contained in the International Public Sector Accounting
Standards (IPSAS); and
(b) prepare the financial statements of Government.
10.1 THE OFFICE OF THE ACCOUNTANT- GENERAL OF THE FEDERATION

(TREASURY )
The Office of the Accountant-General of the Federation is an Extral- Minitarial
Agency under the Federal Ministry of Finance. The office is charged with the
responsibility of producing and publishing the accounts of the Federal
Government of Nigeria, in such a manner that will show a true and fair view of
the financial position of the Government and its relationship with the States
and Local Government Councils.
124
THE ORGANOGRAM OF THE OFFICE OF THE ACCOUNTANT- GENERAL OF THE
FEDERATION
The organogram of the office of the Accountant-General of the Federation is as follows:
HON. MINISTER OF FINANCE
ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL OF THE FEDERATION
INTERNAL AUDIT UNIT SPECIAL DUTIES UNIT
LEGAL UNIT PUBLIC RELATIONS

& PROTOCOLS
GIFMIS SERVICECOM & ANTI-
125
IMPLEMENTATION UNIT CORRUPTION UNIT
PLANNING CONSOLIDATED AUDIT

ADMINISTRATION FINANCE & REVENUE
RESEARCH & ACCOUNTS FUNDS I N S P E C T O R AT E MONITORING
& SUPPLIES ACCOUNTS & INVESTMENT
INFORMATION DEPARTMENT D E PA R T M E N T D E PA R T M E N T D E PA R T M E N T
DEPARTMENT D E PA R T M E N T DEPARTMENT
TECHNOLOGY DEPT.
THE ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF DEPARTMENTS

IN THE OAGF
In order to perform its statutory functions effectively, the OAGF is currently
made of the following departments with their functional responsibilities.
 Finance and Accounts Department (Service Department)
 Planning, Research & Information Technology Dept (Service Department)
 Consolidated Accounts Dept (Operational Department)
 Revenue & Investment Dept (Operational Department)
 Funds Department (Operational Department)
 Audit Monitoring Department (Operational Department)
 Inspectorate Department (Operational Department)
 Federal Treasury Academy, Orozo – Abuja (Operational Department)
 Administration and Supplies Dept (Service Department)
Finance and Accounts Department

 Maintaining the Accounts books of the OAGF;
 Budget and Funds;
Planning, Research & Information Technology Department.

 Planning, project monitoring and Evaluation
 Research and statistics
 Computer and Data Processing Services;
 Integrated Personnel and Payroll Information System.
Consolidated Accounts Department

 Preparation of consolidated Financial statement for the Federal
Government;
 Review of Financial rules and Regulations and circulation of Treasury
circulars;
 Accounting for the external Assistances to the Federal Government.
 Supervision of Accounts operations of the Federal Pay Offices and six
zonal Offices in the Federation.
Revenue & Investment department:

 Revenue Monitoring and Accounting;
 Control and Supervision of Federal Sub-Treasury and Pay Offices in Abuja;
 Managing Federal Government Investments in Statutory Corporations,
Parastatals and Companies;
 Loans Recovery and Collection of Returns on Investments;
 Project Evaluation and Performance Assessment of Government
Investments.
Funds Department:
 Managing the Federation Account, the Consolidated Revenue Fund and
other public funds;
 Cash backing and Cash Management;
126
 Loans Servicing;
 Regular reconciliation of Government accounts with banks etc;
 Fiscal Accounts;
 Maintenance of expenditure pattern of the Federal Government.
Inspectorate Department:
 Inspection of the accounting records, documents and books of Federal
Ministries, Departments and Agencies; to ensure compliance with rules
and regulations as well as checks for internal controls;
 Investigation of cases of fraud and losses of funds and stores in Federal
Ministries, Departments and Agencies;
 Permanent Board of Survey and Enquiry into Cash and Stores and cases
of loss of government funds and property in Federal Ministries;
 Losses Committee on cases and write-off of losses.
Audit Monitoring Department:

 Control and Supervision of the Pool of Internal Auditors in Federal
Ministries, Departments and Agencies
 Perform and Monitor all the Internal Audit duties in Federal Ministries
and Federal Pay Offices;
 Collate and analyze the internal Audit reports from all the Ministries
and Agencies.
Federal Treasury Academy, Orozo:

Running of training and manpower development programmes for
Accounts, Revenue and Audit Personnel in the Federal Civil Service.
Administration & Supplies Dept

 Appointments and Promotion;
 Discipline of all Accounts and Internal Audit staff in all the Federal
Ministries/Agencies;
 Supervision and control of the pool of Accountants, Internal Auditors
and Accounts Assistants in all the Federal Ministries, Departments and
Agencies;
 Manpower training and Development of all Audit and Accounts staff in
OAGF and the pool;
 Supplies and Maintenance Services.
FEDERAL PAY OFFICES IN THE STATE

 The Federal Pay Office in each state capital is required to provide a
Cash Pay Office and other Accounts Sections to cater for the Federal
Government financial transactions as well as the financial transactions
of branches of all the Federal Ministries, Departments and Agencies in
each state of the Federation. It also collects revenue into the Federation
Account and the Consolidated Revenue Fund Account of the Federal
Government. It is also required to disburse funds to all the Local
Governments in the Federation.
127
THE SUB-TREASURER OF THE FEDERATION

 The Sub-Treasury of the Federation operates the Consolidated Revenue
Fund Account of the Federal Government. It is this account that enjoys
the ways and Means (Overdraft) granted by the Central Bank of Nigeria
where there is insufficient Funds in the Account. The Sub-Treasury also
services non-self accounting units and agencies in Abuja.
Treasury with States

 The OAGF is responsible for:
 The computation and disbursement of the Statutory Revenue Allocation
to States and Local Governments from the Federation Account;
 Servicing Guaranteed External Loans and Development Loans Stock on
behalf of State Governments;
 The disbursement of non- statutory allocation such as grants to the states;
and
 Management Services on Government Financial Account.
The Functions Performed at MDAs

As stated in Government Financial Regulations Chapter 1 paragraph (10), the
functions of officers controlling expenditures are as follows:
 Ensure that adequate accounting and Internal control systems are in
existence as prescribed by or under the authority of the Accountant-
General of the Federation;
 Exercise supervision over the receipt of public revenue and ensure
prompt collection;
 Ensure that proper provision is made for safe-keeping of public monies,
securities, Stamps, receipts, tickets, licenses and valuable documents;
 Maintain checks to prevent occurrence of fraud, embezzlement and
carelessness;
 Promptly charge in his accounts under proper heads and subheads all
disbursement.
 Promptly prepare such financial statements are required by law or by
law or the Accountant-General of the Federation.
 See that books are correctly posted and kept up-to-date.
10.2 PREPARATION OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTS

The various sources from which information are obtained for the production of
the Federal Government Accounts are:
(a) Transcripts from the Ministries and Extra-Ministerial Departments.
(b) Accounts from the Federal Pay Offices, States and Local
(c) Accounts from the Nigeria High Commissions Overseas.
128
10.3 FINANCIAL STATEMENT DIVISION

This is the division that is charged with the responsibility of preparation, and
publication of monthly and annual statements of accounts. Specifically, Sections
13 (1) and 14 (1) of the Audit Act of 1956 and Section 24 of the Finance (Control
and Management ) Act require the Accountant – General of the Federation to
prepare and submit to the Auditor – General for the Federation the following
annual financial statements:
Presently, entities in Nigeria prepare the following GPFS:
 Cash flow Statement; No 1.0
 Statement of Assets and Liabilities - Statement No 2.0
 Statement of Consolidated Revenue Fund; No 3.0
 Statement of Capital Development Fund; No 4.0
 Notes to the Account;
 Performance Reports;
 Statistical Reports;
 Accounting Policies.
The above four statements are the major ones. However, the following notes
are also relevant:
Note on Treasury Bills;
Note on Special & Trust Funds;
Note on Other Loans and Investments
10.3.1 Note on National (Or Public) Debts

The Note on National Debt is divided into ‘internal’ and ‘external’
components. Internal debts are made up of Treasury Bills, Treasury
Certificates and Loan Stocks raised and retired within the country.
External debts comprise purchase of bills in the form of letters of credits
certified by the Federal Government. They constitute the bulk of the debts
owed to London and Paris Clubs. External debts also include money
borrowed from the IMF, World Bank, ADB and other foreign countries.
Cash flow Statement; No 1.0

Cash flow Statement (Statement of Receipts and Payments) is one of
the Statements required Cash IPSAS.
(a) The cash flow statement identifies the sources of cash inflows,
the items on which cash was expended during the reporting
period, and the cash balance as at the reporting date.
(b) Cash flows are basically reported under three (3) separate
activities as follows:
(i) Operating activities;
(ii) Investing Activities; and
(iii) Financing Activities.
(c) Cash flow of an entity must fall within the above three activities
129
STATEMENT NO. 1
GOVERNMENT OF NIGERIA
CASHFLOW STATEMENT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST DECEMBER, 20XX
ANNUAL ACTUAL PREVIOUS

BUDGET YEAR YEAR
20XX NOTES 20XX 20XX-1
N N N
CashFlows from Operating Activities:
Receipts:
XX Statutory Allocations:FAAC 1 XX XX
XX Value Added Tax Allocation 1 XX XX
Sub-total - Statutory Allocation XX XX
XX Direct Taxes 2 XX XX
XX Licences 2 XX XX
XX Mining Rents: 2 XX XX
XX Royalties 2 XX XX
XX Fees: 2 XX XX
XX Fines 2 XX XX
XX Sales 2 XX XX
XX Earnings : 2 XX XX
XX Sales/Rent of Government Buildings: 2 XX XX
XX Sale/Rent on Lands and Others: 2 XX XX
XX Repayments-General: 2 XX XX
XX Investment Income 2 XX XX
XX Interest Earned 2 XX XX
XX Re-imbursement 2 XX XX
Sub-total - Independent Revenue XX XX
XX Other Revenue Sources of the ———Government 3 XX XX
0.00 Total Receipts 0.00 0.00
Pa yme nts:
XX Personnel Costs (Including Salaries on CRF Charges): 4 XX XX
XX Federa/ States/ LGC Govt Contribution to Pension: 5 XX XX
XX Overhead Charges: 6 XX XX
XX Consolidated Revenue Fund Charges
(Incl. Service Wide Votes) 7 XX XX
XX Subvention to Parastatals: 8 XX XX
XX Other Operating Activities XX XX
xx Other Transfers XX XX
0.00 Total Payments 0.00 0.00
0.00 Net Cash Flow from Operating Activities 0.00 0.00
CashFlows from Investment Activities:

XX Capital Expenditure:Administrative Sector: 11 XX XX
XX Capital Expenditure: Economic Sector: 11 XX XX
XX Capital Expenditure: Law and Justice: 11 XX XX
XX Capital Expenditure:Regional Development 11 XX XX
130
XX capital expenditure: Social Service Sector: 11 XX XX

XX Capital Expenditure: Funded from Aid and Grants: 10 XX XX
0.00 Net Cash Flow from Investment Activities: 0.00 0.00
CashFlows from Financing Activities:

XX Proceeds from Aid and Grants 10 XX XX
XX Proceeds from External Loan : 19 XX XX
XX Proceeds from Internal Loans: FGN/Treasury Bonds : 20 XX XX
XX Proceeds from Internal Loan: NTBs etc 21 XX XX
XX Proceeds from Development of Nat Resources 23 XX XX
Proceeds of Loans from Other Funds 24 XX XX
-XX Repayment of External Loans ( Including Servicing) 19 -XX -XX
-XX Repayment of FGN/Treasury Bonds : 20 -XX -XX
-XX Repayment of Internal Loan-NTBs 21 -XX -XX
-XX Repayment of Loans from Development of
Nat Resources 23 -XX -XX
Repayment of Loans from Other Funds 24 -XX -XX
0.00 Net Cash Flow from Financing Activities: 0.00 0.00
Movement in Other Cash Equivalent Accounts

XX (Increase)/ Decrease in Investments XX XX
XX Net (Increase)/Decrease in Other Cash Equivalents: XX XX
0.00 Total Cashflow from other Cash equivalent Accounts 0.00 0.00
XX Net Cash for the year XX XX

XX Cash & Its Equivalent as at 1st January, 20XX XX XX
XX Cash & Its Equivalent as at 31st December, 20XX**** XX XX
The Accompanying Notes form part of these Statements
Name and Signature of —————————————————————————-
Accountant- General of the Federation/ Accountant-General of the State/ Local

Government Treasurer
**** Cash and cash Equivalent agree with Cash and Cash Equivalent in
Statement 2
Source: Federation Account Allocation Committee (FAAC) Sub- Committee on

the Road Map for Adoption of International Public Sector Accounting Standards
(IPSAS)
10.3.2 Statement No. 2 - Statement of Assets and Liabilities

True to its name, the Statement is the balance sheet of the Federal
Government. It highlights the various funds on the liability side, while
investments and cash held against the funds are shown on the asset
side. Comparative figures for the previous year are placed side-by-side.
The format of a balance sheet of Government prepared under the cash
basis is shown thus:
131
STATEMENT NO. 2
———GOVERNMENT OF NIGERIA
STATEMENT OF ASSETS AND LIABILITIES AS AT 31ST DECEMBER, 20XX
NOTE S CURRENT PREVIOUS
YEAR 20XX YEAR 20XX-1
N N
ASSETS:
Liquid Assets:-
Cash Held by AGF:
-CRF Bank Balance(CBN/ CRF Bank): XX XX
-Pension Account (CBN/ Bank): XX XX
-Other Bank of the Treasury XX XX
-Cash Balances of Trust & Other Funds of the
FGN/ States/LGC: 12 XX XX
-Cash Balances with Federal Pay Offices
/ Sub-Treasury: 13 XX XX
Cash Held by Ministries, Department &
Agencies:- 14 XX XX
TOTAL LIQUID ASSETS 0.00 0.00
Investments and Other Cash Assets:

Federal/ State/ Local Government Investments 15 XX XX
Imprests:- 16 XX XX
Advances:- 17 XX XX
Revolving Loans Granted:- 18 XX XX
Intangible Assets XX XX
TOTAL INVESTMENTS AND
OTHER CASH ASSETS 0.00 0.00
TOTAL ASSETS 0.00 0.00
LIABILITIES:
PUBLIC FUNDS
Consolidated Revenue Fund: XX XX
Capital Development Fund: XX XX
Trust & Other Public Funds: XX XX
Police Reward Fund XX XX
TOTAL PUBLIC FUNDS 0.00 0.00
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL LOANS

External Loans:FGN/States/ LGC 19 XX XX
FGN/ States/LGC Bonds & Treasury Bonds. 20 XX XX
Nigerian Treasury Bills (NTB) 21 XX XX
Development Loan Stock 22 XX XX
Other Internal Loans( Promissory Notes) 23 XX XX
Internal Loans from Other Funds 24 XX XX
TOTAL EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL LOANS 0.00 0.00
OTHER LIABILITIES
Deposits:- 25 XX XX
TOTAL LIABILITIES 0.00 0.00
132


(IPSAS)
10.4. STATEMENT NO. 3.0 - STATEMENT OF CONSOLIDATED REVENUE FUND

According to Section 80(1) of the 1999 Constitution all collections made by and
accruing to the Federal Government directly and allocations from the Federation
Account shall be lodged into the Consolidated Revenue Fund. The outflows from
this Fund are to meet:
(a) Recurrent expenditure.
(b) Transfers to Contingency Fund.
(c) Redemption of Treasury Bills.
(d) Transfers to Development Fund.
(e) Consolidated Revenue Fund charges.
10.4.1 Note on Recurrent Revenue

This shows the actual cumulative figures of revenues collected to the
end of the current period with comparative figures for the previous period.
A recurrent revenue item is collected from the Government’s day-to-day
activities. Examples are court fees, interest on fixed deposits and rent of
Government property.
10.4.2 Note on Recurrent Expenditure

The Statement contains the actual cumulative figures of recurrent
expenditures incurred to date, with comparative figures for the previous
year. Recurrent expenditures relate to the day-to-day disbursements to
run the administration of Local Government Councils, State and Federal
Governments. Examples are the salaries of Government workers,
electricity bills and maintenance of vehicles.
133
STATEMENT NO. 3
_________GOVERNMENT OF NIGERIA
STATEMENT OF CONSOLIDATED REVENUE FUND FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST
DECEMBER, 20XX
ACTUAL NOTES A C T U A L F IN A L I N I T I A L / SUPPLE VARI

PREVIOUS Y E A R B U D G E T O RI G I N A L M E N T A R Y A N C E
YEAR BUDGET BUDGET
ON
( 20XX - 1) 2OXX 20XX 20X X 20X X F IN A L
BUDGET
N N N N %
x x Opening Balance: xx
ADD: REVENUE
xx Statutory Allocations:FAAC 1 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Value Added Tax Allocation 1 xx xx xx xx xx
Sub-Total - Statutory Allocation xx xx
xx Direct Taxes 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Licences 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Mining Rents: 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Royalties 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Fees: 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Fines 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Sales 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Earnings : 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Sales/Rent of Government Buildings: 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Sale/Rent on Lands and Others: 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Repayment:General: 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Investment Income 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Interest Earned 2 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Re-Imbursements 2 xx xx xx xx xx
Sub-Total - Independent Revenue XX XX
xx Other Revenue Sources of

the _____Government 3 xx xx xx xx xx
0.00 TOTAL REVENUE: 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
LESS:EXPENDITURE
xx Personnel Costs
(Including Salaries on CRF Charges): 4 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Federa/ States/ LGC Govt
Contribution to Pension: 5 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Overhead Charges: 6 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Consolidated Revenue Fund Charges
(Incl. Service Wide Votes) 7 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Subvention to Parastatals: 8 xx xx xx xx xx
OTHER RECURRENT PAYMENTS/EXPENDITURE:

xx Repaymentss:External Loans:FGN/
States/ LGC 19 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Repayments:FGN/ States/LGC Bonds &
Treasury Bonds. 20 xx xx xx xx xx
134
xx Repayments :Nigerian
Treasury Bills (NTB) 21 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Repayments:Development Loan Stock 22 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Repayments:Other Internal Loans
(Promissory Notes) 23 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Repayments:Internal Loans from
Other Funds 24 xx xx xx xx xx
0.00 TOTAL EXPENDITURE: 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
xx OPERATING BAL ANCE: xx xx xx xx xx
APPROPRIATIONS/TRANSFERS:
xx Transfer to Capital Development Fund: 9 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Closing Balance: xx

Government Treasurer.

(IPSAS)
10.5 STATEMENT NO.4 - STATEMENT OF DEVELOPMENT FUND (OR CAPITAL

EXPENDITURE)
The Fund is meant to finance general capital projects such as the construction
of government hospitals. The inflows into the Fund include loans, grants from
foreign countries and releases from the Consolidated Revenue Fund. Although
the main statutory financial statements are eleven with eight supporting
statements and fourteen supporting sub-statements, the most important ones
among them are the five items on which comprehensive notes have been given
above. However, the statutory financial statements are summarized in a tabular
form, as follows:
135
STATEMENT NO. 4
___________GOVERNMENT OF NIGERIA
STATEMENT OF CAPITAL DEVELOPMENT FUND

FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST DECEMBER, 20xx
ACTUAL NOTES T O T A L F IN A L I N I T I A L / SUPPLE PERF

PREVIOUS CAPITAL BUDGET ORIGINAL MENTARY ORM
YEAR E XP EN - BUDGET BUDGET ANCE
DITURE ON
( 20XX - 1) 2O XX 20XX 20X X 20X X TOTAL
N N N N %
x x Opening Balance: xx
ADD: REVENUE
xx Transfer from Consolidated
Revenue Fund: 9 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Aid and Grants 10 xx xx xx xx xx
xx External Loans:FGN/States/ LGC 19 xx xx xx xx xx
xx FGN/ States/LGC Bonds &
Treasury Bonds. 20 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Nigerian Treasury Bills (NTB) 21 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Development Loan Stock 22 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Other Internal Loans
(Promissory Notes) 23 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Internal Loans from Other Funds 24 xx xx xx xx xx
0.00 TOTAL REVENUE AVAILABLE: 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 xx
LESS: CAPITAL EXPENDITURE

xx Capital Expenditure:
Administrative Sector: 11 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Capital Expenditure: Economic Sector: 11 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Capital Expenditure: Law and Justice: 11 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Capital Expenditure:Regional
Development 11 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Capital Expenditure:
Social Service Sector: 11 xx xx xx xx xx
xx Capital Expenditure: Funded from
Aid and Grants: 10 xx xx xx xx xx
0.00 TOTAL CAPITAL EXPENDITURE: 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Intangible Assets xx
CLOSING BALANCE: xx
Name and Signature of ————————————————————————

Source: Federation Account Allocation Committee (FAAC) Sub-Committee on the Road

Map for Adoption of International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS)
136
10.6 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter dealt with the final accounts prepared by the Accountant-General
of the Federation. The final accounts are usually divided into:
(a) Statement Number 1 - Statement of Cash Flows.
(b) Statement Number 2 - Statement of Assets and Liabilities.
(c) Statement Number 3 - Statement of Consolidated Revenue Fund.
(d) Statement Number 4 - Statement of Capital Development Fund.
Also discussed in this chapter are the rules and regulations guiding the
preparation of financial statements as contained in the International Public
Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS)

10.7.1 Questions
(1) ILUDUN Polytechnic had the following ledger balances in respect of Egu-
Awori Memorial Loan Fund as at 31 December, 2007:
DR CR
N’000 N’000
Cash 8,400
Loan Receivable 316,000
Investments 202,000
Fund Balance 526,400
526,400 526,400
During the year 2008, the following transactions took place:

(i) Investments costing N61,600,000 were sold for N63,800,000.
(ii) N61,400,000 cash was received from the repayment of loans.
(iii) N5,000,000 was received from the family of a former student in full
payment of a loan which had earlier been written off.
(iv) N83,600,000 was issued out as loan during the year.
(v) A loan of N1,500,000 was written off as un-collectable.
(vi) A contribution of N6,000,000 in cash was received as gift from a former
borrower.
Required:
(a) Open the ledger accounts and record the year 2008 transactions.
(b) Extract a trial balance and prepare the balance sheet of the Fund as at
31/12/2008.
(c) Prepare a statement of changes in the fund balance.
(2) The following balances have been extracted from the books of Akinyele
Local Government Treasury, for the month ended 31 March 200X:
137
N’000
Reserve Fund 33,500
Cash on hand 53,000
Bank Overdraft 5,700
Revenues (recurrent/capital) 158,500
Expenditures (recurrent/capital) 125,390
Loans 200,000
Deposits into (the L.G.C. Treasury) 23,450
Advances (granted by L.G.C.) 25,560
Investments 15,200
Suspense accounts 202,000
You are required to prepare a trial balance for the month ended 31 March
200X.
(3) The following balances were extracted from the books of DENGE POSE
STATE GOVERNMENT OF MANNA as at 31 December 2008:
2007 2008
N’000 N’000
644,997 Statutory allocation 4,841,017
119,102 Value Added Tax Collection 160,133
403,020 Internally Generated Revenue 498,843
58,256 Other Revenue 79,397
490,110 Personnel Cost 1,170,666
280,095 Overhead Cost 739,646
137,081 Consolidated Revenue Fund Charges 382,936
246,400 Other Capital Receipts 379,237
394,969 Capital Expenditure 2,753,553
591 Other Fund Deposits 591
28,288 Cash at Bank 69,604
67,799 Deposit with Banks 740,352
62,772 Investments 27,987
11,252 Advances 74,474
Additional Information provided:
The following amounts expended on Unfunded Internal Debt servicing have

been included in the Consolidated Revenue Fund Charges:
’000
2007 36,970
2008 45,364
Any surplus/deficit on Revenue Account is transferred to the Capital Account as
appropriate.
138
You are required to prepare:

(a) Recurrent and Capital Accounts.
(b) Statement of Assets and Liabilities for the year ended 31 December 2008.
(4) The following information was obtained from the records of the office of
the Accountant-General for the Federal Republic of Legacy for the year
ended 31 December 2013
2013 ¦ million 2012 ¦ million

Value Added Receipts 2,295,000 2,196,000
Miscellaneous Revenue 375,000 425,000
PIT- Direct Tax 10,500,000 7,200,000
Allocation for collection costs
(FIRS and Customs) 3,075,000 3,305,000
Personnel costs 7,200,000 9,600,000
Share Of Statutory Allocation 13,500,000 8,450,000
CRF Charges 2,250,000 3,750,000
Grants and subvention from foreign donors 75,000 87,000
Rent Of Federal Government Properties 285,000 295,000
Overhead Charges 1,500,000 1,200,000
Subvention to Parastatals 1,800,000 1,900,000
Sales of Federal Government Properties 375,000 485,000
Repayment of Loans 870,000 243,000
Purchases and Construction of
Non-Current Assets 2,500,000 2,700,000
Proceeds from Sales of Federal
Government Properties in Yenagoa 1,050,000
Purchases of Marketable Securities 500,000 300,000
Cash and Cash Equivalent 1 Jan. 2013 3,750,000 -
Proceeds from Loans and other Borrowings 3,000,000 1,000,000
Cash and Cash Equivalent 31 Dec. 2013 21,660,000 3,750,000
Prepare a Cash flow Statement for the year ended 31 December 2013 using the
Direct Method (Show Comparative figures)
139
(1) EGU-AWORI MEMORIAL LOAN FUND
(a) (i) Cash Account

N’000 N’000
Balance b/f 8,400 Loan Receivable A/C 83,600
Investment Disposal A/C 63,800
Loan Receivable A/C 61,400
Bad Debt Recovered A/C 5,000
Gift: Fund Balance 6,000 Balance c/d 61,000
144,600 144,600
Balance b/d 61,000
(ii) Loan Receivable Account

N’000 N ’000
Balance b/f 316,000 Cash Account 61,400
Cash A/C 83,600 Bad Debt recovered 1,500
Balance C/D 336,700
399,600 399,600
Balance b/d 336,700
(iii) Investment Account

N’000 N’000
Balance b/f 202,000 Investment Disposal A/c 61,600
Bal. c/d 140,400
202,000 202,000
Balance b/d N140,400
(iv) Fund Balance Account

N’000 N’000
Balance b/f 526,400
Cash Account 6,000
Investment Disposal A/C 2,200
Bal. c/d 538,100 Bad Debt Recovered A/c 3,500
538,100 538,100
Balance b/d 538,100
WORKINGS
(i) Investment Disposal Account
N’000 N’000
Investment Account 61,600 Cash Account 63,800
Fund Balance
(Profit on Disposal) 2,200
63,800 63,800
140
(ii) Bad Debt Recovered Account

N’000 N ’000
Loan Receivable Account 1,500 Cash Account 5,000
Transfer to Fund Balance 3,500 _____
5,000 5,000
(iii) Trial Balance as at 31/12/2008

DR CR
N’000 N’000
Cash 61,000
Loan Receivable 336,700
Investment 140,400
Fund Balance 538,100
538,100 538,100
(iv) Statement of changes in the Fund Balance

N’000 N’000
Balance b/f 526,400
Add: Gift received 6,000
Bad debt recovered 5,000
Profit on disposal of investment 2,200 13,200
539,600
Less: Bad debt written off 1,500
Balance carried forward 538,100
(2) AKINYELE LOCAL GOVERNMENT

TRIAL BALANCE AS AT 31 MARCH 200X
DR CR
N’000 N’000
Reserve Fund. 33,500
Cash on hand 53,000
Bank Overdraft 5,700
Revenue (Recurrent/Capital) 158,500
Expenditure (Recurrent/Capital) 125,390
Loans 200,000
Deposits into the L.Govt Treasury 23,450
Advances granted by the L. Govt 25,560
Investments 15,200
Suspense Account 202,000
421,150 421,150
141
(b) At the Level of Local Governments:

(i) A Declaration of Responsibility for the Financial Statements to
be issued and signed by the Treasurer of the Local Government
Council concerned, in accordance with the provisions of the
Finance (Control and Management) Act Cap 144 LFN 1990 (as
amended) and the generally accepted accounting practice.
(ii) Audit Certificate to be issued and signed by the Auditor-

General for Local Government, in accordance with the
provisions of the 1999 Constitution of Nigeria and generally
accepted auditing standards.
(iii) Statement No. 1: Cash Flow Statement.
(iv) Statement No. 2: Statement of Assets and Liabilities.
(v) Statement No. 3: Statement of Revenue and Expenditure.
(3) DENGE POSE STATE GOVERNMENT OF MANNA CONSOLIDATED

FINANCIAL STATEMENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 ST
DECEMBER 2008
CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

RECURRENT ACCOUNT
2007 2008
Recurrent Revenue N’000 N‘000
Statutory Allocation 644,997 4,841,017
Value Added Tax 119,102 160,133
Internally Generated Revenue 403,020 498,843
Other Revenue 58,256 79,397
(A) 1,225,375 5,579,390
Recurrent Expenditure
Personnel Cost 490,110 1,170,666
Overhead Cost 280,095 739,646
* Consolidated Revenue Fund Charges 137,081 382,936
(B) 907,286 2,293,248
Surplus/Deficit to Capital a/c. (A - B) 318,089 3,286,142
Capital Account:
Transfer from Recurrent Account 318,089 3,286,142
Other Capital Receipts 246,400 379,237
564,489 3,665,379
Capital Expenditure (394,969) (2,753,553)
Capital Development Fund c/f 169,520 911,826
142
*Internal Debt Servicing Component

of the Consolidated, Revenue
Fund Charges 36,970 45,364
STATEMENT OF ASSETS AND LIABILITIES

FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 DECEMBER 2008
2007 2008
LIABILITIES N(‘000) N(‘000)
Public Funds – C.R.F 169,520 911,826
Other Funds Deposit 591 591
170,111 912,417
ASSETS
Cash at Bank 28,288 69,604
Deposit with Banks 67,799 740,352
Investments 62,772 27.987
Advance 11,252 74,474
170,111 912,417
(4) FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF LEGACY
CASH FLOW STATEMENT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST DECEMBER
2013
Receipts 2013 2012
Share of Statutory Allocation 13,500,000 8,450,000
Value added tax 2,295,000 2,196,000
Personal Income Tax - Direct Tax 10,500,000 7,200,000
Allocation for Collection Cost 3,075,000 3,305,000
Grants and Subvention Received 75,000 87,000
Miscellaneous Revenue 375,000 425,000
Total Receipts 29,820,000 21,663,000
Payments
Personnel Costs 7,200,000 9,600,000
Consolidated Revenue Charges 2,250,000 3,750,000
Overhead Charges 1,500,000 1,200,000
Subvention to Parastatals 1,800,000 1,900,000
Total Payments 12,750,000 16,450,000
Net Cash Inflow From
Operating Activities 17,070,000 5,213,000
Cash Flow From Investing

Activities
Sales of Federal Govt. Properties
in Yenagoa 1,050,000
Purchases and Construction of
Non-Current Assets (2,500,000) (2,700,000)
Purchases of Marketable Securities (500,000) (300,000)
143
Sales of Government Property 375,000 485,000

Rent of Government Property 285,000 295,000
Net Cash Outflow from
Investing Activities (1,290,000) (2,220,000)
Cash Flow from Financing

Activities
Proceeds from Loans and other Borrowing 3,000,000 1,000,000
Repayment of loan (870,000) (243,000)
Net Cash Outflow from
Financing Activities 2,130,000 757,000
Net Increase in Cash and

Cash Equivalent 17,910,000 3,750,000
Cash and Cash Equivalent 1 January 3,750,000 _ -
Cash and Cash Equivalent
31 December 21,660,000 3,750,000
144
CHAPTER
Skills level
11
Stores and Stores Accounting

Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Stores Classification
4. Maximum and Minimum Levels
5. Cost of Stores
6. Stores Accounting
7. Storekeeper’s Record
8. Receipt of Stores
9. Payments for Stores
10. Transfers of Stores
11. Issues of Stores
12. Stores Issue for Manufacture or Conversion
13. Condemned Stores
14. Issue of Stores: on Payment
15. Functions of the Store Keeper
16. Procedures for Stores Procurement
17. Hand Over of Stores
18. Procedures for Reporting Loss of Stores
19. Accounting Treatment of Loss of Government Stores or Funds
20. Stock Taking
21. Board of Survey and Its Purpose
22. Board of Enquiry
23. Contents of the Board’s Report
24. Remission of Copies of the Board’s Reports
25. Action Taken on The Board of Enquiry’s Report
26. Chapter Review
27. Worked Examples
145
11
STORES AND STORES ACCOUNTING
1.0 PURPOSE
(a) explain the importance of store and store accounting;
(b) differentiate among different classification of Stores; and
(c) delineate the composition and functions of the Board of Survey and the
Board of Enquiry.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
According to Government Financial Regulations, “Stores include all moveable
property purchased with public funds or otherwise acquired by Government.”
Stores in Public Sector Accounting simply refer to stock of materials purchased

with Government money for official use. All purchases of and indents for stores
have to be authorised by the Officer controlling expenditure, and the local
purchase orders or indents signed by him.
The Accounting Officer is responsible for the loss of stores and other Government
property in his care. Stores control is an aspect of management. The framing
of the necessary systems and procedures is therefore a matter for the Ministries
and Extra-Ministerial Departments. The Treasury is interested only in the
existence of an effective system of internal control. The Accounting Officer is
therefore responsible for designing the measures to be adopted to ensure
adequate stock control and store accounting procedures which cover the receipts,
custody, issues and disposals of stores.
Each Ministry or Extra-Ministerial Department should maintain a stores guide,

which sets out in detail the approved procedures, and necessary instructions.
11.2 STORES CLASSIFICATION

For accounting purposes, stores are classified into two. These are: ‘Allocated
Stores’ and ‘Unallocated Stores’.
11.2.1 Allocated Stores

‘Allocated stores’ are stores the costs of which are chargeable direct to
and remain a charge to the sub-head of expenditure in which funds for
their purchase are provided for in the budget estimates. They may be
either purchased directly or obtained from the Unallocated stores’ stock.
146
They are taken on numerical charge and may be placed in an Allocated

Stores or put to immediate use.
11.2.2 Unallocated Stores

Unallocated Stores are those purchased for general stock rather than
for a particular work or service, for which the final vote of charge cannot
be stated at the time of purchase. The cost of purchase is debited to an
Unallocated Stores sub-head in the expenditure estimates. They are held
on charge by both value and unit and when issued for use, are charged
to the appropriate sub-head of expenditure as Allocated Stores. The
corresponding credit entry is made in the Unallocated Stores sub-head.
11.2.3 The Purposes of Unallocated Stores

Unallocated stores are acquired for the following purposes:
(a) Acquiring stores of a standard design and in constant demand.
(b) Saving storage space by holding minimum stock requirements,
to avoid ‘stock outs’.
(c) Making the stocks immediately available when required for a
project or service.
(d) Allowing the vote of the relative project, department or service to
be charged with the value of the stores when issues are made
from the unallocated stores.
(e) Reducing overall cost and maximising benefit.
11.2.4 Further Classification of Stores

The above two classifications of stores are further sub-divided into three
as follows:
(a) Non-expendable stores are of a permanent nature like plant and
machinery, motor vehicles, furniture, which have a considerable
number of years of serviceable life.
(b) Expendable stores are stores of a semi-permanent nature such
as shovels, paint-brushes and machetes which are of short period
of serviceable life.
(c) Consumable stores are those with items which, once used, cease
to exist as store items. Examples are soap and stationery.
11.3 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM LEVELS

The Accounting Officer has to fix the maximum and minimum levels of the
unallocated store holdings. He has to work out the re-order level for each item
of stores. Once fixed, the maximum limit of the value of the stores which may
be held in stock at any one time, may not be exceeded without the authority of
the Minister of Finance.
11.4 COST OF STORES

The cost of Unallocated Stores for accounting purpose is obtained, as follows:
147
(a) For imported stores - the invoice price (fob), freight inspection fees,
marine insurance and customs duty.
(b) For stores purchased locally - the full purchase price less discount, if
any.
Two other methods of arriving at the value at which stores are to be

taken on charge are:
11.4.1 Fixed Price Method

The arithmetic mean of the value of the items in stock and the known or
estimated price of the stores is taken and an approximate unit price is
picked. The hypothetical unit price will remain as a fixed valuation price
until there is a variation in the cost of a replacement.
11.4.2 Last Known Price Method

The articles may be taken on charge at the last known price when the
details of the full landed cost are not immediately available.
11.5 STORES ACCOUNTING

Store accounts are store ledger postings generated from store receipt vouchers.
As for Unallocated Stores, the vouchers and ledgers record quantities and values.
Storekeepers keep tally or bin cards only. They have no business with the store
ledgers.
A separate ledger has to be opened for each store item. Records of articles of
the same group should be kept in one ledger and items arranged in alphabetical
order. Store ledger items should be clearly indexed and properly kept. Receipts
into and issues out of stores should be posted daily or at the earliest practicable
time. Unserviceable and obsolete stores should be posted in separate ledgers.
Minimum Records to be maintained by each Ministry/Extra-Ministerial

Department and other arms of Government must include:
(a) Purchases Journal or Stores Cost Book
(b) Issues Journal or Stores Issues Summary
(c) Stores Ledger which must include an account for each category of store,
and a separate account for:
(i) Shortfalls and Excesses (or Price Adjustments)
(ii) Claims.
11.5.1Use of Shortfalls and Excesses Account or Price Adjustment

Account.
(a) To accommodate the differences between the total costs and the
fixed prices of issues
(b) To accommodate the value of stores found surplus.
(c) To accommodate the value of minor discrepancies of stores and
of goods short-landed or damaged when written-off.
148
(d) To accommodate the value of unserviceable stores written-off the

store ledger.
(e) To accommodate increase or decrease in the valuation of stocks
on a change of fixed price.
SHORTFALL AND EXCESSES ACCOUNT
Total Price Deficiencies Total Price Excesses
During the year xx During the year xx

Claims written off xx Transfer to unallocated stores-
Stores written off xx Deficiencies Sub-head xx
Revaluation of stores xx Revaluation of stores xx
Balance c/d xx __
xx xx
Balance b/d xx
CLAIMS ACCOUNT
Value of Claims b/f xx Claims met during the year xx

Value of Claims during Value of Claims abandoned and
the year xx written off:
Shortfall Account xx
Unallocated Stores
Deficiencies xx
__ Value of Claims c/d xx
xx xx
Note that claims are settlements received for damaged items in the case of
imported stores
11.6 STOREKEEPER’S RECORDS

The storekeeper should keep a separate tally card or bin card for each item in
the store to correspond with items recorded in the stores ledgers. A tally card
has to bear the relevant ledger folio, to facilitate reference. Tally cards should
be immediately available for entries and checking. Receipts and issues have
to be posted to the bin cards immediately the stores are physically received or
issued.
11.7 RECEIPT OF STORES

The sources of store items are from the following:
(a) Acquisitions through local purchase orders.
(b) Transfers from other stores.
(c) Converted or Manufactured goods.
(d) Acquisitions through letters of awards.
149
(e) Returned stores.

(f) Excess taken on charge
(g) Other avenues.
There must be efficient internal check in the ordering, collection of
deliveries and payment procedures.
11.8 PAYMENTS FOR STORES

The storekeeper has to certify that stores have been received and taken on charge
in the appropriate ledger. A payment voucher has to be supported with a copy
of the purchase order, invoice and a copy of stores receipt voucher issued by
the storekeeper.
Expendable and consumable stores obtained in small quantities for immediate

use (that is, not for stock) e.g., soap, brooms and uniforms, should be taken on
charge. A certificate should be inserted in the payment voucher to the effect
that the stores were required for immediate use and not taken on charge. For
some types of consumable stores, records of consumption may be necessary for
purposes of control and to guide against misappropriation, for example,
logbooks record the issues of liquid fuel for vehicles and the mileage covered.
11.9 TRANSFER OF STORES

Stores may be transferred from one warehouse to another. There should be
appropriate vouchers to ensure postings into the ledger. A stores transfer paper
is raised by the requisitioning store in duplicate, the original of which is
forwarded to the issuing store. A stores issue voucher in duplicate, one copy of
which will be receipted and returned, accompanies the stores transferred. The
second copy serves as a receipt voucher and is numbered and filed away.
11.10 ISSUES OF STORES

Requests for stores should be signed only by the officer authorized to incur
expenditure, or so authorized in the departmental stores instruction to do so.
The Officer has to ensure that funds are available. Demands must be made on
the prescribed stores requisition forms.
Stores requisition sheets and issue vouchers support all issues of stores. The
requisition are made in the prescribed forms, in ink or indelible pencils. Stores
Issue Vouchers are always prepared in duplicate. After issue, the storekeeper
will post his tally card at the actual time of issue.
11.11 STORES ISSUE FOR MANUFACTURE OR CONVERSION

Conversion Vouchers are used to evidence stores and materials issued within
the same store for conversion or manufacture. The original copy serves as an
issue voucher for the article after manufacture, after which it is returned to
store and taken on charge. Receipt and issue sides of the voucher show the
quantities and values, where necessary.
150
11.12 CONDEMNED STORES

Where a Board of Survey has condemned some items of stores and approval
given to write them off, a store issue voucher has to support the issue of the
stores, duly authenticated.
11.13 ISSUE OF STORES: ON PAYMENT

Government property must not be sold, except where specifically authorized
by the Minister of Finance. To arrive at the selling price, the cost of such stores
is made up of the gross cost (allocated store) or current issue price (Unallocated
Store) plus a ratable percentage store charge approved by the Minister. Stores
may be issued on the payment only of the appropriate selling price when the
Head of a Ministry or Extra-Ministerial Department is satisfied that such sales
are in the public interest.
Store Issue Vouchers take care of stores-on-payment releases, but such stores
will not be issued until the purchaser presents to the schedule officer, a Treasury
Receipt, for the payment on the stores and all associated additional costs,
including stores and transport charges. The Treasury Receipt number is entered
on the Store Issue Voucher. Where credit facility has been authorized, the store
issue voucher bears reference to the authority.
11.14 FUNCTIONS OF THE STORE KEEPER

(a) Maintenance of proper books of accounting records to timely reflect the
transactions.
(b) Diligent arrangement of the store.
(c) Ensuring cleanliness of the store.
(d) Invitation of purchase requisitions from the needy department.
(e) Collection of store items from the supplier to ensure that the items
supplied agree with the specification, and the agreed price stated on
the Local Purchase Order (LPO).
(f) Updating the bin or tally cards.
(g) Issuing of items out of the store, on the strength of properly authenticated
store requisitions.
(h) Preparation of store receipt and issue vouchers.
(i) Ensuring that there is adequate security over the custody of the store
materials.
11.15 PROCEDURES FOR STORES PROCUREMENT

Upon receipt of the purchase requisition initiated by the Store Keeper or
authorized Department, the Purchasing Department will:
(a) Obtain approval for the purchase of the items from the Officer controlling
the vote.
(b) Carry out a market survey or obtain quotations/tenders from prospective
suppliers.
(c) Indicate a closing date for submission of tenders.
(d) Constitute a Contract Tenders’ Board, after the closing date.
151
(e) Issue Local Purchase Orders to the contractors for the supply of the goods
within the time frame agreed.
The duty of the Tenders Board is to determine the lowest bidder and recommend
award of the contract accordingly. The Head of Department is to approve the
recommendation of the Board.
11.16 HANDING OVER OF STORES

When an officer hands over the custody of stores to another, the in-coming Officer
will ensure that the physical count agrees with the figures shown in the bin
cards/store ledger. If there are no differences, both officers will jointly sign a
certificate or Store Form 10.
However, in the absence of the outgoing Officer, a Stock Verifier or Board of

Survey may have to check and do the handing over to the in-coming Officer.
The out-going Officer is answerable for any discrepancy reported at the time of
hand-over while the in-coming Officer will account for any deficiency not
discovered at the time of hand over, but which was later uncovered.
11.17 PROCEDURES FOR REPORTING LOSS OF STORES

Loss of stores may be written off under the personal authority of the Accounting
Officer, provided that:
(a) The original cost of each item is not more than N5,000 and the total sum
of the value of the items does not exceed N20,000.
(b) There is no weakness in the internal control system.
(c) There is no evidence of fraud or theft.
(d) Where negligence is involved, the offending Officer has been disciplined
according to the laid down rules and regulations.
11.17.1 Actions to be Taken by the Store Keeper (Officer In-Charge)

In the event of any loss of Government store, the officer in charge of the
store should:
(a) Report to the Head of Department.
(b) Report to the nearest Police station, if there is any possibility of
fraud or theft.
(c) Initiate action on Treasury Form, 146 “Report on Loss of Funds or
Stores”. The Officer will complete part I of the form and forward
it to the Head of Department.
(d) Ensure that if there are weaknesses in the internal control system,
immediate action is taken to prevent a re-occurrence of the loss.
11.17.2 Actions to be Taken by the Head of Department

On receipt of the report of loss of store, the Head of Department will:
(a) Forward brief details of the loss to the Accounting Officer of the
Ministry.
152
(b) Investigate the loss and complete parts II & III of Treasury Form
146.
(c) Recommend, to the Accounting Officer, the convening of a Board
of Enquiry where the circumstances warrant an investigation.
(d) Ensure that if there is weakness in the internal control system,
measures are taken to plug the existing loopholes.
(e) Obtain copies of Police report or court proceeding and transmit
them to the Accounting Officer of the Ministry.
11.17.3 Actions to be Effected by the Accounting Officer

Upon receipt of the report of the loss, the Accounting officer will proceed,
as follows:
(a) If the loss is not significant, complete part IV of the Treasury Form
146 and transmit a copy each to the underlisted officers:
(i) The Accountant-General.
(ii) The Auditor-General.
(iii) The Head of the Accounts Department/Section
(b) However, if the loss is material, the Accounting Officer will:

(i) Forward brief details of the loss to the Accountant-General
and the Auditor-General, for necessary follow-up.
(ii) Convene a Board of Survey, where the circumstances call
for such an investigation.
(iii) Recommend the suspension of the Officer concerned,
where the circumstances call for a disciplinary action.
(iv) Examine critically the full details of the loss and inform
the Accountant-General, the Auditor-General and the
Federal Civil Service Commission, through a letter
accompanied with the police report and Treasury Form
146.
(v) Review the internal control system and tighten loose ends.
(vi) Recoup the loss as stipulated by procedures.
11.17.4 Actions to be Taken by the Accountant-General

On receipt of the report of the loss, the Accountant-General will ensure
that:
(a) The Accounting Officer has followed full procedures.
(b) An Accounts Officer or Internal Auditor is a member of the Board
of Enquiry set up to investigate the loss.
(c) Adequate measures are taken to correct all lapses in the internal
control system.
(d) All practical measures are taken to recoup the loss.
153
11.18 ACCOUNTING TREATMENT OF LOSS OF GOVERNMENT STORES OR

FUNDS
The type of accounting entries required for the treatment of a loss will depend
on its nature, the date of the transaction which resulted in the loss, the date on
which it arose and the date of passing the necessary entries.
ILLUSTRATION 11-1
The sum of 600,000 was fraudulently paid for the upkeep of Government
property, instead of 400,000, on 4th January, year 2008. The discovery of this
over-payment was made on 6/6/2008.
The suggested adjusting entries are:
D ate P articu lars DR CR

N N
4/1/2008 Upkeep of Govt. Property 600,000
Cash Account 600,000
Being payment for the upkeep of govt. property
6/6/2008 Advances Non-Personal 200,000
Upkeep of govt. property 200,000
Being discovery of overpayment of N200,000.
NOTE: The loss will be kept in the advances non-personal account, pending the outcome
of the investigation by the Board of Enquiry. Readers should also note that the discovery of
the loss on 6/6/2008 has not resulted in actual receipt of cash from the fraudsters.
11.19 STOCK TAKING

The Accounting Officer has to ensure the periodic check of store account balances.
A Stock Verifier could undertake this. However, if the services of a Stock Verifier
are not available, the Accounting Officer will apply to the Federal Ministry of
Finance for the appointment of a Board of Survey.
Stocktaking should be carried out at least once a year. A Board of Survey is

required to inspect a minimum of 40 per cent of stock categories, but if a serious
discrepancy is found or suspected, a hundred per cent (100%) inspection should
be made. The storekeeper should not be privy to the programme and the
proposed dates for the stocktaking of items selected for verification. The items
should include all categories of stock, especially those in general demand, or
which are attractive in nature. The Stock Verifier appointed should vary the
timing of the items.
Operations Research has introduced a new device in stocktaking procedures

which will determine by statistical sampling, out of the population of a range
of stores, the number of items with contrary discrepancies. The acceptable level
is based statistically on past experience. If the shortfalls revealed exceed the
acceptable standard, the full range is subjected to thorough searchlight.
154
11.19.1 Closure of Store during a Survey

Where store is closed while a Board of Survey goes into action.
Issues will not be made without the sanction of the President of
the Board of Survey who countersigns the Store Issue Voucher.
The Auditor-General has the power, where he has a reason, to
call upon the Extra-Ministerial Department or Ministry to take
stock, in the presence of his officers. Normal stocktaking should
be carried out by at least two Officers, none of whom should be
from the store keeping staff. Where the services of a Stock Verifier
could be secured, another person should assist him. Both of them
should be provided with the lists of ledger headings, on which to
enter the quantities found. They should have no access to the
ledger balances. It is the duty of the Stores Officer to enter the
ledger balances. Stock balances found on stocktaking should be
compared with the corresponding store account balances at the
earliest possible moment. Discrepancies should be investigated
immediately to arrive at the correct stock figures.
11.19.2 Procedures for Store Survey/Stock-Taking

The procedures are:
(a) Instruct the Storekeeper to update entries in the bin cards
for all receipts and issues of materials up to the point of
closure of the store.
(b) Make physical count of the stock of sampled items of each
category.
(c) Note physical count on the survey sheet.
(d) Compare the physical stock count with the tally card
balance and the stock balance as shown in the store
accounts.
11.20 BOARD OF SURVEY AND ITS PURPOSE

(a) What a Survey is and justifications for existence.
The term “Survey” can be defined as a “general view”; or the act of
looking over something carefully. In Government Accounting, “survey”
refers to a situation where one Officer or a group of Officers are charged
with the responsibility of making the examination of something and
submitting a report on it thereafter. A Board of Survey on cash and bank
is made up of members appointed by the Accountant-General to
ascertain the balances to be surrendered by each Ministry or Extra-
Ministerial Department at the end of each financial year. Surprise Boards
of Survey may emerge on cash imprests and account.
(b) Classes of Boards of Survey:

Boards of Survey can be classified into:
(i) Survey of cash and bank balance
155
(ii) Survey of stamps balance

(iii) Survey of stores, plant, buildings and equipment.
11.20.1 The Convener of a Board of Survey on Cash/Bank Balances,

Stamps and Imprest Amount/Accounts
A Board of Survey is convened by the Accountant-General of the
Federation, mostly at the end of each financial year.
11.20.2 Composition of the Board of Survey

A Board shall consist of three Officers, including the President and not
less than two members. The President of each Board should hold a post
in grade level 08 or higher. Other members of the Board should not be
below Grade Level 06. Where it is not possible, one member of the Board
may be appointed, but reasons for this have to be clearly stated on the
Survey Report.
11.20.3 Procedural Activities for the Conduct of Surveys

It is very important for the Board members to report early, ahead of the
official opening time, at the point of survey, to ensure that no transactions
takes place.
Each Board should take the following procedures:

(a) Check the cash and stamp register by casting the entries for the
last month of the year and comparing the balance at hand with
one disclosed by the record.
(b) Ensure that for a bank account, a certificate of bank balance is
obtained and reconciled with the one shown in the cash book.
(c) Ensure that all currency notes and coins (if any) are counted and
denominated.
(d) Certify the cash and bank balance on both the original and
duplicate copies of the cash book.
(e) Bring any surplus disclosed to account in the cash book as a credit
to Revenue Head. Any shortage must be made good. A serious
shortage should be reported to the Accountant-General.
(f) On completion of the survey, a report is rendered in triplicate on
treasury form 42 and the certificate signed by all members of
the Board. Copies of the report are transmitted to the Auditor-
General and Accountant-General.
11.20.4 Contents of Survey Reports

The Report of the Board of Survey on cash and stamps are usually
embodied in Treasury Form 42. The report of Survey on unserviceable
stores, plant and buildings or equipment is embodied in Treasury Form
147.
156
11.21 BOARD OF ENQUIRY
11.21.1 Definitions
A ‘Board’ can be defined as a group of one or more persons set up for a
specific purpose. The word “enquiry ” means a “question”, an
“investigation” as to make inquiries about something; to hold an official
inquiry (into....). These two separate definitions put together therefore
suggest a situation in which one or more persons are constituted into a
Board to conduct an investigation.
11.21.2 Circumstances which warrant setting up a Board of Enquiry

In the Public Service, an enquiry may be set up to investigate the
circumstances leading to an abnormality such as a loss of fund or stores.
In considering whether a Board of Enquiry should be held, evaluation is
always given to the following points:
(a) If fraud could have taken place.
(b) If the loss is significant.
(c) If the fraud or loss has taken place through a syndicate.
(d) If the responsibility of officers is not well spelt out.
(e) If the loss took place systematically, over time.
The Board of Enquiry should invariably be invited in the cases

enumerated above.
11.21.3 When is a Board of Enquiry not necessary?

A Board of Enquiry may not be necessary in the following developments:
(a) If the loss involves small amount of money.
(b) If it is peculiar and ‘one-of’ item.
(c) If the officer responsible can be located and identified.
11.21.4 Terms of Reference

Whenever a Board of Enquiry is set up, the Agency which constitutes it
should stipulate the relevant terms on which the Board is to draw
searchlight. This act is referred to as drawing “Terms of Reference”,
copies of which are to be made available to the Permanent Secretary of
the Ministry concerned or the Head of the Extra Ministerial Department
as the case may be; the Accountant-General, Federal Ministry of Finance,
Secretary Federal Civil Service Commission and the Auditor-General for
the Federation.
11.21.5 The Convener of the Board of Enquiry

Whenever a loss of fund occurs, the Head of the Division, where the officer
concerned is serving will:
(a) Transmit brief information of the case to his Permanent Secretary
or Head of Extra-Ministerial Department.
157
(b) Carry out an investigation into the whole incident at the earliest
possible moment and complete Parts II and III of Treasury Form
146, forwarding one copy to each of the following officers:
(i) The Permanent Secretary of his Ministry.
(ii) The Accountant-General of the Federation.
(iii) The Auditor-General for the Federation, and
(iv) The Secretary, Federal Civil Service Commission.
(c) Evaluate whether or not a Board of Enquiry is necessary. If so, he
will request the Secretary, of the Permanent Board of Survey and
Enquiry based in the Federal Ministry of Finance, to convene a
Board.
11.21.6 Composition of the Board

The Board of Enquiry shall be made up of two or more members. From
experience, three members may constitute the Board. The President
shall not be less than a level 08 Officer. Other members should not be
lower than level 06 Officers. Where there is only one person elected to
serve as a ‘Board’ the facts of this case have to be furnished in his report.
11.21.7 Procedure of Board of Enquiry

The Board may meet at its earliest convenient time. Where the Police
personnel are involved, the final recommendations of the Board will
take into consideration the outcome of court proceedings or Police
investigation.
Although it is difficult for the Board to examine any person against whom
a criminal charge is outstanding. It is imperative for the Accountant-
General of the Federation apprised with the information relating to the
loss, urgently, so that any weakness in the accounting system may be
plugged. Ideally, evidence admitted by the Board, should be recorded
verbatim. Where impracticable, the evidence is summarized by the
Board in such a way as to effectively communicate the facts of the case.
11.22 CONTENTS OF THE BOARD’S REPORT

The contents of the Enquiry shall include the following:
(a) A statement on the exact amount of loss incurred.
(b) Expression of idea as to whether or not the accounting system was faulty
and suggestions as to any remedy which may be instituted in the peculiar
circumstance.
(c) Recommendations for improving the physical security measures, to
remove current inadequacy.
(d) Recommendations for the evaluation of the extent of negligence of the
Officers who are responsible for the loss.
158
11.23 REMISSION OF COPIES OF THE BOARD’S REPORTS

The President of the Board of Enquiry is responsible for transmitting five copies
of proceedings and reports. Where practicable copies of supporting documents
such as, Police reports and Court proceedings have to be forwarded to each of
the following:
(a) The Permanent Secretary of the Ministry or Head of Extra-Ministerial
Department;
(b) The Accountant-General of the Federation;
(c) The Secretary, Federal Public Service Commission; and
(d) The Auditor-General for the Federation.
11.24 ACTION TAKEN ON THE BOARD OF ENQUIRY’S REPORT

On the receipt of the Board’s report, the Permanent Secretary or Head of Extra-
Ministerial Department concerned will collate all information and urgently
submit his comments to the following persons:
(a) The Accountant-General of the Federation.
(b) The Secretary, Federal Public Service Commission, and
(c) The Auditor-General for the Federation.
His comments have to include the pinning down of responsibility for the
loss and the amount, if any, to be surcharged.
11.25 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter discussed stores and store accounting, with clear distinctions
between Allocated and Unallocated Stores. It also looked at Expendable, Non-
Expendable and Consumable Stores. The chapter concluded by examining the
responsibilities of the Board of Survey and Board of Enquiry.
11.26. WORKED EXAMPLES
11.26.1 Questions
(1) The following information relate to the receipts of packets of stencils in
the Central Store of Ogos State University, in the month of July, 20xx:
Date Action Supplier/Dept SIV/SRV No. Qty Price

1-Jul Balance — — 1160 —
3-Jul Issues Health Education 371 112 —
3 “ Issues Economics 373 220 —
5 “ Issues French 285 72 —
6 “ Purchases Ola Bookshop 778 200 56
10 “ Issues History 490 150 —
13 “ Issues Chemistry 497 240 —
16 “ Purchases Odus Bookshop 2840 600 58
18 “ Issues Yoruba 514 230 —
21 “ Issues Medicine 532 280 —
26 “ Issues Accounting 540 150 —
30 “ Purchase Olu Bookshop 2016 1000 60
31 “ Issues Sociology 570 360 —
159
Required:
Enter the information on the Bin Card.
(2) The Board of Survey of NEPAGAU Local Government Council has been
directed to inspect its store.
(a) Itemise the procedures of inspection to be adopted by the Board
of Survey.
(b) ‘’Internal control comprises the plan of the organisation and all
the co-ordinate measures and methods adopted to achieve certain
objectives.’’ List four objectives which underlie the reasoning.
(3) Financial Regulations define stores as all moveable property purchased

with public funds or otherwise acquired by government.
(a) What are the three sub-divisions of Allocated and unallocated
stores?
(b) What are the methods of arriving at the value at which stores are
to be taken on charge?
(4) (a) What circumstances would warrant the setting up a Board of

Enquiry?
(b) Give the contents of a Board of Enquiry’s Report?
160
(1) OGOS STATE UNIVERSITY

BIN CARD FOR THE MONTH OF JULY, 20XX
Date Particulars SIV,SRV & Receipt Issue Balance

Other QTY QTY QTY
Invocies
July 1 Balance B/F 1160
" 3 Issue to Health Education 37171 112 1048
" 3 Issue to Economics 37273 220 828
" 5 Issue to French Class 38585 72 756
" 6 Purchases from Olu bookshop. 778
7778 200 956
" 10 Issue to History. 0490 490 150 806
" 13 Issue to Chemistry 0494 497 240 566
" 16 Purchases from Odus Bookshop. 28402840 600 1166
" 18 Issue to Yoruba 0510514 230 936
" 21 Issue to Medicine 0530 532 280 656
" 26 Issue to Accounting 0540 540 150 506
" 30 Purchases from Ola Bookshop 20162016 1000 1,506
" 31 Issue to Sociology 0570570 360 1146
(2) (a) Procedures for Inspection by the Board of Survey:

(i) The books are to be closed up to the date of verification.
(ii) Physical count of the stock of each category of store.
(iii) Check whether each is still serviceable or not.
(iv) Check the result of the physical count with the balances on the
bin cards and the stores ledger.
(v) Schedule those items that have deficiencies and those not
serviceable.
(vi) Cross-check postings into the stores ledger.
(vii) Examine the records of payments for store purchases.
(viii) Cross-check the receipt vouchers used to bring store receipts on
charge on tally cards.
(ix) Initial stores ledger entries.
(x) Prepare and submit report attaching all relevant forms as
required by the financial memoranda.
2(b) Objectives of Internal Control

(i) Safeguarding of an organization’s assets.
(ii) Checking the accuracy and reliability of its accounting records.
(iii) Promotion of operational efficiency.
(iv) Encouraging adherence to prescribed managerial practice.
(v) Prevention and detection of errors and frauds.
161
3(a) The three sub-divisions of Allocated and Un-allocated stores are:

(i) Non-expendable stores: These are stores of a permanent nature
like plant and machinery, motor-vehicles, furniture etc which have
a considerable numbers of serviceable life.
(ii) Expendable stores: These stores are of a semi-permanent

nature. Examples of expendable stores will include shovels, paint-
brushes and matches which are of short period of serviceable
life.
(iii) Consumable stores: are those stores with items which, once
used, cease to exist as store items. Examples of consumable stores
and soap and stationery.
3(b) The methods of arriving at the value at which stores are to be taken on
charge are as follows:
(i) The fixed price method: The arithmetic mean of the value of
the items in stock and the known or estimated price of the stores
is taken and an approximate unit price is picked. The
hypothetical unit price will remain as a fixed valuation price
until there is a variation in the cost of replacement.
(ii) Last known price method: The articles may be taken on charge
at the last known price when details of the full landed cost are
not immediately known.
4(a) The circumstances that would warrant the setting up a board of enquiry
are as a result of the following evaluation:
(i) If fraud could have taken place;
(ii) If the loss reported is a high magnitude;
(iii) If the fraud or loss has taken place through a syndicate;
(iv) If the responsibility of officers is not clearly spelt out;
(v) If the loss took place systematically, overtime.
4(b) The content of a Board of Enquiry’s Report are:

(i) A statement on the exact amount of loss sustained or involved;
(ii) Expression of ideas as to whether or not the accounting system
with faulty; suggestions to any remedy which may be instituted
in the peculiar circumstance;
(iii) Recommendations for improving the physical security measure,
to remove current inadequacy;
(iv) Recommendations for the evaluation of the extend of negligence
of the officers who are responsible for the loss.
162
CHAPTER
Skills level
12
Accounting Requirements for the

Local Government
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Local Government Organisational Set-up
4. Sources of Revenue of Local Government Council
5. Assessment of Tenement Rates
6. Statutory Allocation
7. Administration of Local Government Council
8. The Council Legislature
9. Council Clerk
10. Appointment of Supervisors
11. Types of Expenditure Incurred by the Local Government Council
12. The Typical Local Government Council Final Accounts
13. Accounting Policy Peculiar to Local Government Councils
14. Financial Control of Local Government Councils
15. Problems/Limitations of Local Government Councils
16. Local Government Council’s Spending Limit
17. Objectives of Grants-in-aid System
18. Fee Charging Policies in Local Government Councils
19. Distribution of the Federation Account
20. Budgeting and Budgetary Control
21. Chapter Review
22. Worked Examples
163
12
ACCOUNTING REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT
12.0 PURPOSE
(a) identify the functions and sources of revenue of a Local Government
Council;
(b) delineate the roles and functions of the Principal Officers of a Local
Government Council;
(c) classify the expenditures of a Local Government Council; and
(d) describe the financial control processes in a Local Government Council.
.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The Local Government is the ‘third-tier’ Administration in Nigeria. However,
State Governments have considerable influence over the Local Government
Councils whose functions are stated in the Fourth Schedule of the 1999
Constitution, as follows:
(a) The consideration of economic planning and the making of
recommendations to State Commission on the development of the Local
Government areas.
(b) Establishment and maintenance of cemeteries, burial grounds and
homes for destitutes or the infirmed.
(c) Licensing of bicycles, trucks, motor cars, etc.
(d) Establishment and maintenance of markets, car parks and public
conveniences.
(e) Construction and maintenance of roads, streets, drain, parks and other
public facilities prescribed by the State Legislature.
(f) Naming of roads and numbering of houses.
(g) Provision and maintenance of public conveniences and facilities for
refuse disposal.
(h) Registration of deaths, births and marriages.
(i) Control and regulation of outdoor advertising, movement and keeping
of pets, shops, kiosks, restaurants and other places for sale of food to the
public and laundries.
(j) Licensing regulation and control of sale of liquor.
(k) In addition, Local Government Councils in conjunction with the State
Governments, make
(i) Provision for primary education.
164
ACCOUNTING REQUIREMENTS FOR THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT
(ii) Provision for primary health care services.

(iii) Provision for rural water supply.
(iv) Provision for rural feeder road.
(l) All such other functions as may be conferred on a Local Government

Council by the House of Assembly of the State.
12.2 LOCAL GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONAL SET-UP
THE ORGANOGRAM OF A TYPICAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL
12.3 SOURCES OF REVENUE OF A LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL

The sources of revenue of a Local Government Council can be classified into
three groups, viz:
(a) Statutory Sources of Revenue;
(b) Permissive Sources of Revenue; and
(c) Incidental Sources of Revenue.
12.3.1 Statutory Sources of Revenue

(a) Statutory allocations from the Federation Account. 20.60% of the
federally collected revenue accrue to the Local Government
Councils, paid directly by the Federal Government.
(b) 10% of the State’s internally generated revenue.
(c) Fees and other charges imposed by the Council under its
instrument of creation and Acts of Parliament promulgated from
time-to-time.
165
12.3.2 Permissive Sources of Revenue

According to Act No. 21 of 1998, Local Government Councils may collect
the following taxes and levies, only:
(a) Shop and kiosk rates.
(b) Tenement rates.
(c) On and Off Liquor fees.
(d) Slaughter slab fees.
(e) Marriage, birth and death registration fees.
(f) Naming of street registration fees, excluding any street in the
State Capital.
(g) Right of Occupancy fees on land in the rural areas, excluding
those collectable by the Federal and State Governments.
(h) Market taxes and levies, excluding any market where State
finance is involved.
(i) Motor park levies.
(j) Domestic animal licence fees.
(k) Bicycle, truck, canoe, wheelbarrow and cart fees, other than a
mechanically propelled truck.
(l) Cattle tax payable by cattle farmers only.
(m) Merriment and road closure levies.
(n) Radio and television licence fees (other than on radio and
television transmitter).
(o) Vehicle radio licence fees (to be imposed by the Local Government
Council of the State in which the car is registered).
(p) Wrong parking charges.
(q) Public convenience, sewage and refuse disposal fees.
(r) Customary burial ground permit fees.
(s) Religious places establishment permit fees.
(t) Signboard and advertisement permit fees.
12.3.3 Incidental Sources of Revenue

(a) Proceeds from economic projects undertaken, such as farming.
(b) Grants from the Federal or State Government.
(c) Investment incomes, e.g. interest and dividends received.
(d) Proceeds of sale of seized goods, boarded vehicles, etc.
(e) Donations.
12.4. ASSESSMENT OF TENEMENT RATES

Every tenement rate collection is assessed, in the following two major ways:
(a) Annual value method
(b) Capital value approach.
12.4.1 Annual Value Method

This is the rent which a tenant might be willing to pay, if he undertakes
to meet the cost of repair, insurance and other expenses. The rate is 70%
of the rent.
166
12.4.2 Capital Value Method

This is the price which a purchaser might reasonably be expected to
give for the property, excluding machinery in the building. The rate is
1% of the price.
12.5 STATUTORY ALLOCATION

The statutory allocation of money to the Local Government Councils by the
Federal and State Governments is covered by the Revenue Allocation Act of
1982. This Act was amended in 1986, 1988 and 1989.
Paragraph 162(3)(5) of the 1999 Constitution lends weight to the extant laws
earlier cited. Up to 31/12/91, 15% of the collections in the Federation Account
accrued to the Local Government Councils. As from 1 January, 1992 the
allocation rate rose to 20% and from
Each State Government, by virtue of paragraph 162(7) of the 1999 Constitution,

pays 10% of its internally generated revenue to the Joint Local Government
Council Account, to be shared among the Local Government Councils under the
State’s supervision. Such revenue is shared, based on a number of
considerations such as population and level of development.
12.6 ADMINISTRATION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCILS

The Local Government Council are administered by both the Executive and
Legislative arms of government.
The Executive arm is made up of the following:
(a) The Chairman;
(b) The Vice - Chairman;
(c) Supervisors;
(d) Treasurer;
(e) Secretary and
(f) Head of Personnel Management.
12.6.1 Chairman as Accounting Officer

The Guidelines on the Civil Service Reforms describe a Local Government
Council Chairman as the Chief Executive and Accounting Officer. As such,
he alone initiates all decisions relating to finance and accounts. He
presides over Council meetings and is entitled to cast a vote in the event
of an election.
An ambitious and authoritarian Chairman could use his influence and

political party Councillors to get through his financial decisions, whether
or not such decisions are in the interest of the citizenry. The basis,
rationale, and logic of separating the Executive from the Legislative
Arms, according to the Federal Government, is to enhance the system of
checks and balances in the presidential system. By the promulgation of
167
the Basic Constitutional and Transitional Provisions (Amendment) Decree

Number 3 of 1991, all the elected Councillors are constituted into the
Legislature and could choose a leader of the Council Assembly whose
role is synonymous with that of the Speaker of the State House of
Assembly.
The major functions carried out by a Local Government Chairman are as

follows:
(a) Management of the Local Government Council for proper
development.
(b) Preparation and execution of the budget.
(c) Managing the community efforts on development.
12.6.2 Vice-Chairman and Supervisors

Section 4 of Act No. 23 of 1991 states as follows:
“The executive power of the Local Government shall be exercised by the
Chairman of a Local Government Council and may, subject to the
provisions of the Edict or Law of the State, be exercised by him, either
directly or through the Vice-Chairman or Supervisors of the Local
Government. In the absence of the Chairman, the Vice-Chairman takes
over. However, the Chairman is expected to assign duties to the Vice-
Chairman. Where the Vice-Chairman is also appointed as a Supervisor,
he has to perform the functions relating to that other portfolio also”.
Supervisors are expected to be closely involved in the management of

their respective Departments, but are not allowed to interfere in the
internal affairs. By paragraph 30 of the 1976 Guidelines on the Reforms
of the Local Government, Supervisors perform the following functions:-
(a) As the political Heads of Departments, they are Vote Controllers
and are accountable to the Council Chairman.
(b) They are members of the Cabinet of the Local Government Council
and automatic members of the Finance and General Purposes
Committee.
(c) Supervisors give directives to the executive Heads of Departments
on general policy issues. They do not interfere in the day-to-day
running of the departmental affairs.
(d) They assist the Chairman in supervising the execution of Local
Government Council projects under their purview.
12.6.3 Treasurer
A Local Government Treasurer office is established by law and is
empowered to control and manage the Council’s finances. The functions
of Local Government Council Treasurer, as contained in the Civil Services
and Local Government Reform of 1988, include:
(a) Rendering financial advice to the Council;
168
(b) Serve as the Secretary to the Budget Committee;

(c) Receiving and disbursing money for the authorized ends;
(d) Keeping proper accounting records of money collected or utilized;
(e) Verifying the accuracy and integrity of all accounting records;
(f) Ensuring compliance with all financial instructions or laws for
safe custody of the Council money;
(g) Ensuring that vouchers are correctly made out and that funds
are available in the appropriate vote of charge;
(h) Rendering necessary contemplated statutory returns to the State
and Federal Governments;
(i) Ensuring that all revenue belonging to the Council are collected
as at when due;
(j) Ensuring that fiscal policies are executed and expenditure
incurred with due diligence;
(k) Maintaining effective run and staffed financial operations;
(l) Keeping up to date statistical information in such a form as will
enhance the submission of prompt and accurate reports;
(m) Submitting recommendations to the Council’s in his capacity as
the financial adviser;
(n) Serving as a signatory to the Council’s bank account and other
disbursements
(0) Offering expert opinions on short, medium and long term bases.
12.6.4 Secretary to the Local Government

Before the 1988 reforms, the Secretary of a Local Government Council
was the Chief Executive and Accounting Officer. By virtue of Sections 5.1
8.1 and 14.2 of the 1988 Guidelines, the Secretary of the Council
controlled the various activities. However, his duties are now being
performed by the Head of Personnel Management. Nonetheless, the
Council Secretary:
(a) Liaises with the Secretary to the State Government and other
important dignitaries on matters of interest to Local Government
Councils;
(b) Co-ordinates the operations of the various Departments and
represents the Chairman, as directed, at high-level meetings.
(c) Is the Secretary to the Executive Arm of the Local Government
and maintains the records of proceedings of meetings.
(d) Performs other assignments as may be delegated by the Chairman,
from time to time.
12.6.5 Director of General Services Administration

The Director of General Services Administration who is Head of Personnel
Management has assumed the position of dominance as a result of the
Federal Government’s Circular of 20th May, 1991. The circular listed the
following duties/functions of Head of Personnel Management:
169
(a) All vouchers and cheques shall be signed by the Head of Personnel
Management.
(b) All contractual agreements, local purchase orders, works and such
other documents relating to contracts and supplies shall be
signed by the Head of Personnel Management, subject to the
approval of the Council Chairman.
(c) The Head of Personnel Management is a facilitator to the Audit
Alarm Committee of the Local Government Council.
(d) He is the recognized second signatory to all the disbursements of
the Council.
(e) Based on Federal Government circular of May, 1991, he assumes
the position of the Clerk of the Council Legislature, even if
temporarily.
(f) He implements audit reports on the weakness areas identified in
the administration procedures.
(g) He is the Head of the Junior Staff Management Committee.
(h) He is also the Secretary and Chief Administrative Officer of the
Council.
12.6.6 Act No. 3 of 1991: Basic Constitutional and Transitional

Provisions (Amendment) Act No.3 of 1991
With the promulgation of Act No. 23 of 1991, the functions of the Finance
and General Purposes Committee (FGPC) were transferred to the
Legislative Arm of the Council.
However, the fact is that the management of the funds of the Local
Government Council is that of the Executive Arm. Consequently, the
Executive Arm runs a Funds Allocation Committee (FAC), comprising
the Council Chairman, the Vice-Chairman, All Supervisory Councillors,
the Secretary to the Local Government, the Treasurer and the Head of
Personnel Management. The functions of the Funds Allocation Committee
include, inter alia:
(a) Receiving and considering monthly expenditure proposals of all
Departments as collated by the Treasurer.
(b) Arranging the payment of contractors’ fees and approving all
disbursements from the coffers of the Council, especially for the
settlement of personnel emolument.
(c) Deliberating on the monthly financial statements prepared by
the Treasurer.
12.7 THE COUNCIL LEGISLATURE

The Legislature consists of the Leader of the House, his Deputy and the elected
Councillors. The Local Government Council is the Legislative Arm of the Local
Government. Members of the House perform the following functions:
(a) Debating and passing of Local Government Legislations.
(b) Debating, approving and possibly amending the Local Government
Council’s annual budget, subject to the Chairman’s veto, which could be
170
over-ridden by two-thirds majority of the Council members.

(c) Vetting and monitoring the implementation of projects and programmes
in the Local Government Council’s annual budget.
(d) Examining and debating monthly statements of income and expenditure
rendered to it by the Executive Arm of the Local Government Council.
(e) Consulting with the Local Government Council Chairman, who is the Head
of the Executive Arm of the Local Government; and
(f) Performing such other functions as may be assigned to it from time to
time, by the State House of Assembly in which the Local Government
Council is situated.
12.7.1 Election of Leaders in the Council

The Councillors shall elect from among themselves one person as the
Leader. The role of the Council Leader shall be synonymous with that of
the Speaker of the State House of Assembly.
12.7.2 Meetings of the Local Government Council

Councillors are part-time legislators. However, the Council shall meet at
least once a month.
12.8 COUNCIL CLERK

The Head of Personnel Management Department is designated as the Council
Clerk, in addition to his other normal duties. The Council Clerk provides normal
secretarial service to the meetings of the Legislature. He liaises with the
Secretary for the smooth-running of the administration of the Local Government
Council.
12.9 APPOINTMENT OF SUPERVISORS

All Supervisory Councillors shall henceforth cease to exist. In their place, the
Local Government Council Chairman shall appoint, from either within or outside
the Council, Supervisors who shall not be fewer than three or more than five in
number, depending on the size, revenue base and complexity of the area. The
Supervisors, who are in charge of specific portfolios or responsibilities, shall
be appointed in consultation with the Legislative Arm of the Local Government
Council. However, in the event of an elected Councillor being appointed as
Supervisor, such Councillor shall immediately vacate his Council seat. A by-
election is later conducted by the State Independent Electoral Commission (SIEC)
for the Councillors in the affected ward. The Council Chairman shall promptly
report all such cases to the State Independent Electoral Commission which shall
arrange by-elections in accordance with the law. In the interest of progress,
stability and orderly development, Supervisors shall, in all cases, be persons
of outstanding merit with relevant educational and cognate experience in
matters relating to their assigned portfolios. In addition, their appointments
shall reflect the geographical character of the Local Government Council areas:
171
12.10 TYPES OF EXPENDITURE INCURRED BY THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT

COUNCIL
These may be discussed as follows:
(a) A Local Government Council incurs expenditure on a day-to-day running
of its affairs. Examples are:
(i) Personnel costs.
(ii) Maintenance and repairs, petrol costs, rents, electricity and water
bills.
(b) Capital expenditure are incurred in constructing roads, motor parks, toilet
facilities, etc.
Expenditure are classified into the main heads and appropriate sub-heads,
departmentally.
12.10.1 Highlights of the Accounting Procedures
(a) The sum total of the amounts disbursed under the Sub-heads of
a particular Head are aggregated at the end of the financial year.
The numbering of the sub-heads under a particular Head varies
from one expenditure to another. In some cases, they may be over
twenty.
(b) The capital expenditure of a Local Government Council are written

off in the years incurred. Memorandum entries only are kept for
expenditure incurred on fixed assets. Consequently, the balance
sheet of a Local Government Council will not disclose any
information on the fixed assets acquired.
(c) Capital or proprietorship interest as in the case of private

organisations is not shown.
(d) The differences between receipts and payments is referred to as

General Revenue Balance or surplus, rather than profit or loss.
The reserve or excess of income over expenditure is transferred
to the Statement of Assets and Liabilities.
(e) What we have in the Statement of Assets and Liabilities is an

array of current assets and liabilities.
12.11 THE TYPICAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL FINAL ACCOUNTS

The typical final accounts are made up of:
(a) A Statement of Income and Expenditure, for the year ended 31 December,
200X.
(b) A Statement of Assets and Liabilities as at the year ended 31 December,
200X.
172
12.11.1The Typical Format of a Statement of Revenue & Expenditure
JIBOWU LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL

Note Approved Actual
Estimates
Revenue x x
Local Rates (1) x x
Local licence fees & fines (2) x x
Earning from Commercial undertakings (3) x x
Rent on Local Government property (4) x x
Interest payment and dividend (5) x x
Grant (6) x x
Statutory allocation (7) x x
A x x
Less expenditure
The Council (8) x x
Office of the Secretary (9) x x
Finance Department (10) x x
Education Department (11) x x
Works housing (12) x x
Traditional office (13) x x
Education (14) x x
Environmental sewage (15) x x
Agricultural & rural development (16) x x
Transportation (17) x x
Workshop (18) x x
B x x
General Revenue balance. (A - B)
12.11.2 Format of Statement of Assets and Liabilities

as at 31 December 200X
Advances / Debtors x
Cash and Bank x
x
Deposit x
General revenue x
x
The new statutory financial statements to be prepared and published

by each Local Government Council are made up of:
(i) Declaration of Responsibility for the financial statements by the
Treasurer of the Local Government Council stating, among other
matters, that the financial statements have been prepared in
173
accordance with the provisions of the Finance (Control and

Management) Act Cap 144LFN 1990 and that they comply with
the general accepted accounting practice.
(ii) Auditor-General’s Certificate stating in his opinion whether or
not the financial statements present a true and fair view of the
financial position and operation of the Local Government Council
as at and for the year ended 31st December 2xxx.
(iii) Statement No 1: Cash Flow Statement
(iv) Statement No 2: Statement of Assets and Liabilities
(v) Statement No 3: Statement of Revenue and Expenditure
STATEMENT NO 1
CASHFLOW STATEMENT
FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31ST DEC., 2XXX
LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL
CURRENT PREVIOUS
YEAR YEAR
NOTES Nm Nm
Cash flow from Operating
Activities
Receipts
Internal Generated Revenue 3 x x
Grants/ Subventions 4 x x
VAT 5 x x
Statutory Revenue Allocation 6 x x
Miscellaneous 7 x x
Total Receipts x x
Payments
Personal Emoluments 8 (x) (x)
Pensions and Gratuities (x) (x)
Consolidated Revenue Fund Charge (x) (x)
Overhead Costs (x) (x)
Public Debt Charges (x) (x)
Recurrent Grants and Subventions (x) (x)
Subsidies (x) (x)
Miscellaneous Expenses 9 (x) (x)
Total Payments (x) (x)
Net Cash Flow from Operating

Activities x x
174
Cash Flow from Operating

Activities
Purchase/ Consolidation of Assets 10 (x) (x)
Purchase of Financial Market
Instruments (x) (x)
Proceeds from Sale of Assets
X X
Net Cash Flow from Investing
Activities x x
Cash Flow from Financing Activities

Proceeds from Loans & Others
Borrowings 11 x x
Dividends Received 12 x x
Repayment of Loans 13 (x) (x)
Net cash Flow from Financial
Activities x x
Movement in Other Cash

Equivalent Accounts
(Increase)/ Decrease in Investments
Net Increase (Decrease) in Other
Cash Equivalent x x
Total cash flow from other
Cash equivalent Accounts x x
Net Cash for the Year

Cash & It Equivalent at 1/1/2xxx x x
Cash & Its equivalent at 31/12/2xxx x x
Accompanying notes are an integral part of these Statements.
175
STATEMENT NO 2
ASSESTS AND LIABILITIES
FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 DECEMBER 2XXX
LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL
Actual
Note Current Previous
Year Year
m m
ASSETS
Liquid Assets
Cash and Bank Balances 14 xx xx
Total Liquid Assets xx xx
Investments and Other Cash Assets

Investments 15 xx xx
Advances 16 xx xx
Others 17 xx xx
Total Investments and
Other Cash Assets xx xx
LIABILITIES
Public Funds
General revenue balance xx xx
External and Internal Loans
External and Internal Loans 18 xx xx
Deposits 19 xx xx
Loans 20 xx xx
Total Liabilities xx xx
Accompanying notes are an integral part of these statements.
176
STATEMENT NO 3
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE
FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31 2XXX
Actual Notes Budget Actual Variance

Previous Current Current
Year Year Year
Nm Nm Nm %
xx Opening Balance xx xx xx
ADD: REVENUE
xx Rates 21 xx xx xx
xx Fines, Fees and Licenses 22 xx xx xx
xx Earning & Sales 23 xx xx xx
xx Rent on Government Property xx xx xx
xx Interest & Dividend 24 xx xx xx
xx Taxes 25 xx xx xx
xx Statutory Revenue Allocation 26 xx xx xx
xx Miscellaneous 27 xx xx xx
xxx TOTAL REVENUE (a) xxx xxx xxx
LESS: EXPENDITURE
xx General Administration 28 xx xx xx
xx Health and Environment 29 xx xx xx
xx Works and Housing 30 xx xx xx
xx Education 31 xx xx xx
xx Agric and social Development 32 xx xx xx
xx Grants and Subsides 33 xx xx xx
xx Capital Projects 34 xx xx xx
xx Miscellaneous Expenses 35 xx xx xx
xxx TOTAL EXPENDITURE (b) xxx xxx xxx
xxx OPERATING BALANCE (a-b) xxx xxx xxx
The accompanying notes are an integral part of these Statements.
12.12 ACCOUNTING POLICY PECULIAR TO LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCILS

The “cash basis” of accounting is generally used, just as it applies to the first
and second tiers of Government.
Income is recognised only when the cash is received. Expenditure is recognised

when the liability is paid for.
12.13 FINANCIAL CONTROL OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCILS

The financial control of the Local Government Councils can be appreciated in
two realms, namely ‘Internal Control’ and ‘External Control.’
These are discussed as follows:
177
12.13.1 Internal Controls

The internal control measures are:
(a) Issuance of financial authorities, e.g Supplementary Warrants.
(b) Appointment of Committees for different services.
(c) Centralization of all payments.
(d) Preparation of standing orders and instructions on the signing of
cheques issued, payments on accounts, etc.
(e) Establishment and maintenance of Internal Audit.
(f) Preparation of estimates of income and expenditure for the year.
(g) Budgetary control and feedback processes.
12.13.2 External Controls

The following are the external control measures:
(a) Legislative control (National Assembly and State Assembly)
(b) Federal Government and State Executive Control.
(c) Control by the general public comments by individuals on Local
(d) External auditor control. Control from:
(i) Auditor-General for the Local Government;
(ii) Auditor-General for the State; and
(iii) Auditor-General for the Federation of Nigeria.
12.14 PROBLEMS/LIMITATIONS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCILS

The problems facing local government councils are as follows:
(a) Local Government Councils are not allowed to raise tax or introduce a
new form of tax without express permission from the State Government.
(b) They have limited revenue sources.
(c) They cannot raise loans or maintain loan funds without permission.
(d) Because they cannot raise loans, Councils find it difficult to execute
essential capital development projects.
(e) Poor revenue collections may cause delay in the payment of staff salaries
and difficulty in executing essential capital development projects.
(f) The non-payment or delay in payment of Federal/State Government
grants or shares of oil revenues to the local authorities.
(g) The non-viability of certain local authorities, especially those whose
areas have small population figures.
(h) Rising cost and increasing demand for improved services.
(i) Ineffective financial and management controls, internally and
externally.
12.15 LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL’S SPENDING LIMIT

In order to curtail wasteful spending, the regulation pegs the expenditure
approval ceilings of each Principal Officer of Local Government Council, as
follows:
178
Internal Council Vice Head of Head of

ge ne ra te d chairman chairman personnel department
revenue Ma nageme nt
Above 2M 250,000.00 50,000.00 10,000.00 5,000.00
1-2M 100,000.00 20,000.00 5,000.00 3,000.00
Below 1M 50,000.00 10,000.00 3,000.00 2,000.00
12.15.1 Conditions/Procedures for Disbursing Money

(i) All expenditure approvals by an official shall be reported within
a week to a higher officer.
(ii) Every officer authorizing expenditure will be personally liable
for expenditure approved by him.
(iii) Approval of expenditure is subject to the normal budgetary
appropriation.
(iv) Contracts above Local Government Council limit should be
approved by the Ministry of Local Government.
12.16 OBJECTIVES OF GRANTS-IN-AID SYSTEM

(a) To augment the resources of Local Government Councils.
(b) To meet the exceptional needs or the limited means of a particular area.
(c) To assist central control over particular services.
(d) To influence aggregate Local Government expenditure as part of the
process of control.
12.17 FEE CHARGING POLICIES IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCILS

A Local Government Council charges a fee for each service it performs for
individuals and corporate bodies. It is the function of the Local Government
Treasurer to advise on the level of the various charges for the services rendered.
In formulating a charging policy, the Local Government authorities take into
consideration the following:
(a) The level of development in the area.
(b) The status of people in the community.
(c) The nature of services to be rendered.
(d) The skills and technical competence of those required to perform the
services.
12.18 DISTRIBUTION OF REVENUE IN THE FEDERATION ACCOUNT

According to Allocation of Revenue (Federation Account, etc.) Act, CAP A15 LFN
2005, the amount standing to the credit of the Federation Account, less the
sum equivalent to 13percent (13%) of the revenue accruing to the Federation
Account directly from any natural resources as a first charge for distribution to
the beneficiaries of the derivation funds is presently distributed among the
Federal, State and Local Governments as:
(a) Federal Government 52.68%
(b) State Governments 26.72%
(c) Local Government Councils 20.60%
100.0%
179
12.19 BUDGETING AND BUDGETARY CONTROL

The Executive Arm of Government prepares the budget for the approval of the
Legislature, which is assented to by the Council Chairman. The following are
the budgetary control procedures:
(a) Approval: Payments must be approved before spending.
(b) Monthly Reports: These are prepared to compare actual figures with
the budgets and extract variations.
(c) Actual actions are taken to correct the errors or reflect variations.
(d) Internal Audit: From time to time, the Internal Auditors verify the
integrity of the accounts and write reports appropriately.
(e) External Audit: The Auditor-General for Local Government verifies the
records of all Local Government Councils in the State.
(f) Limit of Expenditure: Individual Local Government Officers have
limits of expenditure payments which they must not exceed.

This chapter discussed the functions of the Local Government stated at the fourth
Schedule, Part I of the 1999 Constitution. Its sources of income and types of
expenditure are recognised statutorily. The Local Government Councils prepare
yearly budgets and are required to adhere strictly to them.

12.21.1 Questions
(1) The Lagum Island Local Government Council maintains a staff
restaurant at Ibara Hospital. The following information are
available for the year ended 31 December, 2008:
N
Stocks - Provisions 3,345
Cleaning Materials: Stock 985
Creditors:
- Provisions 4,086
- Gas 2,323
Creditors for Cleaning Materials 880
Insurance 968
Printing 98
Miscellaneous Debtors 146
Cash Float 30
Receipts and payments for the period
were as follows:
Receipts
N
Sales 239,410
Miscellaneous Receipts 1,932
Payments:
Provision 171,356
Salaries 7,654
180
Wages:
Kitchen 55,865
Cashier 5,065
Dining Room 11,384
Insurance 13,985
Electricity 2,388
Gas 26,946
Laundry 3,441
Cleaning materials 1,064
Printing and Stationery 460
Miscellaneous expenses 566
The following amounts due to creditors as

at 31st December 2008 are yet to be accounted for:
N
Provisions 3,978
Gas 4,340
Electricity 780
Printing 28
Insurance 1,578
The following information are also relevant:

(a) The laundry services are provided by the hospital and recharged through
the year. The charge for the final quarter of 2008 is still outstanding and
is expected to be at the same level as for the remainder of the year.
(b) As at 31 December, 2008, stock of provisions amounted to N3,498 whilst

that of cleaning materials was N324. Stock of provisions of N425 is to
be written off as unsaleable.
(c) Miscellaneous debtors amounted to N248 as at 31 December 2008. It is

anticipated that a debt of N27 is uncollectable.
(d) The cost of the maintenance of the cooling system in the hospital is
recharged at the year end on the basis of floor area. The following
additional information are available:
(i) Maintenance cost of cooling system N87,555.
(ii) Hospital Floor Area 17,511 square metres.
(iii) Restaurant Floor Area 400 square metres.
(e) The hospital charges the restaurant administration fee of N2,860.

(f) As at 31 December, 2008, the imprest float amounted to N18.
(g) The restaurant is not expected to break even. However, clear guidelines
are laid down by the Local Government Council, as follows:
(i) Price should be set to cover the cost of provision consumed plus
50% thereof.
181
(ii) The deficit for the year must not exceed N50,000
(h) The insurance is in respect of the staff restaurant building.
Required:
(a) Prepare an Income and Expenditure Account for the year ended 31
December 2008.
(b) Comment on the performance of the restaurant in view of the guidelines
laid down by the Local Government.
(2) The following balances were extracted from the accounting books and
records of YOWARI Local Government of ZAKI State of Nigeria, for the
year ended 31 December 2008:
DR CR
N N
Cash-in-Hand 100,000
Cash-at-Bank 10,000,000
Fixed deposit 4,000,000
Contribution to Local Government Loan Fund 1,200,000
Stabilization Account 5,000,000
Advances 900,000
General Revenue Balance 9,800,000
Renewal Funds 2,400,000
Stabilization Fund 5,000,000
Deposits 4,000,000
21,200,000 21,200,000
During the year, the following transactions, which were omitted from
the accounting books and records, took place:
N
(i) Investment in the ordinary shares of ZNB Plc 40,000
(ii) Investment in the ordinary shares of ZIDC Plc 600,000
(iii) Investment in the ordinary shares of Zaki Oil Palm Plc 300,000
(iv) Purchase of Treasury Bills 160,000
(v) 15% ZAKI State Loan Stock 80,000
(vi) Touring expenses of N1,300,000, incurred by the Local Government

Chairman, had been omitted.
Prepare:
(a) The adjusted Cash Book (Bank Column only), reflecting the omitted
transactions as at 31st December 2008; assuming that all omitted
transactions were Bank transactions.
(b) The Statement of Assets and Liabilities of YOWARI Local Government as
at 31 December 2008, after the various omissions have been
incorporated.
182
(3) The Treasurer plays a key role on financial management in the Local
Government Council as the Chief Accounts Officer and Head of Finance
Department.
Required
Enumerate TEN functions of the Local Government Treasurer
(4) The following information is extracted from the books of Ajelogo Local
Government for year ended 31 December 2012
(i) Assets and Liabilities as at 31 December 2012
N
Fixed Assets 16,000,000
Investments 6,000,000
Advances 3,900,000
Cash at bank 1,432,400
Cash in hand 185,960
Deposit liabilities 13.608,000
Deposit for land 4,000,000
Deposit for motor vehicle 11,000,000
(ii) Stated below are the revenue and expenditure for the year:
Head Description Amount
N
2004 Personnel department 28,410,200
2005 Finance department 43,100,200
1003 Local licences, fees and fines 13,256,310
1005 Rent on local govt property 13,100,600
1001 Taxes 38,141,100
1006 Interest and dividends 1,300,000
2001 Office of the Chairman 66,964,700
2006 Education department 44,345,900
2003 The Council 39,180,800
1009 Statutory allocation 495,011,830
1002 Rates 23,848,300
1007 Other grants 136,181,230
2008 Agriculture and water resources 42,344,200
1004 Commercial undertakings 24,613,620
2002 Office of the Secretary 33,624,180
2007 Primary health care department 37,618,790
1008 Miscellaneous receipts 6,125,380
2009 Works and housing department 46,125,380
2010 Commerce and Industry 38,648,740
2013 Other charges 11,400,380
2012 Miscellaneous 21,867,080
4000 Capital expenditure 262,600,000
2011 Traditional office 14,858,160
183
(iii) General revenue balance brought forward on 1 January 2012 was

N8,420,700
(iv) The code in use is 1 as prefix for revenue and 2 as prefix for expenditure
You are required to prepare:

(a) Statement of revenue and expenditure for the year ended 31 December
2012.
(b) Statement of Financial Position as at the date.
(1) LAGUM ISLAND LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL

STAFF RESTAURANT AT THE ABIYE HOSPITAL
INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT
FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 DECEMBER 2008
N N
Sales 239,410
Opening Stock of provisions 3,345
Purchases (working 1) 171,248
174,593
Deduct: Closing Stock of
Provisions N(425 – 3,498) (3,073)
171,520
Gross Profit 67,890
Miscellaneous Receipt (Wk. 2) 2,034
(a) 69,924
EXPENDITURE
Salaries 7,654
Wages N(55,865+5,065+11,384) 72,314
Insurance (wk. 3) 14,595
Electricity (wk. 4) 3,168
Gas (wk. 5) 28,963
Cleaning (wk. 7) 845
Laundry (wk.10) 4,588
Printing Statement (wk. 8) 390
Miscellaneous Expenses 566
Maintenance cost of the cooling system (wk. 9) 2,000
Provision for bad Debt 27
Stock loss 425
Administration 2,860
(b) (138,395)
Net Loss (c) = (a) - (b) (68,471)
(b) The guidelines handed down by the Local Government Council indicate
that the deficit should not exceed N50,000 for that year and that prices
in the restaurant should be set to cover the cost of food plus 50%. In both
184
instances, the performance of the restaurant has breached the guidelines.

There is deficit of N68,471. At ‘mark-up’ of 50%, anticipated sales of
150% of cost should have been the cost of provision of food, resulting in
sales of N257,280. However, actual sales amounted to N239,410, giving
a short fall of N17,870. It appears that prices are either too low or that
control of wastage is not tight enough, with the result that income is not
being maximised. Some forms of regular monitoring of costs and income
need to be introduced so that the size of the deficit at the year end can
be kept within the policy guidelines. On the other hand, the restaurant
services may be cancelled.
Workings
1. Creditors (for provisions)
N N
Bank 171,356 Balance b/f 4,086
Balance c/d 3,978 Purchase 171,248
175,334 175,334
2. Miscellaneous Receipts
N N
Balance b/d 146 Bank 1,932
Income 2,034 Balance c/d 248
2,180 2,180
3. Creditors for Insurance

N N
Bank 13,985 Balance b/f 968
Balance c/d 1,578 Expenditure 14,595
15,563 15,563
4. Creditors for Electricity

N N
Bank 2,388
Balance c/d 780 Profit and Loss 3,168
3,168 3,168
5. Creditors for Gas

N N
Bank 26,946 Balance b/f 2,323
Balance c/d 4,340 Profit and Loss 28,963
31,286 31,286
185
6. Creditors for Cleaning Materials

N N
Balance b/f 880
Bank 1,064 Purchases, transferred 184
to Cleaning Stock Account
1,064 1,064
7. Cleaning Stock
N N
Balance b/f 985 Balance c/d 324
Credit Purchase transferred Profit and Loss 845
from Creditors for Cleaning
Materials 184
1,169 1,169
8. Printing & Stationery

N N
Bank 460 Balance b/f 98
Balance c/d 28 P&L 390
488 488
9. Computation of maintenance cost of the Cooling System:

400 X N87,555 = N2,000
17,511
10. Computation of Laundry Expenses:
N3,441 X 4 = N4,588
3
(2) YOWARI LOCAL GOVERNMENT

ADJUSTED CASH BOOK FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31/12/2008
N N
Bal. b/d/ 10,000,000 Investment In:
ZBN PLC 40,000
ZIDC PLC 600,000
ZAKI PLC 300,000
Fed. Treasury Bills 160,000
Zaki Steve Loan Stock 80,000
GRB (Recruitment Exp.) 1,300,000
Balance c/d. 7,520,000
10,000,000 10,000,000
Balance b/d 7,520,000
186
(ii) YOWARI LOCAL GOVERNMENT STATEMENT OF ASSETS AND

LIABILITIES AS AT 31 DECEMBER 2000
Liabilities (N’000) Assets (N’000) (N’000)

GRB 8,500 Liquid Assets
Renewal Funds 2,400 Cash-in-Hand 100
Stabilisation Fund 5,000 Cash-at-Bank 7,520 7,620
Deposits 4,000 Funds
Contr. Two Local Govt.
Loan Fund 1,200

Stabilisation A/c 5,000 6,200
Investments
Fixed Deposits 4,000
ZNB PLC 40
ZIDC PLC 600
ZAKI PLC 300
Fed. Treasury Bills 160
ZAKI Shares loan
Stock 80 5,180
Advances 900
19,900 19,900
WORKINGS
ZNB PLC ORDINARY SHARES
1. ZNB PLC ORDINARY SHARES N

Cash Book 40,000
2. ZIOC PLC ORDINARY SHARES N

Cash Book 600,000
3. ZAKI, OIL PALM PLC ORD. SHARES N

Cash Book 300,000
4. FEDERAL TREASURY BILLS N

Cash Book 160,000
5. 15% ZAKI STATE LOAN STOCK N

Cash Book 80,000
187
GENERAL REVENUE BALANCE

N N
Cash Book 1,300,000 Balance b/d. 9,800,000
Bal. c/d 8,500,000
9,800,000 9,800,000
Balance b/d 8,500,000
(3) The functions of the LG treasurer include:

i. He is responsible for the administrative control of the Finance
Department
ii. He facilitates the work of the Audit Alarm Committee
iii. Giving financial advice to the Council
iv. Keeping proper accounting records of money received or
disbursed.
v. Verifying the accuracy of all accounting records.
vi. Receiving and disbursing money
vii. Ensuring that all regulatory instructions essential for safe custody
of funds are strictly adhered to.
viii. Seeing that vouchers are correctly prepared.
ix. Making necessary returns to the State and Federal Government
when the situation demands.
x. Ensuring that all revenues belonging to the Council are collected.
xi. Maintaining an efficiently run and staffed financial operation.
xii. Ensuring that records and statistical information are maintained.
xiii. Ensuring that there is a strict compliance with the financial
memoranda in the Finance Department.
xiv. Ensuring that all instructions relating to expenditure of public
funds by the accounting officer are in written form.
(4)(a) AJELOGO LOCAL GOVERNMENT

STATEMENT OF REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE FOR THE YEAR
ENDED 31 DECEMBER 2012
N N
Revenue for the year
Head Description
1001 Taxes 38,141,100
1002 Rates 23,848,300
1003 Local licenses, fees fines 13,256,310
1004 Commercial undertakings 24,613,620
1005 Rent on LG property 13,100,600
1006 Interest and dividends 1,300,000
1007 Other grants 136,181,230
1008 Miscellaneous receipts 6,125,380
1009 Statutory allocation 495,011,830 751,578,370
188
N N
Expenditure
Head Description
2001 Office of the Chairman 66,964,700
2003 Office of the Secretary 33,624,180
2003 The Council 39,180,800
2004 Personal department 28,410,200
2005 Finance department 43,100,200
2006 Education department 44,345,900
2007 Primary health care 37,618,790
2008 Agriculture & water resources 42,344,200
2009 Works & housing 46,125,380
2010 Commerce & industry 38,648,740
2011 Traditional office 14,858,160
2012 Miscellaneous 21,867,080
2013 Other charges 11,400,380
4004 Capital expenditure 262,600,000 (731,088,710)
Excess of income over
expenditure for the year 20,489,660
General revenue balance b/forward 8,420,700
General revenue balance c/forward 28,910,360
(b) STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL POSITION

AS AT 31 DECEMBER 2012
ASSETS N
Fixed deposit 16,000,000
Investment 6,000,000
Advances 3,900,000
Deposit for land 4,000,000
Deposit for motor vehicle 11,000,000
Cash at bank 1,432,400
Cash in hand 185,960
42,518,360
Represented By:
Deposit liabilities 13,608,000
General revenue balance 28,910,360
42,518,360
189
190
CHAPTER
Skills level
13
Budgeting and Budgetary Controls

Contents
1. Purpose
2. Budget
3. The Purposes of Budget
4. Methods of Preparing Budgets by Government In Nigeria
5. Zero-Base Budgeting’ Technique (ZBB)
6. Planning, Programming and Budgeting System (PPBS).
7. Performance Budgeting
8. Periodic Budgeting
9. Flexible Budgeting
10. Capital Expenditure Budgeting
11. Base Estimate
12. Rolling Plan or Continuous Budget
13. Factors Militating Against the Budgeting System in the
Public Sector
14. Committed Growth
15. Procedure for Preparation and Approval of Budgets
16. Reserves/Balances
17. Supplementary Estimates
18. Uses of Budgets
19. Personnel Cost Budget
20. Overhead Cost Budget
21. Revenue Budget
22. Functions of the Ministry of Budget and Planning/
Department Planning in the Presidency
23. Budgetary Control
24. Cash Budgeting
25. Chapter Review
26. Worked Example
191
13
BUDGETING AND BUDGETARY

CONTROLS
13.0 PURPOSE
After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to:
(a) define a budget and explain the different methods of preparing it;
(b) describe Budget implementation in the Public Sector; and
(c) explain budgetary control measures.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
A budget is a financial and/or quantitative statement prepared and approved
prior to a defined period of time for the purpose of attaining a given objective.
A budget is normally for a year. It is therefore a short-term plan. One of the
primary objectives of budget is to measure the profit earnings of an organisation.
However, in the case of Government, which is non-profit making, budgets are
used:
(a) As a guide for the present and future.
(b) To plan, control and estimate the amount to be received and spent during
a specified period.
(c) To distribute limited resources.
(d) To motivate managers towards the achievement of corporate goals.
(e) As a means of evaluating performance.
(f) To inform managers about the results and operations of their
responsibility domains.
(g) As a standard of measurement for the purpose of controlling on-going
economic endeavours.
Government Units that obtain revenue from taxes and other sources use such
for current operations by means of budget. A Government budget shows
authorised appropriations and estimated revenue. Many however, perceive the
term ‘budget’ as a restraining or impeding factor. Hence, people seem to develop
a negative attitude to budgeting.
13.2 THE PURPOSES OF BUDGET

In all Government Units, the Executive arm prepares the budget and submits
same to the Legislative arm for review, modifications and approval. The
approved budget serves as a basis for the activities of that Government Unit for
the fiscal period under focus. There are four main purposes which a government
budget serves. These may be enumerated thus:
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BUDGETING AND BUDGETARY CONTROLS
(a) A budget is an economic and financial document. It highlights

Government’s policies which are designed to promote economic growth,
full employment and enhance the quality of life of the citizenry.
(b) It is a useful guide for the allocation of available resources.
(c) Through the Legislature, the Executive arm uses the budget as a means
of accountability for the money earlier entrusted and the appropriations
newly approved.
(d) The budget stands for the request of the Executive arm of Government
for the Legislature to collect and disburse funds.
13.3 METHODS OF PREPARING BUDGETS BY GOVERNMENT IN NIGERIA

The budgeting approach used by Government to allocate funds for a succeeding
year is the incremental or ‘line-item’ method. The approach is oriented to
expenditure, itemising proposed disbursements under different Heads and Sub-
heads of the various Ministries and Extra-Ministerial Departments. The
expenditure side of the ‘line-item’ or incremental budget is made up of personal
emoluments, other charges and capital or developmental items.
13.3.1 Traditional/Line Items/Incremental Budgeting

The traditional budgeting method which is also often called ‘Incremental
Budgeting’ involves picking last year’s figures and adding a percentage
to arrive at this year’s budget. The percentage added is based essentially
on three factors, namely:
(a) Trend of economic event;
(b) Inflation; and
(c) The available funds.
Budgeting in Government can be appreciated as being made up of two

main elements. The first aspect is the procedure of Budgeting. This
consists of the practices, documentations and norms which govern the
preparation, approval, implementation and review of the budget. The
second element is “Budgeting System.” This has to do with the
management process. This provides for the purchase, allocation and
use of available resources by setting in advance operational criteria
which result in the achievement of corporate goals.
The line-item budgeting system has certain features, which include the
following:
(a) The budgets refer to the Ministries and Extra-Ministerial
Departments for which they are prepared. No prominence is given
to the ends for which the funds are provided.
(b) The current year’s budget is arrived at through routine and
incremental reasoning, and not by scientific analysis.
(c) The main thrust of the budget is the achievement of control and
accountability.
193
13.3.2 Advantages of Line-Item Budgeting Method

These include the following:
(a) It is simple to understand and operate.
(b) It suits the country’s level of development, where there is paucity
of data.
(c) It is cheaper to produce.
(d) It encourages the continuity of projects.
(e) The method ensures that budget is translated in monetary
language and relates to the relevant activity operations.
(f) Allocations into Heads and Sub-heads facilitate the monitoring
of performance.
13.3.3 Disadvantages of the ‘Line-Item’ Budgeting Method

Although the foregoing show the attributes of ‘line-item’ budgeting, the
drawbacks of the method are:
(a) The method allows past errors to be carried forward. It is therefore
not efficient in its operations.
(b) Detailed scrutiny is not contained in the budget. The budget
preparation is consequently not well researched.
(c) It fails to clarify the cost of alternative methods of achieving
programmed objectives.
(d) It results in continual growth budget totals leading to inflation,
as opposed to serious economic needs.
(e) It fails to fund new programmes of high priority on a sufficiently
reasonable scale.
(f) The method does not clearly spell out the relationship between
capital and recurrent expenditure. The approach is based on
organisational set-ups rather than programmes.
13.4 ‘ZERO-BASE BUDGETING’ TECHNIQUE (ZBB)

It is a management effort which provides for systematic consideration of all
activities and programmes.
The ‘Zero-Base’ budgeting technique is a programme budgeting reform that

was introduced by Peter Pyhrr of Texas, but popularised by a Past President of
the United States of America, Jimmy Carter, in 1976. The technique requires
every item of expenditure to be justified as if the particular activity or
programme is taking off for the first time. It is the preparation of operating
budgets from a ‘zero-base’ of expenditure cost. Under the technique, resources
are not necessarily allocated in accordance with the previous patterns. Each
item of expenditure proposed has to be annually re-justified. ‘Zero-Base’
budgeting seeks to avoid perpetuating obsolete expenditure items.
In Government, the three key users of the ‘Zero-Base’ technique are:
(a) The Legislature.
(b) The Executive.
(c) The various Ministries, Extra-Ministerial Departments and Parastatals.
194
The Legislature is more concerned with shifting emphasis on issues of objectives

and priorities. Ministries and Extra-Ministerial Departments require adequate
information to focus on implementation and efficiency.
‘Zero-Base’ budgeting involves the use of decision-package approach, based

on the identification of activities which may be classified into the following]
five basic events:
(a) Identification of ‘decision units’ and formulating operational plans. The
entire Ministry or Parastatal is divided into smaller components called
`decision units.’
(b) Analysing the whole budget into ‘decision packages’, based on the
‘decision-units’, to which costs are assigned and to the alternative ways
of executing the same operation. It also involves assessing the effect of
not performing the activity at all. Different levels of performance between
the minimum and maximum points are evaluated so as to obtain
optimality.
Ranking in priority the ‘decision packages’ covering the activities, both

new and existing, in a competitive manner.
(d) Determination of the ‘cut-off’ point, to choose the packages which can
be included and those to be rejected.
(e) Prioritisation of the packages, to highlight the ones which fit in with the
available resources.
13.4.1 Advantages of Zero-Base Budgeting

The following advantages have been associated with the use of ‘Zero-
Base’ budgeting:
(a) It acts as a tool for change from which benefits are likely to accrue.
(b) It allows for optimum allocation of resources. This is made
possible by the formulation of alternative courses of action and
evaluating each on its own merit. Resources are therefore
allocated by need and benefit accruing, rather than political or
emotional considerations.
(c) It creates questioning attitude instead of assuming that current
practice maximizes expected money value. Wasteful spending is
thereby reduced.
(d) It provides a better yardstick for the measurement of performance.
(e) The technique allows for the participation of the various organs
of the decision unit.
(f) It focuses attention on the future rather than the past; old and
new projects are therefore appraised on the same basis.
(g) Under ‘Zero-Base’ budgeting, important projects can continue to
receive funds, owing to their viability.
195
(h) It is good for profit-oriented projects.
13.4.2 Disadvantages/Problems of Zero-Base Budgeting

The following are the disadvantages of using ‘Zero-Base’ budgeting:
(a) Lack of and sometimes unreliable data may inhibit or undermine
the usefulness of the approach in the less developed economic
environment as ours.
(b) It may cause a major shift in resource allocation.
(c) Bureaucrats often do not trust the approach and hence frustrate
its effectiveness.
(d) In determining decision packages, there is, sometimes, the
problem of fixing the minimum level of expenditure.
(e) It involves the task of analyzing and ranking a lot of data and
information which a number of civil servants find difficult to
manage. This situation is further complicated by lack of qualified
and competent personnel in the public sector, to handle the
application of this technique.
(f) There is need to make accounting structure conform to the ‘Zero-
Base’ philosophy, for the purpose of evaluation and control. This
may necessitate a general review, overhauling, adding or
scrapping of activities and functions.
(g) It is not so good for recurrent expenditure. It has not been
successful in the public sector.
13.5 PLANNING, PROGRAMMING AND BUDGETING SYSTEM (PPBS).

The Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy defines Planning,
Programming and Budgeting System as:
“Primarily, a system associated with corporate management which identifies

alternative policies, presents the implications of their adoption and provides
for the efficient control of those policies chosen. It embraces several established
concepts and analytical techniques within the framework of a systematic
approach to decision making, planning, management and control. The principal
features of Planning, Programming and Budgeting system are that it relates to
objectives and outputs, as it emphasises the choice.”
Planning, Programming and Budgeting Systems is a budgeting approach which

is based on systems theory, output and objective orientation, with substantial
emphasis on resource allocation on the principle of economic analysis.
The technique is not based on the traditional organisational structure but on

programmes which involve grouping of activities which have common
objectives.
The resources which are available to public sector organisations are limited,
when compared with the demands for them. Consequently, choices have to be
196
made to make sure that the meagre resources are distributed fairly to maximise
benefits.
13.5.1 The Main Steps in Planning, Programming and Budgeting

System
(a) Identification and enumeration of goals and objectives of the
organisation.
(b) Defining the total system in detail, including objectives,
environment, available resources, the programmes and their
objectives, etc.
(c) Planning and analysis: These involve continuous process of
developing, comparing and analyzing alternative programmes,
so as to evolve the most appropriate package for the organisation.
(d) Development of the appropriate measures of performance for the
programmes of the organisation.
(e) Programming and Budgeting: The agreed package of
“programmes” complete with resource requirements and
expected results are expressed in the form of “programmed
budgets”.
(f) Reporting and Controlling: Planning, Programming and
Budgeting System requires sophisticated information service
which is able to monitor the progress made towards meeting the
organisational objectives. Performance evaluation, therefore,
emphasizes the attainment or non-attainment of the desired
objectives, rather than the amount spent which is the focus in
traditional budgeting system.
(g) Development, each year, of a multi-year programme and financial
plan.
13.5.2 Advantages of Planning, Programming and Budgeting System
The technique:
(a) provides information on the objectives of the Organisation;
(b) lays emphasis on long-term effects;
(c) achieves effective use of budgeted resources and anticipated
performance;
(d) ensures rational decision-making and forces those seeking
budgetary allocations to consider alternatives;
(e) leads to rapid economic development.
13.5.3 Disadvantages of Planning, Programming and Budgeting

System
The system is associated with the following disadvantages/problems:
(a) Natural resistance to change, particularly among the very Senior
Officers in the Governmental hierarchy.
(b) Transitional problems at the introductory stage.
(c) Problem of staff shortage.
197
(d) Paucity of data.

(e) Re-orientation of the old accounting system to cater for the
requirements of the new concept.
(f) Problem of data collection and physical monitoring.
(g) It is difficult to install.
(h) It makes heavy demand on resources.
(i) The uncertainty of the future makes long term planning difficult.
13.6 PERFORMANCE BUDGETING

Performance budgeting can be defined as a technique used for presenting public
expenditure in form of functions or projects to be undertaken, highlighting the
cost involvements. The anticipated costs are compared with the expected
income. The focus of the technique is on results or output achieved, rather than
how much has been expended.
The essential features of a Performance Budgeting System, are as follows:
(a) Classification of budgets in terms of functions and activities.
(b) Measurement of work done or output provided, by each activity.
(c) Expression of the budget in a way which allows direct comparison
between a project’s cost and the anticipated income or benefit.
(d) Monitoring of actual cost and performance against the budgeted results
or expectations.
13.7 PERIODIC BUDGETING

This is the operation of a fixed budget over a certain period of time, usually a
year. The budget becomes fixed for the duration of the period concerned and
revisions are not allowed till the end of the period.
13.8 FLEXIBLE BUDGET

This is a budget that recognizes the difference between the fixed and variable
costs and gives room for result determination and evaluation under the varying
levels of activities. Thus, it accommodates changing levels of production and
facilitates the production of control reports for the prevailing levels of activities.
It is a budget which takes cognizance of cost behaviour and adjusts according
to the level of activities attained. It is used for control purposes.
13.9 CAPITAL EXPENDITURE BUDGET

It is the budget prepared in the public sector for capital projects such as the
construction of bridges and major road projects. The expenditure on the projects
are financed from the Development Fund.
13.10 BASE ESTIMATE

The base estimate for the current year is obtained by taking last year’s budget
and deducting the value of ‘one off’ transactions. Transactions that are ‘one off’
are those which do not recur year-in-year-out.
198
13.11 ROLLING PLAN OR CONTINUOUS BUDGETS

Continuous Budget or Rolling Plan can be defined as the continuous updating
of a medium- term plan spanning a specified period of time. For example,
“1998 to 2000” within which special and core capital projects, such as the
completion of Ajaokuta Steel Rolling Mill, will be accomplished. The time-
horizon is a challenge or target date within which the capital project is expected
to be completed. However, if constraints do not permit accomplishment, a fresh
plan period will emerge to accommodate the development.
Nigeria started adopting Rolling Plan from the year 1990. The country had
“1990 to 1992” Rolling Plan, to start with.
13.11.1 Rolling Budget

Any budget prepared from within the Rolling Plan is referred to as
Rolling Budget. It is the yearly provision of funds to prosecute the capital
projects spelt out in the plan period. Achievements made are documented
and compared with the yearly targets set. Making use of management
by exception attention of Government is particularly drawn to the areas
of difficulties. Reports on the progress made are furnished by the Ministry
or Extra-Ministerial Department concerned to the National Planning
Commission.
13.11.2 Perspective Planning

Perspective Planning is long-term in nature. It covers fifteen or more
years. It provides the broad view of a country’s development process.
Perspective planning aims at addressing fundamental and broad issues
of development. It serves as a framework for designing and
implementing Rolling Plans. A Perspective Plan is always split into
many short-term plans of four or five years, in order to achieve long-
term objectives.
13.12 FACTORS WHICH MILITATE AGAINST THE BUDGETING SYSTEM IN THE

PUBLIC SECTOR
The key factors which militate against efficient and effective budget
implementation in the public sector are as follows:
(a) Human Element

Top management members see budgeting as restraining and
challenging. They tend to develop a lot of apathy towards its adoption
and implementation. The lack of probity and accountability of some
operatives affect successful budgeting.
(b) Uncertainties Underlying Data Inputs

There is a lot of uncertainties in the data used for the budget preparation.
The projections in revenue accruing from oil may not be forthcoming in
199
view of the vagaries in the world market. Lack of efficient data base
also hamstrings reliable forecasts.
(c) The Type of Project for which Budget is Prepared

How successful a budget will be depends on the type of project to which
it relates. Some projects are popular while others are not. Those which
are not popular may face stiff implementation problems.
(d) The Problem of Inflation

Inflation tends to reduce the purchasing power of money. When the value
of money is falling, budget implementation may run into problems. The
revenue available will not be able to cover the expenditure.
(e) Political, Social and Cultural Elements.

Each segment of the Nation has its own cultural beliefs and taboos which
may take time to change. Introducing innovation may be met with stiff
opposition. For example, a section of the Country may not be willing to
provide land for development purposes. Secondly, where there is political
instability, budget implementation is at risk.
(f) Changing Government Policies.

To implement a budget, a lot depends on the policy of Government. For
effective budget implementation, Government policies have to be
harmonized and consistent. Frequent changes of government policies
affect budget implementation.
(g) The Problem of Debt Management and Optimal Use of Limited

Resources.
There is the challenge of striking a balance between what part of the
Nation’s resources should be used for servicing debts and the amount
that should be utilized for economic development.
(h) Low Agricultural Output.

Agricultural output is fast dwindling because the method of farming is
outdated and the younger population is not attracted. The resources that
should be used for economic development are therefore being diverted
to the importation of food items.
(i) Fiscal Indiscipline.

Most spending Officers are budget maximizers. Under the incremental
budgeting system, they tend to expend the last Naira available in a
year’s budget in order to justify the demand for increased allocation in
the subsequent year, with little or nothing to show under the current
dispensation.
200
13.13 COMMIT TED GROWTH

There are commitments in the previous year or years which will continue to
impact on future spending areas. An example of such a committed fixed cost is
salary payment. The fixed cost is technically known as “Committed Growth”.
13.14 PROCEDURE FOR PREPARATION AND APPROVAL OF BUDGETS

The budgeting process is a cycle of events which occur sequentially every year
and which result in the Approved Budget. In Ministries and Extra-Ministerial
Departments, budget preparation and approval undergo three levels, viz:
The Ministerial Approval.
The Executive Council Approval, and
The Legislative Approval.
13.14.1 The Ministerial or Pre-Treasury Board Phase

Before the issuance of the budget preparation guidelines, the Ministry
of Budget and Planning (or the Ministry of Finance at the State level)
receives policy pronouncements from the Presidency (or the State
Governor). The guidelines are subsequently issued by the Ministry of
Budget and Planning or Finance, in form of a call circular. When the call
circular is received by the various Ministries, Extra-Ministerial
Departments and Agencies, a Committee on ‘Advance Proposals’ is set
up. The Committee which acts as Pre-Treasury Board is headed by the
Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Budget and Planning (at the Federal
Level) or Ministry of Finance, Budget and Planning (at the State Level).
The Committee (or Pre-Treasury Board) is charged with the appraisal of
the various budget proposals received, in the light of fund availability.
The requirements, having received provisional approval, are transmitted
to the Presidency or Treasury Board (headed by the State Governor).
Note:
A Call Circular is issued by the Budget Department of the Ministry of
Finance to all agencies of Government, requesting them to submit their
revenue and expenditure estimates for the succeeding year.
13.14.2 Executive Council Phase

The Draft Estimates are presented to the cabinet members known as the
Council of Ministers or the Executive Council (or Treasury Board) for
further consideration and approval. Members of the Treasury Board are
usually the Nation’s President, Vice-President (Governor and Deputy
Governor at the State), the Ministers (Commissioners at the State) and
Permanent Secretaries of the Ministries of Finance, Works,
Establishments and Training, Secretary to the Federal (or State)
Government, Head of Service, Auditor-General for the Federation (or
State), Accountant-General of the Federation (or State) and Planning
and Budgeting Department (at the Federal Government level). The next
201
destination of the Draft Estimates is the National Assembly or the State

Legislature, in the form of Appropriation Bill.
13.14.3 The National or State House of Assembly/Legislative Phase

The President of Nigeria or State Governor presents his budget package
and speech to the National Assembly (the joint meeting of the two
Houses) or House of Assembly at the State Government Level. The
meeting is known as the “Budget Session.” In each House, there is a
Standing Committee which considers the budget proposals. Each arm
of the National Assembly or the State House of Assembly approves the
budgets. Where there are discrepancies or divergent opinions on some
items, the two Houses appoint a Finance Committee which will
harmonise the views. The resolution of the Finance Committee is final
on the differences. The final stage is the consideration of the budget
proposals at a joint session of the two Houses of the National Assembly.
13.14.4 Presidential/Governor ’s Assent

The budget is sent back to the President or State Governor for his assent.
It subsequently becomes the Appropriation Act. Copies of the approved
Estimates are printed and distributed to the Ministries, Extra-Ministerial
Departments and Agencies of Government.
13.15 RESERVES/ESTIMATES
If the estimated income is more than the estimated expenditure the excess is
‘budget surplus’. Conversely, if the estimated income is less than the estimated
expenditure there would be ‘budget deficit’. Surplus or deficit financing is a
policy of Government.
13.16 SUPPLEMENTARY ESTIMATES

Government may request the National or State Assembly, as many times as
possible, for supplementary allocation during the year. Unforeseen
circumstances tend to force Government to request for such funds. However,
Government may vire (or transfer) money between Sub-heads, provided they
belong to the same Head or title of expenditure. Currently, Government requires
the approval of the National Assembly before virements can take place,
notwithstanding the stipulation in the Financial Regulations which vests the
authorisation in the Minister of Finance.
13.16.1 CONDITIONS FOR APPROVING SUPPLEMENTARY FUNDS

The conditions under which such requests may be granted are as follows:
(a) The supplementary request must manifestly be in the public
interest.
(b) The need is so urgent that the additional provision request cannot
be deferred till the following year when it will be incorporated in
the new Estimates.
202
ILLUSTRATION 13-1
TYPICAL STAGES OF BUDGET PREPARATION IN LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
A B
(c) The need could not be foreseen when the current Estimates were
being approved.
(d) The money required cannot be sourced through virement.
13.17 USES OF BUDGETS

Budgets are used for the following:
(a) Planning
Budgets are used to plan. Budgets are plans to which monetary values
are assigned, of what are to be achieved in a determinable future time,
for example, a year.
(b) Communication
Budgets assist in communicating horizontally and vertically. When
budgets are being prepared, individuals, groups, communities and
203
associations will inform Government about their areas of interests. This

is ‘upward communication.’ When the budget is approved, Government
reads it to the members of the public and publishes it in the newspapers.
This is ‘communicating downwards’.
(c) Motivation
A budget is a target to be achieved. Government motivates the staff
through promotions and improved conditions of service, for assisting in
the full and successful implementation of the budget.
(d) Standard for Measurement of Performance

Since a budget is a target, it is a measure of performance. What is
achieved is recorded and compared with the target of performance set.
The process of implementation draws management attention to
problematic areas.
(e) Evaluation of Economic and Social Policy

Budgets are used to solve the social problems of inflation and
unemployment.
(f) Cost Reduction Technique Project Appraisal

Evaluation of operations and procedures may result in cost savings.
TUTORIAL NOTE:
The following forms of budgets are also relevant at this stage:
(a) Personnel Cost Budget,
(b) Overhead Cost Budget, and
(c) Revenue Budget.
13.18 PERSONNEL COST BUDGET (PCB)

Personnel Cost Budget is the total of the basic salaries and allowances of the
various categories of staff in each Ministry/Extra-Ministerial Department. The
procedure is as follows:
(a) Identification of various positions ranging from GL 01-17;
(b) Identification of the number of staff in each post, which may include
newly promoted, new recruitment and the existing staff.
(c) Identification of grade level of each position;
(d) Identification of basic salary and the annual incremental rate.
In the public sector, grade levels and steps are used in preparing PCB. At the
Federal Government level, there are GL 01 – 17 and the corresponding steps.
The golden rule in preparing PCB is that the salary given is step 1 of each
grade level.
204
The format for the preparation of PCB I as follows:

{incremental rate (x - 1) + Basic Salary} n
Where:
x = new step each of the officer will be,
1 = constant
N = number of staff in each position.
ILLUSTRATION 13-3:
Mr. Olowolayemo is on GL 10, step 5 and the structure of the salary is given as
N60,000 x 20,000. Compute Mr. Olowolayemo’s current basic salary.
Solution:
Step
1 60,000 or {incremental rate (x – 1) + BS} 1
2 20,000 {20,000 (5-1)+ 60,000}1
3 20,000 = (80,000 + 60,000) x 1 =
N140,000
4 20,000
5 20,000
140,000
For example:
Position No. in Post GL Salary
DFA 1 17 25,000 x 20,000
DD – A & F 3 16 20,000 x 20,000
AD – Accts. 4 15 15,000 x 10,000
CA 6 14 10,000 x 5,000
Note: - 1st column in salary is the ABS, while the 2nd column is the incremental
rate.
Each staff salary should be based on Step 4 and staff allowances should be
30% of staff salary.
SUGGESTED SOLUTION 13.3:
PERSONNEL COST BUDGET.

Position No. in Post GL Salary ()
DFA 1 17 85,000
DD – A & F 3 16 240,000
AD – Accts 4 15 180,000
CA 6 14 150,000
Sub – Total 655,000
Add staff allowances @ 30% of N655,000 196,500
Total Personnel Cost 851,500
205
Workings:
Formula in use ={Incremental Rate (x – 1) + Basic Salary}n

DFA = {20,000 (4 – 1) + 25,000}1= {20,000(3) + 25,000}1= 85,000
DD = {20,000 (4 – 1) + 20,000}3 = {60,000 + 20,000}3 = 240,000
AD = {10,000 (4 – 1) + 15,000}4 = {30,000 + 15,000}4 = 180,000
CA = { 5,000 (4 – 1) +10,000}6 ={15,000 + 10,000}6 = 150,000
Government’s Salary Scale

Government has a salary scale graded from levels 01 to 017. Incremental rates
are tied to the salary earnings. A typical array of hypothetical salary grades
and scales is as per the following table:
TYPICAL TABLE OF GOVERNMENT’S SALARY SCALE: GRADE LEVELS 01

TO 17
GRADE STEPS SALARY PLACEMENTS

1 2 3 4 15
N N N N N N
1 100 150 200 250 800 100 x 50 = 800
2 150 250 350 450 1,550 150 x 100 = 1,550
3 250 400 550 700 2,350 250 x 150 = 2,350
4 500 800 1,100 1,400 4,700 500 x 300 = 4,700
5 800 1,200 1,600 2,000 6,400 800 x 400 = 6,400
17 5,000 7,000 9,000 11,000 33,000 5,000 x 2,000 = 33,000
From the above table we can interpret as follows:

(a) A Government officer can be employed or promoted and placed on
between grade levels 1 and 17.
(b) The highest step is 15. That is, the yearly increases have 15 steps.
(c) From the above table we can interpret as follows:
(d) A step which is a yearly increase has a fixed incremental rate for each
level.
(e) A staff will move from one step to the other following on yearly basis. It
is automatic at the anniversary of a staff joining the service, provided,
however, that he has good records in his file.
(f) Staff can move from one grade to the other if he is promoted.
(g) Double or triple promotion is allowed if the staff performs extra-
ordinarily well or he has acquired additional qualification.
(h) A newly employed staff will be on step 1 of the grade; if otherwise, the
letter of appointment of the officer will state the step to which his salary
has been placed.
(i) Promotion is supposed to be given every four years, but it is not
automatic.
(j) The figures in the attached table relate to basic salaries alone.
206
ILLUSTRATION 13 -4
Suppose Mr. Karim is a Government staff on level 1 step2, of 150 per annum.
He recently got promoted and was placed on level 2 step 2. What is Mr. Karim’s
latest salary?

Mr. Karim’s latest basic salary per annum is 250. Generally, the rule is that
upon promotion or advancement, an officer must earn more than what he was
taking before the elevation.
ILLUSTRATION 13-5
Using the formula earlier stated, you are required to compute the entitlements
for the following:
(a) Grade level 3 step 7
(b) Grade level 4 step 7
(c) Grade level 5 step 7
(d) Grade level 17 step 7

(a) Grade level 3, step 7:
B + (n - 1) i
= 250 + (7 - 1) 150
= 250 + (6 x 150)
= 1,150
(b) Grade level 4, step 7:

B + (n - 1) i
= 500 + (7 - 1) 300
= 500 + (6 x 300)
= 2,300
(c) Grade level 5, step 7:

B + (n - 1) i
= 800 + (7 - 1) 400
= 800 + (6 x 400)
= 3,200
(d) Grade level 17, step 7:

B + (n - 1) i
= 5,000 + (7 - 1) 2,000
= 5,000 + (6 x 2,000)
= 17,000
207
ILLUSTRATION 13.6
The Ministry of Commerce & Industries in Kwara State of Nigeria is about to
prepare its 2010 Budget for submission to the State Budget Department. The
Permanent - Secretary of the Ministry made available to you the following
information in respect of the personnel costs.
Job Title Number Grade Level Salary

in post ( GL )
Director of Commerce — 17 60,000 x 20,000
Deputy Director of Commerce 2 16 55,000 x 18,000
Assistant Director of Commerce 3 15 50,000 x 15,000
Chief Accountant 4 14 45,000 x 12,000
Assistant Chief Accountant 5 13 40,000 x 10,000
Principal Accountant 4 12 35,000 x 9,000
Senior Commercial Officers 8 10 30,000 x 8,000
Commercial Officer 1 5 09 25,000 x 7,000
Commercial Officer II 10 08 20,000 x 6,000
Principal Trade Officer 12 10 30,000 x 8,000
Senior Trade Officer 10 09 25,000 x 7,000
Higher Trade Officer 12 08 20,000 x 6,000
Executive Trade Officer 15 07 15,000 x 5,000
Assistant Executive Trade Officer 18 06 12,000 x 4,000
Clerical Officer 25 04 10,000 x 3,000
Assistant Clerical Officer 20 03 8,000 x 2,000
Office Assistant 5 03 8,000 x 2,000
Drivers 10 03 8,000 x 2,000
Cleaners 12 03 8,000 x 2,000
The following relevant information is also available.

(i) All the salary levels shown above are step one of the grades and it is the
Ministry’s policy to prepare personnel cost budget based on step 4 of
the grade level.
(ii) One Deputy Director, two Assistant Directors, one Chief Accountant are
due for promotion during the budget year.
(iii) During 2010, four senior commercial officers will be employed to
strengthen the Commercial Division.
(iv) Staff allowances constitute 40% of staff salary.
You are required to prepare in summary form, personnel cost budget for the
Commerce Division of the Ministry
208
SUGGESTED SOLUTION 13.6
MINISTRY OF COMMERCE & INDUSTRIES

KWARA STATE MINISTRY OF COMMERCE & INDUSTRIES
PERSONNEL COST BUDGET FOR 2010 FISCAL YEAR
Job Title No. in GL Salary

Position
Director 1 17 120,000
Deputy Director 3 16 327,000
Assistant Director 2 15 190,000
Chief Accountant 3 14 243,000
Asst Chief Accountant 5 13 350,000
Senior Comm. Officer 12 10 648,000
Comm. Officer 1 5 09 230,000
Comm. Officer II 10 08 380,000
Principal Accountant 4 12 248,000
Prin. Trade Officer 12 10 648,000

Snr. Trade Officer 10 09 460,000
Higher Trade Officer 12 08 456,000
Executive Trade Officer 15 07 450,000
Asst. Trade Officer 18 06 432,000
Clerical Officer 25 04 475,000
Asst. Clerical Officer 20 03 280,000
Office Assistant 5 03 70,000
Drivers 10 03 140,000
Cleaners 12 03 168,000
Sub-Total 6,315,000
Add Staff Allowances @ 40% of 6,315,000 2,526,000
TOTAL PERSONNEL COST 8,841,000

D = {(4-1) 20,000] + 60,000 } 1 = 120,000
DD = {(4-1) 18,000] + 55,000 } 2 -1+2=3 = 327,000
AD = {(4-1) 15,000] + 50,000 } 3-2 + 1=2 = 190,000
CA = {(4-1) 12,000] + 45,000 } 4 -1=3 = 243,000
ACA = {(4-1) 10,000] + 40,000 } 5 = 350,000
PA = {(4-1) 9,000]+ 35,000 } 4 = 248,000
SCO = {(4-1) 8,000] + 30,000 } 8+4=12 = 648,000
CO 1 = {(4-1) 7,000] + 25,000 } 5 = 230,000
CO II = {(4-1) 6,000] + 20,000 } 10 = 380,000
PTO = {(4-1) 8,000] + 30,000 } 12 = 648,000
STO = {(4-1) 7,000] + 25,000 } 10 = 460,000
HTO = {(4-1) 6,000] + 20,000 } 12 = 456,000
ETO = {(4-1) 5,000] + 15,000 } 15 = 450,000
209
AETO = {(4-1) 4,000] + 12,000 } 18 = 432,000

CO = {(4-1) 3,000] + 10,000 } 25 = 475,000
ACO = {(4-1) 2,000] + 8,000 } 20 = 280,000
OA = {(4-1) 2,000] + 8,000 } 5 = 70,000
Drivers = {(4-1) 2,000] + 8,000 } 10 = 140,000
Cleaners = {(4-1) 2,000] + 8,000 } 12 = 168,000
13.19 OVERHEAD COST BUDGET

Overhead Cost Budget is prepared using the principle of incremental or
traditional budgeting approach, by increasing the previous year is budgeted
expenditure by inflation rate.
There are two ways examiners can test overhead cost budget under traditional
budgeting system:
(a) Where the increase is given in values, the formula to apply is
bi = (bo x i) + ( co x i)
Where;
bi = budgeted activities level;
bo = base year activity;
i = inflation factor
co = current year activity
(b) Where the increase is given in percentages (%), bi=bo x i x %.
ILLUSTRATION 13.7
 Using the 1st as a case study:
The following is in respect of Ministry of Agriculture where 20 tractors

were maintained for 25 million in year 2010. The call circular from
Ministry of Agriculture made provision for additional 10 tractors to be
procured to strengthen the operation of the Ministry next year.
Information from National Bureau of Statistics show that inflation factor
is 10%.

bi = (bo x i) + (co x i)
i = 10%, bo = 20 tractors, co =10 tractors
bi = ??
bi = (25 m x 1.1) + (12.5m x 1.1)
27.5 m + 13.75 = 41.25 million.
Where the increase is given as a percentage.
To compute the overhead cost budget, let us assume the following actual
expenditure occurred in the OAGF in 2010 budget year.
Maintenance of Motor Vehicle 40,000
Traveling & transport 100,000
Hotel Accommodation 200,000
Utility Services 100,000
210
Others 240,000
The inflation factor is 20%.
OFFICE OF ACCOUNTANT – GENERAL FOR THE FEDERATION.

OVERHEAD COST BUDGET for the Year 2011 Fiscal Year.
2010 Inflation Year 2011

Actual() Factor @ 10% Estimate ()
Maintenance of Motor Vehicle 40,000 (120% of N40,000) = 48,000
Transport & traveling 100,000 (20% of N100,000) = 120,000
Hotel Accommodation 200,000 (20% of N200,000) = 240,000
Utility Services 100,000 (20% of N100,000) = 120,000
Others 240,000 (20% of N240,000) = 288,000
Total Overhead Cost budget 680,000 816,000
13.20 REVENUE BUDGET

This is computed by aggregating all the various incomes accruing to a
particular ministry, state or local government. The revenue of the government
is derived from Oil and Non–Oil sources. It refers to all government revenue,
which accrue into the Federation Account, Consolidated Revenue Fund,
Contingency Fund and Development Fund.
13.20.1Purposes of Revenue Budget

The following are the purposes of revenue budget.
(a) To determine the level of aggregate income receivable by the
government;
(b) To determine the level of expenditure acceptable to the
government;
(c) To determine areas of weakness in terms of revenue generation;
(d) To identify the major sources of income to the government;
(e) To evolve policies that will enhance revenue generation to the
government;
(f) To plan the cash flow of the government;
(g) To serve as a basis for the control of income and expenditure of
the government.
ILLUSTRATION 13.8
IJUMU L.G.A. has a population of 10 million citizens of which 7 million are
taxable adults who will pay tax at the rate of 500 per adult. It also has 20,000
market stalls rented to traders at 80,000 per annum per stall. There are 12,000
hawkers who will pay entrance fees to the market on daily basis at the rate of
100 per day. There are 28 days in a month and 12 months in a year. Prepare
the revenue budget of the Local Government for the year 2010.
211
SUGGESTED SOLUTION 13-.8
IJUMU LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA.

REVENUE BUDGET FOR THE YEAR 2010
Taxes (7,000,000 x 500) 3,500,000,000

Market Stall Rentals (20,000 x 80,000 p.a.) 1,600,000,000
Hawkers (12,000 x 100 x 28 days x 12) 403,200,000
Total Revenue Budget 5,503,200,000
13.21 FUNCTIONS OF THE MINISTRY OF BUDGET AND PLANNING/

DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING, IN THE PRESIDENCY.
For preparation of the Annual Estimates and the formulation of the fiscal,
monetary and other policies which are needed to support the economy, the
Ministry of Budget and Planning performs the following functions:
(a) Developing reasoned economic assumptions and forecasts.
(b) Issuing budget guidelines to the Ministries and Extra-Ministerial
Departments.
(c) Acting as the liaison between the Presidency, Ministries and Extra-
Ministerial Departments during the budget preparation.
(d) Compiling total revenue and expenditure estimates.
(e) Drafting the budget speech.
(f) Supervising and controlling the implementation of the budget.
(g) Monitoring and evaluating the performance of programmes funded
through the Government budget.
(h) Assessing the impact of the budget on the economy.
(i) Developing formats of returns aimed at ensuring cost effectiveness in
the use of Government resources.
(j) Carrying out research on budget utilisation and the attainment of
National or State objectives.
13.22 BUDGETARY CONTROL

It is the whole system of controls - financial or otherwise - to ensure that income
and expenditure are in line with the budgets and that wastage is reduced to
the barest minimum. Budgetary control is a positive and integral part of a
public sector organisation’s planning and appraisal activities so as to achieve
the set objectives. In other words, budgetary control is a process of comparing
the actual with a budgeted activity, resulting in a variance, which could be
favourable or adverse.
13.22.1 Objectives of Budgetary Control

The objectives of budgetary control may be discussed as follows:
(a) To combine the ideas of all levels of management in the
preparation of budgets.
(b) To co-ordinate all the activities of a business or organisation.
(c) To centralise control.
212
(d) To decentralise responsibility to each manager.

(e) To act as a guide for management decision when unforeseable
conditions affect the budgets.
(f) To plan and control income and expenditure so that maximum
benefit is achieved.
(g) To channel capital expenditure in the most profitable manner.
(h) To ensure that sufficient working capital or cash is available for
the efficient operation of the business or organisation.
(i) To provide a yardstick against which actual results can be
compared;
(j) To show management where action is needed to remedy a
situation.
13.23 CASH BUDGETING

The preparation of cash budgets is part of the budgetary control exercise. It
forecasts the cash inflows (receipts) and outflows (payments) of a Ministry or
Parastatal, usually over three to six months at a time. Cash budgeting is
designed principally to stave off liquidity problems.
13.23.1 Advantages of Preparing Cash Budgets

The advantages may be highlighted, as follows:
(a) A cash budget assists in the availability of cash to pay debts
owing as they fall due.
(b) It facilitates the appreciation of the amount of liquid cash
available to execute capital projects.
(c) The Organisation may invest surplus and idle fund and
consequently earn some return.
(d) Conversely, the cash budget monitors when the establishment is
likely to be short of fund, so that some loan or overdraft can be
raised or marketable securities sold.
13.23.2 Preparing Cash Budgets

The figures of receipts and payments are arrayed in tabular form under
each month, covering the period to which the cash budget relates. The
opening balance(s) of cash in-hand would be the ending figure(s) for
the previous month or months. The whole exercise is a sequential
arrangement of figures, monthly, revealing surpluses or deficits carried
forward and brought forward before the show of current transactions in
receipts and payments. It has to be noted that, in the preparation of a
cash budget, items that do not involve movement of cash (depreciation,
sunk cost, net book value of an asset) should be ignored.
ILLUSTRATION 13.9
INAGIJE State Government has a problem of not being able to pay the
salaries of workers promptly. Apart from the statutory allocations
receivable from the State and Federal Governments, internally generated
213
sources are meagre. You are the Chief Accountant assigned the
responsibility of managing the Treasury. The following information are
available:
On 31 May, 2009, the State anticipated the underlisted transactions up

to 31 December, 2009:
(a) Prepare the Cash Budget of the State for June to November, 2009.
(b) Advise the Government on the ways of optimizing the use of liquid
funds.
Statutory Internally Salaries Others

Allocation Generated
Revenue
N’000 N’000 N’000 N’000
June 50,000 10,000 5,000 600
July 70,000 12,000 4,900 620
August 65,000 8,000 5,100 650
September 72,000 11,000 6,000 630
October 61,000 5,000 7,200 580
November 42,000 3,000 15,000 710
December 49,000 1,560 15,550 490
(a) INAGIJE STATE OF NIGERIA CASH BUDGET-

JUNE to NOVEMBER, 2009
June July August September October November

N'000 N'000 N'000 N'000 N'000 N'000
Balance b/f - 54,400 130,880 198,130 274,500 332,720
Receipts:
Statutory Allocations 50,000 70,000 65,000 72,000 61,000 42,000
Internal Revenue 10,000 12,000 8,000 11,000 5,000 3,000
60,000 136,400 203,880 281,130 340,500 377,720
Payments:
Salaries 5,000 4,900 5,100 6,000 7,200 15,000
Others 600 620 650 630 580 710
5,600 5,520 5,750 6,630 7,780 15,710
Balances c/f 54,400 130,880 198,130 274,500 332,720 362,010
60,000 136,400 203,880 281,130 340,500 377,720
(b) Advice on Liquid Fund Optimisation

The liquidity position of the State Government is not under any threat,
whatsoever. However, the Government is advised, as follows:
(i) Purchases of materials should be done in bulk to secure quantity
discount.
214
(ii) Excess liquid cash of about (50,000,000, 125,000,000,

195,000,000, 270,000,000, 330,000,000 and 360,000,000 should
be invested in marketable securities and fixed deposit accounts,
for the months of June to December, respectively. Doing so would
attract considerable returns.
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION
CASH BUDGET - JUNE TO NOVEMBER,2009
June July Aug. S ept. Oct. N o v. TOTAL

RECEIPTS: N’000 N’000 N’000 N’000 N’000 N’000
Statutory Allocations 50,000 70,000 65,000 72,000 61,000 42,000 360,000
Internal Revenue 10,000 12,000 8,000 11,000 5,000 3,000 49,000
TOTAL (A) 60,000 82,000 73,000 72,000 66,000 45,000 409,000
PAYMENTS :
Salaries 5,000 4,900 5,100 6,000 7,200 15,000 43,200
Others 600 620 650 630 580 710 3,790
5,600 5,520 5,750 6,630 7,780 15,710 46,990
TOTAL (B)
Balances (A - B) 54,400 76,480 67,250 76,370 58,220 29,290 362,010
Balances b/f — 54,400 130,880 198,130 274,500 332,720 —
Balances c/f 54,400 130,880 198,130 274,500 332,720 362,010 362,010
ILLUSTRATION 13.10
The Permanent Secretary of the Federal Ministry of Women Affairs is concerned
about the liquidity problem of the Family Advancement Unit of the Ministry
which deals in the sale of “gold trinkets”. The Unit sells on both cash and
credit terms. Customers who pay their accounts within 15 days are given a
cash discount of 5% and likewise, the unit always pay cash for purchases made
in order to obtain 4% discount.
The balances at the end of June 2010 are as follows:

June July August
’000 ’000 ’000
Credit Sales 80 80 80
Cash Sales 20 25 27
10 0 10 5 11 7
The profit ‘mark-up’ on sales gives a gross profit margin of 50% on cost. It is
estimated that the above sales will require stock of goods of 90,000 in sales
value to be maintained. An analysis of the customers’ accounts disclosed that
80% of credit customers pay on time to take advantage of cash discount: 10%
pay at the end of 30days and the remainder at the end of 60 days. There were
virtually no bad debts. On average, 25% of the credit sales in any one month to
customers who take the benefit of cash discount will be in debtors at the end of
the month.
215
The estimated other expenses payable monthly are as follows:

(a) Fixed 14,000per month,
(b) Variable 10% of gross sales
Included in the fixed expenses is a depreciation charge of 3,000. A capital
payment of 20,000 is required to be made during July.
The balances at the balances at the beginning of June are as follows:

(a) Cash 16,000
(b) Stock 50,000
(c ) Debtors 18,000
Credit sales for May, a low sales month, were 35,000 of which 14,000 was still
outstanding at the end of the month. The remainder of the debtors represents
April sales. You are required to prepare a monthly cash budget for June to
August 2010. All workings should be shown.
FEDERAL MINISTRY OF WOMEN’S AFFAIRS (FAMILY ADVANCEMENT

UNIT) CASH BUDGET FOR JUNE — AUGUST, 2010
June July August

Receipts/Inflows/Income:
Opening Balance 16,000 1,150 (10,250)
Sales (Cash) 20,000 25,000 27,000
Collections from Debtors (Wii) 59,750 72,300 82,500
Total Receipts (A) 95,750 98,450 99,250
Payments/Outflows/Expenditure:
Fixed Expenses 11,000 11,000 11,000
Capital payment — 20,000 —
Variable Exp. (10% of sales) 10,000 10,500 11,700
Payment to creditors (Wiii) 73,600 67,200 74,880
Total Receipt (B) 94,600 108,700 97,580
Closing Balance (A - B) 1,150 (10,250) 1,670
Workings:
(i) Analysis of Debtors: June
80% x 95% x 75% = 57% This month
80% x 95% x 25% = 19% Previous month - May
10% - 30 days May 10% Previous month - May
10% - 60 days April 10% 3 months ago - April
(ii) June Debtors Collection:July Debtors Collection:
57% of 80,000 (June) = 45,600 57% x 80,000 (July) = 45,600
19% of 35,000 (May) = 6,650 10% x 80,000 (June) = 15,200
10% of 35,000 (May) = 3,500 10% x 80,000 (June) = 8,000
216
18,000 - 14,000 = 4,000 10% x 35,000 (May) = 3,500

= 59,750 = 72,300
August Debtors Collection : - Analysis of Creditors:
57% x 90,000 (Aug.) = 51,300

A Government Budget is prepared periodically for the approval of the National
or State Assembly before implementation. Budgeting and budgetary control
are powerful tools of sound financial management, most especially in the Public
Sector where there is great emphasis on economy, efficiency, effectiveness,
probity and accountability.
13.25.1 Questions
1.Obafemi Owode Local Government Council is about to prepare its year 2009
Budget. The following figures were made available in respect of the personnel
cost of the Works Department, for the year 2008:
Office No in Grade Salary

Post Level N N
City Engineer - 16 24,000 x 2,400
Deputy City Engineer 1 15 20,000 x 1,800
Principal Engineer 2 12 15,000 x 1,200
Senior Engineer 5 10 12,000 x 950
Engineer I 8 9 10,000 x 860
Engineer II 8 8 9,000 x 720
Chief Technical Officer 2 13 17,000 x 1,500
Principal Technical Officer 13 10 12,000 x 950
Senior Technical Officer 18 09 10,000 x 860
Higher Technical Officer 8 08 9,000 x 720
Technical Officer 15 07 7,200 x 600
Artisan Grade I 22 05 4,800 x 360
Artisan Grade II 30 04 3,600 x 210
Drivers 12 03 2,400 x 210
Cleaners 18 03 2,400 x 210
Additional Information:
(i) The Deputy City Engineer is due for promotion.
(ii) 1 Senior Engineer and 12 Artisans Grade 1 are to be appointed.
(iii) The following are in the salary range stated below:
217
Salary Scale 1 2 3 4 5
No of Staff:
Deputy Engineer 1
Principal Engineer 1 1
Senior Engineer 2 3
Engineer I 2 3 3
Engineer II 4 2 2
Chief Technical Officer 1 1
Principal Technical Officer 5 3 5
Senior Technical Officer 4 10 3 1
Higher Technical Officer 6 2
Technical Officer 5 6 2 2
Artisan Grade I 10 2 5 10
Artisan Grade II 5 10 5 10
Drivers 6 6
Cleaners 6 6 3 3
(iv) Except those on promotion each member of staff will move to the next
incremental step.
(v) Staff allowance is 20% of salary.
You are required to prepare the summary of the Personnel Cost Budget for the
Works Department for the year 2009. Ignore comparative figures for 2008.
2. The General Manager of Housing Corporation of Rimmy State has

requested for the cash position of the organisation for the first quarter of
the year 2008. The following information are available.
(i) The total annual subventions from the Federal Government in

2007 was N15,000,000. There is expectation that this figure will
increase by 10% in the year 2008. The expected 10% increase
will be received in the first six months of the year along with the
normal monthly allocations.
(ii) The Management has decided to reduce transport and travelling
by 5% in the year 2008. The total amount in 1999 was N1,890,000
and the expense will accrue evenly throughout the year.
(iii) Capital grant of N7 million monthly is expected in February, May
and November.
(iv) Salaries and wages for 2007 were N14million. 25% of the total
amount was for housing allowance. Salaries and wages will be
12% of the amount paid in 2007.
(v) Ground rent for industrial estates will be received as follows:
January N1.4m; February N0.75m and March N1.02m.
(vi) The training and development expenses of N350,000 are to be
increased by 10% in the year 2008. The total amount will be spent
on equal basis in February and October 2008.
218
(vii) The corporation will commence construction of 50 units of house

in the year 2008.
The following are the commitments through LPOs in 2007 which will be met in
the new year.
Da te
Item s Pu r cha sed LPO NO When payable A m ou n t
Cement 15/8/07 4150 within six months N4.5 million
Iron rod 15/9/07 4743 3/3/2008 N1.4 million
Gravel & Sand 31/10/07 5102 30/1/2008 N0.75 million
Plumbing materials 1/11/07 5175 15/2/2008 N375,500
Electrical materials 5/12/07 5223 31/3/2008 N625,650
(viii) Rent receivable from the shopping complex of the corporation are:
January N850,000; February N750,000 and March N1,250,000
(ix) The cash balance as at 31st December 2007 was N750,000.
Required:
Prepare a cash budget for the first quarter of the year 2008, stratified into
monthly distributions.
(3) ”The budget Cycle is a complete set of events occurring in the same
sequence every year and culminating in the approved budget”.
(a) Given the above statement, what do you understand by “Zero
Base Budgeting System.”
(b) What are the main features of “Planning, Programming and
Budgeting System.”
(4) (a) What is incremental budgeting system?
(b) The Ministry of Establishment of Kalabari State provided the
following information about its budgeted and actual overhead
and personnel costs in respect of year 2012.
YEAR 2012
SUB HEAD DESCRIPTION
PROVISION ACTUAL
N‘M N‘M
01 Personnel costs 1,650 1,530
02 Travel and tour 240 290
03 Utility services 180 160
04 Telephone services 110 140
05 Stationery 510 480
06 Office furniture and maintenance 350 290
07 Maintenance of motor vehicle 470 490
08 Maintenance of capital assets 1,110 940
09 Subventions & grants 990 990
219
10 Staff training & development 130 110

11 Miscellaneous expenses 770 740
12 Contribution to foreign bodies 430 420
The following information are also relevant:

(i) an inflation factor of 10% on overhead cost on recognized in the
computation of 2013 budget.
(ii) Increase in activities in 2013 will attract 15% of overhead cost.
(iii) 10% of total salaries for 2012 is required to meet the additional personnel
cost in 2013. The personnel cost of year 2012 include N380,000,000
spent on staff salaries.
(iv) The staff allowance will be 30% of year 2013 staff salaries.
Required:
Prepare 2013 budget on incremental system basis (show workings):
(1) Obafemi Owode Local Government Council Summary of the Personnel.

Cost Budget for 2009.
Office No of Grade Salary
Post Level N
City Engineer 1 16 24,000
Principal Engineer 2 12 33,600
Senior Engineer 6 10 84,350
Engineer I 8 09 94,620
Engineer II 8 8 80,880
Chief Technical Officer 2 13 38,500
Principal Technical Officer 13 10 180,950
Senior Technical Officer 18 9 211,820
Higher Technical Officer 8 08 126,600
Technical Officer 15 07 180,840
Artisan Grade I 34 08 127,200
Artisan Grade II 30 03 35,100
Drivers 12 03 35,100
Cleaners 18 03 51,390
1,304,950
Staff Allowance:
20 x N1,304,950 260,990
100 1,565,940
220
(2) RIMMY STATE HOUSING CORPORATION

CASH BUDGET
FOR THE FIRST QUARTER ENDED 31ST MARCH 2008
JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH TOTAL
Receipts: N N N N
Balances b/d 750,000 1,850,375 4,882,750 750,000
Subvention from the
Federal Government 1,500,000 1,500,000 1,500,000 4,500,000
Capital Grant — 7,000,000 — 7,000,000
Ground Rent 1,400,000 750,000 1,020,000 3,170,000
Rents-Shopping Complex 850,000 750,000 1,250,000 2,850,000
Total Collections _________ __________ _________ __________
and cash in-hand (a) 4,500,000 11,850375 8,652,750 18,270,000
Payments: N N N N
Transport & Travelling 149,625 149,625 149,625 448,875
Salaries and Wages 1,312,500 1,312,500 1,312,500 3,937,500
Housing Allowance 437,500 437,500 437,500 1,312,500
Training and Development — 192,500 — 192,500
Purchase of Cement — 4,500,000 — 4,500,000
Purchase of Iron Rod — — 1,400,000 1,400,000
Purchase of Gravel and Sand 750,000 — — 750,000
Purchase of Plumbing Material — 375,500 — 375,500
Purchase Electrical Materials — — 625,650 625,650
(b) 2,649,625 6,967,625 3,925,275 13,542,525
Balances c/d = (a) - (b) 1,850,375 4,882,750 4,727,475 4,727,475
4,500,000 11,850,375 8,652,750 18,270,000
Workings
(i) Grant from Federal Government =N1,500,000 x 1.1 = N16,000,000
Amount Received from January - March =N15,000,000 + N1,500,000
12 6
= N(1,250,000 + 250,000)
= N1,500,000
(ii) Salaries and Wages
N14,000,000 x 11/2 = N21,000,000
Monthly Housing Allowance = 25% of N21,000,000
12
= N437,500
Monthly Salaries and wages = 75% of N21,000,000

12
= N1,312,500
221
Transport and development = N350,000 x 1.10

= N385,000
2
= N192,500
(3) (a) Zero-Base Budgeting attempts to shift the traditional management of

the Public Sector Budgeting process towards a new mode of thinking
and operation. It is management process that provides for systematic
consideration of all programmes and activities in conjunction with the
formulation of budget and programme planning. Zero-Base Budgeting
usually involves the use of “decision packages” and involves the
following:
(i) Breaking the whole budget into decision packages, based on the
decision units where costs are attached to each activity, to
alternative ways of dealing with the same activity and with an
assessment of the effect of not performing it. Different levels of
performance between the minimum and the maximum are
considered and optimal level selected.
(ii) Priority ranking of decision packages across the whole range of

activities with each, new and old, competing with one another.
(iii) Determination of the “cut off point” to decide which packages

can be included and which to be rejected.
(iv) Comparison of list of packages in order of priority to fill in with

the resources available.
(b) The main features of Planning, Programming, and Budgeting Systems

(PPBS), are:
(i) Definition of an organisation’s objectives in as much specific terms

as possible.
(ii) Determination of programmes, including possible alternatives,

to achieve the stated objectives.
(iii) Identification of major issues to be resolved in the formulation

and/or development of programmes.
(iv) An annual cycle with appropriate sub-decisions for the planning,

programming and budgeting steps to ensure an ordered approach
and make appropriate time allocation for analysis and decision-
making at all levels of management.
222
(v) Continuous re-examination of programme results in relationship

to anticipated costs and outcomes, to determine need for changes
in stated programmes and objectives as originally established.
(vi) Analysis of programmes and their alternatives in terms of

probable outcomes, and direct and indirect costs.
(vii) Adaptation of existing accounting and statistical reporting

systems to provide inputs into planning and programming, as
well continuous flow of information on resources used and action
taken to implement programmes.
(viii) Development, each year, of a multi-year programme and financial

plan.
(ix) Recognition of issues and other problems that require more time
than available in an annual cycle so that they can be explicitly
identified and set apart from the current period, for completion
in two or more years as the subject-matter and availability in
personnel allow.
4(a) An incremental budgeting technique is a technique of budgeting which involves

the utilization of past established budget. The budget considers the current
budget and add to a percentage of last budget based on trend, inflation and
available revenue at the disposal of the government.
(b) KALABARI STATE MINISTRY OF ESTABLISHMENT

PERSONNEL AND OVERHEAD COST BUDGET FOR YEAR2013
SUBHEAD DESCRIPTION NOTES

N’M
01 Personnel cost 1 1,644.50
02 Travel and tours 2 366.85
03 Utility services 3 202.40
04 Telephone 4 177.10
05 Stationery 5 607.20
06 Office furniture & maintenance 6 366.85
07 Maintenance of motor vehicle 7 619.85
223
08 Maintenance of capital assets 8 1,189.10
09 Contribution and grants 9 1,252.35
10 Staff training and development 10 139.15
11 Miscellaneous expenses 11 936.10
12 Contribution to foreign bodies 12 531.30
TOTAL BUDGET COST 8,032.75
WORKINGS
NM NM
1. Personnel cost
Salaries (1,530 – 380) x 110% = 1,265.00
Add
Staff allowance = 1,265 x 30%= 379.50 1,644.50
2. Travel and tours (290 x 110% x 115%) 366.85
3. Utility services (160 x 110% x 115%) 202.40
4. Telephone services (140 x 110% x 115%) 177.10
5. Stationary (480 x 110% x 115%) 607.20
6. Office furniture maintenance (290 x 110% x 115%) 366.85
7. Maintenance of capital vehicle (490 x 110% x 115%) 619.85
8. Maintenance of capital assets (940 x 110% x 115%) 1,189.10
9. Subvention & grants (990 x 110% x 115%) 1,252.35
10. Staff training & Dev. (110 x 110% x 115%) 139.15
11. Miscellaneous (740 x 110% x 115%) 936.10
12. Contribution to foreign bodies (420 x 110% x 115) 531.30
224
CHAPTER
Skills level
14
Government Construction Contracts

and Procurements
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Contract Payment Vouchers
4. Tenders Board
5. Powers of Boards of Corporations and Parastatals Over Tenders
6. Federal Executive Council
7. Tender Splitting
8. Competitive Tenders
9. Bid Security
10. Performance Bond Guarantee
11. Procurement Plan
12. Services of International Agents
13. Mobilisation Fee
14. Interest on Delayed Payment
15. Registration of Contractors/Suppliers
16. Audit Inspection
17. Operation of Tender Boards
18. Notice of Invitation
19. Selective Tenders
20. Deposit for Tender
21. Tender Procedure
22. Award of Contract
23. Post-Contract Award Activities
24. Terms of Contract
25. Operation of the Public Procurement Act, 2007
26. Fundamental Principles of Public Procurement
27. Due process Guidelines on Government Contracts
28. Limit of Authority to Incur Expenditure/Spending Limit
29. Revised Guidelines and Thresholds on Public Procurements
30. Chapter Review
31. Worked Examples
225
14
GOVERNMENT CONSTRUCTION
CONTRACTS AND PROCUREMENTS
14.0 PURPOSE
After studying this chapter, reader should be able to :
(a) explain ‘Construction Contract.’;
(b) describe the procedures for awarding such contracts;
(c) justify the role of Tender Boards in the award of contracts and
procurements;
(d) explain the accounting procedure for construction contracts and
procurements; and
(e) discuss the powers and duties of the National Council on Public
Procurements and the Bureau of Public Procurement.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The chapter discusses the procedures for awarding contracts and making
procurements in the Public Sector. It highlights the requirements of the Public
Procurement Act, 2007 and the implementation of the electronic payment
system.
According to the Statement of Accounting Standard No. 11 (SAS 11) and the
International Public Sector Accounting Standards No. 11 (IPSAS 11),
Construction Contract refers to the execution of a building and civil engineering
projects, mechanical and electrical engineering installations and other
fabrications normally evidenced by agreements between two or more parties.
In Government, a construction contract is a capital project which is normally

financed by appropriations from the Capital Development Fund.
14.2 CONTRACT PAYMENT VOUCHERS

All payment vouchers relating to contract awards should contain the following
information:
(a) The names and addresses of the contractors.
(b) Contract numbers.
(c) The votes of charge.
(d) Description of projects.
(e) Certificate numbers being paid.
(f) The gross amounts and retention fees (if any) of the contracts.
(g) The authority for payment.
226
GOVERNMENT CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS AND PROCUREMENTS
(h) If it is part payment of a certificate which is being effected, a statement

to show the full amount of the contract and the balance outstanding,
should be disclosed.
14.2.1 Payments for Contracts and Procurements

The Federal Government’s policy from January 2009 is that public fund
would henceforth be made electronically; payments are henceforth to
be effected to the contractors by electronic transfers to their bank accounts.
The objective of the new system is to eliminate delay in effecting
payments to the creditors, contractors, etc. of government and minimise
undue interaction between the agents of Government and third parties.
The ultimate objective is to reduce, if not completely put a stop to,
corruption and other vices.
14.2.2 Implementation of the E-Payment Procedure

Treasury Circular Ref. No. TYR/A8 &B8/2008, reference OAGF/CAD/026/
Vol. 11/465 of 22nd October, 2008 conveys the guidelines for the
implementation of the ‘e-payment’ procedure, as follows:
(a) All forms of payments from all government funds are to be made
through the banks, either Commercial Banks or Central Bank of
Nigeria.
(b) All organs of Government, Ministries, Departments and Agencies
are to stop using cheques to make payments to contractors.
(c) All bank accounts in respect of all Government funds shall cease
to be cheque accounts.
(d) Government contractors must indicate their current accounts
particulars with Commercial Banks on the invoices submitted
for payment under their corporate seals.
(e) Mandates containing details of payments shall be issued to Banks
authorizing them to pay into the contractors’ designated bank
accounts, the proceeds of executed contracts and supplies.
(f) In addition to the existing monthly financial returns, every
organization of Government, Ministry, Department or Agency
must forward copies of mandates issued to Banks to the Office of
Accountant-General of the Federation.
(g) Henceforth, all employees of the Federal Government of Nigeria
must open accounts with the commercial banks into which all
payments due to them as individuals would be made.
(h) On no account should Central Pay Officers (CPO) collect cash from
the bank for the purpose of disbursement to any government
official.
14.2.3 Contract Registers

Copies of all contract agreements must be forwarded to the Accounts
Division of relevant Ministry or Extra-Ministerial Department. They
should be entered in a Contract Register maintained.
227
The register will contain the following information:

(a) Name and address of contractor.
(b) Contract number.
(c) Contract sum.
(d) Contingency and variation clauses (if any).
(e) Payment terms.
(f) Completion period of contract work.
(g) File number.
(h) Particulars of payment and balance outstanding.
(i) Signature of officer controlling expenditure.
In the case of a big project in respect of which there are many contracts,
a project register may be maintained as a summary of various contracts,
to ascertain at any given time how much has been paid.
14.2.4 Attachments to Contract Payment Vouchers

Before a contract payment voucher is processed for payment, the
following items should be ascertained and attached:
(a) A copy of the minutes of the Tenders Board awarding the contract.
It should be ascertained that the amount of the contract is within
the Board’s power.
(b) A completion certificate of work done, signed by a competent
authority in the field, such as an Engineer, a Surveyor or an
Architect.
(c) A copy each of the letter of award and contract agreement.
(d) In the case of supplies, original copies of delivery notes and store
receipt vouchers issued.
(e) A bill or invoice submitted by the firm requesting for payment.
14.3 THE TENDERS’ BOARD ON CONTRACTS

A tender is a proposal for the supply of some services or goods. It is usually
made and presented as a result of an invitation. It is legally accepted as an
offer for acceptance.
The Tenders Board is the assemblage of public officers constituted to handle

public tenders in respect of all government contract works and/or services.
Government introduced the new policy guidelines on the procurement and

award of contracts in all Ministries and Extra-Ministerial Departments in the
year 2001, on the strength of Federal Ministry of Finance’s circular no. F15775
of 27 June, 2001.
14.3.1 Types of Tenders’ Boards

The Departmental Tenders Board and the Federal Tenders Board have
been abrogated. The functions are now assumed by the Permanent
Secretaries and Ministerial Tenders Board, respectively. Contracts of
228
works, services and purchases of up to five million naira (N5,000,000)

can be approved by the Permanent Secretary/Chief Executive without
open competitive tendering. However, at least three relevant written
quotations should be obtained from suitably qualified contractors/
suppliers. All expenditure incurred under this policy should be
documented and reported to the Honourable Minister on quarterly basis,
for information.
14.3.1.1 Ministerial Tenders Board

The set-up may be discussed, as follows:
(a) Composition
The Chairman is the Permanent Secretary/Chief Executive
of the Ministry or Extra-Ministerial Department,
respectively. Other members are all Directors/Heads of
Departments in the Ministry or Establishment.
(b) Limit of Expenditure

The Ministerial Tenders Board is empowered to award any
contract which its value exceeds N5,000,000.00 (Five
million naira) but not more than N100,000,000.00 (Fifty
million naira).
(c) Approval
The decision of the Ministerial Tenders Board (MTB) shall
be confirmed by the Honourable Minister.
14.3.1.2 Armed Forces/Ministry of Defence Tenders Board

Composition
#The composition of the Board is:
(a) The Chairman of the Armed Forces/Ministry of Defence
Tenders Board shall be the Permanent Secretary, Ministry
of Defence.
(b) Other members are representatives of the Army, Navy, Air

Force and the Director of Finance and Accounts of the
Ministry of Defence.
Approval
The decision of the Armed Forces/Ministry of Defence
Tenders Board shall be subject to the confirmation of the
Minister of Defence.
229
14.3.1.3 Nigeria Police Tenders and Purchasing Board (Ministerial)

According to Government Financial Regulations and the Ministry
of Finance’s circular No. F15775 of 27 June, 2001, the
Composition of the Board is:
(a) The Chairman shall be the Permanent Secretary, Police
Affairs.
(b) Other members are:
(i) The Deputy Inspector-General of Police (Finance
and Administration).
(ii) All the Heads of Departments.
(iii) The Head of Finance and Accounts Department.
Approval
Each contract awarded by the Nigeria Police Tenders and
Purchasing Board shall be subject to the confirmation of the
Minister of Police Affairs.
14.4 POWERS OF BOARDS OF CORPORATIONS AND PARASTATALS OVER

TENDERS
(a) The Chief Executive of a Parastatal is empowered to make purchase or
award a contract, the value of which does not exceed N700,000.00
(Seven hundred thousand Naira) only, without open competitive
tendering. However at least three relevant written quotations should be
obtained from suitably qualified contractors or suppliers. Any
expenditure incurred under this policy should be documented and
reported to the Chairman of the Board of the Corporation on quarterly
basis, for information, see 13.28(a) for current situation.
(b) Any contract exceeding 700,000.00 (Seven hundred thousand Naira)

but not more than 20,000,000.00 (Twenty million Naira) shall be referred
to the Board of the Corporation, for approval, see 13.28(a) for current
situation.
(c) Any contract whose value exceeds 20,000,000.00 (Twenty million Naira)
but not more than 50 million (Fifty million Naira) shall be referred to
the Ministerial Tenders Board (MTB) of the relevant supervising Ministry
or Corporation/Parastatal, for consideration, see 13.28(a) for current
situation.
14.5 FEDERAL EXECUTIVE COUNCIL

Any contract, the value of which exceeds 100,000,000.00 (One hundred million
Naira) shall be approved by the Federal Executive Council, see 13.28(a) for
current situation.
230
14.6 TENDER SPLIT TING

Government’s Financial Regulation regards it as “an offence for any public
officer to deliberately split tenders, contracts of works, purchases procurement
or services so as to circumvent the provisions of this chapter and the circular
earlier referred to. Such breach of the rules will be severely dealt with by a
competent disciplinary authority”.
14.7 COMPETITIVE TENDERS

The Ministerial Tenders Board must adopt the open competitive tendering
procedures. However, if it is considered necessary to use selective or limited
tender procedures, the short-listing or selection of contractors or suppliers
should be done by the Ministerial Tenders Board. In addition, the following
procedures and practices should be adopted:
(a) All contracts above 10million (Ten million Naira) should be advertised
in at least two national dailies and/or Government gazette. The
advertisement will be at least six weeks before the deadline for
submitting bids for goods and works, and at least one month for
consultancy services. Notices of all other tenders must be pasted at the
notice board of procuring agencies.
(b) Opening of tenders must be done in the ‘open’ at a designated date and
time and opening should immediately follow the closing of the bidding
period, to minimize the risk of bid tampering. The following people
should be invited to the opening tender:
(i) The bidders or their representatives.
(ii) Members of the civil society.
(iii) Members of the press, if they wish to attend.
(c) Bid evaluation criteria should be clearly defined in the bidding

documents and the award of all contracts should be based on the criteria
so defined.
(d) There should be a committee made up of professionals for the evaluation

of the bids. The Secretary of the Tenders Board should be Secretary of
the Committee. Members of the Evaluation Committee, Tenders Boards,
and approval authorities should be obliged to declare any conflict of
interest and exclude themselves from bid evaluation and approval
processes.
(e) The award of any major contract of 20,000,000 (Twenty million Naira)
and above should be published in two national dailies, stating:
(i) Description of the contract.
(ii) Name of the contractor.
(iii) Contract price.
231
(f) Contract awards should be properly handled so as to avoid or minimize

variations. Contract variations should not be allowed except when
absolutely necessary, subject to approval and/or the recommendation
of the Ministerial Tenders Board (MTB). The method for determining
price variation during contract execution should be incorporated into
the contract. Such price variations shall be for contracts extended for
more than eighteen (18) months.
14.8 BID SECURITY

All contracts established to cost 10 million (Ten million Naira) and above should
attract a Bid Security in an amount of not less than the bid price in form of
bank guarantee issued by reputable banks.
14.9 PERFORMANCE BOND GUARANTEE

Performance Bond Guarantee in an amount of 10% of contract price should be
obtained for all contracts in the sum of 10 million and above.
14.10 PROCUREMENT PLAN

Quantity procurement arrangement should be evolved and used to determine
the requirement of funds for various Government offices during the fiscal year.
Such plans should spell out the timing for different procurement actions and
hence, the funding requirements at different stages. Release of funds should
be on the basis of realistic, approved and updated procurement plans.
14.11 SERVICES OF INTERNATIONAL AGENTS

The services of International Procurement Agents of the highest repute may be
obtained, to assist in medium and large scale contracting where necessary.
14.12 MOBILISATION FEE

Mobilisation fee where necessary and appropriate shall not exceed 25% of the
contract sum. However, payment of such mobilization fee shall be effected upon
written application and an unconditional Bank Guarantee for equivalent
amount valid until the goods are supplied or until the mobilization fee has
been repaid, in the case of works contracts. Only Unconditional Bank Guarantees
issued by reputable Banks should be accepted.
14.13 INTEREST ON DELAYED PAYMENT

There shall be a provision of interest payment to contractors for delayed
payments by Ministries/Extra Ministerial Departments. Such payment should
however be made:
(a) At the interest rate specified in the contract agreement;
(b) If there is delay in the settlement of the claim of more than 60 days,
from the date of submission of the contractor’s invoice/valuation
certificate and the confirmation/authentication by the relevant Ministry.
232
14.14 REGISTRATION OF CONTRACTORS/SUPPLIERS

All eligible contractors/suppliers must be duly registered with the Federal
Ministry of Works and Housing or their respective Ministries or Extra-Ministerial
Departments. They must produce their VAT Registration Certificates before
registration.
14.15 AUDIT INSPECTION

The following must be forwarded to the Auditor-General for the Federation:
(a) Certified true copies of all contract agreements.
(b) The minutes of Tenders Board meetings, and
(c) Full records of all tendering processes which shall be made available
for the inspection of Auditor-General for the Federation and the
Accountant-General, at short or no notice. The records shall be kept for
verification for a period of seven (7) years, from the date of completion
and take over of the project.
As a condition for final payment for contracts exceeding 5million (Five million
Naira), the Auditor-General for the Federation or his representative and a very
senior member of the Ministry/Agency should countersign the certificate
releasing final payment.
14.16 OPERATION OF TENDER BOARDS

When approval has been obtained in respect of a contract for the supply of
goods and/or services and availability of fund confirmed, the Tenders Board
Secretariat will be informed of the magnitude of the amount so required. The
Secretary to the relevant Board will inform the Chairman as to when the contract
will be slated for consideration.
Where the Board meets periodically, the Secretary will present the issue at
such a meeting. However, where the contract award necessitates any urgency,
an emergency meeting may be summoned.
14.17 NOTICE OF INVITATION

At its meeting, the Board orders a notice of invitation to tender for the contract
to be put up. Such notice will include all necessary details in respect of the
jobs/services to be awarded. Where the use of tender forms applies the
information disclosed in the notice may be limited while the form will contain
the details. The media through which such notice shall be published includes
one official gazette and/or the national newspapers and magazines. The notice
board of the offices of the Ministry concerned shall also be used in displaying
the advertisement. A specific date is always given as closing date for the
submission of tenders.
14.18 SELECTIVE TENDERS

Where the implementation of a project is to be accelerated, selective or limited
tender procedure may be applied. In this case, the number of contractors to be
invited to tender shall not be less than five.
233
14.19 DEPOSIT FOR TENDER

Where deposit is required before a tender form is submitted, it may be required
that a Treasury receipt for the required amount is attached to it before the form
is considered at all. Sometimes, the Treasury receipt or the amount paid by the
depositor is confirmed before the tender form is issued.
14.20 TENDER PROCEDURE

Tenders are usually submitted in sealed envelopes to the Secretariat of the
Tenders Board. At the close of the notice of invitation to tender, the Secretary
under the close supervision of the Chairman or a member deputizing for him,
will open the Tenders. They will be numbered serially and authenticated by
the initials of the Secretary, with the dates indicated. The tenders will thus be
listed, in duplicate, and kept in safe custody.
A meeting of the Board will then be summoned to, among other things, discuss
the tenders and make necessary selections for onward transmission to the
approving authority. The Board usually selects the best of the tenders.
Consideration will include the past records of the contractors, the quality of
service being offered, experience as can be deduced from the tender price (rate).
It is necessary to emphasise that the lowest tender does not necessarily have to
be the best, as many other things are considered.
If all the tenders are rejected, fresh applications shall be called for. However, if
one of the tenders is recommended, all the bids shall be forwarded with a
duplicate list to the approving authority with comments or remarks on why
each tender is recommended or not.
14.21 AWARD OF THE CONTRACT

The approving authority will communicate his position to the Tenders Board.
The Secretary will subsequently write a letter of award to the successful tenderer
and/or invite him for the signing of the contract. Where necessary, a bond will
have to be signed and/or sureties provided. In principle, the award of the contract
has to be published in the newspapers and gazette and unsuccessful tenderers
informed as such.
As earlier stated, certified true copies of the contracts are to be forwarded to

the Auditor-General as well as the Accountant-General. It should be emphasised
that Government contracts are not to be ‘sub-let’, “assigned”, except the terms
of the agreement require or permit this. The sale of Government property may
be made by tender, in the same way as award of contract.
14.22 POST CONTRACT AWARD ACTIVITIES

These may be briefly discussed, as follows:
(a) Tender Board Information on Voucher
Payment voucher in respect of a contract awarded through tender must
contain among other things:
234
(i) Certified true copy of all the minutes of the meetings of the Tenders
Board in relation to the award of the contract.
(ii) Certified true copy of the contract agreement.
(iii) Copy of the approving authority.
(iv) Copy of each voucher in respect of payments already made on
the contract.
(b) Tenders Board Information Availability
Minutes of the Tenders Board meetings and the full records in respect of
the various types of tendering, shall be made available to the Accounting
Officer on request and for inspection of the Auditor-General, on demand.
14.23 TERMS ON CONTRACT

These are:
(a) Contingencies Clause
This is one of the clauses in contract agreements which states that if the
contractor had taken reasonable care in executing the job and he is still
faced with unexpected situation, the contractee or the owner of the project
shall bail out the contractor by making more money available, or review
upward the contract sum. If otherwise, the contractor will bear the cost.
(b) Retention Fee

It is a clause in a contract agreement which states that after the
completion of the project, Government shall with-hold about 5% of the
contract sum, for six (6)months. The amount withheld will be paid to
the contractor thereafter if the project is properly executed and
constructional error is not noticed.
If the job is not properly executed, e.g if there is a crack on the wall and
is due to an error which arose from construction, then the amount
withheld will be used to correct the anomaly. If the amount withheld is
not enough, Government will ask the contractor to pay in the difference.
If the contractor fails to pay it in, he may be blacklisted.
14.24 OPERATION OF THE PUBLIC PROCUREMENT ACT, 2007
14.24.1 Procurement In Government

The National Council on Public Procurement was established by
the Public Procurement Act, 2007. The Council is to carry out the
following functions:
(a) Consider, approve and amend the monetary and prior
review thresholds for the application of the provisions of
the Act by procuring entities.
(b) Consider and approve policies on public procurement.
(c) Approve the appointment of the Directors of the Bureau of
Public Procurement.
235
(d) Receive and consider, for approval, the audited accounts of the
Bureau of Public procurement.
(e) Approve changes in the procurement process to adapt to
improvements in modern technology.
(f) Give such other directives and perform such other functions as
may be necessary in order to achieve the objectives of the Act.
14.24.2 Membership of National Council on Public Procurement (NCPP)

(a) Minister of Finance, as Chairman.
(b) Attorney-General and Minister of Justice of the Federation.
(c ) Secretary to the Government of the Federation.
(d) Head of Service of the Federation.
(e) Economic Adviser to the President.
(f) Six Part-Time members representing:
(i) Nigeria Institute of Purchasing and Supply Management.
(ii) Nigeria Bar Association.
(iii) Nigeria Association of Chambers of Commerce, Industry,
Mines and Agriculture.
(iv) Nigeria Society of Engineers.
(v) Civil Society.
(vi) The media.
(g) Director- General of the Bureau who shall serve as the Secretary
to the Council.
14.24.3 Bureau of Public Procurement (BPP)

The Bureau was established by the Public Procurement Act, 2007. Its
Objectives include:
(a) Harmonization of existing government policies and practices on
public procurement and ensuring probity, accountability and
transparency in the procurement process.
(b) Establishment of pricing standards and benchmarks.
(c) Ensuring the application of fair, competitive, transparent, value-
for money standards and practices for the procurement and
disposal of public assets and services.
(d) Attainment of transparency, competitiveness, cost effectiveness
and professionalism in the public sector procurement system.
The Bureau’s functions as stated by the Act include:

(a) Formulating the general policies and guidelines relating to public
sector procurement for the approval of NCPP;
(b) Publicising and explaining the provisions of the Act;
(c) Certifying Federal Government procurement prior to the award
of the contract;
(d) Supervising the implementation of established procurement
policies;
236
(e) Monitoring the prices of tendered items and keeping a national

database of standard prices;
(f) Publishing the details of major contracts in the procurement
journal;
(g) Publishing paper and electronic editions of the journal and
maintaining an archival system for the procurement journal;
(h) Maintaining a national database of the particulars and
classification and categorization of Federal contracts and service
providers;
(i) Collating and maintaining in an archival system, all federal
procurement plans and information;
(j) Undertaking procurement research and surveys;
(k) Organising training and development programmes for
procurement professionals;
(l) Periodically reviewing the socio- economic effect of the policies
on procurement and advice NCPP accordingly;
(m) Preparing and updating standard bidding and contract
documents;
(n) Preventing fraudulent and unfair procurement and where
necessary to apply administrative sanctions;
(o) Reviewing the procurement and award of contract procedures of
every entity to which the Act applies;
(p) Performing procurement audits and submit report to the National
Assembly bi-annually;
(q) Introducing, developing, updating and maintaining related
database and technology;
(r) Establishing a single internet portal that shall serve as a primary
and definitive source of all information on government
procurement containing and displaying all public sector
procurement information at all times;
(s) Co -ordinating relevant training programmes to build
institutional capacity;
14.25 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC PROCUREMENT

All public procurements must be conducted:
(a) subject to prior review of thresholds set by the Bureau.
(b) based only on procurement plans supported by prior budgetary
provisions/appropriations and a “Certificate of `No Objection’ to Contract
Award” from the BPP;
(c) by open competitive bidding;
(d) in a transparent, timely and equitable manner which will ensure
accountability and conformity with the Act;
(e) with the aim of achieving value-for-money and fitness for purpose;
(f) in a manner which promotes competition, economy and efficiency;
(g) in accordance with the procedures laid down in this Act and as may be
specified by the Bureau from time to time.
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14.25.1 Procurement Methods (Goods and Services)

All procurements of goods and works by all procuring entities should be
by open competitive bidding. Open competitive bidding is a process by
which a procuring entity effects public procurements by offering to every
interested bidder, equal and simultaneous information and opportunity
to offer the goods and works needed.
14.25.2 Invitation to Bids

This could be by National or International Competitive Bidding.
14.25.3 National Competitive Bidding

The invitation for bids must be advertised on the notice board of the
procuring entity, on any official websites of the procuring entity, in at
least two national newspapers and in the procurement journal not less
than six weeks before the deadline for submission of the bids.
14.25.4 International Competitive Bidding

The invitation for bids must be advertised in at least two national
newspapers, and one relevant internationally recoginsed publication,
any official websites of the procuring entity and the Bureau of Public
Procurement as well as the procurement journal not less than six weeks
before the deadline for the submission of the bids.
14.26 DUE PROCESS GUIDELINES ON GOVERNMENT CONTRACTS

The doctrine of Due Process is an assurance that there is compliance with the
budgetary, procuring and payment guidelines by all parties to government
contracts.
The process ensures that:

(a) Competitive bidding has been conducted in line with the procurement
and contract award procedures.
(b) The best evaluated bid is selected among the pre-qualified bidders.
(c) The cost is in conformity with comparable best value.
14.27 REVISED GUIDELINES AND THRESHOLDS ON PUBLIC PROCUREMENTS

(a) Procurement Approval Thresholds for Bureau of Public
Procurement, Tenders Boards and Accounting Officers (PSs and
(CEOs) for all Ministries, Departments and Agencies.
According to circular No. SGF/OP/1/5.3/VIII/57 of 11th March, 2009 issued
by the Secretary to the Government of the Federation, the Federal
Government has approved a review of the existing guidelines and thresholds
on public procurements. The revised guidelines and thresholds are for
service-wide application and special application to the Federal Ministry of
Petroleum in relation to Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC)
expenditure. The revised guidelines are as follows:
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PROCUREMENT APPROVAL THRESHOLD
(b) Revised Special Financial Limits and Thresholds, Procurement

Methods and Thresholds of Application and for Expenditure
related to the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation:
Approving Authority/”
No objection” to award Special Works
BPP issue “No objection” and
FEC approves N2.70billion (US$20m) and above
Ministerial Tenders Board (NNPC

Tenders Board N1.40billion (US$10m) and above but
less than N2.70billion (US$20m)
Group Headquarters/Tenders Board N540.million (US$4m) and above but less

than N1.4billion (US$10m) for GEC NNPC
Parastatal Tenders Board (Refinery N270.million (US$2m) and above but less
& Petrochemicals/Exploration than N540 million (US$4m) for Supply
& Production/Corporate Supply Chain Tenders Boards) SBU B/GED/
Chain Tenders Boards) (DEXCOM)
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Parastatal Tenders Board (Minor N70.million (US$0.5 m) and above but

Refinery & Petrochemicals/Explora- less than N270 million (US$2m) for
tion & Production/Corporate Supply Supply Chain Tenders Boards) SBU MD/
Chain Tenders Boards) MT/(MEXCOM)
Parastatal Tenders Board (Business N13.50.million (US$0.10 M) and above

Unit Refinery & Petrochemicals/ but less than N70 million (US$0.5m) for
Exploration & Production/Corporate Supply Chain Tenders Boards) SBU ED/
Supply Chain Tenders Boards) MT/(DIVCOM
Accounting Officer: Permanent

Secretary/ Group Managing
Director at CHQ Level Less than N40 million (USD0.3 m)
Accounting Officer: Dirctor General/

CEO (Managing Directors at SBU
Level) Less than N13.50 million (USD0.10m)
(c) Procurement Method and Thresholds of Application
240
(d) Composition of Tenders Boards
Ministry:
Chairman: Permanent Secretary
Members: Heads of Departments
Parastatals: Chairman: Chief Executive Officers

Members: Heads of Departments

In Government, contracts are awarded after the bids have been reviewed by
one of the different Tender Boards. The contract execution and payments should
follow due process of tendering and subsequent awards of contract. Public
Procurement Act, 2007 also gives detailed guidelines on the awards of
government contracts.

14.29.1 Questions
(1) Treasury circular Ref. No. TYR/A8 & B8/2008 conveys the
guidelines for the implementation of the e-payment. What are
the procedures to be followed for the implementation of e-
payment?
(2) A tender is a proposal for the supply of some services or goods

(a) What are the composition, limit of expenditure and
approval of the Ministerial Tender Board?
(b) What are the powers of Boards of Corporations and
parastatals over tender?
(3) The Ministerial Tender Board must adopt the open competitive
tendering procedures. What are the additional procedures and
practices that should be adopted on ministerial tenders?

(1) The following are the procedures to be followed for the
implementation of e-payment.
(i) All forms of payments from all government funds are to
be made through the banks;
(ii) All organs of government, ministries, departments and
agencies (MDA) are to stop using cheques to make payment
to contractors;
(iii) All bank accounts in respect of all government funds shall
cease to be cheque accounts;
(iv) Government contractors must indicate their current
accounts details with commercial banks on the invoices
submitted for payments under their corporate seal;
241
(v) Mandates containing details of payments shal6ll be issued

to the bank authorizing them to pay into the contractors’
designated bank accounts, the proceeds of executed
contracts and supplies;
(vi) In addition, to the existing monthly financial returns, every

organization of government, ministry, department or
agency must forward copies of mandates issued to banks
to the office of Accountant-General of the Federation;
(vii) Henceforth, all employees of the federal government of

Nigeria must open accounts with the commercial banks
into which all payments due to them as individuals would
made;
(viii) On no account should Central Pay Officer (CPOs) collect

cash from the bank for the purpose of disbursement to any
government official.
2.(a) (i) Composition of Ministerial Tender Board

The chairman is the Permanent Secretary/Chief Executive of the ministry
or extra-ministerial department respectively. Other members are all
Directors/Heads of Departments in the Ministry of Establishments.
(ii) Limit of Expenditure

The Ministerial Tender Board is empowered to award any contract whose
value exceeds (N1,000,000) one million naira, but not exceeding fifty
million naira (N50,000,000).
(iii) Approval
The decision of the Ministerial Tender Board (MTB) shall be conformed
by the Honourable Minister (of Finance),
(b) The following are the powers of Board of Corporations and parastatals over
tenders:
(i) The Chief-executive of a parastatal is empowered to make purchase or
award a contract, the value of which does not exceed (N700,000) seven
hundred thousand naira only, without open-competitive tendering.
However, at least three relevant written quotations should be obtained
from suitably qualified contractors or suppliers. Any expenditure
incurred under this policy should be documented and reported to the
chairman of the Board of the Corporation basis (PPA 13.28(a).
(ii) Any contract exceeding seven hundred thousand naira (N700,000) but
not more than twenty million (N20,000,000) shall be referred to the
Board of the Corporation (PPA Sec. 13.28(a)
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(iii) Any contract whose value exceeds twenty million naira (N20,000,000)
but not more than fifty million (N50,000,000) shall be referred to the
Ministerial Tenders Board (MTB) of the relevant supervising ministry or
corporation or parastatals for consideration. (PPA Sec. 13.28a).
(3) The following are the additional procedures and practices to be adopted on
ministerial tenders:
(a) Opening of tenders must be done in the ‘Open’ at the designated date
and time. Opening should immediately follow the closing of the bidding
period, to minimize the risk of tampering with the bids. The following
people should be present at tender bid-opening.
(i) The bidders or their representatives;
(ii) Members of the civil society;
(iii) Members of the press (if they wish to attend);
(b) All contracts above ten million (N10,000,000) should be advertised in

at least two national dailies and/or government gazette. The advert
should be placed at least six(6)weeks before the deadline for submitting
bids for goods and works and at least one(1) month for consultancy
services. Notices of all other tenders must be pasted at the notice-board
of the procuring agencies.
(c) Bid evaluation criteria should be clearly defined in the bidding

documents and the award of all contracts should be based on the criteria
so defined.
(d) There should be a Committee, Tenders Boards and approval authorities

should be obliged to declare any conflict of interest and exclude
themselves from bid evaluation and approval processes.
(e) The award of any major contract twenty million (N20,000,000) and
above should be published in two (2) national dailies stating;
(i) Description of the contract,
(ii) Name of the contractor
(iii) Contract price
(f) Contract awards should be properly handled so as to avoid minimize

variations. Contract variations should not be allowed except when
absolutely necessary, subject to Tender Board (MTB). The method for
determining incorporated into the contract. Such price variations shall
be for contracts extended for more than eighteen (18) months.
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244
CHAPTER
Skills level
15
Auditing of Government Accounts
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Nature of Auditing
3. Types of Audit
4. Factors Contributing to an Effective Audit
5. Office of the Auditor-General for the Federation
6. Functions of External Audit
7. Reliance of the External Auditor on the Internal Auditor’s Work
8. Assurance Engagement
9. The Objectives of Internal Auditing
10. Chapter Review
11. Worked Examples
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15
AUDITING OF GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTS

15.0 PURPOSE
(a) describe Auditing and Types of Audit;
(b) identify the objectives and steps in Auditing.
(c) explain investigation and steps in investigation; and
(d) identify factors contributing to an effective audit.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Auditing is an independent appraisal process often governed by statute, for
examining, investigating and verifying the financial statements of an
organisation, by a person competently appointed. The Auditor seeks to establish
an opinion concerning the truth, accuracy, validity, reliability and fairness or
otherwise of the statements and the underlying records on which the statements
have been built and whether or not they comply with any statutory or other
requirements. He also makes a report to the users of the financial statements,
giving his opinion concerning the accuracy and intergrity of the accounting
records and information.
15.2 TYPES OF AUDIT

These may be briefly discussed, as follows:
15.2.1 External Audit

In an external audit, a report is made to a person external to the audited
entity and its management. External Audit is carried out by a
professional who has the authority of the law to vouch the financial
statements and records of the entity. Under paragraph 85 of the 1999
Constitution, the Auditor-General for the Federation vouches the financial
statements and records of Public Offices. He has indirect control over
the accounts and audit of the Federal Parastatals. Conversely, the State
Auditor-General, under section 125 of the 1999 Constitution, exercises
the same powers and influence as his Federal counterpart. Nonetheless,
by the laws creating the Parastatals, they have the authority to appoint
independent auditors. These are external auditors.
15.2.2 Internal Audit

An internal audit is an independent appraisal activity within an
organization for the review of accounting, financial and other operations
246
as basis for services to management. It is carried out by an individual

designated as internal auditor as a control process. In Government, audit
certificates are issued before contractors and suppliers are paid.
15.2.3 Annual/Statutory Audit

Annual audit is a regular responsibility covered by the statute. It is a
requirement of the law. It is carried out on a yearly basis by an
independent person to establish proper, adequate and accurate
stewardship on the part of management.
15.2.4 Ad-Hoc or Special Audit

Ad-hoc or special audit is a “one-off” assignment arising from a special
request for investigation to be made. It could be in respect of an arm or
a unit of the organisation; for example, a case of fraud involving an
officer could be the ground for investigation.
15.2.5 Pre-payment Audit

Pre-payment audit is carried out before payment is effected. It is common
in Government Services. An example is the audit carried out before
contractors are paid. ‘Prepayment audit’ is carried out by the internal
auditor to evaluate the extent to which management has achieved
economy, efficiency and effectiveness and adhered to laid down rules
and regulations.
15.2.5.1 The Objectives of Pre-payment Audit are:

(a) To guide against unreasonable or extravagant
expenditure;
(b) To ensure that sufficient funds are available to enable
payment to be effected
(c) To ensure compliance with budgetary, civil service rules,
financial memorandum, legislation and other legal
requirements on payment;
(d) To ensure that goods/services conform with the prescribed
standards before payments.
15.2.6 Post-Payment Audit

Post-payment audit is carried out after payment for the goods and
services has been effected. ‘Post payment audit’ is executed by both
Internal and External Auditors. The exercise is to complement the pre-
payment audit and ensure that disbursments take place in consideration
of organisational interests and policies.
15.2.7 Value-for-Money Audit

Value-for-money audit is the review of the financial transactions to
confirm that an organisation has received adequate benefit for the
money expended. In other words, we can describe it as a review to confirm
247
whether or not a company has committed its resources economically,

efficiently and effectively.
The steps to be taken in carrying out Value-For-Money audit are:

(a) Do initial analysis of the financial statements.
(b) Review the management system.
(c) Plan and control.
(d) Carry-out compliance test. Check for approval by authorized office
and limits of authority.
(e) Carry out substantive tests
Substantive test is subdivided into three, as follows:

(i) Economy Test. The objective of Economy Test is to ensure
that resources (inputs) are obtained at the cheapest prices.
The tests to be carried out are:
(a) Oral interview, and
(b) Circularisation.
(ii) Efficiency Assessment. The objective of Efficiency

Assessment is to ensure that wastages are reduced to the
barest minimum.
(a) Physical asset verification.
(b) Check to ‘third party’ evidence.
(c ) Review computation.
(d) Review extension.
(e) Circularisation.
(f) Conduct oral interview.
(g) Review internal audit report.
(iii) Carry out ‘Effectiveness Review’. The objectives of

‘Effectiveness Review’ is to confirm the popularity of the
policy adopted by the organisation.
(a) Circularisation, and
(b) Oral interview.
(iv) Write the report.

To evaluate efficiency and effectiveness, it is necessary to
carry out physical verification of assets, check to evidences
of third parties, review computations for occupancy,
consider internal audit reports, circularise debtors and
conduct oral interview.
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15.2.8 Interim Audit

This is an audit carried out by the external auditor for the earlier months
of the year. It is designed to reduce the workload at the end of the year. It
has the advantage of early detection of frauds and mistakes, and
evaluation of the adequacy of the existing internal control.
15.2.9 Final Audit

This is the audit carried out after the end of the year to finalise the audit
since the interim audit was carried out.
15.2.10 Management Audit

Management Audit is a review of the performance of management
during a period. It is synonymous with the investigation or performance
review of the management, otherwise called ‘operational audit.’
15.2.11 Operational or Systems Audit

The review concentrates on the operational aspect of management
performance. The review evaluates the efficiency and effectiveness of
management practices in rendering services to the members of the
public.
15.2.12 Vouching Audit

Vouching audit checks the relevance and adequacy of the supporting
documents of a transaction. Receipts are checked to third parties while
evidence and all other financial papers are traced to the ledgers.
15.2.13 Verification Audit

This is a review to confirm the existence and ownership of the assets. It
is undertaken by physical asset verification and review of evidence of
ownership.
15.3 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO AN EFFECTIVE AUDIT

The following factors make for an effective audit:
(a) The independence of the auditor: He should be given free hand to
do a good job. The auditor should not be under the control of
management of the Organisation.
(b) The adequacy and scope of the auditor’s power: The authority of
the auditor should be guaranteed. The Auditor must be given adequate
authority to discharge his responsibilities.
(c) The expertise and professionalism of the Auditor and his staff:
The Auditor should be adequately trained, versatile and skilful at his
job.
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(d) The resources at the Auditor’s disposal: There should be enough

funds at the disposal of the Auditor to carry out his assignment.
(e) Freedom of reporting and the qualitative nature of reports: The

reports which the auditor transmits should be promptly looked into and
timely and effective decisions taken in order to comply with the
Professional Audit Standards.
(f) Unrestricted access: Audits should be conducted with complete and

unrestricted access to employees, property and records.
(g) Stakeholder support: The legitimacy of the audit activity and its
mission should be understood and supported by a broad range of elected
and appointed government officials, as well as the media and the
involved citizens.
15.4 OFFICE OF THE AUDITOR-GENERAL FOR THE FEDERATION

The External Auditor to the Federal Government is the Auditor-General for the
Federation. This is an institution or office or person established or authorized
by law to audit the accounts of all the Ministries and Extra-Ministerial
Departments. The Auditor-General submits his report directly to the National
Assembly.
15.4.1 The Public Accounts Committee (PAC):

The Committee is a Body established by law to study and examine the
reports submitted by the Auditor-General, especially in the areas of fraud
practices or embezzlement of public funds. The Body is also to make
appropriate recommendations to the National Assembly
15.5 FUNCTIONS OF EXTERNAL AUDIT

The functions of external audit are to ascertain whether:
(a) Government is carrying out the activities authorised by the National or
State Assembly in conformity with the mandate of the people.
(b) The programmes and activities are conducted in an effective, efficient
and economic manner and in compliance with the requirement of ethical
standards.
(c) Funds, property and personnel are adequately controlled and utilized.
(d) All monies collected are properly accounted for.
(e) The accounting system complies with prescribed principles, standards
and requirements.
15.6.1 Steps Taken In Auditing Financial Statements

These are:
(a) Review of the Financial Statements: The Financial Statements of
the Organisation will be analyzed into various departments and reviewed
on monthly basis.
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(b) Review of the system:- The Ministry’s or departmental system is

reviewed for internal control adequacy or otherwise.
(c) Planning and Control
Based on the review of the system, the audit will be planned and samples
picked, for testing. Departments which have weak system will supply
large sample and vice versa. Samples may be picked, using scientific
or ‘best-of-judgement’ approaches.
(d) Compliance Test’ otherwise called ‘Walk-Through Test.’ This

approach involves tracing a chosen transaction from initiation to
conclusion. The objective of the test is to test the compliance and
effectiveness of the system. It is an assessment of the reliability of the
internal control system in operation.
(e) ‘Substantive Test’– This involves ‘in depth test’ to provide audit
evidence as to the completeness, accuracy and validity of the information
contained in the accounting records or the financial statements.
Tests are conducted into such issues as:
(i) Physical asset verification.
(ii) Proof of ownership.
(iii) Checking to third party evidence.
(iv) Review of computations.
(f) Writing of Report - Based on the outcome of the Compliance and

substantive tests conducted, audit reports are written and transmitted
to the Audit Unit, Department or Ministry, highlighting the areas of
deficiencies which require overhauling.
15.6 RELIANCE OF THE EXTERNAL AUDITOR ON THE INTERNAL AUDITOR’S

WORK
Before an external auditor could rely on the work of the internal auditor, the
former would have made the following assessments:
(a) The degree of independence of the internal auditor.
(b) The scope and objectives of the internal audit functions as defined by
the management.
(c) Due professional care, that is, whether or not the internal audit work is
properly planned, recorded and reviewed.
(d) The technical competence of the internal auditor. This raises the question
as to whether the internal auditor belongs to any reputable professional
accounting body or has relevant practical experience in internal audit
work.
(e) The quality and quantity of the internal audit reports and to what extent
they are being acted upon by the management are of interest to the
external auditor.
(f) The quality and standard of internal audit working papers are of
significance, showing the extent of work done.
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15.7 ASSURANCE ENGAGEMENT

Assurance engagements are enquiries commissioned by client firms or
government to find out the cause or causes of an event, so that remedial actions
may be taken.
The internal and external auditors can be requested to carry out an investigation
into a financial transaction. They will adopt standard audit review investigation
steps such as:
(a) Reviewing Financial Statements.
(b) Reviewing of the system.
(c) Evaluating the application of the relevant financial legislation.
(d) Conducting Compliance Test.
(e) Conducting Substantive Test.
(f) Writing of report.
15.7.1 Contents of Assurance Report

The following must be stated in assurance report:
(a) Confirmation and amount of loss.
(b) The regulation which was violated.
(c) Recommendations to effect correction and prevent a reoccurrence.
(d) Name and post of officer/s involved.
(e) Degree of negligence of individual officers.
(f) Recommendation and necessary sanction.
15.8 THE OBJECTIVES OF INTERNAL AUDITING

The objectives of Internal Auditing may be outlined thus:
(a) Determining the adequacy of the system of internal control which is in
existence.
(b) Investigating compliance with the existing financial memorandum, laws
and financial regulations.
(c) Checking the adequacy of monthly returns of activities.
(d) Verification of the physical existence of assets and liabilities.
15.8.1 The Scope of Internal Audit Functions

The duties and responsibilities of internal auditors are at the discretion
of management. However, from empirical studies, the following are the
areas of interest to an internal auditor, viz:
(a) Pre-audit.
(b) Vouching of payroll and third party claims.
(c) Auditing of store movements and records.
(d) Conducting internal investigations and evaluation for
management.
(e) Constant review and appraisal of the existing internal control
measures.
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15.8.2 The Role of A Government Internal Auditor in The Presidential

System
The main idea of introducing the presidential system of Government is
to further ensure accountability and probity. In this perspective, there
are various laws, rules and procedures that must be complied with, to
ensure sanity in the polity and Governance.
The Internal Auditor is expected to render ‘exception reports’ on

continuous basis on the financial activities of Government. He writes
his reports to the Accounting Officer and copies the Auditor General. The
presidential system of Government empowers the Legislative House to
interview the Auditor-General on his position on actions already taken
by the Executive arm which he had endorsed as correct. The system of
Government expects him to ensure budget discipline through continued
monitoring of receipts and payments.
He is expected to be objective, fair and articulate in reacting to the views

of opposing parties on financial matters.
The Auditor-General for the Federation can audit any State or Local
Government Council on how the Federal ‘s special allocations as Ecology
Fund are being utilized.
CODIFICATION OF OFFENCES AND SANCTIONS ARISING FROM AUDIT

QUERIES FINANCIAL REGULATION (2009 EDITION) CHAPTER 31
Time Limit to
Respond to
Audit Query Audit Query Sanctions
Inflation of Contracts 5 Days (i) Where it affects the Accounting

Officer, he shall be reported to
Mr. President.
(ii) In the case of any other Officer,
he shall be surcharged
appropriately and removed from
the duty schedule, dismissed and
prosecuted.
(iii) Where it involves Tenders Board,
all members involved shall be
severally and collectively
sanctioned.
Un authorised Contract 21 Days (i) Where it affects the Accounting

Variation Officer, he shall be reported to
Mr. President.
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Time Limit to
Respond to
(ii) In the case of any other Officer,
he shall be surcharged
appropriately and removed from
the duty schedule, dismissed and
prosecuted
Payment to Contractor
for Job not executed 30 Days (i) Contractor to complete the job
within time limit or refund the
money paid to him.
(ii) Contractor to be black listed and
report to EFCC for prosecution
Payment to Contractor on
false Certificate of
Completion 21 Days (i) Contractor to complete the job
money paid to him.
report to EFCC for prosecution.
Payment to Contractor
for Job not executed due
to fraudulent act of a
public officer NA (i) Officer to refund the money paid
to the contractor.
(ii) Officer to be removed from the
duty schedule and report to EFCC
for prosecution.
Poor Quality of work 42 Days (i) Contractor to rectify the

abnormalities of the poor job
money paid to him.
report to EFCC for prosecution
(iii) The officer that certified the job
shall be demoted.
Irregular or Wrong
payment 21 Days (i) Officer to refund the money paid
to the contractor.
duty schedule.
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Time Limit to
Respond to
Shortage or Losses of
stores by storekeeper 14 Days (i) Officer to be surcharged for the
loss.
duty schedule.
Shortage or Losses of
Cash by the cashier 7 Days (i) Officer to be surcharged for the
loss.
duty schedule.
Assets paid for but not

supplied 21 Days (i) Contractor to be black listed and
report to EFCC for prosecution.
duty schedule and made to face
disciplinary action.
Payment for Ghost workers NA Officer to be removed from the

duty schedule, charged for
misconduct and reported to EFCC
for prosecution.
Overpayment of salaries
and allowances to staff 21 Days Officer to be disciplined and
reported to Police for prosecution.
Failure to collect
Government Revenue 21 Days Officer to be removed from the
duty schedule and surcharged.
Where an officer fails to
give satisfactory reply for
his failure to account for
government revenue 7 Days Officer to be surcharged for full
amount and reported to EFCC or
ICPC for prosecution
Non payment for use
of Government property 30 Days Officer to be surcharged for full
amount and seriously warned.
Non-Rendition of Return 30 Days Officer to be surcharged for full

the loss incurred for non
compliance and seriously
warned.
255
Time Limit to
Respond to
Non-Rendition of
Monthly transcript 21 Days Allocation to the MDA shall be
suspended indefinitely.
Non- Retirement of
Advance and Imprest 21 Days Officer to be surcharged and total
amount recovered
Offences under the Public
Procurement Act, 2007 NA (i) Imprisonment of not less than 5
calendar years without option of
fine
(ii) Summary dismissal from
government service
(iii)Debarment from all public
procurements for a period not
less than 5 calendar years
(iv) A fine equivalent to 25% of the
value of the procurement in issue
Making payment with
cash/ cheques by
organisation and officer NA (i) Budget allocation of the
organisation to be suspended.
(ii) Officer is regarded to have
committed a gross misconduct
and shall be disciplined
accordingly.
15.9 CHAPTER REVIEW
Control of expenditure is necessary to ensure that the resources obtained are
used for the purposes for which they are meant. Audit is an independent
appraisal of financial statements of an organisation, with a view to expressing
opinion on the fairness and truth or otherwise of those statements. Investigations
are carried out from time to time to sort out allegations of misappropriation of
funds or assets.

15.10.1 Questions
(1) The functions of the office of the Auditor-General for the Federation
is to audit the accounts of all Accounting Officers and all persons
entrusted with the collections, receipts, custody and issue or
payment of the Federal Government moneys or with the receipt
collection issue, sale transfer of delivery of any stamps, securities,
stores, or other property of the Government of the Federation and
for the certification of the annual accounts of the Government.
256
In the light of the above, state the audit objectives of:

(a) Treasury Accounts.
(b) Agency Accounts.
(c) Government Enterprise Accounts.
(2) (a) State eight (8) tests to be carried out when auditing a revenue
collector.
(b) List out seven (7) internal control questionnaires to evaluate the
operation of imprest accounts.
(3) (a) Differentiate between Primary and Secondary objective of carrying

out an audit in the Public Sector.
(b) i. What is Internal Control?
ii. Outline the importance features of Internal Control with brief
notes on each of the features.

(1) The following are the audit objectives:
(a) Treasury Accounts:
(i) To ensure that all money is being received as at when due.
(ii) To ensure that the money received is accounted for.
(iii) To ensure that cash book and other relevant memorandum
accounts are maintained.
(iv) To confirm compliance with the year 2006 Financial
Regulations.
(v) To guide against misappropriation.
(vi) To ensure compliance with all relevant financial
legislations.
(vii) To ensure safety of government assets within each
department.
(viii) To guarantee the accuracy of the records.
(ix) To confirm existence and ownership of the assets.
(b) Agency Accounts:

(i) To ensure compliance with all relevant legislations which
set up the agency.
(ii) To ensure compliance with the prescriptions of the
accounting manual.
(iii) To ensure misappropriation is reduced to the barest
minimum.
(iv) To ensure safety of government assets within each Agency
of Government.
(v) To ensure the reliability of the records and returns.
257
(vi) To ensure that payments and receipts are in line with the
trust deeds that established the agency.
(vii) To ensure that returns are being rendered as at when due.
(viii) To confirm existence and ownership of the Agency Assets.
(c) Government Enterprise Accounts:

(i) To confirm compliance with the laws that established the
enterprises.
(ii) To confirm compliance with the provisions of the
accounting manual.
(iii) To ensure safety of the enterprise assets.
(iv) To ensure that receipts and payments are in line with the
approved Budget.
(v) To guide against misappropriation.
(vi) To confirm the existence of government enterprise assets.
(vii) To proof ownership of assets.
(2) (a) The following relevant tests will be carried out when auditing a
revenue collector
(i) Review the system for revenue collection.
(ii) Review the cash book.
(iii) Cast the cash book.
(iv) Check for the type of receipts being issued, to confirm
originality.
(v) Review and continue the preparation of bank
reconciliation.
(vi) Spot check on the revenue collector.
(vii) Review the reports of internal and external auditors.
(viii) Review to ensure that all money due is collected and
accounted for.
(b) The following are necessary questions to review imprest account

(i) Will a bank account be opened for imprest over N20,000?
(ii) Was the cash book properly kept?
(iii) Were vouchers properly kept and classified?
(iv) Was the imprest account correctly accounted for at the time
of your check?
(v) Was the LPO register kept by the imprest holder and cash
disbursement for LPO made by him?
(vi) Were receipts issued for unspent cash returned?
(vii) Was the reimbursement request checked?
(viii) Were the classifications made to the appropriate Head and
Subhead of expenditure?
258
3(a) The primary objectives of an audit is to enable the auditor to report as to

whether the financial statements present a true and fair view of the state of the
financial affairs of an establishment.
The secondary objectives of audit are:
(i) Detection of frauds, errors and omissions
(ii) Prevention of frauds and errors
(b)(i) Internal Control can be defined as the “whole system of controls, financial or
otherwise, established by the management with a view to carry on the business
of an entity in a manner that will protect the assets and place reliability on the
records of the entity.’’
(ii) Important Features of Internal Control
(1) Segregation of Duty: This is by employing division of labour so that

the work in one place or department will be different from another
department and carried out by different people.
(2) Established Organisation Structure: All the duties and powers of

an officer should be clearly defined so that an officer would know what
is required and expected of him.
(3) Perusal of Records: This is by checking the work done earlier and
correct any anomaly, error or omission detected timely.
(4) Acknowledgement of Deed: This is by appending signature or initials

on work done by an officer or by a senior officer to ascertain the task is
already done.
(5) Asset Protection: This is by keeping all records and statutory

documents under lock and key and obtaining insurance policy on
physical assets.
(6) Formality: All transfer and receipt of stores have to be backed up by

authorized requisition vouchers and acknowledged by signing
appropriate vouchers.
(7) Verification: All items purchased must be verified for completeness,

accuracy and that they meet the required standard and specifications.
(8) Internal audit: It is the continuous review of operation and records of

an organization by specialized staff referred to as Internal Auditors.
259
260
CHAPTER
Skills level
16
Loss of Government Fund

Contents
1. Purpose
2. Definition of Loss
3. Types of Losses
4. Responsibility of Accounting Officer in the Event of Loss of Fund
5. The Federal Losses Committee
6. Composition of the Federal Losses Committee
7. Board of Enquiries
8. Criteria for Constitution of Board of Enquiries
9. Accounting Treatment of Loss of Government Fund
10. Accounting Entries
11. Chapter Review
12. Work Examples
261
16
LOSS OF GOVERNMENT FUND
16.0 PURPOSE
After studying this chapter readers should be able to:
(a) explain the concept of Loss in the Public Sector;
(b) list types of Losses;
(c) enumerate the responsibility of Accounting officer in the event of Loss
of Fund;
(d) discuss the functions of the Federal Losses Committee and Board of
Enquiries as regards Loss of Fund;
(e) enumerate the Conditions under which a Board of Enquiries is to be
constituted in the event of Loss of Fund; and
(f) tabularise the Accounting entries required to write off Loss of
Government Fund.
16.1 DEFINITION OF LOSS

Loss or shortage of fund is a depletion of government fund at a given time.
16.2 TYPES OF LOSSES

The type of losses that can arise in a public sector are as follows
(a) Misappropriation of funds
(b) Falsification of records
(c) Conversion of funds to personal use.
(d) Fraudulent payments
(e) Theft.
(f) Negligence
(g) Abandonment of revenue receivable.
(h) Abandonment of advance granted from recurrent expenditure
(i) Loss of Cash
16.3 RESPONSIBILITY OF ACCOUNTING OFFICER IN THE EVENT OF LOSS

OF FUND
Where a cash loss to the value of N 50,000 or less has occurred without fraud
being involved, Accounting Officers are personally empowered to surcharge
the officers responsible up to the full amount of the loss.
Accounting officers are personally responsible for ensuring that all responsible
officers for losses are surcharged.
262
For officers above G.L.10, the loss should be reported to the Accountant – General
of the Federation.
Where a loss is treated under this regulation, Accounting Officer must
immediately send a brief report of the circumstances in deciding the value of
the loss to:
(a) The Chairman, Federal Civil Service Commission
(b) The Auditor – General for the Federation
(c) The Accountant – General of the Federation
(d) The Federal Ministry of Finance.
According to the FR 1502, a loss shall be charged as a personal advance against

the officers responsible for the loss pending a decision by the Federal Losses
Committee.
The officer in charge of the office in which the loss occurs shall take the following
actions:
(a) Report immediately to Head of the Unit or Division by the fastest means
if the loss occurs away from the Headquarter.
(b) Report to Police if fraud or theft is suspected.
(c) Initiate immediate action by completing Treasury form 146 part 2 and
forward same in quintuplicate to Head of Units or Division.
(d) Ensure that if a weakness in the system of control or in security is
established, measures have been taken to prevent a re-occurrence of
the loss.
(e) Ensure that accounting entries have been made.
16.4 THE FEDERAL LOSSES COMMIT TEE

The Federal Losses Committee is a Standing Committee responsible for
considering all cases involving loss of cash, stores and vehicles.
16.4.1 Composition of the Federal Losses Committee

(a) A Representative of the Auditor-General as Chairman
(b) A representative of the Accountant General
(c) A representative of the Administration Department of the Ministry/
Extra Ministerial office and other Arms of Government concerned.
(d) A representative of the Inspector-General of Police
(e) A representative of the Economic and Financial Crimes
Commission.
(f) The Inspectorate Department of the office of the Accountant-
General shall provide the Secretariat.
16.5 BOARD OF ENQUIRIES

This is a Board constituted by the Accountant-General after studying the report
of the Accounting Officer, where there is a reported case of Loss of Government
Fund to carry out special investigation into the circumstances leading to loss.
263
16.5.1 CRITERIA FOR CONSTITUTION OF BOARD OF ENQUIRIES

A Board of Enquiry shall be constituted under the following conditions:
(a) If fraud is probable.
(b) If the loss is substantial
(c) If several officers are involved.
(d) If the responsibility of the officers are not clearly defined.
(e) If the loss took place over a period of time and
(f) If collusion is suspected.
The Accountant-General in convening the Board shall incorporate Terms

of Preference for the Board as he may deem necessary.
The officer convening Board of Enquires shall forward a copy of the
convening order with full terms of reference to:
(a) Accounting officer.
(b) Accountant – General of the Federation.
(c) Auditor – General for the Federation.
(d) Chairman, Federal Civil Service Commission.
16.6 ACCOUNTING TREATMENT OF LOSS OF GOVERNMENT FUND

Where it is confirmed or established that there has been loss of cash due to
embezzlement, armed robbery, fraud or failure to receive an advance granted
or collect revenue for service rendered, adjustment vouchers are not raised.
Such losses are charged to Non-Personal Advance account by preparing payment
voucher.
The Non- Personal Advance Account is prepared by the Accountant-General

after authorization by the Minister of Finance. The financial accounting entries
required for the treatment of such losses however depend on the following;
(a) Date the transaction which led to the loss occurred
(b) Date the loss is discovered
(c) Date of passing the entries
(d) Nature of the loss
(e) Type of fund involved
16.7 ACCOUNTING ENTRIES

DEBIT CREDIT
A Loss of cash. Non Personal Advance A/c Cash A/c
B Fraudulent payment or
overpayment made and
discovered within the Relevant Sub-
current financial year Non Personal Advance A/c Head.
264
DEBIT CREDIT
C Fraudulent payment or
overpayment in previous
financial year
charged to Consolidated
Revenue Fund (CRF)
or Development Fund Non Personal Advance A/c Relevant Sub-
(DF) head
D Fraudulent payment or
overpayment made in
previous financial year
charged against public Non Personal Advance A/c Account
fund other than CRF originally
or DF debited
E Abandonment of the
recovery of an amount
or advance charged
initially to an
Advance A/c Loss of Fund A/c Advance A/c
F Recovery of an account
earlier written off to
Non-personal Advance Cash/Bank A/c Non personal
Account Advance A/c
G Overpayment not involving

fraud made in a previous
financial year charged
against CRF or DF
Note: No. Adjustment
Required, but the loss will
be recognized by the
Accountant-General __ __
H Abandonment of recovery
of a bicycle advance Issued
initially from recurrent
expenditure
Required, but the loss
will be recognized
by the Accountant-
General __ __
265
DEBIT CREDIT
I Abandoned of recovery
of an unpaid revenue
Required, but the loss will
be recognized by the
Accountant-General __ __
16.8 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter discussed the concept of loss of fund and types in the public sector.
The treatment of loss and role of accounting officers in the event of loss was
also dealt with. The functions of the Federal Losses Committee and Board of
Enquiries were highlighted. The specific conditions under which a Board of
Enquiries may be constituted in the event of loss of fund was also discussed.
16.9.1 Questions
(1) a. Loss or shortage of fund is a depletion of government fund at a
given time.
Enumerate eight (8) sources through which loss of fund may arise
in the Public Sector.
b. What actions are required according to the Financial Regulations

1502 to be taken by the Accounting Officers in charge of the office
in which a loss of fund occurred?
(2)a. The Federal Losses Committee is a Standing Committee

responsible for considering all cases involving loss of cash, stores
and vehicles, state the composition of the Federal Losses
Committee.
b.(i) Differentiate between Board of Survey and Board of Enquiries.

(ii) Under what conditions would a Board of Enquiries be constituted?
(3) In a prescribed format showing DEBIT and CREDIT, prepare the

Accounting Entries in relation to FR 1524 and 1525 as regards
the following losses in the Public Sector.
(i) Loss of Cash
(ii) Fraudulent Payment or overpayment made and discovered
within the current financial year in respect of a specified
subhead.
(iii) Fraudulent payment or overpayment in previous financial
year charged to consolidated Revenue Fund (CRF) or
Development Fund (DF).
266
(iv) Fraudulent payment or overpayment made in previous

financial year charged against public fund other than CRF
or DF.
(v) Abandonment of the recovery of an amount or advance
charged initially to an Advance.
(vi) Overpayment not involving fraud made in a previous
financial year charged against CRF or DF.
(vii) Abandonment of the recovery of unpaid revenue.
(viii) Abandonment of recovery of advances issued initially from
Re-current Expenditure
(ix) Abandonment of the recovery of s Bicycle advance issued
initially from Recurrent
Expenditure.
(4) In accordance with FR 1537, state the content of the Board of

Enquiries Report vis-à-vis the Board’s recommendations.

(1) (a) Loss or shortage of fund can arise from any of the following:
(i) Misappropriated of funds
(ii) Falsification of records.
(iii) Conversion of funds to personal use.
(iv) Fraudulent payments.
(v) Theft.
(vi) Negligence.
(vii) Abandonment of revenue receivable.
(viii) Abandonment of advance granted from recurrent
expenditure.
(ix) Loss of Cash.
(b) The officer in charge of the office in which the loss occurs shall
take the following actions:
(i) Report immediately to Head of the Unit or Division by the
fastest means if the loss occurs away from the
Headquarter.
(ii) Report to Police if fraud or theft is suspected.
(iii) Initiate immediate action by completing Treasury form
146 part 2 and forward same in quintuplicate to Head of
Units or Division.
(iv) Ensure that if a weakness in the system of control or in
security is established, measures have been taken to
prevent a re-occurrence of the loss.
(v) Ensure that accounting entries have been make.
267
(2) ( a) Composition of The Federal Losses Committee

(i) A Representative of the Auditor-General for the Federation
as chairman
(ii) A representative of the Accountant-General for the
Federation
(iii) A representative of the Administration Department of the
Ministry/ Extra Ministerial office and other Arms of
Government concerned.
(iv) A representative of the Inspector-General of Police
(v) A representative of the Economic and Financial Crimes
Commission.
(vi) The Inspectorate Department of office of the Accountant-
General shall provide the Secretariat.
(b) (i) The Board of Enquiry is a Board constituted by the Accountant-

General at the request of the Accounting Officer, the Chairman
Federal Civil Service Commission when there are reported cases
of loss of Government fund while Board of Survey is usually
convened to examine cash, bank balances and stamps held by
the Accountant-General of the Federation in the treasury and other
sub-treasury offices both in Nigeria and overseas. It also involves
examination of unserviceable stores, plant, buildings and
equipment.
(ii) A Board of Enquiry shall be constituted under the following

conditions:
(a) If fraud is probable.
(b) If the loss is substantial.
(c) If several officers are involved.
(d) If the responsibility of the officers are not clearly defined.
(e) If the loss took place over a period of time and
(f) If collection is suspected.
(3)
DEBIT CREDIT
A Loss of cash. Non Personal Advance A/c Cash A/c
B Fraudulent payment or
overpayment made and
discovered within the
current financial year Non Personal Advance A/c Relevant Sub-head
C Fraudulent payment or
overpayment in previous
financial year charged to
Consolidated Revenue
Fund (CRF) or Development
Fund (DF) Non Personal Advance A/c Relevant Sub-head
268
DEBIT CREDIT
D Fraudulent payment or
overpayment made in
previous financial year
charged against public
fund other than CRF Non Personal Advance A/c Account
or DF originally debited
E Abandonment of the
recovery of an amount or
advance charged initially
to an Advance A/c Loss of Fund A/c Advance A/c
F Overpayment not involving

fraud made in a previous
financial year charged
against CRF or DF
will be recognized by
the Accountant- General - -
G Abandonment of recovery
of a bicycle advance
Issued initially from
recurrent expenditure
the Accountant- General - -
H Abandoned of recovery
of an unpaid revenue
the Accountant-General - -
(4) Contents of Board of Enquiries Report

(a) Analysis of the exact amount of loss incurred
(b) An express opinion on the state of the internal accounting system.
(c ) Recommendation for the immediate improvement on the security
measures in place.
269
(d) A recommendation as to the fixing of responsibility for the loss, in whole

or in part.
(e) Assessment of the level of negligence displayed by the officer held
responsible for the loss of fund.
(f) Recommendations as whether to surcharge the officer responsible.
(g) Details of any mitigating circumstances, which should be taken into
consideration in the assessment of the degree of negligence.
270
CHAPTER
Skills level
17
Government Advances
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Advances
4. General Rule
5. Chapter Review
6. Worked Examples
271
17
GOVERNMENT ADVANCES
17.0 PURPOSE
(a) differentiate different types of Government advances; and
(b) itemise the conditions for granting the various advances.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
Advances are cash credits granted to individual officers in their respective
Ministries, Parastatals and Departments or Cash given to an officer to carry out
a specified task and to be retired later. Advances granted and authorized by
the Minister of Finance are also employed to write off loss of government fund.
17.2 ADVANCES
Generally, advances are cash sums as short-term loans granted to the employees
in the service of an organisation. Advances are granted by the three-tiers of
government, public and private enterprises. In the Federal Government Service,
granting advances is guided by Chapter 17 of the Financial Regulations of
Year 2006.
Basically, advances can be grouped into two categories. These are ‘personal’
and ‘non-personal’ advances, discussed as follows:
17.2.1 Non-Personal Advances

Advances of non-personal nature shall be authorised by the Minister of
Finance, through the Accountant-General of the Federation. They are
chargeable to the non-personal account of the Ministry or Unit concerned;
for example, an advance for training of staff outside Headquarters.
Advance granted under the authority of the Financial Regulations and
those up to N50,000 in value are approved by the Accounting Officer.
Specifically, a non personal advance is one granted to an officer to carry
out certain tasks for the organisation. This type of advance has to be
retired within a reasonable time; otherwise, the total sum advanced
shall be deducted from the officer’s salary embloc. It is against the spirit
of Financial Regulation to grant a non-personal advance to an officer
when the initial ones are yet to be retired.
272
GOVERNMENT ADVANCES
17.2.2 Personal Advances

These are advances of cash to individual officers in the employment of
the Federal Government of Nigeria for their personal benefits. These
include:
17.2.2.1 Salary and Rent Advances

Salary and rent advances are granted to officers under the following
Condition:
(a) If an officer is returning from leave of not less than 21 days
duration, and/or he is to proceed on transfer and bear the cost of
his transportation.
(b) If an officer is assuming first appointment and is not living in
Government residential quarters.
(c) If an officer is returning to Nigeria by sea and is to be stationed
elsewhere other than in Lagos.
(d) If an officer is on posting to an overseas office of the Ministry of
External Affairs.
17.2.2.2 Motor Vehicle Advance/Refurbishing Loan

Under the Financial Regulations of Year 2006, motor vehicle advances
are granted to officers on salary grade level 08 and above, upon the
written approvals of Accounting Officers of the Ministries and Extra-
Ministerial Departments. However, an officer may not be considered for
an advance when the maintenance cost of the car and instalmental
repayments will likely cause him financial embarrassment.
All Heads of Departments, confirmed officers and Police Officers on the

above-stated salary grade levels are covered under the dispensation.
The amounts of the various advances granted now vary from one State
Public Service to another and repayment terms are not uniform.
17.2.2.2.1 Considerations for Granting and Repayments of

Motor Vehicle Advances
(a) No Officer shall be eligible for an advance until
after five years of previous advance, except where
the vehicle so purchased had become a ‘write-off’,
based on the evidence from an insurance company.
Moreover, the previous advance ought to have been
fully repaid.
(b) All payments for the purchase of the motor vehicles
shall be made to the vendors.
(c) An Officer to whom an advance is given to purchase
a motor vehicle will be required to insure the
vehicle comprehensively with an insurance
273
company on the approved Government list during

the period of repayment of the advance.
(d) A salary/rent advance of one month shall be repaid

in three (3) instalmental monthly deductions.
Advances of up to two (2) and three (3) months
salary shall be repaid in six equal instalments,
respectively.
17.2.2.3 Correspondence Advances

These are advances taken for correspondence courses. The
conditions to be fulfilled for the grant of a correspondence advance
are:
(a) That the ability and efficiency of the officer warrant his
taking the course.
(b) That the subjects in the course to be pursued are related
to his work.
(c) That the study is likely to increase his efficiency.
(d) That the course is with a reputable college or
establishment.
(e) That its completion does not itself constitute grounds for
advancement.
(f) That the officer will enter into agreement for repayment.
(g) That the advance shall be granted free of interest.
(h) That the officer produces receipts to show that the whole
advance has been appropriately utilized.
(i) That the advance does not include an element for postage,
stationery, examination or other fees, etc.
(j) That the advance shall be recovered in twenty-four (24)
consecutive instalments.
17.2.2.4 Bicycle Advances

Accounting Officers are authorized to approve bicycle advances, subject
to the following conditions:
(a) That they are satisfied that a bicycle will facilitate the performance
of the duties of the official or employee concerned.
(b) That the advance does not exceed the actual purchase price of
the bicycle to be acquired, subject to an overriding maximum of
N20,000.00.
(c) That the official or employee concerned has not received a bicycle
advance within a period of two years, provided that a fresh
advance may be granted if the bicycle bought with the previous
advance has been stolen or damaged beyond repairs and if the
old advance has been fully repaid.
(d) The rate of interest chargeable shall be 4%.
274
GOVERNMENT ADVANCES
(e) That the officer receiving the advance completes the agreement
form T.F. 50B and the interest shall be deductible en-bloc in the
first instalment.
17.2.2.5 Advances for Estacode for Overseas Tours

Cash advances may be granted to meet estacode allowance
due to an officer travelling overseas. It will normally be drawn
in Nigeria in the form of traveller’s cheques made payable to
the officer travelling singly or to a designated officer travelling
with a delegation. The traveller’s cheques will be obtained
from the Central Bank of Nigeria, against a cheque drawn on
Government Account.
At the end of any duty tour, officers shall submit all the receipts
and air tickets in order to account for the amount received as
travelling expenses for the duty tour. This will serve as a proof
that the journeys were undertaken for the number of days
approved.
17.2.2.6 Spectacle Advances

Interest free advances, not exceeding N15,000.00, may be granted
to officers by the Permanent Secretaries/Heads of Extra-
Ministerial Departments for the purchase of spectacles, provided
they have been prescribed by a Medical Officer and an Optician’s
receipt is subsequently provided as evidence of payment. The
advance will be refunded in not more than twenty four (24)
consecutive monthly instalments.
17.2.2.7 Advances to Retiring Officers

In order to minimize the sufferings of retiring officers, an advance
payment of three (3) months’ salary shall be paid to every retiring
officer by his Ministry/Extra-Ministerial Department which shall
be deducted en-bloc from his final entitlements. Accounting
Officers must ensure that the advances taken by the retiring
officers are reflected in their pension forms.
This form of advance has also been abolished in the services, as

a result of introduction and implementation of Pension Reform
Act of 2004.
17.3 GENERAL RULE

As a general rule, an officer may be granted more than one type of advance at
a time but care has to be taken to ensure that the total recoveries will not result
in financial embarrassment to the officer or be more than two thirds (2/3) of his
monthly salary. All advances will be recorded in total in the control ledger
account while details of each individual advance will be reflected in the
subsidiary ledger in the name of the officer to whom the advance has been
granted.
275
TUTORIAL NOTE:
Readers should please note that chapter 17 of the Financial Regulations which
deals with advances on motor vehicles, motor cycles and bicycles has been
modified with the circular on monetization of fringe benefits. The monetization
policy states that car loans are to be provided by the banks on a single digit
interest, to be guaranteed by the employer, Federal Government.
Car loans are at the following rates:
(a) Officers on GL 01 - 05 - 100% of Annual Basic Salary.
(b) Officers on GL 06 - 07 - 150% of Annual Basic Salary.
(c) Officers on GL 08 and Above - 200% of Annual Basic Salary
17.4 CHAPTER REVIEW

Advances are cash granted by the Government to employees, under different
conditions, for various reasons and needs. They are repaid within the agreed
terms and as stipulated in chapter 17 of the Federal Government Financial
Regulations (Updated to January, 2006).

17.5.1 Questions
(1) List out the SEVEN conditions which have to be fulfilled for the
grant of Correspondence Advances, as stipulated in the Financial
Regulations of year 2006.
(2) Outline the basic considerations for granting and repaying

Correspondence Advance

Correspondence Advances are short-term loans made available to
government officers to pay for correspondence courses. The following
conditions have to fulfilled before the advances are granted:
(a) That the course is related to the officer’s work.
(b) That the study is likely to increase his efficiency.
(c) That the course is with a reputable college or establishment.
(d) That the ability and efficiency of the officer warrants his taking
the course.
(e) That completion does not itself constitute grounds for
advancement.
(f) That the officer will enter into agreement for repayment.
(g) That the advance shall be granted free of interest.
(h) That the officer produces receipts to show that the whole advance
has been appropriately utilized.
276
GOVERNMENT ADVANCES
(2) CONSIDERATIONS FOR GRANTING AND REPAYMENTS OF MOTOR

VEHICLE ADVANCES
(a) No officer shall be eligible for an advance until after five years of previous
advance, except where the vehicle so purchased had become a ‘write-
off’, based on the evidence from an insurance company. Moreover, the
previous advance ought to have been fully repaid.
(b) All payments for the purchase of the motor vehicles shall be made to
the vendors.
(c) An Officer to whom an advance is given to purchase a motor vehicle

will be required to insure the vehicle comprehensively with an insurance
company on the approved Government list during the period of
repayment of the advance.
(d) A salary/rent advance of one month shall be repaid in three (3)

instalmental monthly deductions. Advances of up to two (2) and three
(3) months salary shall be repaid in six equal instalments, respectively.
277
278
CHAPTER
Skills level
18
Pensions and Gratuity

Contents
1. Purpose
3. Application of the Provisions of the Pension Act, No.102 of 1979
4. Statutory Age of Retirement
5. Notice of Withdrawal or Retirement
6. Qualifying Service for Pension and Gratuity
7. Death Gratuity
8. Minimum and Maximum Pension Payable
9. Death Gratuity In Course of Service
10. Tutorial
11. Definition of a Child
12. Transfer of Service
13. Merger of Service
14. Minimum Years for Collecting Pension
15. Non-Pensionable Service
16. Pension & Gratuity: Table Applicable With Effect From 1/6/92
17. General Information
18. Pension Reform Act, 2004
19. Chapter Review
20. Worked Examples
279
18
PENSIONS AND GRATUITY

18.0 PURPOSE
After studying this chapter readers should be able to:
(a) explain the concepts of pension and gratuity;
(b) list the conditions for granting retirement benefits;
(c) discuss the Provisions of Pensions Act, 1979 (as updated);
(d) identify major pension regulatory bodies and their respective functions
(e) compute retirement benefits from relevant information.
18.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

(a) Pension: It is a monthly payment made to a retired officer who has
served for a statutory period. Pension is payable for a minimum period
of five years or till death.
(b) Gratuity: It is a lump sum of money paid once to a retired officer who
has served for the minimum of 5 years in service.
(c) Pensionable Emoluments: It is the gross salary (basic salary and

allowances) attached to a retiring officer’s substantive rank.
(d) Withdrawal of service: This is the ceasation of service after an officer

has served for a minimum period of 5 years, but below 10 years,
qualifying him only for gratuity.
(e) Retirement: It is the ceasation of service after an officer has s e r v e d

for a minimum of 10 years, qualifying the person for gratuity and
pension.
(f) Qualifying Service: Means service after an officer has served for a
period of not less than the minimum qualifying years, which is 5 years
for gratuity and 10 years for gratuity and pension. Qualifying service
determines the qualification or otherwise of the person for pension and
gratuity.
(g) Next of Kin: Means those persons whose names were furnished by the
deceased officer on his record of service kept in the Records Office of the
Establishment or furnished by him to the Ministry, in writing, at any
time before his death.
280
(h) Public Service: Means any service or employment under the

Government of the Federation in a civil position, recognised as such by
the Establishment. It shall include employment declared as Approved
Service, by the Pension Act (as updated).
18.2 APPLICATION OF THE PROVISIONS OF THE PENSIONS ACT, NO.102 OF

1979
18.2.1 Conditions For Granting Retirement Benefits

The conditions for granting retirement benefits may be listed, as follows:
(a) On voluntary retirement, after a qualifying service of 10 years.
(b) On compulsory retirement for the purpose of facilitating
improvement in the Department or Ministry.
(c) On compulsory retirement upon attaining the retiring age of 60
years or 35 years in service, whichever comes earlier.
(d) On total or permanent disablement while in service.
(e) Public Interest.
(f) Abolition of Office, e.g. for the reasons of re-organisation and
redundancy.
18.3 STATUTORY AGE OF RETIREMENT

All officers shall retire on reaching the age of 60 years or having served for 35
years in service, whichever comes earlier. But an officer may be retired at
anytime on reaching the minimum age of 50 years, subject to 3 months’ notice
in writing or 3 months’ salary in lieu of notice being paid.
18.4 NOTICE OF WITHDRAWAL OR RETIREMENT

Officers who have served for less than ten (10) years give one month’s notice or
pay a month’s salary in lieu. Those who have put in ten (10) or more years
service give three months’ notice or pay three (3) months’ salaries in lieu of
notice.
18.5 QUALIFYING SERVICE FOR PENSION AND GRATUITY

(a) For gratuity, the officer must serve for minimum of (but not up to ten
(10) years) five (5) years.
(b) For gratuity and pension, the officer must serve for at least ten (10)
years. Pension is payable when the retiring officer reaches the age of 50
years, with the exception of ill-health or compulsory retirement of
officer in the public interest, when pension becomes payable
immediately without the officer reaching the age of 50 years.
(c) ‘War Services’ are in connection with the internal security, maintenance
of law and order, between 27 May, 1967 and 15 January, 1970, and
other services as may be declared by the President of Nigeria.
281
18.6. THE ARMED FORCES ACT NO. 103 OF 1979

Under the Armed Forces Act No. 103 of 1979 quoted above, the
considerations are:
(a) Each completed year of war service shall count as two years.
(b) Period of war service exceeding 4 months but below 6 months is
counted as 6 months.
(c) Period of war service below 4 months is counted as 6 months.
(d) Period of war service exceeding 6 months is counted as 1 year.
A period of service (other than war service) for a period over 6 months
would be approximated to one year, provided the officer has served the
qualifying service in the first instance.
ILLUSTRATION 18-1
An officer who has served 14 years, 8 months and 10 days is deemed to
have rendered 15 years service. But an officer who has served 9 years,
11 months and 28 days will be entitled to only gratuity. This is because
he has not rendered the minimum qualifying service of 10 years.
18.7 DEATH GRATUITY

Where an officer dies in service, a death gratuity based on the rates below will
be paid to his legal representative or his survivor, viz:
18.7.1 Years below 10 years:

5 years: 100% final pay.
6 years: 108% of final pay.
18.7.2 10 years and above: death gratuity is based on the rates as per the
Table at 16.15: Pension and Gratuity Table.
Note:
In addition, the dependants will be paid 5 years pension, based on
completed years served as shown on the Table above.
18.8 MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM PENSION

The minimum pension payable is 8,000.00 per annum, while the maximum is
80% of final pay.
18.9 DEATH GRATUITY IN COURSE OF SERVICE

18.9.1 Where An Officer Is Killed
(a) Where an officer, e g a pilot, is killed in the course of carrying out his
official duty, the following entitlements shall be paid to his next of kin
or designated survivors:
282
(i) Gratuity to which the officer would have been entitled to at the
date of his death.
(ii) A pension for life to his widow if the officer leaves any, provided
the widow remains unmarried and of good character. However,
the pension should not be more than 1/3rd of the deceased
officer’s accrued pension at the date of his death.
OR
(b) In addition to ‘i’ above, if the deceased leaves a number of children
below 18 years, pension of not more than the deceased officer’s one
month pay shall be paid to each child until they attain 18 years of age.
(c) If the deceased officer leaves only one child below 18 years a pension
not more than 2/3rd of the deceased officer’s accrued pension shall be
paid to the child until he reaches 18 years of age.
(d) If the deceased officer leaves a child or children and a widow to whom
a pension is granted under ‘i’ above, subsequently dies, a pension in
respect of each child as from the date of the death of the widow until
such child attains the age of 18 years, of 1/6th of the accrued pension of
the deceased officer.
18.9.2 Limitations
(a) The pension shall not be paid to more than 6 children.
(b) A pension granted to a female child ceases when she marries or
attains 18 years, whichever comes first.
(c) Where the deceased officer leaves more than one widow, the
Minister may grant pension to one or more of such widows.
However, the pension to be shared among the widows shall not
be more than the one to be granted to a sole widow.
18.10 ILLUSTRATION 18-1

Section 173 (3) of 1999 Constitution says “Pensions shall be reviewed every
five years or together with any Federal civil service salary reviews, whichever
is earlier.”
Section 173 (4) of the Constitution stipulates that “Pensions in respect of service
in the public service of the Federation shall not be taxed.”
According to Section 84(5) of the 1999 Constitution, ‘’Any person who has held
office as President or Vice President shall be entitled to pension for life at a
rate equivalent to the annual salary of the incumbent President or Vice-
President, provided that such a person was not removed from office by the
process of impeachment or for breach of any provision of the Constitution.”
283
Section 84 (6) of the Constitution says that ‘’any pension granted by virtue of
subsection (5) of this section shall be a charge upon the Consolidated Revenue
Fund of the Federation.”
18.11 DEFINITION OF A CHILD

The Pension Act, 1979 (as amended) defines a child as:
(a) Posthumous child.
(b) A child born out of wedlock, but whose paternity has been accepted.
(c) A step child or a child adopted in a manner recognised by a law before

the death of the deceased officer.
18.12 TRANSFER OF SERVICE

Where an officer moves from one Government service to the other, e.g. from the
Federal to the State Service, such officer may transfer the years he has served
from the old to the new employer.
However, the following conditions must be compiled with, viz:
(a) The transfer must be effected within two (2) years.
(b) The normal procedure for recruitment to such appointment has to be

followed, e.g by advertisement and interview.
18.13 MERGER OF SERVICE

This is applicable to all military organisations and the conditions are the same
with those of transfer of service.
18.14 MINIMUM YEARS FOR COLLECTING PENSION

All officers who qualify for pension will enjoy it for a minimum period of five
(5) years. That is, where an officer dies within five (5) years after retirement,
his next of kin will be entitled to the same pension till the end of five (5) years,
from the date of his retirement. For example, where an officer retired in 1990
and died in 1993, his survivor will be entitled to his pension for the years 1994
and 1995. This may, however, be paid en-bloc, monthly or annually.
284
18.15 NON-PENSIONABLE SERVICE

(a) Where an officer joins service before the age of 15 years, all the years he
served before reaching 15 years of age shall not be recognised for
computation of his pension or gratuity.
(b) Where an Officer was absent from duty, or was on leave without pay,
except prior permission has been received from the Minister, such period
will be regarded as non-pensionable.
18.16 PENSION & GRATUITY: TABLE APPLICABLE WITH EFFECT FROM 1/6/92
Old i.e up to 31/5/92 New i.e. wef 1/6/92

Years in Service Gratuity % Pension % Gratuity% Pension%
5 - - 100 -
6 - - 108 -
7 - - 116 -
8 - - 124 -
9 - - 132 -
10 100 - 100 30
11 110 - 108 32
12 120 - 116 34
13 130 - 124 36
14 140 - 132 38
15 100 30 140 40
16 110 32 148 42
17 120 34 156 44
18 130 36 164 46
19 140 38 172 48
20 150 40 180 50
21 160 42 188 52
22 170 44 196 54
23 180 46 204 56
24 190 48 212 58
25 200 50 220 60
26 210 52 228 62
27 220 54 236 64
28 230 56 244 66
29 240 58 252 68
30 250 60 260 70
31 260 62 268 72
32 270 64 276 74
33 280 66 284 76
34 290 68 292 78
35 300 70 300 80
285
18.16.1 Derived Formula

The following formula may be used, instead of the table above, to
compute any gratuity or pension due, viz:
Gratuity = 100 + {(x – 10) x 8}%

Pension = 30 + {(B – 10 x 2)}%
‘B’ is the qualifying years for pension, and
X’ is the qualifying years for gratuity.
ILLUSTRATION 18-2
If ‘x’ is 20 years,
gratuity is: 100 + {(20 - 10 )x 8}%
Therefore gratuity is: (100 + 80)% = 180%
If ‘B’ is 20 years,
pension is: 30% + {(20 - 10 ) x 2}%
= 30% + (10 x 2)%
= 30% + 20% = 50%
NOTE: The computations are expressed in percentages.
18.17 GENERAL INFORMATION

(a) Medical Certificate
Every pensioner has to obtain a medical certificate from a
Government medical doctor, confirming that he is alive and
physically fit. This must be submitted before the first payment of
the pension is effected in the new year.
(b) Arrears
Pensions are paid in arrears, either monthly, quarterly or yearly.
(c) Qualifying Age

Qualifying year for pension is recorded when the employee attains the
age of 15 years. If an employee joins the Government service before
attaining that age, the period he served previously will not be taken
into consideration in computing the qualifying age for his retirement.
(d) Processing Retirement Documents

If an employee worked for the three tiers of Government (Federal, Local
and State) the retirement benefit will be collected from his last office.
(e) Sharing of Retirement Benefit Liability

If an employee works for different arms of Government, e.g. for Federal,
States and Local Government Council the retirement benefit liability
will be shared among the three tiers in the proportion of length of service.
286
(f) Continuity of service

Only continuous and unbroken service shall be taken into account as
qualifying service, so that any break caused by a temporary suspension
from employment not arising from misconduct may be disregarded for
the purposes of the calculation of qualifying services.

Pension Reform Acts of 2004 introduced improvements in the management of
pension funds both in the public and private sectors. The Act established a
uniform management of pension funds for the two sectors. The old Pension Act
is however, still applicable to workers who have three (3) years to retire.
18.19.1 Questions
1.(a) Distinguish between ‘pension’ and ‘gratuity’

(b) Ajen, whose record of service spanned between 1st January 1969
and 31st December 1998, retired voluntarily. Out of this period,
7 years were spent in the State services and the rest in various
Ministries at the Federal level. Ajen was 52 years when he retired.
He had accumulated leave of one year which the appropriate

authority had approved on terminal departure. He commenced
the leave on 1st January 1999. The rates of gratuity and pension
are given as follows:
Years in Service Gratuity As Pension As

% of Final Pay % of Final Pay
28 244 66
29 252 68
30 260 70
31 268 72
32 276 74
Mr. Ajen’s terminal emoluments is as follows:

Per month
N
Basic salary 42,000
Housing allowance 12,500
Transport allowance 21,500
Utility and other allowance 3,000
287

(a) Calculate the gratuity and pension due to Mr. Ajen.
(b) Apportion his gratuity and pension between the Federal and State
Governments.
(2) Alhaji Tolotolo, a civil servant, joined the service of the defunct Northern
Region of Nigeria on 1 July, 1958 and worked in many duty stations. He
left the services of the Northern Region on 16 March, 1986 and
commenced work with the Kano State Government on 1 April, 1968 from
which he finally retired on 30 June, 1986 on an annual salary of N16,000.
Required:
(a) Calculate the gratuity and pension due to Alhaji Tolotolo on
retirement.
(b) Apportion Alhaji Tolotolo’s gratuity between the Federal and Kano
State Governments.
(c) Apportion Alhaji Tolotolo’s pension claim between the Federal
and Kano State Governments.
(1) PENSION
Pension can be defined as a periodic payment made by an
employer to his retired employee until his or her death, in
consideration of past services rendered by the former employee.
It is a payment made to a person who is no longer working and
which will enable the former employee live and enjoy some or
all of the essentials and non-essentials he was able to afford
during his working life. Formerly, an officer was entitled to
pension after serving a minimum of 10 years and he had attained
the age of 45 years.
GRATUITY
This is a lump sum payable to a retiring officer who has served
for a minimum period of 5 years.
Ajen
Computation of Gratuity and Pension
N
Basic Salary 42,000
Housing Allowance 12,500
Transport Allowance 21,500
Utility and other Allowance 3,000
79,000
288
Annual Emolument N79,000 x 12 =N948,000

January 1969 to December, 1998
Number of years in Service = 30 years

Terminal Leave = 1 year
Total period of service = 31 years
Rate of gratuity = 268% terminal salaries
Rate of pension = 72% terminal salaries
Gratuity calculation:
Total Amount: 268 x N948,000 = N2,540,640

100
Sharing:
Federal Share: 24 x N2,540,640

31
= N1,966,947
State’s Share 7 x N2,540,640

31
= N573,693
Pension: = 72 x N948,000
100
Annual Pension = N682,560.00
Payable by Federal Government: 24 x N682,560

31
= N528,434
Payable by State Government: 7 x N682,560

31
= N154,126
2 Alhaji Tolotolo
(a) Computation of gratuity due to Alhaji Tolotolo on retirement
(i) Years Served:
1/7/58 to 30/6/1986 = 28 years
230/100 x N16,000 = N36,800.00
The gratuity due to him is N36,800.00
(ii) Computation of pension due to Alhaji Tolotolo on retirement
56/100 x N16,000.00 = N8,960.00
289
(b) Apportionment of gratuity due to Alhaji Tolotolo:

1/7/58 to 30/3/68 = 9 years, 9 months
1/4/68 to 30/6/86 = 18 years, 3 months
Federal Government 18 years service
Kano State 10 years service
Federal Government = 18/28 x N36,800 = N23,657.14
Kano State Government: 10/28 x N36,800 = N13,142.86
(c) Appointment of pension due to Alhaji Tolotolo on retirement:

FG = 18/28 x N8,960.00 = N5,760.00
Kano State Government = 10/28 x N8,960.00
= N3,200
290
CHAPTER
Skills level
19
Payroll Accounting and Pension Fund
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Procedure for approval of Payroll
3. Custody of Personal Emoluments Records
4. Action by Salaries Section on Payroll
5. Action by Internal Audit Unit
6. Action by Cash Office
7. Pension Reform Act 2014
8. Objectives of Pension Reform Act 2014
9. Exemptions from Pension Reform Act 2014
10. National Pension Fund Commission
11. Powers of the National Pension Fund Commission
12. The principal objectives of National Pension Fund Commission
13. Composition of National Pension Fund Commission
14. Rates of Contributions
15. Withdrawal from Retirement Savings Account
16. Age of Contributor
17. Payment of Retirement Benefits
18. Death of an Employee
19. Where an Employee is missing
20. Exemption from Tax
21. Contribution under the Scheme
22. Exemption from the Scheme
23. Transfer from one employment to another
24. Chapter Review
25. Work Examples
291
19
PAYROLL ACCOUNTING AND PENSION

FUND
19.0 PURPOSE
(a) explain the procedure for approval of Payroll by the Accountant- General.
(b) discuss the action of Salaries, Cash Office and Internal Audit Sections
on Payroll
(c) outline the objectives of Pension Reform Act 2014.
(d) identify the categories of people exempted from Pension Reform Act 2014
(e) discuss the Provisions of Pensions Act, 1979 (as updated) and Pension
Reform Act of 2014.
(f) discuss the powers and functions of the key pension administration
institutions
19.1 PAYROLL ACCOUNTING IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR

19.1.1 Procedure for Approval by Accountant- General
The procedure and method to be employed by Federal Ministries,
Departments and Units for the recording and the calculation of personal
emoluments must be approved by the Accountant-General.
The standard payroll system to be applied in all offices, unless otherwise

provided under FR 1818 shall be such as to ensure that maintenance of
the following records will be made in a single operation.
(a) Personal Emolument Record
(b) Payroll in duplicate together with a bank paying-in-advice slip
(c) Pay statement to be issued to the individual officer.
The above provision shall be applied irrespective of whether the system

is computerized or not. The officer controlling expenditure shall ensure
that the Standard Personal Emoluments Records shall show the
following:
(a) Standard rate of pay of the office
(b) Incremental Rate
(c) Standard Allowance
(d) Salary and other advances issued
(e) Tax P.A.Y.E
(f) Gross Emoluments
(g) Standard deductions from emoluments and
(h) Net Emoluments Payable
292
PAYROLL ACCOUNTING AND PENSION FUND
19.1.2 Custody of Personal Emoluments Records Cards (PERC)

Where the accounting system is manual, the Head, Finance and Accounts
shall ensure that the Personal Emoluments Records Cards are kept under
strict security arrangements.
The PERC shall always be kept under lock and key in a fire resistant
cabinet, safe or strong-room when not in use.
It is mandatory for every officer to complete the Personal Emolument

Record form annually which must be certified by the head of department
or other designated officer.
The completed personal emolument form shall be the basis for opening
the group registers which must be audited before the inclusion of any
officer in the payroll.
19.1.3 Action by Salaries Section on Payroll

The payroll section shall ensure that the following actions are taken:
(a) Effect necessary entries in the Personnel Emolument Records of
each employee in the payroll, e.g. basic salary for the month,
deductions and net salary payable.
(b) Aggregate all entries made in (a) above and raise Treasury Form
209 to take care of deductions.
(c) The Treasury Form 209 raised shall be classified to the
appropriate below – the-line classification code.
(d) A summary payment voucher Treasury Form shall be raised on
pay point basis to capture the total basic salaries and allowances
due to arrive at the gross amount due to all officers in a pay-
point, the total deductions and the net amount payable
(e) Process Cash-Order Form in accordance with the provision of
Financial Regulations.
(f) Effect necessary entries in the Personnel Emolument Voucher,
register and votebook.
(g) Carry out internal check of payroll entries and vouchers to ensure
accuracy of postings taking into consideration vacation in officers’
salaries monthly.
(h) Compare and reconcile the figures computed by the salaries and
wages section with the figures in the variation sheet for a given
month.
(i) All summary voucher and Treasury Form 209 shall be signed by
the officer controlling expenditure after agreeing the figures
therein with those and the variation control sheet.
(j) Thereafter, the payrolls supported with summary vouchers, TF
209 and on-payment vouchers shall be forwarded to the Internal
Audit Unit.
293
19.1.4 Action by Internal Audit Unit

On receipt of payrolls from the salary and wages section, the Internal
Audit Unit shall effect the following:
(a) Ascertain the accuracy of entries in the Personnel Emolument
Records of officers and the payroll by examining them in details
to ensure that variations if any in the emolument of staff are
correctly stated.
(b) Examine all summary vouchers, and other relevant supporting
documents to ensure accuracy of all deductions and net salaries
payable to individual officers.
(c) Ensure that gross salaries payable as reflected in the summary
vouchers agree with the figures in the Variation Control Sheets.
(d) Extract copies of summary vouchers and other supporting
documents for record purpose.
19.2.5 Action by Cash Office

(a) Check payroll summary voucher and other supporting documents
against entries in the forwarding schedules from the Internal
Audit Unit to ensure that all relevant documents are complete.
(b) Sort and allocate Treasury Payment Voucher number to Summary
Vouchers and on-payment vouchers and treasury receipt vouchers
in respect of TF 209.
(c) Stamp all summary vouchers and on-payment vouchers with a
“PAID” stamp for the month of account.
(d) Draw cheques for the net amount payable in the summary
payment voucher in favour of the bank through which payment
is to be made.
(e) Draw cheques due to various agencies as reflected in the on-
payment vouchers.
(f) Post all payment vouchers and/Treasury Receipt Vouchers
separately in a salary cash book, balance the cash book and
reconcile with bank statement monthly.
19.2 PENSION REFORM ACT 2014

By virtue of the Act both the Public and Private Sectors Pension Schemes are
now contributory. The employers and employees are expected to contribute a
minimum of 18% in aggregate towards the retirement of the employee. The
rate is subject to review as may be agreed between the employer and employee.
19.2.1 Objectives of the New Pension Reform Act, 2014

(a) To provide a sustainable and well managed pension to employees
both in the public & private sectors.
(b) To ensure that all and sundry in the working class save in order
to make provision for life after retirement.
(c) To ensure that all and sundry is entitled to and receive terminal
benefits as and when due.
294
(d) To ensure that all regulations and guidelines available for

administration and payment of retirement benefits are
applicable to both public and private sector officers.
(e) To sustain a worthwhile standard of living of all employees after
retirement.
(f) To ensure that a pension contributions are fully protected till
maturity before the retirement of the contributor.
(g) To improve pension management structures in Nigeria
(h) To create job opportunities.
19.2.2 S 5(1) Exemption from New Pension Reform Act 2014

The categories of persons exempted from the Contributory Pension
Scheme are:
(a) The categories of persons mentioned in Section 291 of the
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 (as
amended) including the members of Armed Forces, the
intelligence and Secret Services of the Federation.
(b) An employee who is entitled to retirement benefits under any
Pension Scheme existing before 25th day of June, 2004 and has
3 or less years to retire.
(c) Fully Funded Pension Scheme
19.2.3 National Pension Commission

19.2.3.1 Objectives
The objectives of establishing the National Pension Commission
are:
(a) To ensure that every person who works in the public service
of the Federation, FCT and private sector receives his
retirement benefits as and when due.
(b) To assist improvident individuals by ensuring that they
save in order to cater for their livelihood during old age.
(c) To establish a uniform set of rules, regulations and
standards for the administration and payments of
retirement benefits for the public service of the Federation,
Federal Capital Territory and the private sector.
19.2.4 Powers of the Commission

According to the Act, the Commission shall have power to
(a) Formulate, direct and oversee the overall policy on pension
matters in Nigeria,
(b) Fix the terms and conditions of service, including remuneration
of the employees of the commission,
(c) Request or call for information from any employer or pension
administrator or custodian or any other person or institution on
matters relating to retirement benefit,
(d) Charge and collect such fees, levies or penalties, as may be
specified by the Commission,
295
(e) Establish and acquire offices and other premises for the use of
the Commission in such locations as it may deem necessary for
the proper performance of its functions,
(f) Establish standards, rules and regulations for the management
of the pension funds,
(g) Investigate any Pension Fund Administrator, custodian or other
party involved in the management of pension funds,
(h) Impose administrative sanctions or fines on erring employers or
Pension Fund Administrators or Custodians,
(i) Order the transfer of management or custody of all pension funds
or assets being managed by a pension fund administrator or held
by a custodian whose licence has been revoked or subject to
insolvency proceedings to another pension fund administrator
or custodian,
(j) Do such other things which in its opinion are necessary to ensure
the efficient performance of the functions of the Commission.
19.2.5 The Principal Objective of the Commission

The principal objective of the Commission, according to the
Pension Reforms Act, 2004, is “to regulate, supervise and ensure
the effective administration of pension matters in Nigeria.”
Functions of the Commission

The functions of the Pension Commission as stated in S.20 of the
Act are:
(a) To regulate and supervise the scheme established under
this Act.
(b) To issue guidelines for the investment of pension funds.
(c) To approve, license, regulate and supervise Pension Fund
Administrators, Custodians and other institutions relating
to pension matters as the Commission may from time to
time determine.
(d) To establish standards, rules and guidelines for the
management of the pension funds under this Act.
(e) To ensure the maintenance of a National Data Bank on all
pension matters.
(f) To carry out public awareness and education on the
establishment and management of the scheme.
(g) To promote capacity building and institutional
strengthening of pension fund administrators and
custodians.
(h) To receive and investigate complaints of impropriety
levelled against any pension fund administrator, custodian
or employer or any of their staff or agent.
(i) To perform such other duties which, in the opinion of the
commission, are necessary or expedient for the discharge
of its functions under the Act.
296
According to the pension reform, all employees in the

service of the Federation, Federal Capital Territory and
private sector shall henceforth contribute certain
percentages of their monthly emoluments towards their
retirement. However, this reform will not apply to those
who have less than three years to retire.
19.2.6 Composition of National Pension Commission

The Commission comprises:
(a) A part-time Chairman in possession of a University Degree or its
equivalent and 20 years experience.
(b) A Director-General who shall be the Chief Executive Officer of the
Commission and in possession of appropriate professional skills
with not less than twenty years cognate experience.
(c) Four (4) full time Commissioners, who shall each possess
professional skills and not less than 20 years cognate experience
in Finance, Investment, Accounting, Pension Management,
Business Administration or Actuarial Science.
Representatives of:
(d) Head of the Civil Service of the Federation.
(e) The Federal Ministry of Finance.
(f) The Nigeria Union of Pensioners.
(g) The Nigeria Employers’ Consultative Association.
(h) The Central Bank of Nigeria.
(i) The Nigerian Labour Congress.
(j) The Securities and Exchange Commission.
19.2.7 The Rates of Deductions

The contribution for any employee to which this Act applies shall be
made in the following rates relating to his monthly emoluments:
(a) a minimum of 10 percent by the employer.
(b) a minimum of 8 percent by the employee.
These deductions should be made from the workers’ salaries at

source, while Government’s contributions shall be a first charge
on the Consolidated Revenue Fund of the Federation. In addition
to the rates specified above, employers shall maintain life
insurance policies in favour of the employees for a minimum of
three times the annual total emoluments of the individuals.
No employee will be allowed to withdraw or have access to his
contributions until he clocks 50 years of age.
19.2.8 Withdrawal from Retirement Savings Account

The conditions which govern withdrawal from the scheme are as follows:
297
(a) Withdrawal is not allowed until the attainment of 50 years of

age.
(b) An officer retired and is less than 50 years, on the advice of
suitably qualified physician or properly constituted Medical
Board, certifying that the employee is no longer mentally and
physically capable of carrying out the function of his office, may
withdraw; OR If the officer is retired due to his total or permanent
disability either of mind or body.
(c) Where the employee retires before the age of 50 years in
accordance with the terms and conditions of his employment he
shall be entitled to make withdrawals.
The Medical Board or suitably qualified physician, at the request
of the employee, be made once in every two years to review the
fitness of the employee and where the Medical Board certifies
that he is now mentally and physically capable of carrying out
the functions of his office, he may re-enter the scheme upon
securing another employment.
19.2.9 Age of Contributor

The authentic age of an employee entering the public service or any
other employment shall be that submitted by him on entering the service
or taking up the employment.
19.2.10 Payment of Retirement Benefits

A holder of retirement savings account upon retirement or attaining the
age of 50 years, whichever is later, shall utilize the balance standing to
the credit of his retirement saving account for the following benefits:
(a) Programmed monthly or quarterly withdrawals calculated on the
basis of an expected life span.
(b) Annuity for life purchased from a life insurance company licensed
by the National Insurance Commission with monthly or quarterly
payments.
(c) A lump sum from the balance standing to the credit of his
retirement savings account, provided that the amount left after
that lump sum withdrawal shall be sufficient to procure an
annuity of fund programmed withdrawals that will produce an
amount not less than 50 per cent of his annual remuneration as
at the date of his retirement.
(d) Where an employee retires before the age of 50 years, the
employee may request for withdrawal of lump sum of money of
not more than 25% per cent of the amount standing to the credit
of the retirement savings account, provided that such withdrawals
shall only be made after four months of such retirement and the
retired employee does not secure another employment.
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19.2.11 Death of Employee

Where an employee dies:
(a) The entitlement under the life insurance policy maintained shall
be paid to his retirement savings account.
(b) The pension fund administrator shall add the amount paid from
life insurance policy in favour of the beneficiary under a will or
the spouse and children of the deceased or the absence of wife
and child, to the recorded next of kin or any person designated,
by him during his life time or in the absence of such designation,
to any person appointed by the Probate Registry as the
administrator of the estate of the deceased, in line with the
payment of retirement benefit.
19.2.12 Where an Employee is missing

Where an employee is missing and is not found within a period of one
year from the date he was declared missing, and a Board of Inquiry set
up by the Commission concludes that it is reasonable to presume that
he has died, normal payment of pension proceeding should be followed.
That is to say that the employee’s entitlements under the life assurance
policy maintained shall be paid to his retirement savings account.
19.2.13 Exemption from Tax

Any amount payable as a retirement benefit under this Act shall not be
taxable. Any voluntary contribution shall be subject to tax at the point
of withdrawal where the withdrawal is made before the end of 5 years
from the date the voluntary contribution was made. Any contribution
under the scheme shall form part of tax deductible expenses in the
computation of tax payable by an employee or employer under the
relevant income tax law.
19.2.14 Contribution under the Scheme

Every employee shall maintain an account referred to as Retirement
Savings Account, in his name, with any Pension Fund Administrator of
his choice.
The employee may, not more than once in a year, transfer the retirement
savings account maintained from one pension administrator to another
without adducing any reason for such transfer.
19.2.15 Exemption from the Scheme

Any employee who at the commencement of the Pension Reform Act
2004 is entitled to retirement benefits under any pension scheme
existing before the commencement of this Act but has three (3) or less
years to retire shall be exempted from the scheme.
299
19.2.17 Transfer from One Employment to the Other

Where an employee transfers his service on employment from one
employer or organisation to another, the same retirement savings
account shall continue to be maintained by him.
16.2.18 Pension Fund Administration

Pension funds shall be managed by only Pension Fund Administrators
licensed by the Commission.
The Pension Fund Administrators shall carry out the following functions,
viz;
(a) Open retirement savings accounts for all employees with personal
identity numbers (PIN) attached.
(b) Invest and manage pension funds and assets.
(c) Maintain books of accounts on all transactions.
(d) Provide regular information on investment strategy, market
returns and other performance indicators to the Commission and
employees or beneficiaries of the retirement savings accounts.
(e) Provide customers’ service support to employees, including access
to employees’ account balances and statements on demand.
(f) Process the calculations and payments of retirement benefits.
(g) Carry out other functions as National Pension Funds Commission
may assign from time to time.
19.2.18.1 Prescribed Structure of Pension Fund Administration

The following Standing Committees are required to carry out the Fund’s
functions and ensure compliance with the Act:
(a) Risk Management
(i) To determine the risk profile of the investing portfolios of
the Pension Fund Administrator.
(ii) Draw up programmes of adjustments in the case of
deviations.
(iii) Determine the level of reserves to cover the risk of the
investment portfolios.
(iv) Advise the Pension Fund Administrators in maintaining
adequate internal control measures and procedures.
(v) Carry out such other functions relating to risk management
as the Pension Board may direct.
(b) Investment Strategy Committee

(i) Formulate strategies for complying with investment
guidelines issued by the Commission.
(ii) Determine an optimal investment mix consistent with risk
profile agreed by the Board of the Pension Fund
Administration.
300
(iii) Evaluate the value of the daily ‘marked-to-marked‘

portfolios and make proposals to the Board of the Pension
Fund Administration.
(iv) On a periodic basis, review the performance of the major
securities of the investment portfolios of the Pension Fund
Administration.
(v) Carry out such other functions relating to investment
strategy as the Board may determine from time to time.
19.2.19 Pension Fund Custodians

Section 46 of Pension Reforms Act of 2004 states that Pension
Fund Custodian must be a licensed financial institution set up to
hold pension fund assets on trust with a minimum net worth of
N5 billion.
The pension fund custodians shall carry out the following functions:
(a) Receive the total contributions remitted by employers on behalf
of the pension fund administrators.
(b) Notify the pension fund administrators within 24 hours of the
receipt of contribution from any employer.
(c) Hold pension funds and assets in safe custody on trust for the
employees and beneficiaries of the retirement savings account.
(d) Settle transactions and undertake activities related to pension
fund investments, including the collection of dividends and
related activities.
(e) Provide data and information on investment to the Pension Fund
Administration and the Commission.
19.2.20 Failure to Open Retirement Savings Account

Where an employee fails to open such retirement savings account within
a period of six months after assumption of duty, his employer shall
subject to guidelines issued by the commission, request a Pension Fund
Administrator to open a nominal retirement savings account for each
employee for the remittance of his pension contributions. S11(5).
19.2.21 Failure to Deduct or Remit Contributions

An employer who fails to deduct or remit the contributions within the
time stipulated in subsection (3) (b) of this section shall, in addition to
making the remittance already due be liable to a penalty to be stipulated
by the Commission. S11(6).
The penalty referred to in S 11(6) shall not less than 2 percent of the
total contribution that remains unpaid for each month or part of each
month the default continues and the amount of the penalty shall be
recoverable as a debt owed to the employee’s savings account as the
case may be.
301
19.2.22 Investment of Pension Funds

All contributions are to be invested by the PFA with the objectives of
safety and maintenance of fair returns. Pension funds and assets shall
be invested in any of the following:-
(a) Bonds, Bills and other Federal Government and CBN Securities
(b) Ordinary Shares of Public Liability Companies (PLC)
(c) Bank Deposits and Bank Securities
(d) Real Estate Investment.
19.2.23 Dispute Resolution

Any employee or beneficiary of a retirement savings account who is
dissatisfied with a decision of the Pension Fund Administrator or
Custodian may request, in writing, that such a decision should be
reviewed by the Pension Fund Commission.
19.2.24 Penalties for Misappropriation of Pension Fund

(a) Prison term of 10 years plus fine of 3 times the amount
missapropriated.
(b) Forfeiture of the entire asset and properties or fund with accrued
interest or the proceeds of any unlawful activity under the Act in
his / her possession.
(c) The Act also criminalises any re-imbursement or payment by a
PFA or by Pension Fund Custodian (PFC), to a staff, officer or
director upon whom a fine has been imposed (the minimum fine
being N5m).
(d) For Pension Fund Custodian (PFC), the minimum fine is N10m
(upon conviction) where the PFC falls to hold the funds to the
exclusive preserve of the Pension Fund Administrative and
National Pension Commission PENCOM, or where if applied the
funds to meet its own financial obligations (in the case of Direct
- N5m or 5 years imprisonment or both).
(e) Jurisdiction to hear such cases is vested in a Court of competent
Jurisdiction (which include Federal and State High Courts
including the high court of the FCT + National Industrial Court).
(f) The Court may lift the veil of incorporation where necessary and
ensure speedy and jsut determination of any case before it.
19.3 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter examined the procedures for the approval for payroll by the
Accountant-General of the Federation. The required actions of the various
accounting officers and organs were also discussed. The institutional and legal
framework for pension administration was thereafter discussed with some
details.
302
19.4.1 Questions
(1) (a) In accordance with FR 1819 the officer controlling expenditure

shall ensure that the Standard Personal Emoluments Records
contain certain information, mention six (6) of such information.
(b) What are the statutory actions are as required by FR 1825 to be
taken by the Internal Audit Department on receipt of payrolls
from the salary and wages section?
(2) (a) According to Pension Reform Act 2004, state the Composition of
the National Pension Commission .
(b) Enumerate ten (5) Powers of the National Pension Commission.
(c ) State eight (5) Functions of the National Pension Commissions
(3) (a) With reference to the Pension Reform Act 2004 , explain the
provision of the Act as regards;
(i) Death of an employee
(ii) Missing Employees
(b) State the conditions under which an employee may make
withdrawals from his Retirement Savings Accounts where he is
less than 50 years or retires from service before attaining the
age of 50 years.
(4) (a) What are the pre-requisites for granting license for an entity to
be in operation as .
(i) Pension Fund Administrator
(ii) Pension Fund Custodian
(b) Mr. Nuhu Emeka – Balogun was appointed into the services of
Faloloi Local Government in 1973. He rose to the post of Council
Treasurer in 2004 when his total annual remuneration was
N4,716,500. He was promoted in the same year to Grade Level
14 officer on a salary of N5,322,000, which he held till December
31, 2006 when he finally retired from service. In the year 2004,
his total pension relating to the old Pension Scheme was
computed and transferred to the Central Bank Redemption Bond
Account with an annual interest on 4% per annum Compound
Interest Rate Basis, effective from December 31, 2004. Also, his
yearly contribution as regards the New Pension Reform Act 2004
also attract interest of 5% per annum effect from December 2004.
You are required to compute :
(i) Total value of Pension due to him based on the old Pension
Scheme from the Central Bank. Redemption Bond Account
as at 31 December 2006.
(ii) Total value of Pension due to him based on his contributory
Pension Scheme on retirement.
303
(iii)
Total Value of Pension due to him on Retirement from
service on December 31st, 2006
NOTE: Rate of Contribution is 15% of Gross Remuneration per annum.

1 (a) Standard Personal Emoluments Records shall show the following:
(i) Standard rate of pay of the office
(ii) Incremental Rate
(iii) Standard Allowance
(iv) Salary and other advances issued
(v) Tax P.A.Y.E
(vi) Gross Emoluments
(vii) Standard deductions from emoluments and
(viii) Net Emoluments Payable
(b) On receipt of payrolls from the salary and wages section, the
Internal Audit Unit shall effect the following:
(i) Ascertain the accuracy of entries in the Personnel
Emolument Records of officers and the payroll by examine
them in details to ensure that variations if any in the
emolument of staff is correctly.
(ii) Examine all summary vouchers, and other relevant
supporting documents to ensure accuracy of all deductions
and not salaries payable o individual officers.
(iii) Ensure that gross salaries payable as reflected in the
summary vouchers agree with the figures in the variation
control sheets.
(iv) Extract copies of summary vouchers and other supporting
documents for record purpose.
(2) (a) Composition of the Pension Fund Commission

The Composition of the Commission is as follows:.
(i) A part time Chairman with university degree or its equivalent
and with 20 years experience in pension matters and or insurance.
(ii) Director General who shall be the CEO responsible for the day-
to-day administration of the commission, he must also possess
not less than 20 years experience in pension matters and or
insurance or related field.
(iii) Four full time commissioners with experience each in Finance
Investment,
(iv) Accounting, Pension Management, Actuarial Science or Business
Administration.
(v) Part – time members of the Commission who shall be
representatives each of:
 The Head of the Civil Service of the Federation
 The Federal Ministry of Finance
304
 The Nigeria Labour Congress

 The Nigeria Union of Pensioners
 The Nigeria Employers Consultative Association
 The Central Bank of Nigeria
 The Securities and Exchange Commission.
(3) (b) Powers of the Commission

(i) Power to fix the terms and condition of services
including remuneration of employee of the commission
(ii) Power to oversee the overall policy on pension matters
in Nigeria.
(iii) Power to charge and collect any fee, levy or penalty as
may be specified by the Commission.
(iv) Power to make request for information from any
employer or Pension Fund Administrator on retirement
benefits matters.
(v) Power to impose administrative sanctions or fines on
any erring employer or Pension Fund Administration.
(2) (c) Functions of the Commission

(i) To supervise, regulate and coordinate the pension scheme
established by the Act.
(ii) To formulate and issue out guidelines for the investment of
pension funds
(iii) To approve, license, regulate and supervise Pension Fund
Administrators
(iv) To ensure the maintenance of a National Data Bank on all pension
matter
(v) To carry out public awareness and education on the establishment
and management of pension schemes.
(vi) To receive and investigate complaints of impropriety leveled
against any pension fund administrator.
(3) (a) Death of Employee

(i) where an employee dies:
 The entitlement under the life insurance policy maintained
shall be paid to his retirement savings account.
 The pension fund administrator shall add the amount paid
from life insurance policy in favour of the beneficiary under
a will or the spouse and children of the deceased or the
child, or to the recorded next of kin or any person
designated,
(ii) Where an Employee is missing

Where an employee is missing and is not found within a period
of one year from the date he was declared missing, and a Board
305
of Inquiry set up by the Commission concludes that it is reasonable

to presume that he has died, normal payment of pension
proceeding should be followed. That is to say that the employee’s
entitlements under the life assurance policy maintained shall
be paid to his retirement savings account.
(b) (i) Where an Officer retires before attaining the age of 50 years, on
the advice of suitably qualified physician or properly constituted
Medical Board, certifying that the employee is no longer mentally
and physically capable of carrying out the function of his office,
may withdraw; or If the officer is retired due to his total or
permanent disability either of mind or body.
(ii ) Where the employee retires before the age of 50 years in
accordance with the terms and conditions of his employment he
shall be entitled to make withdrawals.
4 (a) Pension Fund Administrator (PFA)

A Pension Fund Administrator must possess the following:-
(i) A practicing license issued by National Pension Commission;
(ii) Be a Limited Liability Company set up to manage pension fund only;
(iii) A minimum of N150m paid up capital; and
(iv) Professional capacity to manage funds and administer
retirement benefit.
4 ii Pension Assets Custodian (PAC)

A Pension Asset Custodian must posses the following:-
(i) Issued license to hold pension funds and assets in trust.
(ii) Minimum net worth of Five Billion Naira (5Bn)
(iii) A balance sheet position of N125m
(iv) Execute the orders of the PFA as regards holding pension funds
and assets.
4(b) Mr. Nuhu Emeka – Balogun Computation of Retirement

Benefits
(i) Total Pension Due From Central Bankj Redemption Bond
Old Scheme
Period of service:- 1973 to 2003 = 31 years

Pension = a + (n – 10)2
= 30 + (31 – 10)2
= 30 + 42 = 72%
= N4,716,500 X 72%
= N3,395,880
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2004 = N3,395,880 x 1.04 = N3,531,715.20

2005 = N5,531,715.20 x 1.04 = N3,672,983.81
2006 = N3,672,983 x 1.04 = N3,819,903.16
Total Pension Due from CBRB
as at 31 December 2006 N3,819,903.16
(ii) Total Contributory Pension Due

2004 GROSS REMUNERATION N5,322,000
Contribution = 15% x N5,322,000
= N798,300
2004
Total Due as at 31 December 2004
N798,300 x 1.05 = N838,215
2005 = (798,300 + N838,215) x 1.05 = N1,718,340.75
2006 = (N798,300 + N1,718,340.75) x 1.05
= N2,617,306.38
307
308
CHAPTER
Skills level
20
Treasury Internal Control

Questionnaires
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. The Benefits of Questionnaires and Reports
4. Chapter Review
309
20
TREASURY INTERNAL CONTROL

QUESTIONNAIRES
20.0 PURPOSE
After studying this chapter, the reader would be able to:
(a) discuss the benefits of Treasury Questionnaires and Reports; and
(b) describe in details the internal control checks carried out by the
Accountant-General’s Office.
20.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the responsibilities of the Accountant-General is to ensure that
Government funds are used judiciously for the purposes for which they are
earmarked. To ensure the above, the Chief Treasury Officer of the Federation
(that is, Accountant-General), moves round the various offices to ascertain
compliance. The representatives of the Accountant-General make use of
Treasury Inspection Questionnaires and Reports, to perform the appraisal and
control functions.
A Treasury Inspection Questionnaire is a set of standard questions to be

answered and a list of documents to be made available during the time of
visits to the different Accounts Departments.
20.2 THE BENEFITS OF QUESTIONNAIRES AND REPORTS

(a) They assist the Inspector to complete the assignment so that there will
not be any omission.
(b) They state clearly the standard of performance required.
(c) Questionnaires state the requirements to be met.
(d) They show in details the level of assignments required.
310
TREASURY INTERNAL CONTROL QUESTIONNAIRES
ILLUSTRATION 17.1
SPECIMEN OF TREASURY INSPECTION QUESTIONNAIRES AND REPORTS
PERIOD COVERED________________________ DATE OF REPORT______________________
MIN/DEPT_______________________________ NAME OF INSPECTOR__________________
NAME OF OFFICER IN CHARGE______________ ACCOUNTS BRANCH OFFICE____________
Sections & Records Enquiries made during Inspection Answers Remarks

I ns p e ct e d Obta ined
Central Pay Office ( a ) Cash Survey
Revenue-Receipt Check cash to see if it agrees with the
and Licence Book cash book balance. Check cash
specification. Is the cash book certified
by a senior officer daily?
Safes (i) Are there two key holders to the safe?
(ii) Has the Safe a Treasury Number?
Imprest Accounts (iii) Is the Safe Contents Register
maintained?
Cash Books (iv) Check the contents of safe and cash.
Payments Does cash produced agree with cash
balance in the cash Book? Is cash
Cheque Books book duly certified daily by a Senior
Officer?
(v) Are all security books, cheque books,
stock of stamps kept in the Safe?
(b) Revenue
(i) Is there a notice displayed that official
receipts must be obtained for all moneys
paid to Government?
(ii) Are prescribed receipts (T.B.6, 6A and 6B)
issued and signed by payers also?
(iii) Is there proper control and safeguard of
receipt and licence books?
(iv) Is there enough safeguard to ensure that
all moneys received are accounted for?
(v) Are cash receipts deposited into bank
promptly and not later than the next
business day?
(vi) Is the revenue collector’s cash book
properly kept and Treasury Receipts
obtained and posted in the cash book
vide FR. 309 and 310?
( c ) Paper Money Register
(i) Is the register kept by the Officer opening
mails other than the cashier?
311
S ec t ion s & R ec ord s Enquiries made during Inspection Answers Rema rk s

Inspected Obtained
(ii) Is the register properly maintained and

corresponding receipt numbers, licence
numbers correctly detailed therein?
(d) Receipt And Licence Books
(i) Is the stock and distribution register
properly kept for Warrants, receipt books,
licence books, fixed fee tickets?
(ii) Are the receipt book issue notes issued
by the Sub-Treasurer properly filed and
agreed with the serial numbers in the
stock register?
(iii) Do the serial numbers of receipt books
issued by the Sub-Treasurer tally with
numbers taken in the Ministry/Department?
(e) Dishonoured Cheque Register
(i) Is the register properly kept?
(ii) Are reasons for cheques dishonoured stated?
(iii) Has action been taken to recover the cash
equivalent?
(iv) What is the total amount of outstanding
cheques not yet repaid?
(v) Has action been taken against officers
responsible to avoid future recurrence?
( f ) Sub-Accounting Officer ’s Cash Book
(i) Is the prescribed T. Book 153 or 153A well
maintained?
(ii) Is the cash book posted daily and balanced
and signed by the Senior Officer in charge
of the pay office?
(iii) Is it signed by the Head of Accounts Section
monthly?
(iv) Are vouchers numbered consecutively
monthly?
(v) Are receipts paid to bank promptly?
(vi) Are unclaimed and salaries/wages returned
to the Sub-Accounting Officer within 3 days?
(vii) How often is the bank statement reconciled
with the cashbook?
(g) Cheque Summary Register
(i) Is the register kept by an officer who is not
the Cashier?
(ii) Are cheques issued and credits to the bank
recorded daily in the register?
(iii) Is the register balanced on daily basis and
do the totals agree with the balance shown
in the cash book?
(iv) Is the register authenticated daily by the
Sub-Accounting officer?
312
S ec t ion s & R ec ord s Enquiries made during Inspection Answers Remarks

Inspected Obtained
(h) Cheque Delivery Register

(i) Are signed cheques carefully locked in cash
tank and safeguarded?
(ii) Is the register properly kept and cheques
entered serially?
(iii) Do payees print their names in block letters,
indicate address and sign for cheques?
( i ) Outstanding Payment Vouchers Register
(i) How many vouchers are outstanding,
judging from the number and date of
Cheque Order Forms and substitute vouchers?
(ii) What action has been taken to recover the
PVs or equivalent cash?
(iii) Has a report been made to the Accounting
Officer in respect of PVs outstanding over
14 days?
( j ) Examination of Payment Vouchers
(i) Are all paid vouchers and supporting
documents stamped “PAID” and also
stamped “CHEQUE SIGNED” to
differentiate them from new vouchers.
(ii) Are cheque numbers entered on paid
vouchers?
(iii) Are payment vouchers received in the
CPO through schedules controlled serially
or through Voucher Movement Register?
(iv) Are the payment vouchers checked,
properly made out?
(v) Is there adequte safeguard to ensure that
payments are made only to the right
people and for good consideration?
( k ) Imprest Accounts
(i) Is a bank account opened for imprest
over N20,000?
(ii) Is the cash book properly kept?
(iii) Are vouchers properly classified?
(iv) Is the imprest amount correctly accounted
for at the time of your check?
(v) Is the LPO register kept by the imprest
holder and cash disbursements for LPO
made by him?
(vi) Are receipts issued for unspent cash
returned?
(vii) How are outstanding cash advances being
accounted for?
Other Charges Section (a) AIE Register
1. AIE Register (i) Are separate registers kept for AIE’s issued
and AIE’s received?
2. Payment Voucher (ii) Are the AIE’s entered in the liability
Register column of the vote book and initiated by
313

Inspected Obtained
3. DVEABooks the authorised signatory?
(iii) Is the authorized expenditure within
approved estimates?
4. Bills/Invoices/ (iv) Are AIE’s backed by cash?
LPO Register
(b) Payment Vouchers Register
5. Adjustment (i) Are vouchers numbered in serial sequence?
Voucher Register (ii) Is a separate column kept for schedule
number control?
6. Expenditure (iii) Is the register initiated by the Vote
Control Controller?
(iv) Does the register provide columns for the:
 Initial of the Checking Officer?
 Initial of the Officer signing cheques?
 Initial of the Officer in charge of
Central Pay Office?
(v) Is a column provided for date of return of
cash/cheque order form?
(vi) Are there any outstanding, misplaced or
lost voucher?
( c ) Departmental Vote Expenditure Accounts
Book
(i) Are separate vote books maintained for
separate Heads and Sub-heads?
(ii) Is the authorised vote and additional
provision recorded in the column provided
at the top corner of the vote book?
(iii) Are the prescribed reductions entered in
RED INK and deducted from the accounts
provided?
(iv) Are Virement Warrants also recorded in
the vote books as required?
(v) Are liability columns completed fully as
required?
(vi) Is the vote book regularly balanced so as
to avoid excess expenditure?
(vii) Is the vote book initiated appropriately
by the vote controller?
( d ) Bills/Invoices/LPO Register
(i) Is the register maintained in such manner
that:
 All LPO’s issued are accounted for?
 All bills and invoices received are
recorded according to date of receipt?
(ii) How many bills/invoices are outstanding
and why were they not paid?
(iii) What action has been taken to settle
outstanding bills?
(iv) Are LPOs entered in the DVEA Books as
liabilities and cleared when bills are paid?
314
Sections & Records Enquiries made during Inspection Answe rs Remarks

Inspe cte d Obta ined
(e) Adjustment Voucher Register
(i) Are adjustment vouchers raised properly
authorized by the officer controlling vote?
(ii) Are the classifications charged to the
appropriate Heads and Sub-heads of
expenditure?
(iii) Are the debits and credits entered
correctly in the DVEA books?
( f ) Expenditure Control
(i) Are payment vouchers, cheques, AIE’s
signed by an officer not below the rank
of Executive Officer?
(ii) Has expenditure been spread evenly over
the year to avoid excess expenditure or
unnecessary rush towards the end of the
financial year?
(iii) Have monthly returns of expenditure been
submitted regularly to the accounting
office and the Ministry of Finance?
(iv) Have the quarterly returns of outstanding
bills been sent to the Accountant-General
of the Federation?
(v) Have the vote books been reconciled with
Treasury Schedules and sub-head cards
and reconciliation statements prepared?
(vi) Are there payments in the Accountant-
General’s schedules not entered in the
vote books? Have these been investigated?
( C ) PERSONAL (a) Group Register
EMOLUMENTS (I) Are separate registers maintained for
SECTION Senior and junior staff?
1. Personal (ii) Are names recorded alphabetically
Emolument in the group register and the monthly
form. summary of cards in each group
displayed boldly on the front cover of the
2. Group register?
Registers (iii) Are the numbers allotted to each officer
serial and consistent?
3. Variation (iv) How are changes in register reviewed
Advice periodically?
(v) What is the grade of the officer controlling
4. VariationControl the register and how does he obtain
Cards information for making entries in the
Registers?
5. Personal
Emolument (b) Variation Advice and Control
Cards (i) Is the officer in charge of variation control
of the grade of Executive Officer (A/C) or
6. P.E. DVEA Books above?
315

Inspe cte d Obtained
(ii) Is he also in charge of payroll preparation?
7. PV and payroll (iii) Are the variation advice sheets signed by
Number Register. the authorised officer? Is there a fixed date
for closing variation advice?
8. Advice of (iv) Are variation control sheets (TF 208)
Deductions of prepared independently without
FGSHB comparison with PE Cards so as to avoid
collusion?.
9. Unclaimed (c) Personal Emolument Cards
(i) Are PE cards stamped and authenticated
10. Last Pay by Internal Audit and supported by
Certificates individual particulars duly signed by
each officer at the commencement of
the financial year?
11. On-payment (ii) Are the approved PE records used and all
voucher register columns provided fully completed both
on the face of the card and on the reverse
sides?
(iii) Does the officer in charge safeguard the
PE records in a cabinet or safe? How were
PE cards disposed off?
(d) PV and Payroll Number Register
(i) Is the control of payroll numbers recorded
in PV register and the voucher linked with
the payroll number in the register?
(ii) Does the Vote Controller initial the PV
register as and when payroll PV’S are
authorised?.
(iii) What is the grade of officer signing the
vouchers?
(e) DVEA Books And On-Payment Deductions
(i) Are the DVEA Books for PE and labour
properly kept and balanced? Are they
signed by the Vote Controller?
(ii) Are separate sections kept for on-payment
deductions, e.g. Tax, Rates, Union Dues,
etc? Are these entries signed by the
authorising officer?
(iii) Are the DVEA Books reconciled with
Treasury Schedules and sub-head cards?
Are vote book reconciliation statements
prepared?
(f) Unclaimed Wages Register
(i) Is the register properly kept and under
the custody of the senior officer in charge?
(ii) Are TRV’s for unclaimed salaries kept
by the cashier in a safe and are properly
filed and accounted for?
(iii) Does the Vote Controller initial the register
when withdrawals are made and are the
316

Inspected Obtained
PV particulars for withdrawals shown?
(iv) What action is taken periodically for cross
-checking repeated cases of unclaimed
salaries against personal records with a
view to removing such names from the
payroll?
(g) Last Pay Certificates
(i) Is a control register kept for incoming
and outgoing LPC’s?
(ii) Are LPCs numbered serially and signed
by the authorised officers?
(iii) Are adjustments effected between
Ministries/Departments for recovery of
salaries/allowances over-paid after date
of transfer and for outstanding debts and
advances owing by the officers transferred?
(iv) Are such transactions noted in the register?
( D ) SUBSIDIARY (a) Advances Registers and Ledgers
ACCOUNTS AND (i) Is a register maintained for all advances
ADVANCES issued and initialled by a senior
SECTION supervising officer?
(ii) Is the prevailing procedure for authorising
1. Advances advances considered satisfactory? Are
Register advances approved by the appropriate
Head of Finance and Accounts?
2. Advances (iii) Are there any advances wrongly granted
Ledgers (iv) Are the Ledger Cards opened for new
advances and initiated by the authorizing
3. Salary officer?
Advances (v) Are the postings in the Ledger Cards up
to date?
4. Motor
Vehicles (b) Salary Advances
Advances (i) Are advances authorised for officers
returning from vacation leave? If so, is
5. Bicycle Advance the net paid related to the difference
between transport expenses incurred by
6. Duty Tour the officer for himself and family and the
Allowance leave grant paid to him (FR 1706-1713)?
(ii) Are advances for rent of accommodation
7. Motor Vehicle limited to 2 months, issued within 12
Comprehensive months of appointment or posting?
insurance
Register (c) Motor Vehicles and Bicycles Advances
(i) Are recoveries commenced in the month
8. Deposits Register following date of payment?
(ii) Are advances paid within the officers’
9. Reconciliation entitlement?
of Advances (iii) Are bicycles/motor vehicles physically
Accounts with examined to ensure that the advances
Treasury were properly utilized for the purpose
317

approved? How often is the verification
made?
(iv) Are transport allowances paid in
accordance with approved rates?
(v) Is the motor vehicle comprehensive
insurance register maintained and kept
up to date? Is there a record of ‘call up’
instructions by the Head of Department
to ensure that insurance particulars are
submitted annually by officers?
(vi) Are there any advances outstanding
against officers who have left the service?
(d) Duty Tour Allowances and Transport Costs
(i) Are payments made to cover transport/air
tickets and cost of local running being
accounted for by the production of used
air tickets etc?
(ii) Are duty tour allowances for unspent
number of days paid back to chest?
(e ) Deposits Register
(i) Are there any debit balances on any
account?
(ii) Is monthly reconciliation carried out
with the Treasury?
(iii) Are balances ruled off annually and
outstanding deposits brought down in
detail?
(iv) Are old deposits over 5 years reported to
the Accountant-General of the Federation?
(E) FINAL ACCOUNTS (a) Analysis Abstracts Register
1. Analysis Register (i) Is a senior officer in charge of the
Recurrent Heads schedule and not below the rank of HEO
Revenue and Accounts?
Expenditure. (ii) Are separate registers kept for receipts
and payments?
Capital Expenditure (iii) Are totals in the register reconciled with
and Receipts the cash book monthly before posting to
the ledgers?
Below-the-Line
Classification (b) The Journal
(i) Is it kept in a satisfactory manner?
2. The Journal (ii) Are JVs serially numbered and full details
of transactions entered for credit and debit
3. Subsidiary Ledger adjustments?
(iii) Are all transactions other than cash entered
4. Main Ledger in the Journal?
(c) Subsidiary Ledgers
5. Summary (i) Are the ledgers controlled by a senior
Statement of officer?
Accounts (ii) Are separate ledgers kept for separate
sub-heads of revenue recurrent expenditure,
318

Inspected Obtained
capital expenditure, advances, deposits
and other individual accounts?
(iii) Are postings made from receipt and
payment vouchers?
(iv) After posting for the month, are balances
reconciled with balances of corresponding
accounts in the main ledger?
(d ) Main Ledgers
(i) Are postings to the ledgers made from the
Analysis/Abstract books through the Journal?
(ii) Up to what month have the postings been
made?
(iii) Do total credits and debits after postings
for the month, agree with those recorded
in the Vote Books?
(iv) Have any differences been verified and
accounted for immediately?
(e ) Summary Statements of Accounts
(i) Are all vouchers complete as shown in the
Cash Book? If there are missing vouchers
what action has been taken to find them?
(ii) Are original vouchers kept safely in boxes
while duplicate vouchers are arranged
according to classification?
(iii) Up to what month have transcripts been
sent to the Treasury? When was the current
return due?
(iv) Are bank reconciliation statements up to
date?
( f ) Reconciliation with the Treasury
(i) Have all the sub-head cards and schedules
received from the Treasury been accepted?
(ii) If there are rejections, have the reasons been
shown on reverse of voucher schedule and
returned to Treasury?
(iii) Are balances shown on monthly sub-head
cards compared with figures in the Vote
Books, the Main Ledger, Advances Account
etc?
(iv) Have the duplicate copies of sub-head
cards been returned to Treasury after
acceptance?
(v) Have reconciliation statements with
supporting lists of balances been rendered
to the Treasury monthly for Advances,
Deposits, etc?
( F ) STORES SECTION ( a ) Stores Ledgers
(i) Are stock records maintained in a proper
1. Store Ledgers manner and are postings made up to date?
(ii) Are stock ledgers kept apart from the store
319

2. Tally Cards keeper’s bin cards?
(iii) Are second hand and unserviceable stores
3. Stores Receipt kept in a separate store, in a separate
and Issue Voucher ledger?
4. Plant Register (b) Tally Cards
(i) Are entries in the tally cards initialed by
5. Vehicle Register the store keeper?
(ii) Are tally cards placed near the related
stores to facilitate identification?
6. Log Book and (iii) Do the tally card balances agree with the
Work Tickets ledger balances and actual stock?
7. Equipment and ( c ) Stores Receipts and Issues
Machines (i) Is the purchasing procedure satisfactory?
(ii) Are discounts obtained wherever possible?
(iii) Are receipts supported by SRVs and
triplicate copies of LPO?
(iv) Are issues from the stores made only on
stores requisitions? Are stores requisitions
signed by a senior officer?
(v) How are prices of stores issues fixed?
(d) Stock Control
(i) Are there maximum, minimum, and
re-order levels fixed for each item of stock?
Are the levels reviewed regularly to meet
prevailing conditions?
(ii) Is physical stock-taking ever carried out?
If so, how often in a year?
(iii) Are discrepancies discovered after physical
count of stores properly investigated and
accounted for?
(iv) How are stock losses arising from
evaporation, shrinkage and obsolence
dealt with? If by write-off who authorises
write-off after investigation?
(v) Are stores well laid out so that each item
stocked is easily accessible and material
handling and losses reduced to the
minimum?
(vi) Is storage space adequate in relation to
present and future needs?
(vii) Are fire precautions adequate? When was
the last fire drill?
( e )Plant and Vehicle Register
(i) Are details of plants and vehicles properly
recorded showing dates acquired, engine/
chasis numbers location and maintenance
or servicing guidelines?
(ii) Are log books and work-tickets well
maintained for each plant and vehicle?
Have details of spare parts, fuel and oil
320

consumed been recorded? Are the
consumption rates satisfactory?
( f ) Office Equipment and Machines
Is there a Master Control for recording all
office equipment, typewriters, adding
machines, electric fans used in all sections?
20.3 CHAPTER REVIEW

Treasury Inspection Questionnaires are essential internal control tools in
managing Government’s finances with prudence, probity and accountability
Diligent implementation of inspection questionnaires are anti-fraud measures.
Inspection Questionnaires tend to reveal the exact financial position of an
Extra-Ministerial Department, a Ministry or Parastatal.
321
322
CHAPTER
Skills level
21
Professional Pronouncements on Government

Accounting by the United Nations
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Characteristics of Government Accounting
4. The Objectives of Professional Pronouncements
5. Alternative Classifications for Government Accounting
6. Government Accounting in other Countries
7. Observations on Government Accounting System in ‘Third World
Countries
8. Features of a Good System of Government Accounting
9. Chapter Review
10. Worked Examples
323
21
PROFESSIONAL PRONOUNCEMENTS
ON GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTING BY THE
UNITED NATIONS
21.0 PURPOSE
(a) discuss the characteristics of Government Accounting;
(b) explain the objectives and details of professional pronouncements on
Government Accounting;
(c) identify the alternative classifications for ’Government Accounting;
(d) appraise Government Accounting in other countries of the world; and
(e) review the observations on Government Accounting in ‘third world’
countries made by the United Nations.
21.1 INTRODUCTION
In spite of the obvious importance of Public Sector Accounting in the economic
development process, significant attention was not given to it. The development
of the private sector depends largely on the activities in the public sector. The
fact is that in developing countries as Nigeria, the public sector is not only the
biggest actor but the hub of economic activities. Moreover, Government has the
responsibility for the efficient management of the environment of commercial
transactions, through the maintenance of law and order and enactment of
legislations. Political stability is very essential for the growth of the economy
and the Government has to provide the enabling environment. It is in the
realisation of the above and to bridge the gap between the public and private
sectors that many professional pronouncements have been made, as follows:
(a) A United Nations Survey was conducted and recommendations made

for improvements in the Government accounting systems of ‘third world’
countries, especially in budgeting practices, training, data
classifications, methods and accounting procedures.
(b) In the United States of America, the National Committee on Government

Accounting issued a manual titled “Government Accounting, Auditing
and Financial Reporting (GAAFR).” The manual is generally referred to
as “The Blue Book.” The Blue Book and other pronouncements of the
committee set forth the basic accounting and reporting principles
covering the following areas, viz:
324
PROFESSIONAL PRONOUNCEMENTS ON GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTING BY THE UNITED NATIONS
(i) Basis of Accounting.

(ii) Legality.
(iii) Funds and ‘Fund Accounting.
(iv) Budgetary, Planning and Control.
(v) Fixed Assets and Depreciation.
(vi) Terminologies and Accounting/Classifications.
(vii) Financial Reporting.
The Committee recommended the ‘accrual basis’ of accounting for public

enterprises, capital projects and trust funds; the ‘modified accrual basis’ for
special revenue and debt service funds and that depreciation is not chargeable
on fixed assets.
(c) The International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) issued International
Public Sector Accounting Standards, effective from year 2003.
(d) The Nigerian Public Sector Auditing Standards, effective from December,
1997, were issued by the Auditor-General for the Federation and
Auditors-General for the States.
(e) The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA)
recommended that the financial statements of each governmental Unit
should be prepared in accordance with the generally accepted
accounting principles while supplementary schedules should accord with
legal compliance.
(f) The International Organisation of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI),
which is the association of all Auditors-General in the world, meets
annually and draws up resolutions on accounting and audit practices
and procedures to be followed by member countries.
21.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTING

(a) There are distinct aspects of accounting information, classification and
procedures which apply only to transactions made by Government.
Examples are the budgeting system and applicable procedures, fiscal
policy, accounting methods and sources of revenue. The peculiar nature
of Government transactions makes it desirable and indeed mandatory
to treat them in accordance with specific, but cohesive and standardized
measurement approaches and rules.
(b) In view of the requirement to obtain legislative approval for Government

revenue and expenditure, budgeting largely determines the structure
of Public Sector Accounting. The Government sometimes finds it
necessary to segregate its resources into specific or special purpose
compartments, a set-up of receipts and expenditure known as ‘Funds’.
The method of accounting adopted in recording and measuring the Funds
is referred to as ‘fund accounting.’
325
(c) Another peculiarity of Government operations is that the accounting

system is maintained on ‘’cash basis.’’ Only transactions involving the
movement of cash come into reckoning. Although the approach has its
inadequacies, the general practice is to adopt the ‘cash basis’ of
accounting. All assets are written off as they are regarded consumed at
the point they are paid for. Accordingly, Government’s balance sheet
does not contain information on fixed assets and neither is depreciation
charged in the revenue and expenditure accounts.
21.3 THE OBJECTIVES OF PROFESSIONAL PRONOUNCEMENTS

These may be discussed, as follows:
(a) To develop and harmonise public sector financial reporting, accounting
and auditing practices.
(b) To put into practice the same accounting standards throughout the world,
in order to make comparisons possible and meaningful.
(c) To make guidelines available for practitioners, in order to maintain high
reporting standards.
The various pronouncements made so far can be summarised as shown

below and compared with the position of Nigeria, in the following vein:
UNITED NATIONS NIGERIA’S ACCOUNTING REMARKS

PRESCRIPTIONS SYSTEM
(a) Accounting systems should be Government Accounting system in Government Accounting
designed to comply with the Nigeria adheres with the Nigerian System effectively
constitutional, statutory and other Constitution; Finance (Control and complies with the United
legal requirements of ‘third world Management) Act, Cap 144 LFN Nations Pronouncements.
countries. 1990 (as amended); the Audit Act
of 1956; Revenue Allocation Laws;
other Federal and State Laws and
Regulations; Local Government
bye-laws, etc.
(b) Accounting systems should be Accounts are kept on the basis of Remark is as in (a) above
related to the budget budgetary classifications at all
classifications. levels of Government.
The budgetary and accounting
functions are complementary
Elements of financial
management. They should
therefore be closely integrated.
(c) The accounts should be The budgetary provisions specify Remark is as in (a) above
maintained In a way that will the sources of revenue and the
clearly identify the objects and purposes for which funds are
purposes for which funds provided and expended. The budget
have been received and expended, documents also show the vote
and the executive authorities who controllers for both recurrent and
are responsible for custody and capital expenditure.
use of funds in programme
executions.
(d) Accounting systems have to be The Financial Regulations of the Federal Remark is as in
maintained in a way that and State Governments and the Financial (a) above
facilitate audit by external Memoranda of Local Government Councils
reviewing authorities, and specify the expenditure control measures,
readily furnishes the information payment procedures and the internal
326
needed for performance control system which are in operation.

appraisal and stewardship. The ‘three-tiers’ of Government in
Nigeria do comply, accordingly.
(e) Accounting systems ought to be The Financial Regulations stated in Programme management is
developed in a manner that will (d) above meet substantially the however in its infancy under
permit effective control of fund international requirements. the Planning, Programming
operation management and Budgeting System which has
internal audit appraisal. been introduced.
(f) The accounts should be The cash basis of accounting

developed and prepared so adopted does not allow the Nigeria Accounting System
that they would effectively underlying pronouncement partially complies with this.
disclose the economic and to be incorporated in Nigeria. There is national compliance.
financial results of programme
operations, including the
measurement of revenues,
identification of costs and
determination of the operating
results (the surplus or deficit
positions) of the Government
and its Agencies.
(g) Accounting systems should be -do- Cash accounting basis seems

capable of serving the basic to constrain the realization of
financial information needs of this useful objective.
development, planning and
appraisal of performance
in physical and financial terms.
(h) The accounts should be -do- Planning, Programming and

maintained in a manner which Budgeting System and the
will provide financial data useful accrual accounting
for economic analysis and basis need to be firmly
re-classification of governmental implanted for this as well as
transactions. for the United Nations’
recipes under (f) and (g) above.
21.4 ALTERNATIVE CLASSIFICATIONS FOR GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTING

The conventional classification systems are fashioned along organizational
lines. They are concerned mainly with the listing of receipts by the various
descriptions and sources, expenditure by objectives (e.g. personal services and
supplies). This kind of presentation is referred to as the “object–cum-
organizational classification.” The mode serves limited purpose. It does not
assist in effective managerial and economic analyses, planning and decision-
making.
ILLUSTRATION 21-1
OBJECT-CUM- ORGANISATIONAL PRESENTATION OF GOVERNMENT

EXPENDITURE DESCRIPTIONS
(a) Personnel Services and Benefits:

Item No Description
11. Personnel Compensation
327
12. Personnel Benefits

13. Benefits for Former Personnel
(b) Contractual Services and Supplies:

Item No Description
21. Travel and Transportation Of Staff.
22. Transportation of materials.
23. Rent, Communication and Utilities.
24. Printing and Reproduction.
25. Other services.
26. Supplies and Materials.
(c) Acquisition of Capital Assets:
Item No Description
31. Equipment
32. Land and Buildings
33. Investments and Loans
(d) Grants and Fixed Charges:

Item No Description
41. Grants, Subsidies and Contributions
42. Insurance Claims and Indemnities
43. Interests and Dividends
44. Refunds.
Sources: A Manual for Government Accounting (United Nations Publication,

Sales No. E.70 XVI.31), P.71
A better arrangement is one in which Government receipts and disbursements

are classified by economic categories, and split by current and capital items
(e.g. current expenditure on goods and services, interest payments). Apart from
economic classification, services provided should be grouped functionally (e.g.
expenditure by community services and social services), as shown below.
However, the functions can be further classified into programmes, activities or
projects.
ILLUSTRATION 21-2
(a) General Services:

Item No Description
11. General Administration.
12. Defence.
13. Justice and Police.
328
(b) Community Service:

Item No Description
21. Roads and Waterways.
22. Fire Protection, Water Supply and Sanitation.
23. Other Community Services.
(c) Social Services:

Item No Description
31. Education.
32. Health.
33. Social Security and Special Welfare Services.
34. Other Social Services.
(d) Economic Services:

Item No Description
41. Agriculture and Non-Mineral Resources.
42. Fuel and Power.
43. Other Mineral Resources, Manufacturing and Construction.
44. Transportation, Storage and Communications.
45. Other Economic Services.
(e) Disallowable Expenditure:

Item No Description
51. Interest on General Debt.
52. Subsidies not included elsewhere.
53. General Transfers to Local Government Councils.
54. Foreign Economic Aid and other Unallowable Transfers
to Abroad.
55. Others.
Source: A Manual for Economic and Financial Classification of Government

Transactions (U.N. Publication, Sales No. 58 XVI.2)
21.5 GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTING IN OTHER COUNTRIES

It is difficult to report on the accounting practices in all the advanced countries
of the world in one book. An attempt is hereby made on a broad summary of
the accounting practices in the United States of America which adopts the
presidential system of Government, and the United Kingdom from which
Nigeria originally derived its accounting system.
21.5.1 United States of America

The practice of Government Accounting in the United States of America
has come a long way through public criticism, research studies backed
by public hearings and political evolution. The American Congress has
the power of the ‘purse,’ politically, in consonance with the stipulations
of the country’s Constitutions.
329
As far back as 1901, when the American Society was in search of an

efficient accounting system, many agencies and public bodies had
criticised the existing accounting system.
In that year, for example, the firm of Haskins and Sells, Certified Public
Accountants, made an investigation into the affairs of the City of Chicago
at the request of the Merchants’ Club and subsequently installed a
completely new system of accounting for that City. Revolution in systems
of accounting swept through the cities of Newton, Massachusetts and
Baltimore. In view of well informed and volatile nature of the society,
dynamic reforms had gone on since then.
On 1 July, 1974, the National Council on Government Accounting (NCGA)

was formed. The Council conducts and sponsors research, holds public
hearing and issues formal statements and interpretations with respect
to principles and standards of Government budgeting, accounting,
reporting and auditing.
21.5.2 United Kingdom

Government Accounting in the United Kingdom is the same approach
adopted by Nigeria, since the colonial era. While, however, the United
Kingdom has not stopped research work, Nigeria’s system has not
experienced radical change. The last comprehensive review made by
the country was in 1976.
In 1984, two scholars, Messrs. Andrew Likireman and Peter Vass

conducted, in the United Kingdom, a research entitled, “The Structure
and Form of Government Expenditure Report: Proposals and Reform.”
The research effort concluded that Government should continue to adopt
the ‘cash basis’ of accounting.
21.6 SOME OBSERVATIONS ON GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTING SYSTEM IN

‘THIRD WORLD’ COUNTRIES
Unlike the advanced countries, where research work has been documented
and published, the records of general practice in the individual countries in
the ‘third world’ are difficult to obtain.
The general features of Government Accounting system as published by the
United Nations are as follows:
(a) Relatively little has been given to Social Government Accounting and
budgetary control system.
(b) Accounting procedures in Government Departments which reflect

complicated systems of checks and balances tend to hamper the efficacy
and timeliness of the accounting information and statistics produced.
330
(c) Government Accounting is seen mainly as an accountability device for

public receipts and expenditure. Efficiency, effectiveness and economy
of the operations tend to be neglected.
(d) Bookkeeping or administrative legal compliance procedures are more
common than modern accounting approaches.
(e) Accounting tends to be identified with expenditure control. The fact is
that expenditure is subject to multiple checks.
(f) The amount of paper work is much, but no efficiency, accountability or
financial control is achieved.
(g) The accounting data upon which Government budgets and plans are
based are frequently inaccurate and incomplete.
(h) Financial reports are delayed and generally in arrears. They
consequently become obsolete at the point of implementation.
Performance budgeting systems and methods need to be installed. Care should

be taken in changing from the traditional budgets to performance budgets. It
is better to start first with performance budgeting procedures which are geared
towards national plans, and graduate into more elaborate areas of Planning,
Programming and Budgeting System.
21.7 FEATURES OF A GOOD SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTING AS

CONTAINED IN A UNITED NATIONS MANUAL ON GOVERNMENT
ACCOUNTING.
The system must:
(a) comply with constitutional, statutory and other legal requirements of
the relevant country;
(b) be related to budget classifications. Budgetary financial management
must be closely integrated;
(c) be maintained in a manner that will clearly identify the objects and
purposes for which funds have been received and expended, and the
executive authorities who are responsible for custody and use of funds
in programme / budget implementation;
(d) maintain records in a way that will facilitate audit by external review
authorities and readily furnish the information needed for effective audit;
(e) be developed in a manner that will permit administrative control of
funds;
(f) be developed so that it effectively discloses the economic and financial
results of programme operations, including the sources of revenue,
identification of costs and determination of the operating results of
government programmes and organisation;
(g) be maintained in a manner that will provide financial data useful for
economic analysis and identification of governmental transactions and
also assist in the development of the country’s accounts.
331
21.8 CHAPTER REVIEW

To improve the standard of Government Accounting, the United Nations
carried out research and recommended various ways and approaches so that
the entity called ‘Nigeria’ will benefit from the ideas of the United Nations
21.9.1 Questions
(1) Discuss briefly the observations made by the United Nations

Organisation on Government Accounting System in ‘third world’
countries.
(2)(a) What are the objectives of Professional Pronouncements?

(b) The “Blue Book” according to the National Committees on Government
Accounting in the USA set forth the basic accounting and reporting
principles covering specified areas. List five of those areas.
(3) What are the general features of Government Accounting Systems as

published by the United Nations?
(1) The following are the observations made by the United Nations
Organisation on Government Accounting system in ‘third world’
countries:
(i) Relatively little has been given to Social Government Accounting
and Budgetary Control system.
(ii) Accounting procedures in Government Departments reflect
complicated system of checks, rechecks and balances which tend
to hamper the efficacy and timeliness of the accounting
information.
(iii) Government Accounting is seen mainly as an accountability
device for public receipts and expenditure; effectiveness and
economy of operations tend to be neglected, book keeping or
administrative legal compliance are more common than modern
accounting approaches.
(iv) Accounting tends to be identified with expenditure control.
Expenditure is subject to multiple checks.
(v) The amount of paper work is vast but no efficiency, accountability
and financial controls are achieved.
(vi) The accounting data upon which Government Budgets and plans
are based are frequently inaccurate and incomplete.
(vii) Financial reports are delayed and generally in arrears.
332
(2) (a) The objectives of Professional Pronouncements are:

(i) To develop and harmonize public sector financial reporting,
accounting and auditing practices.
(ii) To put into practice the same accounting standards throughout
the world in order to make comparisons possible and meaningful.
(iii) To make guidelines available for practitioners in order to
maintain high reporting standards.
(b) The “Blue Book” specified the following areas:

(i) Basis of accounting
(ii) Legality
(iii) Funds and Fund accounting
(iv) Budgetary, planning and control
(v) Fixed assets and depreciation
(vi) Terminologies and accounting classification
(vii) Financial reporting
(3) (a) Not much attention has been accorded to Social Government
Accounting and Budgetary Control System.
(b) Accounting procedures in Government Departments which reflect

complicated systems of checks and balances tend to hamper the
efficacy and timeliness of the accounting information and
statistics produced.
(c) There is the belief that Government Accounting only aim at

accountability for public fund receipts and disbursement while
efficiency and effectiveness of the operations are ignored.
(d) Accounting compliance procedures are taken more seriously than

modern accounting approaches.
(e) Accounting tends to be identified with expenditure control.
(f) Efficiency, accountability and financial control are not put in place
but only accounting records.
(g) The available data on which Government budgets are prepared

are most times incomplete, inaccurate and unreliable.
(h) Delay in financial reports which make them obsolete and

irrelevant at the point of implementation.
333
334
CHAPTER
Skills level
22
Investment Appraisal in the Public

Sector
Contents
1. Purpose
2. The Nature of Investment Decisions
3. Investment Appraisal
4. Methods of Investment Appraisal
5. Discussion of the Appraisal Methods
6. Profitability Index Technique
7. Investment Decisions in Government
8. Investment Evaluation Techniques in Government
9. Life Cycle Costing
10. Value Analysis/Value Engineering
11. Problems of Investment Appraisal Methods
12. Risk and Uncertainty in Capital Budgeting/Investment Appraisal
13. Chapter Review
14. Worked Examples
335
22
INVESTMENT APPRAISAL
IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
22.0 PURPOSE
(a) discuss the nature of investment decisions; and
(b) identify and explain the various methods of investment appraisal in
the public sector.
22.1 THE NATURE OF INVESTMENT DECISIONS

Resources have to be committed today to achieve gains tomorrow. Though it is
easy to determine how much will be committed, there is some difficulty in
accurately forecasting the gains from the investment in future. Going into a
business therefore involves taking risks. As money becomes available, it has
to be put to productive use. A greater part of management effort is therefore in
taking investment decisions. The balance sheet merely shows the results of,
not the causes or reasons for, undertaking an investment.
22.2 INVESTMENT APPRAISAL

Investment Appraisal is a technique directed at finding out the least possible
costs of an investment and the maximum economic benefits which may accrue
from the commitment of resources into it.
22.3 METHODS OF INVESTMENT APPRAISAL

There are many techniques available for the appraisal exercises, which can be
classified into discounted cash flow (DCF), non-discounted cash flow (NDCF)
and investment decisions in Government - Cost Benefit Analysis, Cost
Effectiveness Analysis.
These are further classified as follows:
(a) Accounting Rate of Return (ARR).
(b) Pay-Back Period (PBP).
(c) Discounted Cash Flow (DCF).
(i) Net Present Value
(ii) Internal Rate of Return
(d) Profitability Index (PI)
(e) Cost-Benefit Analysis
(f) Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
336
INVESTMENT APPRAISAL IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
(g) Life Cycle Costing.

(h) Value Analysis/Value Engineering.
22.4 DISCUSSION OF THE APPRAISAL METHODS

The appraisal methods are discussed as follows:
22.4.1 Accounting Rate of Return

This is the return on initial outlay or return on average capital. It is computed,
using the formula:
ARR = Average Annual Accounting Profit
Average Investment
Where average investment is:
INITIAL INVESTMENT + RESIDUAL VALUE

2
Profit is the ‘accounting profit.’ To get this, we will take ‘income’ and deduct all
necessary expenses incurred in earning the revenue. In using the Accounting
Rate of Return as an investment appraisal method, the decision rule is to pick
the option which gives the highest rate of return.
Advantages of ARR Method

These may be stated as follows:
(a) It considers the profits of a project throughout its useful life.
(b) It is simple to calculate and understand.
(c) It facilitates expenditure follow-up due to more readily available data
on accounting records.
Disadvantages of ARR
The following are the disadvantages associated with the use of the method:
(a) It does not take into account the time value of money.
(b) It ignores the fact that profits from different projects may accrue at an
uneven rate.
(c) It fails to cater for risks and uncertainties.
ILLUSTRATION 22-1
Agbede Local Government Council supplied the following information:
Projects: ‘x1’ ‘x2’ ‘x3’

Profit Figures-Year 1 1,000 500 5,000
2 2,000 1,500 4,000
3 4,000 2,000 500
4 5,000 2,500 1,000
Initial investment sums 15,000 10,000 15,000
Residual Investment 1,000 1,000 2,000
337
Using the accounting rate of return as performance measurement, in which

project should Agbede Local Government Council invest?

Computation of the Accounting Rate of Return
Projects: x1 x2 x3
Profit Figures Year 1 1,000 500 5,000

2 2,000 1,500 4,000
3 4,000 2,000 500
4 5,000 2,500 1,000
Total 12,000 6,500 10,500
Average Annual Accounting Profit:

Projects x1 x2 x3
12,000 6,500 10,500
4 4 4
(a) Average Annual
Accounting Profit = 3,000 1,625 2,625
To obtain Average Investment: Investment + Residual Value

2
Projects x1 x2 x3
Initial Investment 15,000 10,000 15,000

Add Residual Value 1,000 1,000 2,000
16,000 11,000 17,000
Average Investment : 16,000 11,000 17,000

2 2 2
(b) Average Investment = 8,000 5,500 8,500
(c) Accounting Rate

of Return (a/b):= 3,000 1,625 2,625
8,000 5,500 8,500
= 0.38 0.30 0.31
Accounting RateOR OR OR
of Return = 38% 30% 31%
Agbede Local Government Council should invest in project x1 because it has

the highest accounting rate of return of 38%.
338
22.4.2 Pay-back Period Method

The method focuses on the time taken by an investment to recoup the
amount of money put into it. The shorter the pay-back period, the more
preferable the project is. A project will be undertaken only if the pay-
back-period is shorter, or at worst, equal to the maximum set standard
period. For a single project, the pay-back period is compared with a set
standard. For mutually exclusive projects, they are ranked and the one
with the shortest pay off time is selected.
Advantages of Pay-Back Period Method

The following are the advantages of pay-back period:
(a) It is a useful measure of liquidity, since the method ensures the
selection of projects that provide the hope of immediate cash
recoupment.
(b) It may be used as a safeguard against risk, particularly if the
latter increases as pay-back period lengthens.
(c) It is simple to calculate and understand.
(d) The method is popular with public project evaluation where
liquidity predominates over profitability.
(e) It serves as a useful screen to evaluate all projects.
(f) The approach uses cash flows rather than accounting profits, to
appraise.
Disadvantages of the Pay-Back Period:

These are highlighted as follows:
(a) It does not consider the time value of money.
(b) It ignores variations in the timing of cash inflows within the pay-
back period.
(c) Cash inflows outside the payback period are ignored.
(d) It does not take into consideration risks and uncertainties.
ILLUSTRATION 22-2
Omidan Local Government Council is considering investing in one of the
following three available projects. Using the payback period method advise
on which of the projects should be selected.
Projects: B1 B2 B3
Initial Investment
Outlays 100,000 150,000 180,000
Year Cash Inflows
1 70,000 10,000 50,000

2 30,000 20,000 60,000
3 20,000 10,000 80,000
4 10,000 40,000 90,000
339

Omidan Local Government Council
Payback period method
Projects: B1 B2 B3
Initial Investment (100,000) (150,000) (180,000)

Less Inflow in Year 1 70,000 10,000 50,000
(30,000) (140,000) (130,000)
Less Inflow in Year 2 30,000 20,000 60,000
NIL (120,000) (70,000)
Less Inflow in Year 3 - 10,000 80,000
(110,000) 10,000
Less Inflow in Year 4 40,000 90,000
Unrelieved investment
cost at the end of the Year (70,000) NIL
From the appraisal conducted, project B1 was able to pay off its initial capital
injected in year 2. B2 could not generate enough cash inflows for the period of
four (4) years. Project B3 made its own in 2.88years approximately. B1 is
therefore more profitable than B3. B2 should be dropped completely.
Tutorial:
The pay-back period of 2.88years in above is computed, using mathematical
calculation of proportion.
22.4.3 Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) Criteria

There are two discounted cashflow methods of project appraisal, namely:
Net Present Value and Internal Rate of Return which are discussed below:
22.4.3.1 Net Present Value (NPV)

This method refers to the equivalents in present value terms of
the cash inflows and outflows from a project when discounted at
a particular or given cost of capital. The appropriate discount
rate chosen is one firm’s or Corporation’s opportunity cost of
capital, which is equal to the required rate of return. The decision
criterion is that a project is acceptable if it has a positive NPV,
and rejected, if it has a negative NPV. In total, the present value
of cash inflows should be greater than that of cash outflows. The
positive nature of the net present value pre-supposes the potential
increase in consumption made possible by the investment, valued
in present day terms. For mutually exclusive projects, they would
be ranked. The one with the highest net present value is selected.
The formula for the computation of the net present of value is:
NPV = C1 + C 2 + C3 + Cn — C0
2
(1 + K) (1 + K) (1 + K) 3 (1 + K)n
340
Where C series represent cash inflows, ‘K’ the opportunity cost of capital,
Co is the initial cost of the investment and ‘n’ the project’s expected life.
Advantages of Net Present Value (NPV)

The advantages associated with the use of net present value are:
(a) Timing of cash flows is considered.
(b) Cash flows on the entire lives of the projects are taken into
consideration.
Disadvantages of Net Present Value (NPV)

However, the following disadvantages can be identified:
(a) There is the obligation for management to determine the
appropriate cost of capital to use.
(b) It is not suitable where capital rationing situation exists.
(c) There is the assumption that the cash inflows will come as
predicted which may not necessarily be so.
ILLUSTRATION 22-3
The following are the information provided by Yabus Local Government Council.
Using the net present value method, advise the Local Government Council on
which of the projects ‘T’, ‘M’, ‘X’, is the most viable and should be picked.
Project T Project M Project X
Cost of Initial Investment 100,000 180,000 150,000

Receipts from the
Projects: Year 1 40,000 10,000 50,000

2 50,000 30,000 10,000
3 60,000 50,000 90,000
4 70,000 70,000 10,000
5 80,000 120,000 40,000
Assume that the cost of capital is 10%. Use the discount table stated below:
Year Discount Factor
1 0.9090
2 0.8264
3 0.7513
4 0.6830
5 0.6209
341
Yaba Local Government Council: Investment Appraisal - Net Present Value

method
Project ‘T’
Year Cash Flow Discount Factor DC F
(10%)
0 (100,000) (1,000) (100,000)
1 40,000 0.9090 36,360
2 50,000 0.8264 41,320
3 60,000 0.7513 45,078
4 70,000 0.6830 47,810
5 80,000 0.6209 49,672
NPV 120,240
PROJECT ‘M’
(10%)
0 (180,000) (1,000) (180,000)
1 10,000 0.9090 9,090
2 30,000 0.8264 24,792
3 50,000 0.7513 37,565
4 70,000 0.6830 47,810
5 120,000 0.6209 74,508
NPV 13,765
PROJECT ‘X’
Year Cash Flow Discount DC F
Factor (10%)
0 (150,000) (1,000) (150,000)
1 50,000 0.9090 45,450
2 10,000 0.8264 8,264
3 90,000 0.7513 67,617
4 10,000 0.6830 6,830
5 40,000 0.6209 24,836
NPV 2,997
The Local Government Council is advised to invest in project ‘T’ because it has
the highest net present value of 120,240. Projects ‘M’ and ‘X’ have net present
values of 13,765 and 2,997, respectively.
20.4.3.2 Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

The approach is also known as “discounted cash flow yield.” The
“internal rate of return” is the discount rate, which when applied, gives
zero net present value. It can be found by either drawing a “present
value profile” or graph, or mathematically through linear interpolation,
using the formula stated thus:
342
R1+P(R2 - R1)
P+N
where: R1 is positive rate
R2 is negative rate
P is positive net present value (NPV)
N is negative net present value (NPV)
In using the internal rate of return model, the ‘decision rule’ is to
accept the project appraised where the calculated rate is greater
than the company’s cost of capital. The project with the highest
percentage of internal rate of return is picked where two or more
mutually exclusive investments are being considered.
ILLUSTRATION 22-4
SAB Airways Authority (SAA) is preparing the capital budget for the forthcoming
year. Three (3) mutually exclusive projects are being considered. The projected
performance of each of the projects is as follows:
Projects: A B C
‘000 ‘000 ‘000
Initial Cash Outlays 3,450 3,563 3,938
Inflows of Cash:
Year 1 1,500 2,250 375
Year 2 1,500 1,125 375
Year 3 1,500 1,125 4,875
The Authority’s cost of capital is 10% per annum.

As the Management Accountant of the Airways Authority, advise on the
desirability or otherwise of choosing any of the three projects, using the internal
rate of return method.
The following discount factor table is applicable for use:

Year 10% 15%
1. 0.91 0.87
2. 0.83 0.76
3. 0.75 0.66
4. 0.68 0.57
5. 0.62 0.50
343
SAB Aviation Authority

Project A
(i) Using 10% Discount factor (rate)
Year Cash Flows Discount Factor PV
’000 (10%) ’000
0 (3,450) (1.00) (3,450)
1 1,500 0.91 1,365
2 1,500 0.83 1,245
3 1,500 0.75 1,125
NPV 285
Project A
(ii) Using 15% Discount factor (rate)
Year Cash Flows Discount Factor PV
’000 (15%) ‘000
0 (3,450) (1.00) (3,450)
1 1,500 0.87 1,305
2 1,500 0.76 1,140
3 1,500 0.66 990
NPV (15)
IRR =R1 + P (R2 - R1)
P+N
Project A
= 10+ 285 (15 - 10)
285 + 15
=10 + 285 5
300
= 10 + (0.95) 5
= 10 + 4.75
IR = 14.75%
Project B
(i) Using 10% discount rate
Year Cash Flows Discount PV

’000 Factor ’000
0 (3,563) (1.00) (3,563.00)
1 2,250 0.91 2,047.50
2 1,125 0.83 933.75
3 1,125 0.75 843.75
NPV 262.00
344
(ii) Using 15% discount rate

Year Cash Flows Discount DC F
’000 Factor ’000
0 (3,563) (1.00) (3,563)
1 2,250 0.87 1,957.50
2 1,125 0.76 855.00
3 1,125 0.66 742.50
NPV N (8)
IRR =R1 + P (R2 - R1)

P+N
=10 + 262 (15 - 10)

262 + 8
= 10 + 262 5
270
= 10 + (0.970)5
= 10 + 4.85
IRR = 14.85%
Project C
(i)Using 10% Discount Rate
Year Cash Flows Discount NPV
’000 Factor ’000
0 (3,938) (1.00) (3,938.00)
1 375 0.91 341.25
2 375 0.83 311.25
3 4,875 0.75 3,656.25
NPV N 370.75
Project C
(ii) Using 15% Discount Rate
Year Cash Flows Discount DC F
’000 Factor ’000
0 (3,938) (1.00) (3,938.00)
1 375 0.87 362.25
2 375 0.76 285.00
3 4,875 0.66 3,217.50
NPV N (109.25)
IRR =R1 + P (R2 - R1)

P+N
=10 + 370.75 (15 - 10)

370.75 +109.25
345
=10 + 370.75 5
480
=10 + (0.772) 5
=10 + 3.86
IRR = 13.86%
Based on the above computations, the Airways Authority is advised to

pick project ‘B’ with the highest IRR of 14.85%. The other projects have
lower figures of 14.75% and 13.86%, respectively, and should be rejected.
22.5 PROFITABILITY INDEX TECHNIQUE

This is another investment appraisal technique which compares the present
value of cash inflows with the present value of cash outflows in ratio terms.
The formula is given as:

(i) PI = Present Value of Cash Inflows
Present Value of Cash Outlay
OR
(ii) PI = Net Present Value of Cash Inflows
Present Value of Cash Outlay
The decision rule in Profitability Index is to accept every project whose PI is

greater than 1 using (i) above and whose PI is positive
using (ii) above.
i.e. Accept Project if PI = 1 or > 1

Reject Project if PI = 0 or < 1
ILLUSTRATION
Abejoye Local Government in an effort to boost its revenue base decided to
acquire a tractor that will be hired out to farmers at affordable charges. The
tractor will cost 600,000 and will generate an annual net cash inflow of 180,000
for six years. The cost of borrowing to procure the tractor is 10%.
Required:
Using the Profitability Index Technique of Investment Appraisal, advise the
chairman of Abejoye Local Government.
Discount Factors to be used are:
Year Discount Factor
1 0.9091
2 0.8264
3 0.7513
4 0.6830
5 0.6209
6 0.5645
346
SUGGESTED SOLUTION
Year Cash Flow Discount Factor Present Value

@ 10%
0 600,000 1.0000 (600,000)
1 180,000 0.9091 163,638
2 180,000 0.8264 148,752
3 180,000 0.7513 135,234
4 180,000 0.6830 122,940
5 180,000 0.6209 111,762
6 180,000 0.5645 101,610
Net Present Value 183,936
Present Value of Cash Inflows = 783,936

Present Value of Cash Outflow = 600,000
Profitability Index = 783,936
600,000
= 1.31 approximately
Decision: Since PI > 1 the project should be accepted for implementation
Advantages of Profitability Index

(a) It recognises time value of money
(b) It is a variant of the Net Present Value Method. It therefore requires the
same computation as in NPV method.
(c) It is a relative measure of a project’s profitability since the present value
of cash inflows is divided by the present value of cash outflows.
(d) It is generally consistent with the wealth maximisation principle.
Disadvantages of Profitability Index

(a) It can only be used to choose projects under simple, one period, capital
constraint situation.
(b) It does not work mutually exclusive projects or dependent projects are
being considered.
(c) The technique is not popular in public sector project appraisal.
22.6 INVESTMENT DECISIONS IN GOVERNMENT

Investment is the judicious utilization of resources on viable opportunities,
with a view to earning reasonable returns beneficial to the providers of fund or
finance. Investments of Government may be financed through:
(a) internally generated revenue and statutory allocations;
(b) funds raised through the capital and money markets.
Investment decisions are taken after the feasibility and viability of projects
have been considered. Not only the financial benefits but also the societal
advantages which will accrue from embarking upon the specified projects will
be considered.
347
Investment decision-making in any organisation is managerial in nature. It

focuses on goals. An investment decision addresses choice, and for the latter to
qualify as such, there must be a commitment to apply resources. The choice
invariably turns out to be an investment.
According to management literature, there are two types of decisions,

namely:
(a) Non-Programmable Decision: This is strategic in nature. It deals
with critical issues such as how to allocate resources, and managing
community relations in the face of capital rationing. An unprogrammed
decision is long-term. It is made for organisational survival.
(b) Programmable Decision: This is a tactical or short-term decision. It

is concerned with proffering a solution to a routine problem determined
by rules and conventions. A programmed decision is used for
uncomplicated issues. By its nature, it limits freedom or initiative, as
the organisation decides what is to be done.
Although investments are undertaken in the public sector organisations just

as in the private sector, operating environments and the goals pursued are
different.
While non-profitable projects may be dropped in the private sector, it may be

unreasonable to act in this way in the public sector for political, socio-economic,
historical and security reasons.
22.7 INVESTMENT EVALUATION TECHNIQUES IN GOVERNMENT

There are many investment evaluation techniques used in Government,
Ministries, Extra - Ministerial Departments and Agencies.
They are discussed, as follows:
22.7.1 Cost-Benefit Analysis

Cost-Benefit Analysis is defined as an analytical tool in decision-making,
which enables a systematic comparison to be made between the
estimated cost of undertaking a project and the estimated value of
benefits, which may be obtained from its execution.
Cost-Benefit Analysis is the most popular technique used for project

evaluation in the public sector.
The technique seeks, as a minimum, the point of equilibrium between

costs and benefits of a proposed project, initiated by either the
Government or demanded by the populace.
It is applied in such areas as transportation, postal services,

communication projects, educational projects and road construction.
348
Where it is difficult to estimate the benefits of a project, ‘shadow prices‘

are used. A shadow price is the measure of the maximum contribution
foregone, in consequence of the failure to obtain one additional unit of
limited capacity in a defined situation. Cost-Benefit Analysis can be
used in the allocation of resources among the three-tiers of Governments.
The research and study into the Cost-Benefit Analysis came into
prominence in the early 1960’s, though it was applied in the USA in the
1930’s and UK in the 1950’s.
The development of ‘Cost-Benefit Analysis’ has not only brought about

enhanced project appraisal in the public sector but also assisted in
investment planning, commercial policy and the development of policy
evaluations.
It considers the following:

(a) Externalities, which may be either positive or negative. An
externality is a consequence of an action not taken into
consideration when making a decision, but which has direct or
indirect effects on the communities, towns, or society at large. An
externality can be beneficial (positive) as well as harmful
(negative). An externality represents the cost or benefits to the
third parties.
(b) Income redistribution in the society; It is a technique which aims

at assisting decision makers by identifying and measuring the
social and other costs and advantages which may accrue. It
measures the social costs and benefits of a plan by translating
them into monetary values. It quantifies the economic intangibles
by assessing the effects of actions taken not only on the decision-
maker, but also on the society as a whole.
22.7.2 Procedures for Conducting Cost-Benefit Analysis

The steps involved in carrying out a cost benefit analysis are as follows:
(a) Examine the problem with the proper definition of the objectives
of the analysis in focus.
(b) Consider alternative courses of actions, which would achieve the
defined objectives in (a) above.
(c) Enumerate the costs involved and the benefits, which would
accrue from the particular courses of action, to the establishment
and the society.
(d) Evaluate the costs and benefits.
(e) Draw conclusions as to the economic and social effects of a
particular choice.
(f) Re-examine the problem and the chosen objectives to determine
accomplishment.
349
22.7.3 Cost Benefit Analysis and Commercial Investment Appraisal

Consideration of the procedures above may indicate that Cost-Benefit
Analysis is synonymous with commercial investment appraisal
techniques, thereby suggesting that they may be used interchangeably.
Deep examination of the procedures involved however, will clearly
highlight the areas of similarities and dissimilarities of the two
approaches.
22.7.4 Similarities between Cost-Benefit Analysis and Commercial

Investment Appraisal Methods
The areas of similarities are:
(a) They adopt a common approach in basic model formulation.
(b) Consideration of the effective allocation of costs and benefits to
periods in which they occur is the same.
(c) They both focus on the justification of present investment cost in
terms of its future return.
(d) They apply discounting techniques which take time value of
money into consideration.
(e) They apply decision rules for selecting investments.
22.7.5 Dissimilarities between Cost-Benefit Analysis and Commercial

Investment Appraisal Methods
(a) The application of Cost-Benefit Analysis focuses more on the
macro-economy and the attendant benefits, while commercial
investment appraisals address evaluation on micro-perspective
level.
(b) The Cost-Benefit Analysis considers all factors, including the cost
of ‘harms’ done to the environment, unhealthy competition, the
effects on the work force, etc. The only cost relevant in commercial
appraisal is that falling directly on the enterprise.
(c) On the principle of preparedness to pay, Cost Benefit Analysis
adopts wider definition to include what can be over or below the
commercial price. On the other hand, commercial appraisal
considers only the effective demand, i.e. buying more at lower
price or less at higher price.
22.7.6 Cost-Benefit Analysis and Project Evaluation

The following methods are adopted in the evaluation of projects under
Cost-Benefit Analysis:
(a) Benefit/Costs Comparison

This method compares estimated benefits and costs of project to
be taken. The decision criterion is that if benefits are greater than
the costs of a project, it should be accepted for implementation,
otherwise, it should be rejected.
350
The major weaknesses of this method are:

(i) It ignores the effect of inflation on values used in the computation.
(ii) The figures and other details used are not relative.
(b) Benefit/Cost Ratio

This method assesses estimated benefits as a ratio of estimated cost.
The decision rule is that if the ratio is greater than one (1) the project
should be accepted, otherwise, it should be rejected.
Advantages of the Benefit/Cost Ratio

(i) It produces comparable results.
(ii) The benefits/costs used in the calculations are discounted.
Disadvantages of the Method.

The method ignores the time-value of money as in Benefit/Costs
Comparison approach.
(c) Merits and Demerits of Cost-Benefit Analysis

Merits of the Technique.
The advantages of the approach are as follows:
(i) It takes into consideration monopolistic power of Government over
vital public projects.
(ii) It considers not only financial commitments on a project but also
favourable and unfavourable impacts of the project on the society.
Non-consideration of these impacts may jeopardize the lofty goals
of the project despite the size of finance committed.
(iii) Cost-Benefit Analysis is a viable option for project appraisal in
Government, bearing in mind its service-rendering goal.
(iv) The appraisal technique serves as a check on the excesses of
political decisions which most of the time ignore economic and
social costs and benefits of a project on the society.
(v) It is easy to apply.
Demerits of the Approach

These may be appreciated, as follows:
(i) Dissimilar projects are not, most of the time, evaluated and
considered together, e.g. cost-benefit of constructing a road and
school will not be considered, but only similar items.
(ii) Final selection may be based on unjustifiable factors, e.g.
political, social, geographical and historical factors.
(iii) It requires comprehensive and intelligent data collection and
analysis for which the public sector is noted to be deficient.
(iv) Indirect User Benefits : Alternative methods of valuing
benefits yield different outcomes. Given the different approaches,
there is difficulty in choosing an appropriate monetary measure.
351
One has to contend, therefore, with the problem of whether or

not to use the technique as a means of investment appraisal.
(v) Spillover Effects: There is the necessity to distinguish between

technological and pecuniary ‘spillovers’. The decision maker
faces the problem of how to include these effects in the analysis.
“Spillover” is a situation where an action or project has a lot of
indirect benefits. For example, a raw material supplier may
install a modern and efficient machinery for production. Apart
from the availability of cheap raw materials, other benefits
derivable may include standardised, quality and timely supply
always.
(vi) Double Counting: A difficult problem to address is ‘double
counting’. This is a situation in which the cost may be accounted
for twice, in view of the process complication. For example, the
cost may be taken into account as raw material and later as
finished product.
(vii) Rate of Interest Chosen for Discounting: The problem here
is the ability to determine the appropriate interest rate to apply
for discounting future costs and benefits. “The market rate” and
“the social rate” have to be considered. ‘Social rate’ of interest
is that fixed for some other reasons, such as connection, It is
lower than the market rate and may be fixed for a group of
individuals. The market rate is for the supply and demand of
money in the money market. It is the commercial rate which
reflects the worth of money.
(viii) Uncertainty: The problem is how to reach decisions in situations
where trend analysis affords little or no guidance for the future.
Situations of uncertainties, unlike risks, do not offer themselves
for mathematical manipulation.
(ix) Evaluating the Distributional Effects: The idea of formal
cost benefit analysis does not distinguish between benefits
received by ‘different individuals’ or group of people. It does not
take position with regards to who benefits and who bears the
cost. There is a misgiving that prevailing fashions and human
behaviour may blur the interpretation of the distribution effects.
(x) Subjectivity: Measuring costs and benefits may involve using
subjective indices to draw conclusions.
22.8. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis - (CEA)
The Cost Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) is an approach to picking among
alternative lines of action in public sector organisations in regard to their
effectiveness in attaining specified objectives.
The approach identifies either the least cost method of realising an objective
or the maximum output attainable at a given cost.
352
In contrast to Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA), the focus is on cost and not so much
on the benefit. Cost Effectiveness Analysis does not attempt to supply information
on the benefits of achieving goals. Rather, the emphasis is on the least or
minimal cost of achieving the specific objective of a public sector project.
22.8.1 Procedure of Cost Effectiveness Analysis in the Appraisal of a
Public Project.
These are:
(a) Objective definition is to determine what actual target is. What
are the projects?
(b) Sourcing and assessment of alternatives:
After the public project has been determined, what are the cost
alternatives that are available? The information in this regard
have to be collated.
(c) Selection of measure to be adopted:
It has to be determined what types of approaches will enable
management to achieve the set objectives within a reasonable
period of time.
(d) Development of cost estimates:
Cost estimates have to be collated, addressing the issues of what
to include and how to measure them.
(e) Having ascertained the adequacy of cost effectiveness measures
and relying on the information on cost estimates, the public sector
organisation evolves the final decision, based on the principle of
least cost.
22.8.2 Limitations of Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
(a) Procedures are subjective, since they are based on the personal
judgment of the decision-maker.
(b) What is an appropriate measure of effectiveness cannot be easily
resolved.
(c) It may lead to wrong decisions resulting from imperfect
information on which costs are based and benefits derived.
22.9 LIFE CYCLE COSTING
This is a costing approach which attempts to optimize the use of costs by
aggregating the entire original and operation costs of assets over their
estimated lives. It is used for evaluating the desirability of acquiring an asset,
in preference to others, based on cost minimisation. The concept adopts the
discounting technique so as to evaluate assets.
Life cycle costing is the financial arm of terotechnology. The Committee for
Terotechnology defines terotechnology as “the combination of management,
353
financial, engineering and other practices applied to physical assets in pursuit

of economic ends”. The pursuit of economic objectives demands that a
company’s objective should be to reduce as much as possible, the total life-
cycle costs in maintaining physical assets during their economic life-span. In
life cycle costing, consideration is given to the following factors:
(a) Original costs, of physical assets, including the costs of design,
specification, acquisition, and installation.
(b) Operating costs which include those of labour, materials and energy.
(c) Maintenance costs, relating to materials and labour.
(d) Lost profits and the cost of recovering lost profits.
(e) Disposal value. This is the residual value less disposal costs incurred.
The annual equivalent cost of a physical asset is computed, using the

formula:
Purchase Cost___
Cumulative PV Factor
ILLUSTRATION 22-5
You are given the following details in respect of two 300KVA generators:
Yakoyo B Jeun T
’000 ’000
Acquisition and installation 50,000 40,000
Annual costs: Maintenance 5,000 6,000
Oil and Lubricants 7,000 9,000
Salaries 20,000 26,000
32,000 41,000
Estimated life 5yrs 4yrs
Real cost of capital 20% 20%
Discount Factors:
Cost of capital 20%
Year
1 0.8333
2 0.6944
3 0.5787
4 0.4823
5 0.4019
6 0.3349
7 0.2791
8 0.2326
Calculate the “annual equivalent costs” and “costs in use” and advise on which
of the two generators to accept.
354
Cumulative factor is the addition of discount figure for 5 years.

Year
1 0.8333
2 0.6944
3 0.5787
4 0.4823
5 0.4019
2.9910
Cumulative factor is the addition of discount factors for 4 years.

Year
1 0.8333
2 0.6944
3 0.5787
4 0.4823
2.5887

Gen. B Gen.T
Costs in use
Annual Equivalent cost (see workings) 16,716,817 15,499,981
Add: Operating costs 32,000,000 41,000,000
48,716,817 56,449,981
The ‘costs in use’ of the asset are now compared to evolve a choice. Usually the
asset with the least cost is selected. In this case, YAKOYO B generator is picked
as it involves lesser ‘costs in use’ of 48,716,817, as against that of Jeun T of
56,449,981
WORKINGS
Yakoyo B Jeun T
N’000 N’000
Annual Equivalent cost
Purchase cost 50,000 40,000
Cumulative PV factor 2.991 2.589
50,000 = 16,716,817 40,000 = 15,499,981

2.991 2.589
ILLUSTRATION 22-6
Assume the same facts as in example 1. However, the estimated life of each
generator is now 5 years. The cost of a generator is 50m. Which of the generators
should be accepted?.
355
Yakoyo B Jeun T
Year(s) DF PV DF PV
‘000 20% ’000 ‘000 20% ’000
0 (50,000) 1,000 (50,000) (50,000) 1.000 (50,000)
1-5 (32,000) 2,991 (95,712) (41,000) 2.991 (122,263)
PV (145,712) PV (172,631)
The decisions, informed by the computations above, is that Yakoyo B should be

chosen, in preference to Jeun T. The cost implication of picking Yakoyo B is
145,712,000 as against that of Jeun T of 172,631,000.
22.10 VALUE ANALYSIS/VALUE ENGINEERING

Value engineering aims at trying to reduce costs and prevent any unnecessary
costs before the product or service is produced. It endeavours to eliminate any
costs which will not contribute to the value and performance of the product or
service.
Value Analysis is the same process when it is aimed at cost reduction after the
product or service has been introduced.
Value engineering involves innovative and critical thinking. it uses a formal
procedure which examines the purpose of the product or service, its basic
functions and its secondary functions.
22.11 PROBLEMS OF INVESTMENT APPRAISAL METHODS

Some of the problems have been identified, thus:
(a) Future events are difficult to forecast with complete accuracy.
(b) Investment decisions are sometimes determined by political factors.
(c) The choice of an appropriate investment appraisal method is subjective.
(d) The calculation of the cost of capital to be used is a matter of opinion.
There is nothing sacrosanct about any decision.
(e) The treatment and measurement of risk are not easy tasks.
22.12 RISK AND UNCERTAINTY IN CAPITAL BUDGETING/INVESTMENT

APPRAISAL
‘Risk’ is the quantification or measurement of the extent to which actual cash
inflows will vary from the forecast earnings. Such risks which abound in
business lives include inflation, drop in market demand and changes in
Government policies. The probability of occurrence of such a risk is between 0
and 1.
‘Uncertainty’, however, is a confused state. Under ‘uncertainty’ any development

can take place. The business development is so unpredictable that no probability
of occurrence can be assigned.
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Using the Probability Concept to Measure Risk

All the appraisal methods discussed so far assume that the cash inflows forecast
will be realized as predicted. This is a situation of certainty which hardly exists
in the dynamic world, especially of business, and which is therefore
unattainable. In order to provide for the presence of risk, the decision maker
will assign reasonable and scientific probability considerations to the forecast
(uncertain) cash inflows. The expected values obtained are then used for the
appraisal of the investment under review.
ILLUSTRATION 22-7
GBOGBONSE Local Government Council intends to set aside N100,000 for the
production of cassava to boost internally generated revenue and earn foreign
currency. The expectation of the Council is that in three (3) years’ time all will
be well with the outcome of the venture. The following information are
available:
The Council’s opportunity cost of capital is 10%. Is the project viable?
GBOGBONSE LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCIL

Computation of the Expected Net Present Values of the Cassava
Production Project
ENPV = (100,000) + 52,000 + 72,000 + 57,500

1 1.10 (1.10)2 (1.10)3
=(100,000) + 47,273 + 59,501 + 43,200
= 49,974
Calculation of the Expected Cash inflows

Year 1: 0.20(100,000) + 0.80(40,000)
= (20,000 + 32,000)
= 52,000
Year 2: 0.80(60,000) + 0.20(120,000)

= (48,000 + 24,000)
= 72,000
Year 3: 0.25(80,000) + 0.75(50,000)

= (20,000 + 37,500)
= 57,500
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ALTERNATIVE SUGGESTED SOLUTION 22.7
Calculation of the Expected Cash Inflows
Year Cash Flow Probability Expected Value Total

Expected
Value
1 100,000 0.2 20,000

40,000 0.8 32,000 52,000
2 60,000 0.8 48.000
120,000 0.2 24,000 72,000
3 80,000 0.25 20,000
50,000 0.75 37,500 57,500
Computation of the expected Net Present Value
Year Cash flows Discount Present Value

factor (10%)
0 (100,000) 1.0000 (100,000)
1 52,000 0.9091 47,273
2 72,000 0.8264 59,501
3 57,500 0.7513 43,200
Net Present Value +49,974
The project is viable with positive expected net present value of 49,974. It is
recommended for implementation.

It is essential for an organisation, whether public or private sector, to make
investment decisions where the establishment is faced with different
alternatives, using different techniques of investment appraisal. In practical
life there are challenges in making choices.
Nonetheless, decisions have to be made by organisations. In the public sector,

tools such as Cost-Benefit Analysis and Cost Effectiveness Analysis. The former
tool enables a comparison to be made between the estimated cost of undertaking
a project and estimated value of the benefits which will accrue from its execution.
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis is used in choosing among alternative courses of
action.
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22.14.1 Questions
(1) Kajola Local Government Council is considering investing in one

of three available projects of ‘A’, `B’, and ‘C’. The following
information are available:
Project A Project B Project C
N N N
Initial investment sums 15,000 20,000 20,000
Residual Value 1,000 1,000 1,000
Profit Figures: Year 1 6,000 10,000 1,000
Year 2 7,000 10,000 6,000
Year 3 8,000 1,000 10,000
Year 4 9,000 1,000 20,000
Assume the cost of capital to be 10%.
(a) Using the ‘Pay-Back Period’, ‘Net Present Value’ and ‘Accounting Rate of
Return’ methods of appraisal, advise as to which of the projects should
be picked under each of the scenarios stated above.
(b) Briefly differentiate between cost-benefit analysis and cost-effectiveness
analysis.
(2) Owode Water Board of Yelwa State decided to expands its facilities to
make portable water available to the community. The state government
expressed interest in the project and invited the Federal Government
and the World Bank to participate in it. Eventually, it was agreed that
the project which would span over three (3) years, would be financial,
as follows:
%
Owode Water Board 20
Yelwa State Government 25
Federal Government 25
World Bank 30
10 0
Experts estimated that the project will cost N20 billion, at today’s monetary
value. The World Bank is ready to pay its own contribution immediately. The
Federal Government will pay in one year’s time while Yelwa State Government
pay in one year’s time while Yelwa State Government and Owode Water Board
will pay their own contribution in 2 years time.
The project was contracted to BABLOD Work Limited based on the agreed
schedule of Contributions. Additionally, an extra amount of N5million will be
paid to the contractor on made by the completion of the water-project in year 4
by the Water Board. Payments not made immediately will attract interest at
14% per annum.
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Required:
(a) The cash payable and actual payments made by each contributor,
showing the year of payment applicable in view of the time value of
money.
(b) The eventual cost of the project in present value terms.
(3) Bangudu Local Government is considering embarking on an investment

and has been presented with the following three alternatives:
EA EB EC
N’000 N’000 N’000
Initial Cash Outlay 150,000 200,000 180,000
Residual Value 10,000 10,000 10,000
Cash inflows/Profits are as follows:
Year 1 60,000 100,000 10,000
Year 2 70,000 1000,000 60,000
Year 3 80,000 10,000 10,000
Year 4 90,000 10,000 120,000
Assume that the projects are mutually exclusive.
Required:
Advise the local government on the most viable project using the traditional
Methods
(a) Pay Back Period
(b) Accounting Rate of Return
4(a) Cost benefits analysis is an analytical tool in decision-making, which enables

a systematic comparison to be made between the estimated cost of undertaking
a project and the estimated value of benefits.
(a) What are procedures for conducting Cost-Benefit Analysis?
(b) Give the dissimilarities between Cost-Benefit Analysis and Commercial

Investment Appraisal Methods.
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22.14.1 SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
(1) (a) Kajola Local Government
(i) Using Pay-back period method
Project
A B C
N N N
Outflow Initial Investment (15,000) (20,000) (20,000)
Less: Inflow in Year 1 6,000 10,000 1,000
(9,000) (10,000) (19,000)
Less: inflow in Year 2 7,000 10,000 6,000
(2,000) (13,000)
Less: inflow in Year 3 8,000 10,000
6,000 10,000
Based on the above method, Project B was able to offset its initial capital
injected, in two (2) years. It should therefore be selected in preference to project
B. ‘C’ should be rejected.
(ii) Using the Net Present Value method
Project A
N 10% N
0 (15,000) 1.0000 (15,000)
1 6,000 0.9090 5,454
2 7,000 0.8264 5,785
3 8,000 0.7513 6,010
4 9,000 0.6830 6,147
4 Residual 1,000 0.6830 683
Value NPV 9,079
Project B
N 10% N
0 (20,000) 1.0000 (20,000)
1 10,000 0.9090 9,090
2 10,000 0.8264 8,264
3 1,000 0.7513 751
4 1,000 0.6830 683
4 Residual 1,000 0.6830 683
Value NPV (529)
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Project C
N 10% N
0 (20,000) 1.0000 (20,000)
1 1,000 0.9090 909
2 6,000 0.8264 4,958
3 10,000 0.7513 7,513
4 20,000 0.6830 13,660
4 Residual 1,000 0.6830 683
Value NPV 7,723
Based on net present value method the Local Government is advised to invest
in project A because it has the higher net present value of N9,079. Project C has
negative net present value of N529 and is completely rejected. Project C offers
positive net present value of N7,723 and is acceptable after ‘A’
(iii) Using Accounting Rate of Return.

Computation of the Accounting Rates of Return
Project A B C
N N N
Profit Figures Year 1 6,000 10,000 1,000
Year 2 7,000 10,000 6,000
Year 3 8,000 1,000 10,000
Year 4 9,000 1,000 20,000
30,000 22,000 37,000
(iv) Average Annual Accounting Profit:

Projects A B C
N N N
Total project 30,000 22,000 37,000
No. of years 4 4 4
= N7,500 N5,500 N9,250
To obtain the figure of average investment:

Initial Investment + Residual Value
2
Project A B C
N N N
Investment Sum 15,000 20,000 20,000
Residual Value 1,000 1,000 1,000
Total 16,000 21,000 21,000
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Value of average investment:N16,000 N21,000 N21,000

2 2 2
= N8,000 N10,500 N10,500
(v) Average Annual Accounting profit

Average investment
Project A B C
N N N
7,500 5,500 9,250
8,000 10,500 10,500
= 0.9375 0.5238 0.8810
= 94% approx 52% approx 88% approx
The Kajola Local Government Council should invest in project A because it has
the highest accounting rate of return of 0.9375 or 94% approximately. ‘C’ ranks
second whilst ‘B’ comes third.
(b) Cost-Benefit Analysis is an analytical tool in decision-making which enables a

systematic comparison to be made between the estimated total cost (financial
and social costs) of undertaking a project and the estimated value of total benefit
(revenue and social benefits) which may be obtained from its execution. The
technique seeks as a minimum the point of equilibrium between costs and
benefits of a proposed project initiated by either the Government or demanded
by the populace. Cost Effectiveness Analysis identifies either the least cost
method of realising an objective or the maximum output attainable at a given
cost. Cost Effectiveness manages only cost and not so much the benefit, in
contrast to Cost-Benefit Analysis. Cost Effectiveness Analysis does not attempt
to supply information on the benefit of achieving goals.
2(a) (i) OWODE WATER BOARD

COST OF EXPANSION OF WATER FACILITIES
Determination of proportionate Cash payable
Total Project Cost = N20,000,000,000
Contributors Contribution Amount

% N’000
Owode Water Board 20 4,000,000
Yelwa State Government 25 5,000,000
Federal Government 25 5,000,000
World Bank 30 6,000,000
100 20,000,000
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(b) (ii) Schedule of Actual Payments made
Contributors Year AmountN’000

World Bank 0 6,000,000
Federal Government (amount due
one year interest) (N5,000,000,000 x 1.14) 1 5,700,000
Yelwa State Government
(amount due + 2 years interest) 2 6,498,000
Owode Water Board (amount due +
2 years interest) (N4,000,000,000 x 1.142) 2 5,198,400
Total Payment made 23,396,400
(b) Net Present Value of the project Cost
Contributor year Amount N’000 PV NPV

N’000
World Bank O (6,000,000) 1.000 (6,000,000)
Federal Government 1 (5,700,000) 0.877 (4,998,900)
Yelwa State Government 2 (6,498,000) 0.769 (4,996,962)
Owode Water Board 2 5,198,400) 0.769 (3,997,569.6)
Additional Payment Bablod Ltd 4 (5,000) 0.592 (2,960.00
Net Present Value (of the Project Cost 19,996,391.6
(3) BANGUDU LOCAL GOVERNMENT

(a) Pay Back Period (PBP)
EA EB EC
N’000 N’000 N’000
Initial Cash Outlay (150,000) (200,000) (180,000)
Year 1 (Inflows) 60,000 (100,000) 10,000
Year 2 (Inflows) 70,000 100,000 60,000
Year 3 (Inflows) 20,000 - 10,000
Year 4 (Inflows) — — 100,000
NIL NIL NIL
(i) Pay back Period for EA is 2 Years + ( 20,000/80,000 x 12) months

= 2 years 3 months
(ii) Pay back period for EB is 2 years
(ii) Pay back for EC is 3 years + (100,000,000/120,000,,000 x 12) months
= 3 years 10 months
Advice: From the revelation above, Project EB should be chosen going by the
shortest payback period of 2 years it has.
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(b) Accounting Rate of Return (ARR)

EA EB EC
Annual Profit N’000 N’000 N’000
Year 1 60,000 100,000 10,000
Year 2 70,000 100,000 60,000
Year 3 80,000 10,000 10,000
Year 4 90,000 10,000 120,000
Total Profit 300,000 220,000 200,000
Average Annual Accounting 75,000 55,000 50,000
Average Investment
Average Investment = 150,000,000 +200,000,000 +180,000,000
Initial Investment + Residual Value 10,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000
2 2 2 2
= 80,000 =105,000,000 = 95,000,000
ARR = Average Annual Accounting Profit x 100

Average Investment 1
EA EB EC
75,000,000 x 100 55,000,000 x 100 50,000,000 x 100
80,000,000 1 105,000,000 1 95,000,000 1
= 93.75% =53.38% =52.63%
Advice:
From the calculation above, Project EA should be selected as it yields the highest
accounting rate of return of 93.75% as against 53.38% for EB and 52.63% for EC.
4(a) The procedures for conducting Cost-Benefit Analysis are as follows:

(i) Examine the problem with the proper definition of the objectives of the
analysis in focus;
(ii) Consider alternative courses of actions, which would achieve the defined
objectives in (a) above;
(iii) Enumerate the costs involved and the benefits, which would accrue from
the particular courses of action, to the establishment and the society;
(iv) Evaluate the costs and benefits;
(v) Draw conclusions as to the economic and social effects of a particular
choice;
(vi) Re-examine the problem and the chosen objectives to determine
accomplishment
(b) The following are the dissimilarities between Cost-Benefit Analysis and
Commercial Investment Appraisal methods:
(i) The application of Cost-Benefit Analysis focuses more in the macro-
economy and the attendant benefits while commercial investment
appraisals address evaluation on micro-perspective level;
365
(ii) The Cost-Benefit Analysis considers all factors including the cost of
‘harms’ done to the environment, unhealthy competition, the effects on
the work force, etc. The only cost relevant in commercial appraisal is
that falling directly on the enterprise.
(iii) On the principle of preparedness to pay, Cost-Benefit Analysis adopts

wider definition to include what can be over and below the commercial
price. On the other hand, Commercial appraisal considers only the
effective demand, i.e. buying more at lower price or less at higher price.
366
CHAPTER
Skills level
23
Interpretation of Accounts and

Cash Flow Statement
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Methods in Use
4. Cash Flow Statements
5. Methods of Preparing Cash Flow Statements
6. Value Added Statements
7. Chapter Review
8. Worked Examples
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23
INTERPRETATION OF ACCOUNTS
AND CASH FLOW STATEMENT
23.0 PURPOSE
(a) interprete accounts using standard methods; and
(b) prepare Cash Flow.
23.1 INTRODUCTION
Interpretation of Accounts may be defined as the art and science of translating
the figures shown in the financial statements in such a way as to reveal the
strengths and weaknesses of a business and the attributable causes. Accounts
have to be analysed and interpreted for such reasons as the measure of the
quality of management and how solid the capital base is.
Interpretation has to be undertaken by those conversant with the language of

its expression. The accounts have to be drawn up in a form which enables full
appreciation of the facts to be deduced. Any financial statement can be
interpreted. Consequently, management accounts, final accounts and interim
accounts lend themselves to critical analysis.
23.2 METHODS IN USE

There are three main methods in use in interpreting accounts. These are:
(a) ‘Straight forward’ criticism or analytical review.
(b) Ratio analysis.
(c) Cash flow statements.
Accounts will be perused or scrutinised by different interested persons such as

the owners (shareholders), creditors, employees, researchers and bank
managers.
The interpreter has to consider and form conclusion on matters, such as the
firm’s
(a) profitability,
(b) solvency,
(c) ownership,
(d) financial strength,
(e) trend of economic endeavours, and
(f) gearing and cover
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INTERPRETATION OF ACCOUNTS AND CASH FLOW STATEMENT
23.2.1 Straight Forward Criticism or Analytical Review

Figures in respect of two or more years may be compared and percentage
differences obtained. Comparison of figures may be undertaken in any
of the following ways:
(a) Previous years’ figures with those of the current year.
(b) The statistics of a period this year with those of a similar period
last year.
(c) Figures within the year’s 1st quarter with those of the fourth
quarter of the same year.
(d) It may be percentage representation within the year. For example,
salary expenses may be expressed as a ratio of total expenses.
The above stated methods are popular with public sector organisations.
23.2.2 Ratio Analysis

Ratio analysis involves expressing one figure as a ratio or percentage of
another, to bring out the weakness or strength in an organisation’s
affairs. If one were to take a look at the financial statements of a
Government department, Ministry or Corporation, the various figures
disclosed would not be sufficiently revealing in terms of the strength or
otherwise of the establishment, for well informed judgment to be made.
Ratio analysis comes in handy here, as a useful guide.
Broadly speaking, basic ratios can be grouped into four categories, as

follows:
(a) Profitability ratios.
(b) Gearing ratios.
(c) Liquidity ratios.
(d) Shareholders’ investment ratios.
The Federal, State and Local Government Councils use mostly liquidity
ratios to measure the ease with which obligations due in the year can
be met. The three tiers of Administration operate the cash basis of
accounting. However, in Parastatals and Government Companies
where some commercial or quasi-commercial events take place the
accrual basis of accounting is in use.
In view of the peculiarity of public sector activities, the following

relevant ratios only, are considered, viz:
(a) Current Ratio

The test of liquidity can be obtained from the statement of assets
and liabilities and is the ratio of:
Current Assets
Current Liabilities
369
An organisation should have enough current assets that give a

promise of cash to meet short-term commitments of paying off
current liabilities. As a general rule, a ratio comfortably in excess
of 2(two) is expected. However, what is comfortable with a
particular Parastatal or Government company may be otherwise
with another. In picking the figures of current assets, all intangible
assets have to be discountenanced.
(b) Quick Ratio or Acid Test

This is the ratio which is more revealing of the solid liquidity
position, It is computed thus:
Current Assets less Stock

Current Liabilities
Organisations are not able to convert all their current assets into
cash quickly. For an organisation or a Parastatal with a fast stock
turnover, a quick assets ratio can be computed. A ratio of 1 (one),
may be comfortable without suggesting that there is cash flow
problem.
What is important is the trend of current and quick asset ratios.

From this it can easily be ascertained whether liquidity is
improving or deteriorating. It is the relative position that is far
more important than the absolute figures.
(c) Debtors’ Payment Period

Although this index measures the average length of time it takes a
Corporation’s debtors to pay, it is only an estimated average payment
period. The formula for calculating the payment period is:
Debtors for Goods or Services x 365 days
Sales (Credit)
The earlier debtors are encouraged to pay, the better the cash position
of the Board or Corporation. It would be more informative to make this
calculation regularly to avoid distortions.
(d) Creditors’ Payment Period

This is a measure of the average length of time it takes the parastatal
under focus to pay its creditors. It is calculated as follows.
Trade or Expense Creditors x 365 days

Credit Purchases
370
(e) Stock Turnover Period

This indicates the average number of days that items of stock are
held for sale or in the store. The stock turnover period is calculated
as:
Cost of Goods Sold________
(Opening Stock plus Closing Stock)/2
Average stock is the average of the opening and closing stock

figures. The shorter the period, the healthy the situation is in
making the best use of funds.
23.3 CASH FLOW STATEMENTS

Neither the profit and loss account nor the balance sheet gives a satisfactory
explanation of how a business obtains and uses its cash. The cash flow
statement is very revealing of the core operations of a Government,
Parastatal or Board on the affordability or otherwise of adequate liquid
resources.
23.3.1 Data required to prepare cash flow statements

To prepare a cash flow statement, the following accounting documents
are required:
(a) Statement of Financial Position at the beginning and at the end
of the year.
(b) Statement of Financial Performance for the year
23.3.2 Key Terms in Cash Flow Statements

Cash: This comprises cash on hand and demand deposits in the bank.
Cash Equivalents: Cash equivalents are short-term, highly liquid
investments that are readily convertible to cash and which are subject
to insignificant risk of changes in value.
Cash Flows: These are inflows and outflows of cash and cash
equivalents.
23.3.3 Operating Activities: These are the principal revenue producing

activities of the enterprise. They are not investing or financing
activities.
Examples of Operating Activities

(a) Cash received from the sale of goods and rendering of services.
(b) Receipts from internally generated revenue of government.
(c) Cash payment
(c) Cash payments for overhead expenses.
(d) Payment of personal emoluments.
(e) Receipts from statutory allocations of Government.
371
23.3.4 Investing Activities

These are the acquisitions and disposals of long-term assets and other
investments not included in cash equivalents.
Examples of Investing Activities

(a) Cash payments to acquire property, plant and equipment,
intangible and other long-term assets.
(b) Cash received from the sale of property, plant and equipment,
intangible and other long-term assets.
(c) Cash payments to acquire equity or debt instruments of other
enterprises and interest in joint ventures.
(d) Cash received from the sale of equity and debt instruments of
other enterprises and interests in joint ventures.
(e) Cash advances and loans made to other parties, other than
advances and loans made by the financial institutions.
(f) Cash payments to suppliers for goods and services.
(g) Cash payments to and on behalf of the employees.
(h) Cash payments for the purchase of motor vehicles.
23.3.5 Financing Activities

These are activities which result in changes in the size and composition
of equity capital and borrowing of the enterprise. Examples are:
(a) Cash proceeds from issuing shares and other equity
instruments.
(b) Cash payments to the owners to acquire or redeem the
enterprise’s shares.
(c) Cash proceeds from issuing debentures, loans, bonds,
mortgages and other short or long-term borrowing.
(d) Cash repayments of amount borrowed.
(e) Cash payments by a lessee for the reduction of the outstanding
liability relating to a finance lease.
(f) Cash dividends.
23.4 METHODS OF PREPARING CASH FLOW STATEMENT

The methods used for preparing cashflow statements are:
(a) The direct method, whereby major classes of gross cash receipts and
payments are disclosed.
(b) The indirect method, whereby net profit or loss is adjusted for the effect
of transactions of non-cash nature, depreciation or accruals of past or
future operating cash receipts, payments and items of income or expenses
associated with investing or financing cash flows.
372
ILLUSTRATION 23-1
Format of Direct Method
Operating Activities
Cash received from customers x
Cash paid to suppliers and employees (x)
Cash generated from operations x
Tax paid (x)
Cashflows before extra-ordinary items x
Extraordinary items x/(x)
Net cash inflows/(outflows) from operating activities x
Investing Activities
Purchase of fixed assets (x)
Purchase of investments (x)
Proceeds from sale of fixed assets x
Proceeds from sale of investment x
Interest received x
Dividend received x
Net cash inflows/(outflows) from investing activities x
Financing Activities
Proceeds from issue of shares x
Proceeds from issue of debentures x
Redemption of debenture and loan stock (x)
Purchase of own shares (x)
Dividend paid (x)
Interest paid (x)
Net cash inflows/(outflows) from financing activities x
Cash & Cash equivalents at the beginning of the year x
Cash & cash equivalents at the end of the year. X
ILLUSTRATION 23-2
Format of Indirect Method
Operating Activities:
Operating profit x
Adjustments for non-cash items:
Depreciation x
(Profit)/Loss on sale of fixed assets (x)/x
Amortisation of intangible assets x
Cash flows before working capital changes X
373
Working capital changes:

(Increase)/Decrease in stock (x)/x
(Increase)/Decrease in debtors (x)/x
Increase/(Decrease) in trade creditors x/(x)
Cash generated from operations x
Tax paid (x)
Cashflow before extraordinary item x
Extra-ordinary item x/(x)
Net cash inflows/outflows from operating activities X
Investing Activities
Purchase of fixed assets (x)
Purchase of investments (x)
Proceeds from sale of fixed assets x
Proceeds from sale of investments x
Interest received x
Dividend received x
Net cash inflow/(outflow) from investing activities x
Financing Activities
Proceeds from the issues of shares x
Proceeds from the issue of debentures x
Redemption of debenture loan stock (x)
Purchase of own shares (x)
Dividend paid (x)
Interest paid (x)
Net cash inflows/(outflows) from

Financing activities x
Cash & cash equivalents at the beginning of the year x
Cash & cash equivalents at the end of the year x
23.5 CHAPTER REVIEW

Interpretation of financial statements reveals the financial strengths and
weaknesses of a business and their causes. A Cash Flow Statement gives the
details of all cash received and paid by the organisation, during the year. It is
a good reporting statement for cash management. A Value-Added Statement
reveals the contribution of each ‘key’ sector. In the production of the goods and
services, both the Cash Flow and Value-Added Statements are required by law
to be prepared in addition to the yearly final accounts of a corporate
organisation/entity.
374
23.6.1 Questions
(1) The following information have been extracted from the records of
WELFARE State of Nigeria, for the year ended 31 December 2008.
N’000
Personal Emolument 2,000,000
Consolidated Revenue Fund charges 1,000,000
Statutory Revenue allocation 20,000,000
Proceeds from the sale of fixed assets 100,000
Purchase of marketable securities 50,000
Purchase and construction of fixed assets 500,000
Share of value added tax 200,000
Share of excess crude oil 100,000
Internally generated revenue 10,000,000
Gratuities and pensions 15,000,000
Miscellaneous income 50,000
Overhead expenses 36,000
Recurrent grants made 20,000
Miscellaneous expenses 10,000
Servicing and repayment of public debts 100,000
Grants and subventions from Non-Governmental Organisations 200,000
Proceeds from loan and other borrowings 300,000
Dividends received 100,000

Prepare the State’s Cash Flow Statement for the year ended 31 December
2008, using the direct method approach.
(2) (a) Define Ratio Analysis

(b) Explain the objective of the following ratios and state their
respective mode of computation
(i) Current ratio
(ii) Quick ratios or Acid Test Ratio
(iii) Debtors payment period
(vi) Creditors payment period
(v) Stock turnover period
(3) Write short notes on Cash flow statement
375
23.6.2 SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
(1) WELFARE STATE OF NIGERIA
STATEMENT OF CASH FLOWS

FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 DECEMBER, 2008
Nmillion Nmillion
OPERATING ACTIVITIES
Statutory Revenue Allocation 20,000
Share of Excess Crude Oil 100
Internally Generated Revenue 10,000
Share of value Added Tax 200
Grant and Subventions Received 200
Miscellaneous Income 50
Personal Emoluments (2,000)
Consolidated Revenue Fund Charges (1,000)
Gratuities and Pensions (15,000)
Overhead Expenses (36)
Recurrent Grants made (20)
Miscellaneous Expenses (10)
Servicing and Repayment of Public Debts (100)
Net Cash Flow from Operating Activities 12,384
INVESTING ACTIVITIES
Proceeds from Sales of Fixed Assets 100
Purchase of Marketable Securities (50)
Purchase and Construction of Fixed Assets (500)
Net Cash Flow from investing (450)
FINANCING ACTIVITIES
Proceeds from Loans and other Borrowings 300
Dividends Received 100 400
Cash and Equivalents at 31/12/2006 12,334
(2) (a) Ratio analysis is the expression of one figure as a ratio of another
in order to determine the weakness or strength in an entity’s
financial affairs at a particular period of time.
(b)(i) CURRENT RATIO

The objective is to determine the extent to which an entity can
discharge its current liabilities without having effect on the current
assets.
A ratio in excess of 2 is required for an organization.
CURRENTASS ETS

CURRENTLIA BILITIES
376
(ii) QUICK RATIO OR ACID TEST RATIO

The ratio in designed to reveal the solid liquidity position of an entity.
CURRENTASS ETSLESSSTO CK

CURRENTLIA BILITIES
(iii) DEBTORS’ PAYMENT PERIOD

It measures the average time it takes Debtors of an entity to settle
their debts and is estimated on average period.
DEBTORSFOR GOODS & SERVICES 365
 x
CREDITSALE S 1
(iv) CREDITORS’ PAYMENT PERIOD

It measures the average time it takes an entity to pay its creditors. It
is also estimated on average period.
CREDITORSFORGOODS & SERVICES 365
 x
CREDITPURCHASES 1
(v) STOCK TURNOVER PERIOD

It indicates the average number of days that items of stock are held
for sale or in the store.
CostofGoodsSold

1 (openingstock  clo sin gstock )
2
(3) Cash Flow Statement: This is the statement that shows the amount of
cash generated by an organization and the utilization of such cash for
that period.
The major sources of cash inflows into a public sector accounting to

IPSAS 2 are:
 Operating activities
 Investing activities
 Financing activities
The IPSAS 2 specifies that an organization could employ the use of Direct
or Indirect method in preparing a statement of cash flows.
377
378
CHAPTER
Skills level
24
Parastatals and Public Enterprise

Accounting
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Parastatals and Public Companies
3. Sources of Income of Parastatals
4. Expenditure
5. Main Objectives of Setting-up Corporations /
Parastatals / Public Enterprises
6. Accounting in Public Enterprises
7. Classes of Government Enterprises
8. Audit of Government Enterprises
9. Accounting Policies of Corporations
10. Types of Accounts
11. Hospital Accounting
12. Sources of Revenue
13. Development and Property Corporations
14. Chapter Review
15. Worked Examples
379
24
PARASTATALS AND PUBLIC

ENTERPRISE ACCOUNTING
24.0 PURPOSE
(a) discuss the Enabling Act that establishes a Parastatal or a Public
Company.
(b) itemize the objectives of setting up Public Enterprises.
(c) explain the Accounting requirements of Public Enterprises.
(d) discuss the sources of income and types of expenditure of Public
Enterprises.
24.1 PARASTATALS AND PUBLIC COMPANIES

Parastatals and public companies are agencies established by Government for
specific purposes. Examples are Corporations, Boards and Public Companies.
The characteristics of Parastatals or Corporations are outlined, thus:
(a) Corporations are special organisations set up by Government with the

aim of carrying out certain projects or performing beneficial services to
the Nation. Examples are the River Basin Authority which was set up to
harness the agricultural benefits of the River Basins, the National Electric
Power Authority (NEPA) now Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN)
for the generation and supply of electricity to the citizens at subsidised
rates, and the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) aimed
at safeguarding Nigeria’s environment. Most of the Corporations are
not-for-profit organisations. However, some of them are to recover their
operating costs and make some margin or surplus.
(b) Each Corporation or Parastatal has its own Enabling Act. This is the law
setting it up, and will show in detail the following:
(i) The name of the Corporation, its functions and objectives.
(ii) The Principal Officers of the Board, their functions and mode of
appointment.
(iii) The Supervising Ministry.
(iv) The place where the head office and branches of the parastatal
will be sited.
(v) The organogram of the organisation.
(vi) The source of fund to the parastatal and the type of accounts they
are expected to keep.
380
PARASTATAL AND PUBLIC ENTERPRISE ACCOUNTING
Parastatals or Corporations are usually not governed by the provisions

of the Companies and Allied Matters Act, Cap. C20, LFN 2004. Hence, a
Corporation’s name will not end with the word ‘Limited’ or ‘Public Limited
Company.’
(c) State and Federal Governments are free to set up their own Corporations
after due processes. Such Parastatals, Boards or Corporations are quite
different from the Ministries. Ministries and Extra-Ministerial
Departments have the same accounting system, unlike the Boards and
Corporations. Government regulations which apply to the Ministries may
not be applicable to Government Agencies. The term ‘Parastatal’ also
refers to a Government Company, Board, Corporation or a Tertiary
Institution such as the Lagos State Polytechnic, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka or Ahmadu Bello University.
(d) All Corporations have supervising Ministries. Regulations passed by a

Corporation are called ‘bye-laws’. The supervising Ministry and
Government approve the following for a Corporation, before they become
operative:
(i) Increases in the prices of goods and services delivered. For
example, the Federal Ministry of Aviation would approve any
price increase by the Nigeria Airways before it is implemented.
(ii) All the bye-laws.
(iii) The Corporation’s Annual Budget.
(iv) Any major foreign agreement.
The supervising Ministry recommends the appointments of the Managing

Director or General Manager, Executive Director and Key Officers of the
Corporations to the President or National Assembly, for approval.
24.2 SOURCES OF INCOME OF PARASTATALS

Although Corporations are set up mainly to render social services to the public
at the least possible costs and are principally self-financing, the appropriate
Government makes funds available to them in form of subventions. The money
given to a Corporation by the Government is income to the corporation and is
usually classified into recurrent and capital grant or subvention.
24.3 EXPENDITURE
All Corporations incur expenses such as the payment of staff salaries and
maintenance of facilities. The expenditure incurred is either revenue or capital
in nature. Most Corporations depreciate their assets using appropriate policy.
24.4 MAIN OBJECTIVES OF SET TING UP CORPORATIONS/PARASTATAL/

PUBLIC ENTERPRISES
The following are the main objectives of setting up Parastatals:
(a) To bring the means of production under public ownership.
381
(b) To avoid high prices of goods normally charged by the private sector.
(c) To avoid duplication of facilities.
(d) To ensure close Government control over certain ‘key’ sectors of the
economy.
(e) To ensure the survival of the Industries.
(f) To avoid imitation of goods.
(g) To enhance the standard of living of the people.
24.5 ACCOUNTING IN THE PUBLIC ENTERPRISES

The nature and structure of accounting in the public enterprises depend largely
on the scope and objectives of setting them up.
The accounting structure will thus vary from one enterprise to another. Despite
the differences in their structure and objectives, any accounting system set up
for a public enterprise should be able to:
(a) provide detailed financial information adequate for policy
formulation;
(b) facilitate extraction of relevant financial statements which comply not
only with the requirements of the enabling law but also the needs of
the information users;
(c) accommodate changes that become necessary; and
(d) facilitate the work of the auditors appointed to examine the books of
the enterprises.
24.5.1Financial Statements
The financial statements of an enterprise are expected to comply with
the normal accounting standards in operation, requirements of the laws
regulating the activities of the enterprises, etc. For profit-making public
enterprises, the financial statements will include:
(a) Statement of financial position;
(b) Statement of financial performance;
(c) Statement of changes in net assets/equity;
(d) Cash flow statement; and
(e) Accounting policies and
(f) Notes to the financial statements and other disclosures
However, for the not-for-profit making public enterprises, the financial

statements are expected to include:
(a) Statement of Financial Position;

Statement of Financial Position is a Statement that shows Assets,
Liabilities and Net Assets/Equity of an Entity. Both Assets and
Liabilities are categorized as Current and Non-Current in the
Statement of Financial Position.
Current Assets include the following:

(i) Cash & its Equivalents
382
(ii) Receivables
(iii) Inventories
(iv) Prepayments
(v) Other Current Assets
Non- Current Assets is made up of:
(i) Loans Granted (Receivables)
(ii) Investments
(iii) Infrastructure, Plant and Equipment
(iv) Investment Property, Plant & equipment
(v) Intangible Assets
Current Liabilities include:

(i) Deposits
(ii) Short Term Loans & Advances
(iii) Unremitted Deductions
(iv) Accrued Expenses
Non- Current Liabilities is made up of:

(i) Public Funds
(ii) Long Term Borrowings
All the above sub groupings as a minimum requirement must be

disclosed at the face of the Statement of Financial position.
Assets are however treated in the Financial Position net of all Provisions
while details are disclosed in the Notes to the Financial Statements.
(b) Statement of Financial Performance;

Statement of Financial Performance (Income and Expenditure Accounts)
shows income accrued to the entity from all sources and Expenditure
incurred during the period.
As a minimum requirement, the face of the statement of financial

performance should include the following line items:
(i) Revenue from operating activities;
(ii) Surplus or deficit from operating activities;
(iii) Finance costs;
(iv) Share of net surpluses or deficits of associates and joint ventures
accounted for using the equity method;
(v) Surplus or deficit from ordinary activities;
(vi) Extraordinary items;
(vii) Minority interest share of net surplus or deficit; and
(viii) Net surplus or deficit for the period.
The Expenses are classified either by nature or by their function within

the entity. If an entity decides to classify expenses by function, it must
also provide a presentation by nature of expenses in the notes.
383
(c) Statement of Changes in Net Assets/Equity;

Net Assets/Equity simply refers to Assets less Liabilities. Net Assets/
Equity is financed by Reserves, Accumulated surpluses/Deficit, Minority
Interest etc. The Statement is important in GPFS because it enables users
to ascertains causes for movement in Net Equity of an entity.
Changes in Net Assets/Equity is therefore normally caused by:
 Significant Changes in Accounting Policies
 Correction of Prior years’ errors
 Revaluation of the Assets
 Surplus or Deficit for the period
 Changes in Currency Translation etc
(d) Cash flow statement

Statement of Cash flow is one of the Statements required by IPSAS 1 to
be presented in the General Purposes Financial Statements (GPFS).
The cash flow statement identifies the sources of cash inflows, the items
on which cash was expended during the reporting period, and the cash
balance as at the reporting date. The preparation and presentation of
Cash flow is covered by IPSAS 2.
Cash flows are basically reported under three (3) separate activities as
follows:
Operating Activities- activities of the entity that are not investing or

financing activities. These are day to activities of an entity.
Investing Activities- the acquisition and disposal of long term assets

and other investments not included in cash equivalent
Financial Activities- activities that result in changes in the size and

composition of the contributed capital and borrowings
( e) Accounting policies
Accounting policies are the specific principles, bases, conventions, rules
and practices adopted by an entity in preparing and presenting financial
statements. They are part of the financial statements.
Entities should select and apply accounting policies so that the financial
statements comply with all the requirements of each applicable
International Public Sector Accounting Standard.
(f ) Notes to the Financial Statements and other disclosures

Notes and other disclosures to GPFS are additional information
presented in the GPFS to enable users understand the financial
statements better and compare them with those of other entities:
384
Notes include narrative descriptions or more detailed schedules or

analyses of amounts shown on the face of the statement of financial
performance, statement of financial position, cash flow statement and
statement of changes in net assets/equity, as well as additional
information such as contingent liabilities and commitments.
IPSAS has not specifically provide formats for preparation of Notes and
other disclosures to the Financial Statements but as a minimum
requirement, Notes are normally presented in the following order:
(i) Statement of compliance with IPSAS
(ii) Statement of the measurement basis (bases) and accounting
policies applied;
(iii) Supporting information for items presented on the face of each
financial statement in the order in which each line item and each
financial statement is presented; and
(iv) Other disclosures, including: Contingencies, commitments and
other financial disclosures and non financial disclosures
Non- Financial Disclosures include:

(i) Domicile and legal form of the entity,
(ii) Nature of the entity’s operations and principal activities
(iii) Reference to Relevant legislation governing the entity’ operations
and
(iv) The name of the controlling entity and the ultimate controlling
entity of the economic entity (where applicable).
24.6 CLASSES OF GOVERNMENT ENTERPRISES

Public enterprises are establishments owned either partially or wholly
controlled by Government. They come into existence through the promulgation
of appropriate Federal or State laws. Government enterprises may take the
following forms:
(a) Public Utilities: These are parastatals providing essential services to
the citizens either at ‘nil’ cost or at subsidized rates. This is to bring
about proper balance between social and economic objectives.
(b) Regulatory Agencies: These are Government Agencies or partially

autonomous establishments executing general policies of the
Government within specified areas. Examples are National
Communication Commission (NCC) and Nigeria Copyright Commission.
They may be fully or partially commercial in nature although they still
look forward to Government’s financial assistance in meeting their
obligations.
(c) Commercial Enterprises: They are bodies established by Government

in line with the appropriate laws of the country, to create competitive
environment and make profit from their operations. Government-owned
385
companies are usually in different sectors of the economy, such as mining,

banking, insurance, manufacturing, trading and transportation.
Such companies are autonomous in structure and operations. They are
incorporated and must comply with the existing laws. The laws
governing their operations include the Companies and Allied Matters
Act, Cap C20, LFN 2004, Insurance Act of 2000 (as amended), the Banks
and Other Financial Institutions Act 1990 (as amended) and Bankruptcy
Act of 1979 (as updated).
24.7 AUDIT OF GOVERNMENT ENTERPRISES

The laws setting up most of the Federal Corporations state that:
(a) An Internal Audit Department should be established. The Department
should audit the Corporation and copies of reports forwarded to the
Auditor-General for the Federation, for information only.
(b) The accounts of the Corporation must be verified by an External Auditor
yearly.
24.8 TYPES OF ACCOUNTS

Some Corporations such as the Federal Airports Authority of Nigeria (FAAN)and
Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) prepare the following accounts:
(a) Statement of Financial Performance
(b) Statement of Financial Position
(c) Statement of changes in net assets/equity
(d) Cash flow Statement
(e) Notes
ILLUSTRATION 24-1
A Typical format of Statement of Financial Performance of the Federal Airport
Authority of Nigeria for the year ended 31 December, 2008 is shown below:
2007 2008
N N N N
Income
Government Subventions x x
Licence Fees x x
Parking Fees x x
FAAN Citizen Tax x x
Staff School Income x x
Guest House Income x x
Sundry Income x x x x
Expenditure
Salary and Allowances (x) (x)
Postage, Cable and Telephone (x) (x)
Airport Maintenance (x) (x)
Printing and Stationery (x) (x)
386
Books and Periodicals (x) (x)

Training (x) (x) (x) (x)
(Deficit)/Surplus for the year x x
Add/(Deduct) balance brought forward x x
(Deficit)/Surplus carried forward x x
ILLUSTRATION 24-2
FEDERAL AIRPORT AUTHORITY OF NIGERIA
A TYPICAL FORMAT OF STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL POSITION AS AT 31

DECEMBER 2008
2007 2008
Non-Current Assets xx xx
Current Assets:
Inventory x x
Trade Receivables x x
Bank x x
Cash x x
x x
Less: Current Liabilities:
Trade Payables (x) (x)
Other Payables (x) x (x) x
Total Net Assets xx xx
Financed by:
Capital Fund x x
Other Funds x x
Reserves x x
xx xx
24.9 HOSPITAL ACCOUNTING

Hospitals undertake functions such as treating the sick, conducting research,
and teaching. A major purpose of hospital accounting is to assist Hospital
Administrators in the efficient and effective management of resources.
Government hospital accounting has the following features:
(a) Fund accounting system is operated.
(b) The financial activities of hospitals are covered by budgeting and
budgetary control procedures.
(c) Subsidiary and principal books of accounts are kept to facilitate the
extraction of information. Such books include ledger accounts, journal
and DVEA book.
387
(d) An autonomous Government hospital is required to prepare financial

statements, to determine proper stewardship in fund disbursements and
general resource management, as follows:
(i) Statement of Financial Performance: These are prepared to
show the surplus or deficit of the organisation during a specified
period of time, usually one year. They are extracted showing the
comparative figures for the preceding year.
(ii) Statement of Financial Position: This is prepared to ascertain

the financial strength of the hospital, as at the end of that period.
The balance sheet is extracted with the comparative figures for
the preceding year.
(iii) Cash Flow Statement: A cash flow statement is prepared to

establish the hospital’s sources of cash inflows and directions of
outflows. The cashflow statement is very revealing of the liquidity
preparedness in meeting short-term obligations. Preceding year’s
figures are disclosed as well, for comparative analysis.
(iv) Notes to the Accounts: These are modifiers or amplifiers,

accompanying the financial statements. They disclose
information such as the hospital’s accounting policy and method
of depreciation which the final accounts do not supply.
(v) Memorandum Statement of Account of Capital Fund : The

statement shows the financial information of all the fixed assets
and capital projects in progress as at a particular period. The
standard accounting practice is to transfer any portion of the
project completed in any financial year to the fixed assets
account. ‘Capital Work in Progress’ is determined based on
valuer’s certificates.
The Statement of Capital Fund contains only the financial

information in respect of capital projects. Funds are transferred
to augment the balance available in the Capital Fund.
(vi) Memorandum Statement of Account of Recurrent Funds:

The statement highlights the financial information of all the
recurrent items. These include unutilized grants for research,
stocks, and debtors.
24.10 SOURCES OF REVENUE

The hospital generates revenue from various sources which include:
388
(a) Capital Subvention: This is in the nature of contributions made by

Government, at intervals, for the execution of capital projects of the
hospital.
(b) Recurrent Subvention: This is the amount contributed by the

Government at intervals for meeting recurrent expenditure. Examples
are the personnel cost of staff, overhead costs covering repairs of the
facilities of the hospital and purchase of drugs.
(c) Charges: These represent fees realized from the services rendered by
the hospital. The charges include fees realized from the School of
Nursing, X-Ray and laboratory facilities.
(d) Miscellaneous Revenue: These include revenue generated from

sundry sources, examples of which are income from investments,
reimbursements, disposal of assets, rent on property and donations
from philanthropic organisations and individuals.
24.11 DEVELOPMENT AND PROPERTY CORPORATIONS

Some Parastatals are established for the following aims and objectives:
(a) Constructing buildings for sale.
(b) Upgrading land for sale.
(c) Property ownership.
(d) Managing facilities on Government estate.
(e) Maintenance of industrial estates.
An example of such a Corporation is the Lagos State Property
Development Corporation.
24.11.1 Main sources of income of Corporations

These include:
(a) Sale and rent of houses.
(b) Sale of land.
(c) Miscellaneous income (dividends, interests on fixed deposit
accounts, etc.).
(d) Surplus from property management.
(e) Professional service income, e.g. survey fees for private land.
(f) Government grants.
(g) Gifts and donations.
24.11.2 The Expenditure incurred by Corporations include:

(a) Payment of salaries;
(b) Cost of construction, e.g. drainage, building.
(c) Cost of land clearing.
(d) Interest on loan;
389
(e) Compensations made to those who are dispossessed of their

landed property.
24.11.3 Development and Property Accounting

Corporations which engage in the development of property prepare the
following final accounts:
(a) General Revenue Account. It is in this Account that the expenses
relating to general development and estate management as well
as transfers to the various reserves are consolidated.
(b) Property and Permanent Works Capital Accounts.
The accounts are meant for transactions relating to capital
projects like land and buildings under construction and for
ultimate sale to the public.
ILLUSTRATION 24-3
ILUDUN STATE DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION

Typical Format of General Revenue Account for the Year ended…….
Interest on loan x Surplus from Gen. Dev.

Expenses Account x
Balance c/d x Surplus from Estate
Management Accounts x
Rent on Properties x
__ Other Income x
xx xx
Loan Repayment x Balance b/d x
Transfer to Cap. Reserve x Unappropriated Bal. C/f x
xx xx
ILLUSTRATION 24-4

TYPICAL FORMAT OF PROPERTY AND PERMANENT
WORKS CAPITAL ACCOUNTS
for the year ended 31 December, 2008
Expenditure Income
Details B.F Additions Total B/F Additions Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Land Development x x x x x x
2 Construction of Drainage x x x x x x
3 Construction of Nursery/
Primary Schools x x x x x x
x x x x x x
390
(c) Capital Works-in-Progress Account

The Account shows the projects of the Corporation which are under
construction and as valued by the professionals.
(d) General Development Expenses Account

The account records the levies made on capital works carried out
on the Agency’s project executed by the Corporation or as agent
of Government to cover overheads incurred. On the expenditure
side of the account are recorded such items as “net expenditure
from General Income and Expenditure Account” and “Repayment
of General Purpose Loan.” Whatever balance is left in this account
is transferred to “General Revenue Account.”
ILLUSTRATION 24-5
ILUDUN STATE DEVELOPMENT

Typical Format of General Development Expenses
Account for the Year ended 31 December 2008
Expend iture Income

Repayment of general purpose loan xx Charges on Capital Works xx
Net Expenditure from General
Income and Expenditure Account
chargeable. xx x
Balance transferred to General
Revenue Account xx ___
xx xx
( e) General Income and Expenditure Account

This Account shows the surplus or deficit from development and
administration, architects’ and surveyors’ services, fees, and such other
income accruing from housing property sale ground rent, improvements
for sale and other sources of income.
The Account is classified into two, namely:
(i) Estate Management Account.
(ii) Services on Capital Works Account.
The Estate Management Account is to accommodate all relevant and incidental

expenses. The second account is for services rendered on capital works for which
general development expenses are charged. The general revenue expenditure,
after the direct charges to the relevant capital projects, is apportioned between
the General Development Expenses and Income and Expenditure Accounts.
Other direct expenses are allocated to the two accounts. With these, the
profitability of each of the projects can be determined.
Revenue items are treated on the same basis.
391
The items identified in the Income and Expenditure Account are:

(i) Net rent income receivable (that is, rents and service charges, less
bad or doubtful debts).
(ii) Housing grants from Government.
(iii) Investment income.
(iv) Amounts appropriated to the Grant Redemption Fund.
(v) Gross surplus or deficit for the period, before grants receivable and
taxation.
(vi) Net surplus after taxation and deficit grants.
(vii) Transfers to, or from, reserves.
Notes to the accounts have to reveal additional information on items
such as depreciation, and taxation.
ILLUSTRATION 24-6

Format of Recurrent Expenditure for the
Year ended 31 December, 2008
Details Total Chargeable to Chargeable to

Capital Works Estate Mgt.
(i) Staff Expenses x x x

(ii) Office Maintenance x x x
(iii) Quarters x x x
(iv) Office expenses x x x
(v) Transport x x x
(vi) Miscellaneous x x x
(vii) Interest on loan x x x
(viii)Preliminary survey
fees x x x
x x x
Format of Recurrent Income for the year ended 31 December, 2008

Details Total Chargeable to Chargeable to
Capital Works Estate Mgt.
(i) General Rent x x x

(ii) Int. On Invest. x x x
(iii) Fees x x x
Net Expenditure
Carried to General
Dev. Exp. And Estate
Mgt. Account x x x
x x x
392
(f) Property Management Account

The account records rent generated from operations, miscellaneous income
received and expenses incurred.
ILLUSTRATION 24-7
ILUDUN DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION

Typical Format of Property Management Accounts
for the year ended 31 December 2008
Income: Total Scheme Scheme

Miscellaneous
Rent on property items x x x x

Cost recovered x x x x
Reduction in provision
for irrecoverable rent x x x x
Total income (a) xx xx xx xx
Expenditure:
Estate Mgt. Expenses x x x x

Rent and Rates x x x x
Interest on Loan x x x x
Repairs x x x x
Insurance x x x x
Legal Charges x x x x
(Loss of rent on
unoccupied flats) x x x x
Depreciation x x x x
Total Expenditure (b) xx xx xx xx
Net rental income

transferred to Gen.
Rev. Account (c) x x x x x
[That is, (a) – (b)]
(g) Statement of Financial Position

This shows the financial strength of the Corporation as at a particular date. It
reports all items which are unique to the property and development sector,
with corresponding figures of the preceding year.
A Property Development Corporation’s Balance Sheet should disclose the
following items:
(i) Movements on the Grant Redemption Fund.
(ii) Deficit grants receivable.
(iii) Particulars of investments held.
(iv) Information on loans granted.
393
(v) Information on loans made to the members of the management

committee.
ILLUSTRATION 24-8
ILUDUN DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION

Typical Format of Balance Sheet as at 31 December 2008
Capital Non-Current Assets
Capital Revenue x Plants and Machinery x

General Reserve x Motor Vehicles x
Long Term Liabilities x Factory Building x x
Property & Investments

Permanent Works:
Capital Income x Treasury Bills x
Others x Fed. Govt. Stocks x x
Deposits for Plots x Property & Permanent
Works
Capital Account x
Capital Work-In-Progress x x
Current Liabilities Current Assets

Trade Payables x Inventory x
Other Payable x Trade Receivable x
__ Bank x x
xx xx

This chapter discussed the establishment of different types of corporations, the
accounting policies, income receivable, expenditure incurred and the peculiar
reporting system.

24.13.1 Questions
(1) The following information have been extracted from the books of Bolus
Electricity Board, for the year ending 31 December, 2008:
N’000
Accumulated Depreciation, 01/01/2008 45,224
Sale of Electricity 114,392
Purchase of Electricity 95,784
Meter reading, billing and collection of electricity 1,624
Non-Current Assets Expenditure 84,102
Debtors for electricity consumption read
394
in the year and other sales 12,006

Training and welfare 692
Stock and work in progress 1,234
Rents, Rates and Insurance 2,126
Electricity Estimated unread consumption 7,222
Administration and General Expenses 1,476
Electricity Council Grant 21,556
Preparation of Electricity Council’s Expenses 362
Bank Balance and Cash 1,284
Depreciation for the year 3,634
Hire purchase and deferred payment installations not yet due 2,672
Interest and Financing Expenses 2,434
Creditors and accrued liabilities 13,926
Profits on contracting and sale of appliance poles A/c 534
Reserves 23,116
Rental of Meters Application, etc. 556
Distribution cost 4,476
Customer Service 1,810
You are further informed that depreciation for year 2008 was N3,634,000.
Required:
Prepare in the vertical form the Statement of Financial Performance and
Statement of Financial Position of the Bolus Electricity Board, for the year ended
31 December, 2008.
(2) The following information relate to the accounts of OKOKOMAIKO State

University for the year ended 31st December 2008:
Dr. Cr.
N’000 N’000
Land and Buildings (cost) 55,000
Long-term investments 25,000
Accumulated Depreciation:
- Land and Building 6,000
- Motor vehicles 2,000
- Equipment and furniture 1,500
Motor vehicles(cost) 28,000
Grants from Central Government 15,000
Grants from State Government 5,000
Grants from Local Governments 3,500
Endowment, donations and subventions 39,000
Computer Board grant 10,000
Residences and catering operations 5,000 7,500
Academic fees and support grant 9,000
Maintenance of premises 2,000
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Academic services 3,000

Academic departments 10,000
General education expenditure 9,000
Equipment and furniture 17,000
Miscellaneous Expenditure/Income 5,000 4,500
Research grant and contracts 3,500 4,000
Long-term loans 50,000
Current Assets/Liabilities 15,500 4,500
Appeal funds 5,000
General fund 10,500
Reserves _______ 1,000
178,000 178,000
The following additional information are also relevant, viz:

(i) Loan interest outstanding at the end of the year was N5 million.
(ii) Depreciation on fixed assets is charged at the following rates on cost:
- Building is 5% (cost of land is N25 million)
- Motor vehicles is 20%
- Equipment and furniture is 15%
(iii) A building costing N5 million with accumulated depreciation of N1
million was sold for N8 million. This transaction has not been adjusted
in the accounts.
(iv) Interest receivable amounted to N6 million while N5 million should be
transferred to reserves.
Required:
Prepare the Statement of Financial Performance of the University for the year
ended 31st December 2008 and Statement of Financial Position as at that date.
(3) Parastatals and public companies are agencies established by government for
specific purposes.
(a) What are the most common accounting policies adopted by parastatals
and public companies?
(b) Give the main objectives of setting up parastatals, departments and
agencies.
(4) Development and Property Corporation/Companies are owned and established

by governments to own properties and/or manage facilities on government
396
estates among other functions. What are the accounts usually prepared by
such companies or corporation?
(1) Bolus Electricity Board

Statement of Financial Performance
For the Year Ended 31 December, 2008
N’000 N’000
Sales of Electricity 114,392
Less: Purchases of Electricity 95,784
Gross Profit 18,608
Profit on Contracting and Sale of Appliance Poles 534

Rental of Meter Applications 556
TOTAL PROFIT (A) 19,698
Less:
Meter Reading Billing and Collection of Electricity 1,624
Training and Welfare 692
Rent, Rates and Insurance 2,126
Administration and General Expenses 1,476
Preparation of Electricity Council’s Expenses 362
Depreciation 3,634
Interest and Financing Expenses 2,434
Distribution Cost 4,476
Customer Services 1,810
(B) (18,634)
Net Income (A – B) 1,064
Statement of Financial Position
As At 31 December 2008
N’000 N’000
Non-Current Asset
At Cost 84,102
Less: Accumulated Depreciation
N(45,224,000 + 3,634,000) 48,858
NET BOOK VALUE 35,244
Current Assets:
Inventory and Work-in-Progress 1,234
Trade Receivables 12,006
Electricity Estimated Unread Consumption 7,222
Hire Purchase and Deferred Payment
Installments 2,672
Bank Balance and Cash 1,284
24,418
397
Current Liabilities:
Trade and other payables (13,926)
WORKING CAPITAL 10,492
NET TOTAL ASSETS N45,736
Financed by: N’000

Electricity Council Grant 21,556
Reserves Brought Forward 23,116
Retained profit for the year 1,064
N45,736
(2) OKOKOMAIKO STATE UNIVERSITY

Statement Of Financial Performance For The Year Ended
31st December 2008
INCOME N’000 N’000

Grants from central Government 15,000
Grants from State Government 5,000
Grants from Local Government 3,500
Endowment; donations and subvention 39,000
Computer Board grant 10,000
Residents and Catering Operation 7,500
Academic fees and support grant 9,000
Research grant and contracts 4,000
Miscellaneous income 4,500
Profit on sale of building 4,000
Interest on investments 6,000
107,500
EXPENDITURE
Residence and catering operations 5,000
Maintenance of premises 2,000
Academic services 3,000
Academic department 10,000
General education expenditure 9,000
Research grant and contract 3,500
Interest on loans 5,000
Depreciation - Buildings 1,250
- Motor vehicle 5,600
-Equipment and furniture 2,550
Miscellaneous expenses 5,000
51,900
Surplus for the year 55,600
Transfer to reserves (5,000)
Surplus after transfer 50,600
398
OKOKOMAIKO STATE UNIVERSITY

Statement Of Financial Position As At 31st December 2008
NON-CURRENT ASSETS COST ACCUM. NBV

DEP.
N’000 N’000 N’000

Land and buildings 50,000 6,250 43,750
Equipment and furniture 17,000 4,050 12,950
Motor vehicles 28,000 7,600 20,400
95,000 17,900 77,100
Long term investments 25,000
Current assets (working 1) 29,500

Current liabilities (working 2) (9,500)
Net current assets 20,000
Total net assets 122,100
Financed by:
General funds 61,100
Appeal fund 5,000
Reserves 6,000
Long-term loan 50,000
122,100
WORKINGS
N’000
1. Current assets b/f 15,500
Add: Proceeds from sale of building 8,000
Interest received 6,000
29,500
2. Current liabilities b/f 4,500

Loan interest 5,000
9,500
(3) (a) Most common accounting policies adopted by parastatals, departments and
public companies are as follows:
(i) Accrual Basis of Accounting: The basis stipulates that the income
relating to a particular period should be recognized in that period,
whether or not cash has been received. Conversely, expenses have to be
charged against profits when they occur, even if they have not been paid
for;
(ii) Some Corporations and parastatals prepare Income and expenditure

accounts while others prepare statement of financial performance to
399
show profit or loss. From the information available in the accounting

books of corporation, it is easy to ascertain the type of accounts prepared.
Where income and expenditure account is prepared, the net result is
normally described as surplus or deficit, whereas if it is a profit-oriented
entity, statement of financial performance is prepared at the end of the
financial year.
(iii) The capital or proprietorship of the organization is represented by ‘fund

account’.
(iv) Parastatals, unlike the three-tiers of government, show non-current

assets with their historical costs, accumulated depreciation to date and
net book values.
(v) Government subventions and grants are stated as the amounts received
during the year, on cash basis. Some corporations, however, credit their
income and expenditure account with the amount as current assets in
the balance sheet (using accrual basis).
(vi) Interests receivable on fixed deposit accounts are usually accounted for,
on cash basis. However, some corporations use the accrual methods.
(vii) Foreign currency transactions are translated as follows:

(a) Income and expenditure items are translated at the average rate
of conversion;
(b) Non-current assets translations are made at the historical costs
basis.
(c) Other assets and liabilities are translated at the rate ruling on
the statement of financial position date. Profits or loss on
translation is shown in the statement of financial performance
on a yearly basis.
3(b) The main objective of setting up parastatals, departments and agencies are as
follows:
(i) To bring means of production under public ownership;
(ii) To avoid high prices of goods normally charged by private ownership;
(iii) To avoid duplication of facilities;
(iv) To ensure close government control over certain ‘key sectors of the
economy;
(v) To ensure survival of industries;
(vi) To improve the standard of living of the people.
(4) The accounts usually prepared by development and Property Corporation or

Companies include the following;
400
(i) General Revenue Account – The account contains the expenses relating
to general development and estate management and that transfers to
the various reserves are consolidated.
(ii) Property and Permanent works accounts – The accounts are meant to
record transactions relating to capital projects like land and buildings
under construction and for ultimate sale to the public.
(iii) Capital Works – in – progress account - The account shows the projects
of the corporation which are under construction and as valued by the
professionals.
(iv) General Development Expenses Account – The account records the levies
made on capital works carried out on the agency’s project executed by
the corporation or as agent of government to cover overheads incurred.
On the expenditure side of the account are recorded such items as ‘Net
expenditure’ from General Income and expenditure account.
(v) General Income and Expenditure account – The account shows the surplus
or deficit from development and administration, architects’ and
surveyors services, fees and such other income accruing from housing
property sale, ground rent, improvements for sale and other sources of
income. The account classification are:
 Estate Management account
 Services on Capital work account
Estate Management account accommodates all relevant and incidental

expenses while services on capital works account records services
rendered on capital works account for which general development
expenses are charged.
The general development expenditure, after direct charges to the relevant

projects, is apportioned between the general development expenses and
income and expenditure account. Other expenses are allocated into the
two accounts, with which the profitability of each of the projects is
determined.
Items identified by the Income and Expenditure account are:

 Net rent income receivable;
 Housing grants from government;
 Investment income;
 Amounts appropriated to the General Redemption Fund;
 Gross surplus or deficit for the period, before grants receivable
and taxation;
 Net surplus after taxation and deficit grants;
401
 Transfer to and from reserves

 Notes to the accounts have to reveal additional information on
item such as depreciation and taxation.
(vi) Property Management Account – The account records rent

generated from operations, miscellaneous income received and
expenses incurred.
(vii) Statement of Financial Position – It shows the financial strength
of the corporation at a given date. It reports all items which are
unique to the property and development sector, with
corresponding figures of the preceding year.
A Property Development Corporation’s Statement of Financial Position

should disclose the following:
(a) Movements on the Grant Redemption Fund;
(b) Deficit grants receivable;
(c) Particular’8s of investments held;
(d) Information on loans granted;
(e) Information on loans made to the members of the management
committee
402
CHAPTER
Skills level
25
Economic Environment and the Role

of the Public Sector
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction to the Economic Environment
3. The Macroeconomic Objectives
4. Government Economic Policies
5. The Economic Role of the Public Sector
6. The Objectives of Privatisation and Commercialisation in Nigeria
7. An Appraisal of the Performance of the Nigerian economy
8. Chapter Review
9. Worked Examples
403
25
ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT AND THE

ROLE OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR
25.0 PURPOSE
After studying this chapter, the readers should be able to:
(a) distinguish between the private and public sector of an economy;
(b) explain the rationale for government intervention in the economy;
(c) discuss government economic objectives and policies;
(d) state the objectives of privatization and commercialization programs
in Nigeria; and
(e) assess the performance of the Nigerian economy
25.1 INTRODUCTION
To appreciate the role of the public sector in the economy, it is imperative to
recall the distinction between microeconomics and macroeconomics, explain
the private and public sector, and present an overview of the public sector in
the Nigerian economy.
25.1.1 Microeconomics and Macroeconomics

The study of economics is often divided broadly into microeconomics
and macroeconomics.
(a) Microeconomics explores the behaviours of individual consumers,
the firms and the industry. Specifically, it examines factors
influencing the consumption behaviours of individuals and the
production behaviours of the firms, how individual markets and
industries are organized and how relative prices of goods and
services are determined. It is assumed that consumers are
rational seeking to maximize satisfaction derived from their
consumption of goods and services, while the firm seeks to
minimize costs and maximize profits on production.
(b) Macroeconomics, on the other hand, studies the economy as a

whole. Specifically, macroeconomics is concerned with
aggregates such as national output, level of unemployment, the
general price level, money supply, aggregate expenditure, levels
of investments and savings, to mention a few. Thus,
macroeconomics identifies and prescribes solutions to such
problems as unemployment, inflation, sluggish economic growth,
balance of payment deficits etc.
404
ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT AND THE ROLE OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR
25.1.2 PRIVATE VERSUS PUBLIC SECTOR

The broad division of economics into two is consistent with the fact that,
in the real world, every economy has both the private sector
(microeconomy) and the public sector (macroeconomy).
(a) The private sector. It is that part of the economy under the
control and directions of non-governmental economic units such
as private individuals, organizations and firms. Each economic
unit in the private sector owns its resources and uses them mainly
to promote its own well-being.
(b) The public sector. It is the portion of the economy that is publicly
owned. In other words, it is the government sector of the economy
since the activities are under the control and directions of the
Government. Thus the public sector includes all government
departments and agencies, public enterprises and all other
activities through which government exerts influence on the
economy.
25.2 PUBLIC SECTOR IN THE NIGERIAN ECONOMY

Given the adoption of a multilevel system of government in Nigeria, the public
sector of the Nigerian economy covers the revenue raising and expenditure
activities of the Federal, State and Local Governments as well as all other ways
by which these three tiers of government influence the use of the economy’s
resources.
Thus, the Nigerian public sector covers activities of the 36 States, 774 Local
Governments, the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), various government
departments, public corporations such as Nigerian Port Authority (NPA),
Nigerian Railway Corporation (NRC), Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation
(NNPC), Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON), National Agency for Food
and Drug Administration Control (NAFDAC), various publicly owned research
institutions, health and educational institutions, the Central Bank of Nigeria
(CBN), Bank of Industry (BOI), Nigeria Stock Exchange (NSE), to mention a
view.
However, the size of the public sector varies according to the political ideology
of governments. For instance, in an economy in which nationalization has been
adopted as a core development strategy, the public sector will be larger relative
to the private sector. By implication, the recent adoption of privatization and
commercialization strategies in Nigeria is a part of the efforts of the government
to restructure and transform the Nigerian economy into a private sector-driven
economy.
405
25.3 THE MACROECONOMIC OBJECTIVES

Government in every modern economy pursues five macroeconomic objectives.
These are:
(a) Full-employment. A high level of human and physical resources
utilization whereby not less than 94 or 95 percent of the economy’s
labour force is engaged in effective production.
(b) Price stability. To ensure unnecessary upward movement of

prices of goods and services (inflation) or downward movement
of prices (deflation). Both inflation and deflation are associated
with worsening living standards in one form or the other.
(c) Economic growth. It is also the primary business of government

to promote expansion of the production capacity of the economy
to generate increasing flow of welfare-enhancing goods and
services. Real gross domestic product (GDP)/gross national
product (GNP) and per capita real GDP or GNP are used to measure
economic growth.
(d) External balance. This refers to the promotion of a debt-free
and a self-reliant economy. This goal is achieved when a country
records a balance of payments (BOP) equilibrium.
(e) An equitable distribution of income and wealth. To reduce
income inequality with a view to ensuring that every citizen at
least has access to the basic necessities of life.
25.4 GOVERNMENT ECONOMIC POLICIES

The various actions taken by the government to achieve macroeconomic
objectives are categorized broadly as follows:
(a) Monetary policy. This refers to the combination of measures designed
to control the supply of money and credit availability in an economy.
Monetary policy instruments in Nigeria include open market operations
(OMO), reserve requirements, monetary policy rate (MPR) which is the
discount rate, credit ceiling, selective credit control, special deposit and
moral situation. The policy is administered on behalf of the government
by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) in partnership with the Federal
Ministry of Finance.
Monetary policy can either by expansionary or contractionary. An

expansionary monetary policy is that which is intended to increase
money supply and credit availability in the economy. On the other hand,
a contractionary or restrictive monetary policy is that which is designed
to reduce money supply and credit availability in the economy.
(b) Fiscal policy. This refers to the use of taxation and government
expenditure to influence aggregate demand in the economy. Fiscal policy
406
can be expansionary, or contractionary. An expansionary fiscal policy

increases aggregate demand, while a restrictive or contractionary fiscal
policy reduces aggregate demand.
(c) Commercial policy. This is defined as the rules adopted by a country

for the conduct or regulation of its foreign trade and payments. It involves
the use of tariffs, quotes and exchange rate control to restrict or promote
free trade.
(d) Prices and Income policy. This refers to a set of rules, guidelines, or
law devised by government to influence wage and price movements.
The proponents of this policy are those who hold the view that inflation
is caused by trade union activities such as work stoppages and strikes
to force employers to pay higher wages.
25.5 THE ECONOMIC ROLE OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR

Government performs a wide variety of functions in the economy. These can be
classified under five headings:
(a) Allocation function. Allocation refers to any activities of government
which affects the type, quantity and quality of goods and services being
produced. Allocation by government includes producing public
education, subsidizing health care services, subsidizing petroleum
products and fertilizers, taxing cigarettes, regulating factory and
automobile emissions, constructing roads and setting prices for electric
power supplied by private firms to mention a few.
Allocation activities of government generally are justified if public goods,

merit goods on the basis or external effects. Public goods are goods or
services having the properties that; (1) they cannot be provided to one
citizen without being supplied also to others and (2) once provided for
one citizen, the cost of providing them to others is zero. In this category
are defence and streetlights.
Merit goods are goods which consumers will not buy in sufficient
quantities if they are not compelled to do so through government.
Examples are health care services, public education, safety features in
a car and so on. Both public and merit goods are essential to human
lives, but will not be produced at all or will not be adequately supplied
if left to the private sector.
(b) Redistribution function. In a market economy, the distribution of

income is based on each person’s contributions to production. Granting
differences in natural and acquired abilities, distribution of income
determined exclusively by the market will produce high inequality
whereby some people are very wealthy, while others are very poor. To
redistribute income, government uses taxes and transfer payments. To
407
achieve a rich-to-poor redistribution, tax revenue is used to finance

transfer payments in the forms of free education, subsided public health
care services, and other pro-poor welfare programs.
(c) Economic stabilization. Economic stabilization policies are all

policies designed to promote price stability, full employment and
economic growth. It also involves government actions designed to ensure
stability of foreign exchange rate and interest rate in the money market.
The term macroeconomic stability is used to describe general stability
of prices of goods and services, exchange rate and interest rate, and it is
vital prerequisite for economic growth and development.
(d) Regulation of private business. This function is performed through

a re-growth of many specialized agencies of government. In Nigeria,
for instance, the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) and National
Ford and Drug Commission (NAFDAC) were established by the Federal
Government to ensure that high-quality and welfare-enhancing goods
are produced as against goods that endanger human lives.
(e) Administration of justice. The maintenance of the police and services

rendered by the courts has important economic consequences. The police
is maintained to protect human lives and properties, while the courts
adjudicates to sanction breaches of contracts. The level of economic
activities and standards of living will be low where people commit acts
of illegality with impunity.
It is evident from the discussions in this section that government

intervention in the economy is to enable it perform its economic role
which is based primarily on the existence of market failure. Therefore,
the market failure reality justifies the need for government to; (1) produce
public goods, (2) produce merit goods, (3) redress the consequences of
goods and services with negative externalities, (4) reduce income
inequality and (5) promote economic stability.
25.6 THE OBJECTIVES OF PRIVATISATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION IN

NIGERIA
Privatization is the process of transferring ownership, interest and control in
an enterprise from government to the public sector. Commercialization, on
the other hand, is the process of making an enterprise self-accounting and
self-sustaining instead of depending on the government for its operations and
existence. Privatization and commercialization are a key policy in the National
Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS) introduced during
Obasanjo administration.
408
The objectives of privatization and commercialization, from the perspective of

the Nigerian experience, have been identified to include the following:
(a) To enable the government to disengage from economic or business
activities in which it lack requisite competence or in which the private
sector is better.
(b) To make the companies and corporations more efficient by injecting
private sector efficiency into their activities.
(c) To reduce government financial burden brought in the form of subsidies
and grants to these unprofitable ventures and deploy the financial
resources so saved to other areas that are critical to the growth and
development of the economy.
(d) To reduce government bureaucratic control which has militated against
the operational efficiency of the affected enterprises.
(e) To make commercialized companies financially self-sufficient and self-
sustaining.
(f) To improve the quality of goods and services produced by these
companies where poor management and acts of gross indiscipline
explain poor outputs.
25.7 APPRAISAL OF THE PERFORMANCE OF THE NIGERIAN ECONOMY

With a population of 140 million in 2006 projected to 158.8 million in 2010,
Nigeria is the most populated country in Africa and one of the ten most
populated countries in the world.
The population growth rate average 3% during 2004 – 2010 indicating that
Nigeria has one of the fastest growing population in the world. The country is
endowed with a large expanse of arable land, abundant crude oil deposit and
diverse solid minerals. Thus, the country has a great potential to transform
into one of twenty largest economies in the world within a short period of time.
However, despite various development strategies and programmes adopted in

Nigeria since attaining political independence in 1960, the country still exhibit
essential characteristics of a developing nation. For example, the agricultural
sector incorporates about 65 percent of the labour force and contributed average
of 40.9 percent to the real gross domestic product (GDP) during 2004 – 2010,
while the industrial sector’s contribution declined from 30 percent to 20.3
percent during the same period. Capacity utilization in the manufacturing
sub-sector averaged about 54 percent, inflation rate 10.2 percent, while
unemployment rate increased from 12.3 percent to 20.1 percent.
For over four decades, the oil sector has remained the dominant foreign exchange
earner accounting for over 90 percent of foreign exchange income. The overall
balance of payments (BOP) persist in deficit and the debt stock also increased
considerably since 2006. The World Bank World Development Indicators (2011)
records a Gross National Income (GNI) per capita of $1,190 for Nigeria, 64.4
percent of the population living on less than $1.25 a day poverty line, which is
409
consistent with the local Poverty Index figure of 54.0 during 2004 – 2010. It is
not surprising that Nigeria remain listed conspicuously among the Low Income
Countries (LICs) of the world.
Some of the relevant measures that have been suggested to promote sustainable
economic growth and widespread improvement in living standards include:
(a) Use of oil revenues more rationally to diversify economic activity
(b) Intensify domestic food production and raise labour productivity to
achieve food security.
(c) Upgrade and expansion of economic infrastructures, especially electricity
supply, road and rail networks.
(d) Leverage Deposit Money Banks (DMBs) and Rural Microfinance Banks
(RMBs) in support of Micro Small and Medium Scale Enterprises
(MSMSE) for unemployment and growth generation
(e) Removal of institutional constraints, especially weak enforcement of
contracts, and corruption to encourage private investment.
(f) Reduce cost of governance and harmonise the tax regimes to encourage
private capital inflow.\
(g) Liquidity management in the economy must be geared towards
improving the liquidity and efficiency of the financial market to ensure
stability of prices, foreign exchange and interest rates.
(h) Promote security of lives and properties.
(i) Lower population growth rate through a combination of effective family
planning programmes.
(j) Discourage borrowing of deadweight debts and for projects of doubtful
viability.
(k) Intensify efforts for human resource development and its utilization.
25.8 CHAPTER REVIEW

The role of the public sector is critical to sustainable economic growth and
development in every developing economy like Nigeria. However, policies and
programmes of government, in recent times, are in the direction of transforming
the Nigerian economy into a private sector-driven economy. The government
must take necessary steps to improve the performance of the economy in a way
to reduce widespread unemployment, poverty and inequality.

25.9.1 Questions
(1) Discuss the main objectives of government economic policies in

a developing economy like Nigeria.
(2) Explain the bases for government-intervention in the economy

despite argument often put forward in favour of a private sector
driven economy.
410
(3) Justify the Federal Government adoption of privatization and

commercialization as a key policy in the National Economic
Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS).
(4) Discuss relevant strategies open to the Federal Government to

improve the performance of the Nigerian economy.

(1) Basically, there are five main microeconomic objectives of
government in every developing economy. These are:
(a) Price stability. To curb inflation or deflation in the
economy. Both inflation and deflation are inimical to
economic growth and development. For example a
widespread increase in prices of goods and services will
lower standards of living of fixed income earners.
(b) Full-employment: Every modern government pursues

the goals of a high level of employment of resources,
especially to ensure that about 95 per cent of the labour
force is engaged in economic production. A high level of
unemployment is associated with high standard of living.
(c) Economic growth. The government through its

upgrading and expanding of infrastructural facilities
promote the expansion of the productive capacity of the
economy. Standards of living will improve when greater
quantities of welfare – enhancing goods are continuously
generated.
(d) External balance. Government also promote balance of

payments equilibrium which implies less reliance on
foreign countries for goods and services and avoidance
debt and its burden.
(e) Equitable distribution of income and wealth. To

reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, government
uses progressive taxes and transfer payments.
(2) The need for government intervention in the economy is justified on the
basis of market failure. When the market forces are allowed to allocate
resources and goods. Some people who lack resources and opportunities
will be worse off in the economy.
(a) For provision of public goods. Some goods and services like
defence, streetlights are non-rival in consumption and not subject
to the exclusion principle. This category of goods and services
may not be provided by private firms at all.
411
(b) For Provision Merit of Goods. These are goods which may not
be consumed in sufficient quantities unless people are compelled
to consume them. Examples are education, and health care
services which are essential to human existence and wellbeing
(c) To promote economic stability. This is to reduce fluctuations

in output, employment, income and prices which may have
destabilizing effects on economic activities.
(d) To promote equality in income distribution. The distribution

of income in a market economy is based on each person’s
contribution to production and ability or access to resources. This
is usually unequal, and it calls for government intervention to
ensure that every person in the society have access to goods and
services that support their existence.
(e) The case of goods with negative externalities. Some people

that are engaged in activities that impact negatively on other
peoples welfare such as noise, pollution, etc should be sanctioned
while the victims are compensated by the government.
(3) Privatization has been defined as the process of transferring ownership,

interests and control in an enterprise from government to the private sector.
Commercialization, on the other hand, is the process of making an enterprise
self-accounting and self-sustaining instead of depending on the government
for funding. Privatization and commercialization is a key policy in NEEDS
adopted by the Obasanjo administration to promote national development.
The strategy was adopted to achieve the following objectives:
(a) To enable government to disengage from business activities in which

the private sector is more competent so as to achieve performance.
(b) To make companies or corporations more efficient by injecting private

sector efficiency into their operations.
(c) To reduce government waste spending in forms of subsides and grants

on activities that are not profitable, and use money saved in that process
to improve other areas of economy.
(d) To reduce government bureaucratic control which has militated against

operational efficiency of some government companies.
(e) To transform some commercialized companies into financially self-

sufficient and self-sustaining outfits.
412
(4) Over fifty years after attaining political independence, Nigeria still exhibits
characteristics of a developing country. Per capita income is low, unemployment
rate is high and there is wide spread poverty. The strategies open to the
government to transform the economy and raise living standards include the
following:
(a) Use oil revenues more rationally to diversify economic activity.
(b) intensify agricultural practices to promote food security and provide

raw materials for industries.
(c) Upgrade and expand infrastructures like electricity supply, road and
rail networks, health and educational facilities to raise economic
activities and enhance manpower development.
(d) Encourage deposit money banks and rural microfinance banks to support
micro small and medium scale enterprises, especially to eliminate rural
poverty.
(e) Encourage family planning and female gender employment to reduce

population growth rate.
(f) Promote macroeconomic stability to attract private capital inflow thereby

raising the level of economic activities in the economy.
(g) Discourage contracts of deadweight debt with its attendant future tax
obligations.
Promote security of lives and property and eliminate corruption in all

sectors of the economy.
413
414
CHAPTER
Skills level
26
Public Debt and Its Management

in Nigeria
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction to Public Debt.
3. Analysis of Nigeria’s External and Internal Debt.
4. Nigeria’s Debt Crisis.
5. Causes of Nigeria’s Domestic and External Debt problem.
6. Domestic and External Debt Management in Nigeria.
7. Trends in Nigeria’s Public Debt.
8. Chapter Review
9. Worked Examples
415
26
PUBLIC DEBT AND ITS MANAGEMENT

IN NIGERIA
26.0 PURPOSE
(a) distinguish between external and internal public debt.
(b) explain the general causes and consequences of public debt.
(c) discuss Nigeria’s public debt profile.
(d) outline trends in Nigeria’s public debt.
(e) identify the causes of Nigeria debt crisis; and
(f) review Nigeria’s experience in public debt management.
26.1 INTRODUCTION
Public debt is simply the debt which a country owes to its citizens and to
residents, institutions and governments of foreign countries. It is the total
outstanding debt obligations or accumulated borrowing of the national
government. In every modern economy, the Central Bank keeps the finances
and accounts of the nation, and it is also involved in raising money for the
execution of government programmes. The need to borrow money arises when
the total government expenditure exceeds its receipts.
Public debt is also one of the sources of government revenue. It is usually

contracted to bridge budgetary gap. However, the government has to pay interest
and repay the loan (principal) to the public in full consonance with the agreed
terms and conditions. Interest payment on a debt and the repayment of the
principal at maturity is referred to as debt servicing. Specifically, public debt
in Nigeria is the amount of money owed by the Government to various creditors,
individuals, institutions and other governments within and outside Nigeria.
The Debt Management Office (DMO) in the Presidency manages the Nation’s
public debt.
26.1.1Categorization of Public Debt

There are different categorization of Public Debt. They include:
(a) Marketable and Non-marketable Debt–Marketable debts are those

which can be bought and sold in the financial market. In Nigeria,
marketable debt include Treasury Bills (short term debts traded in the
money market) and Federal Government Development Stocks (long term
debts traded on the Stock Exchange). Non-marketable debts are those
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PUBLIC DEBT AND ITS MANAGEMENT IN NIGERIA
which have been issued in favour of specified debt holders and cannot
be sold to others. They cannot be traded in the money market.
(b) Funded and Unfunded Debt–Funded Debt is a long term debt for a
definite period. The interest rate to be paid, with terms and conditions
of repayment are clearly spelt out in the debt certificate. Provision is
made to facilitate repayment of the debt by the creation of a debt fund
also known as sinking fund in which some money is deposited yearly by
the government, so as not to unnecessarily erode the financial base of
the nation. A funded debt has the additional advantage of simplicity
and certainty. It gives rooms for orderly plan for debt retirement. An
Unfunded Debt, on the other hand, is for a short period of less than a
year. No separate fund is created by the government to effect its
repayment rather, the debt is repaid out of government current receipts,
often by floating new bonds in the money market. In this way, an
unfunded debt is also referred to as a floating debt. In view of the
obligation to make repayment within twelve calendar months, the debt
may impact seriously and negatively on the working capital of the nation.
(c) Reproductive and Deadweight Debts – A debt is productive or

reproductive when its amount is used to finance a project which in the
long run generates revenue to the government which is sufficient to
service the debt. For example, debt contracted on railways, irrigations
and toll roads project are productive. On the other hand, deadweight or
unproductive debt is debt that does not increase the productive capacity
of the economy because it is not backed by any existing asset. For
example, debt contracted to finance war or to be used as safety nets for
flood disaster victims is a deadweight debt.
(d) Internal Debt and External Debt– Internal or Domestic Debt is that
which the country owes to its citizens. In other words, it is a claim against
the government by its citizens as individuals, institutions etc. within
the country. Domestic debt consists of debt instruments publicly issued
through the monetary authority of the country, the capital market on
behalf of the government, direct government borrowing or overdrafts
from the monetary authority and outstanding contractual obligations to
local contractors and suppliers. External or Foreign Debt, on the other
hand, refers to debt owed to foreign individuals, governments (bilateral
loans), international organizations like International Monetary Fund
(IMF), World Bank Groups such as International Development
Association (IDA), International Financial Cooperation (IFC)S,
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) as well
as African Development Bank (ADB).
417
26.1.2 Maturity Pattern Of Public Debt

The components of public debts carry different maturity. The debt
component may be short, medium or long-term maturity. The
classification relates to the maturity pattern of the original debt. Short-
term debts have maturity period of a year. Medium-term debts may
mature for payment in two or three years. Long-term debts have maturity
of five or more years. The structure of the maturity pattern of the debts
of a country determines the relative ease with which interest and
principal re-payments are made.
26.2 GENERAL CAUSES OF PUBLIC DEBT

The following are some of the reasons that have been advanced to justify the
need for a country to borrow:
(a) Huge and persistent budget deficit: The government borrows when its
expenditure is greater than its revenue (budget deficit), especially after
its taxing capacity has been stressed to the limit.
(b) Balance of repayments disequilibrium: Excessive reliance on foreign

resources to maintain domestic production processes, and on foreign
goods and services beyond the nation’s foreign exchange earning
capacity also creates the need for the government to borrow.
(c) Rapidly increasing population: In most developing countries, population

is growing faster than the national output. The need arises for
government borrowing to expand public enterprises and public utilities
to cater for the welfare of the people.
(d) Implementation of development programmes: To promote economic

development usually require provision of new and upgrading of existing
social and economic infrastructural facilities like roads, railways,
electricity, schools and hospitals. The tax revenue of government may
not be sufficient to execute such projects, hence the resort to government
borrowing.
(e) Economic instability: A stable economy naturally provides an enabling

environment for economic growth and development. Public debt of the
internal type may be contracted to control inflation, while both internal
and external borrowing may be used to stimulate economic activities
during economic depression.
(f) Natural disasters: Government has the responsibility to provide relief to

the victims of earthquake, flood and fire disasters, famines, sectarian
violence and other natural calamities. Government borrowing may be
justified because such occurrences are never expected or budgeted for.
418
(g) Fluctuations in government revenue: Most countries operate mono

cultural economies depending on only one (or very few) export product
for foreign exchange income. A sudden poor performance of such product
in the international market would reduce income considerably and affect
budget implementation adversely. Any country that finds itself in such
a situation may have no option than to borrow to bridge the financial
resource gap.
(h) War-time borrowing: Financial resources needed to prosecute wars are

usually beyond the capacity of the government. Hence, the need to borrow
arises to avoid devastating consequences of defeat.
(i) Debt servicing: New debt with favourable terms and conditions may be
incurred to service old debts with a view to reducing the burden of debt
on the economy.
26.3 CONSEQUENCES OF PUBLIC DEBT

Generally, public debt has both good as well as adverse effects.
26.3.1 The Good Effects Of Public Debt

The benefits of public debt include the following:
(a) Rapid economic growth and welfare improvement would be
achieved if borrowed funds are utilized to finance economically
and socially viable projects.
(b) The confidence of local and foreign investors in the economy
would be boosted if public debt is used to control inflation. New
and additional investment would lead to creation of new jobs
and greater output of welfare- enhancing goods and services.
(c) If borrowed funds are spent on public works, standards of living
will improve, especially via creation of new jobs and the
transformation of the environment.
(d) Public debt reduces income inequalities if it is spent on social,
security and projects that are of more benefit to the lower income
groups.
(e) Those who lend money to government by purchasing government
securities, instead of keeping idle savings, will become richer
as they acquire additional assets to boost their wealth portfolio.
26.3.2 Adverse Effects Of Public Debt

The adverse consequences or disadvantages of public debt include the
following:
(a) Excessive government borrowing within the economy tends to
crowd out private investments. That is, government competes
with private companies in the money market and deprive them
loanable funds they needed to grow their activities.
419
(b) It imposes future obligation on tax payers when borrowed funds

are diverted to prestigious or white-elephant projects that have
no direct relevance to economic growth and development.
(c) Funding excessive interest rate on public debt in hard currency

deprives the nation of foreign exchange needed to procure critical
inputs, especially in a country like Nigeria that is highly import-
dependent with respect to inputs required in the industrial sector.
This leads to declining industrial capacity utilization and loss of
industrial jobs.
(d) Borrowing goes along with unbearable conditionalities of the

International Monetary Fund (IMF), like trade liberalization,
withdrawal of subsidies on essential products, expenditure
reduction, non-increase of salary of public servants and other
stiff conditions that carry grave repercussion on living standards
of the people.
(e) It is an ineffective way of controlling inflation. As a matter of

fact, debt servicing may create inflationary effects at a time of
full-employment. Specially, the financing of domestic debt
usually cause aggregate demand to increase when creditors bring
the income generated through their investment in government
securities into circulation.
(f) Debt-servicing problem is aggregated when short and medium-

term loans are committed to long-term projects with amortization
be coming due before projects are completed.
26.4 PUBLIC DEBT MANAGEMENT

Public debt management refers to how the central government deals with the
public debt stock without bringing about adverse economic effects. The relevant
authority in charge of debt management in a country has the responsibility to
ensure debt sustainability. Public debt is said to be sustainable if country has
the ability to service its debt liabilities without affecting the obligations of
economic growth and without recourse to bargaining for restructuring, or
accumulation of arrears.
In Nigeria, debt management has become a major responsibility of the Debt

Management Office (DMO) in the Presidency in recent times. It was a major
responsibility of the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) to undertake the function
with the Ministry of Finance Incorporated (MOFI) in the office of Accountant
General of the Federation. In recent times, the level of debt accumulated by
developing economics, including Nigeria, reached an alarming proportion that
the need simultaneously arose from proper and diligent management.
420
26.5 NIGERIA’S PUBLIC DEBT

For ease of exposition, Nigeria’s public debt is subdivided into Domestic/Internal
Debt and External/Foreign Debt.
26.5.1 Nigeria’s Domestic or Internal Debt

Nigeria has contracted a number of domestic debt obligations, which
can be classified into two major groups, discussed as follows:
(a) Internal debts contracted through financial instrument.

This type of internal public debt is contracted through the financial
instruments of the Central Bank of Nigeria, from the Commercial
and Merchants Banks and the non-bank public. The debts are
normally contracted through financial instruments such as
Treasury Bills, Treasury Certificates and Government
Development Stocks. The Central Bank of Nigeria underwrites
the instruments on behalf of the Federal Government and takes
up unsubscribed parts of the loans.
(b) “Trade-related” debts owed directly to contractors and

suppliers. Government borrows from the economy for the purpose
of financing certain expenditure that will alter the position of
economic variables like consumption, saving and investment,
employment, price level and output of goods and services. This
arises when payments to contractors and suppliers are delayed
or remain unpaid by Government due to lack of fund.
26.5.2 Sources of Nigeria’s Domestic Debt

It is evident from the above discussion, that Nigeria’s domestic debt is
contracted from the following sources:
(a) Commercial Banks (Money Deposit Banks):As part of their
investment portfolios, money deposit banks buy government
debt instruments, sold by the Central Bank on behalf of Federal
Government. They are also required to hold part of their liquid
assets in treasury securities. These debt instruments earn
interest.
(b) Non-Bank Public: Entities such as insurance companies, savings

institutions, state and local government, statutory boards/
corporations and individuals also subscribe to government debt
instruments.
(c) Central Bank of Nigeria: the CBN absorbs the unsubscribed portion
of government securities floated in the primary market.
Arrangements are on to transfer this underwriting functions of
the CBN to discount houses under the Bank’s open market
operations.
421
26.5.3 Instruments Of Domestic Borrowing

Government projects are usually financed through the issuance of debt
instruments such as Treasury Bills, Treasury Certificates, Government
Development Stocks, General Obligation Bonds, Revenue Bonds, and
Special Assessment Bonds. The most frequently used of the instruments
are discussed as follows:
(a) Treasury Bills (TBs) - These are highly liquid financial
obligations of the Federal Government issued by the Central Bank
of Nigeria, in multiples of 1,000 every week, with 91 days
maturity. They are principal instruments of open market
operations in Nigeria.
(b) Treasury Certificates – They are financial instruments just as

Treasury bills, with maturity ranging from one to two years. The
Treasury Certificate interest rates are usually higher than those
of Treasury Bills. The major investors in Treasury Certificates are
the discount houses, commercial and merchant banks.
(c) Government Development Stocks – Development stocks are

capital market instruments. They are either medium or long-term,
issued to finance development projects or plans. The longer the
maturity the higher the yield. The principal investors in
development stocks are the insurance companies, commercial
banks, Central Bank of Nigeria and other types of institutions
like mortgage banks. Federal Government Stocks are debts raised
by the country. The issuance procedure is usually handled and
managed by the Central Bank of Nigeria, which files its
application with the Securities and Exchange Commission. The
security is approved for listing on the Stock Exchange.
(d) Revenue Bonds - Revenue Bonds are issued by the State and
Local Government Councils. They are backed up by the pledge of
revenue to be generated from the project being financed. They
are municipal bonds issued on the promise that principal and
interest will be repaid from the revenue generated from the
facilities to be constructed with the proceeds of the issue.
26.5.4 Causes of Domestic Debt

The rapid increase in the stock of domestic debts is caused primarily
by the need to:
(a) Finance ever-rising Government expenditure.
(b) Finance Government budget deficit
(c) React positively to increased socio-economic responsibilities.
(d) Finance high domestic and international inflation rates, resulting
in increased cost of Government administration and development
programmes.
422
(e) Cope with the sharp decline in Government revenue, following the
collapse of the international crude oil market.
26.5.5 Management Of Internal Or Domestic Debt

The management of domestic debt by the Federal Government is a
statutory obligation of the Central Bank of Nigeria, but which is now
handled by the Debt Management Office in the Presidency. It is the
Central Bank which is entrusted with the issue and management of
Federal Government loans publicly issued in Nigeria, upon such terms
and conditions as may be agreed between the Federal Government the
banks and the contractors. The management of domestic debt involves:
(a) Advising on the timing of flotation of debt instruments and terms
of issue.
(b) Advertising for public subscriptions to the issue.
(c) Collecting the proceeds of issue by the Central Bank of Nigeria on
behalf of the Government and maintaining proper books of
accounts in respect of receipts and disbursements.
(d) Supervising the issue of certificates and warrants to the lenders.
(e) Paying of interest and principal on the due dates.
(f) Managing the ‘sinking fund’ set up to facilitate debt redemption.
(g) Providing information on regular basis and advising Government
about the position and implications of domestic debt.
26.5.6 Economic Indicators Of Domestic Debt

Some economic indicators of domestic debt burden are the ratios of debt
stock and the fiscal deficit to the Nation’s gross domestic product. For
example, Total Domestic Debt/GDP ratio are 2.4, 2.1, 2.0, 2.4 and 2.4 for
2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, respectively. The lower the ratio of debt
to the gross domestic product, the less harsh the debt repayment and
service terms.
26.6 EXTERNAL OR FOREIGN DEBT

Securing external loan is inevitable for a Government when the economy faces
financial crisis. There is no doubt that Nigeria, like other developing countries,
is facing serious debt crisis. It has therefore emphasised the use of external
loans for financing public expenditure.
26.6.1 Types Of External Debt

From the Nigerian experience, there are four types of external debt each
of which reflects the purpose for which the debt was incurred. These are
discussed below:
(a) Trade Arrears. A trade debt arises when a country trades with
other countries and is unable to pay, either partly or wholly, for
the goods and services supplied. For example, in the early 1980s
Nigeria’s inability to settle her import bills resulted in the
423
accumulation of trade arrears amounting to US$9.8 billion

between 1983 and 1988.
(b) Balance of Payments Support Loans. The overall economic

transactions between a country and the rest of the world, classified
into current, financial and capital accounts, constitute the balance
of payments position which may be favourable when it is a
surplus or unfavourable when it is a deficit. However, a persistent
unfavourable balance of payments may inform government’s
decision to seek for balance of payments support loans. Such
loans which are in the form of capital flow and other
accommodations are provided by multilateral institutions such
as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and bilateral
arrangements.
(c) Project-tied Loans. Investments which have good potentials

and prospects of accelerating economic growth and development
may lead government into contracting project-tied loans. As
implied, this type of debt which is for the execution of a particular
project is supposed to be self-liquidating.
(d) Loans for Socio-Economic Needs. The provisions of the socio-

economic needs of the people such as infrastructure, health,
education and other social amenities may necessitate government
borrowing to finance them.
26.6.2 Sources Of External Debt

Nigerian has contracted a number of debt obligations from external
sources, some of which are discussed below:
(a) Paris Club of Creditors. The Club represents only government

guaranteed creditors. Membership includes the United States of
America, United Kingdom, Federal Republic of Germany, France
and Canada, who guarantee the export activities of their
nationals, through their Official Export Credit agencies. In 2006,
Paris Club of Creditors granted Nigeria debt forgiveness to the
tune of about US$18 billion.
(b) London Club of Creditors. These are mainly uninsured and

unguaranteed debts extended by their commercial banks to
nationals of debtor nations. Members of the Club are commercial
banks mainly in industrialized countries. The first London Club
meeting was convened in 1976. Such meetings are held to discuss
repayment problems and conclude restructuring agreements.
424
(c) Multilateral Creditors: These are international institutions

funded by member nations. They include the World Bank and its
affiliates – International Finance Corporation (IFC), International
Development Association (IDA) and the Multilateral Investment
Guarantee Agency (MIGA); International Monetary Fund (IMF);
African Development Bank (ADB); European Investment Bank
(EIB); as well as International Fund for Agricultural Development
(IFAD) that provide credit for development purposes, balance of
payments support and private ventures.
(d) Promissory Note Creditors: These are uninsured trade credits,

arising mainly from trade arrears accumulated between 1982
and 1983. The debts were refinanced by the issuance of
promissory notes to the creditors.
( e) Bilateral and Private Sector Creditors: A bilateral credit is

provided by one government to another. Such credits are intended
for development purposes in the recipient countries. Examples
are the Official Development Assistance (ODA), sometimes
provided on bilateral basis with a minimum grant element of 25
per cent and export credits guaranteed by export credit agencies
of exporting countries.
Private sector credits are usually short-term, extended by commercial

banks, individual foreign suppliers and institutional investors in the
form of suppliers or buyers credits.
26.6.3 Causes of Increased External Debt Burden

The rapid increase in external debt stock is due to:
(a) Substantial growth in imports. The ability to settle import bills
became seriously constrained as reflected in the rapid build-up
of trade arrears which rose sharply.
(b) Drastic reduction in export earnings, following the oil crisis
which made it difficult to meet debt obligations which fell due.
(c) Financing of domestic projects which could not pay their way.
Instability of the exchange rate also increased the hardship.
(d) Borrowing from the multilateral and bilateral institutions with
harsh conditions.
(e) Weak terms of trade and accumulation of trade arrears
(f) Depreciation of the US dollar against other major international
currencies in which the loans were contracted.
26.6.4 External Debt Management

External debt management is a conscious and carefully planned
schedule of the acquisition, deployment and retirement of loans acquired,
for either development purposes or to support the balance of payments
425
position. It incorporates the estimates of foreign exchange earnings,

sources of financing the project returns from the investment and the
repayment schedule. It also includes an assessment of the country’s
capability to service the existing debts and judgment of the desirability
of contracting further loans.
Nigeria’s external debt management strategies have varied from time

to time since the early 1980’s when the debt crisis became pronounced.
However, a more pragmatic, articulate and all-embracing plan was set
up in 1988, with the following policy objectives:
(a) To outline strategies for increased foreign exchange earnings,
thereby reducing the need for external borrowing.
(b) To set out the criteria for borrowing from external sources and
determining the type of projects for which external loans may be
obtained.
(c) To outline the mechanism for servicing external debts of the public
and private sectors.
(d) To outline the roles and responsibilities of the various organs of
the Federal and State Governments as well as those of the private
sector, in the management of external debt.
Consequently, the following policy guidelines were issued as
regards Government borrowing:
(a) Economic sector projects should have positive internal rate of
return as high as the cost of borrowing.
(b) Social services or infrastructural endeavours would be ranked
on the basis of their cost/benefit ratios.
(c) Projects to be financed with external loans should be supported
with feasibility studies, including loan acquisition, deployment
and retirement plan schedule.
(d) External loan for private and public sector projects of quick
yielding nature can be sourced from concessional financing
institutions.
(e) Borrowing State Governments, Parastatals and private agencies
should obtain the advance approval of the Federal Government.
This requirement is to ensure that the borrowing conforms with
the national objectives.
(f) State Government borrowing proposals should be submitted to
the Federal Ministry of Finance and Economic Development and
the Central Bank of Nigeria for consideration, before they are
incorporated in the final public sector borrowing in the annual
budget.
(g) State Governments and their agencies as well as the Federal
Government Parastatals should service their debt through the
Foreign Exchange Market, and inform the Federal Ministry of
Finance and Economic Development for record purposes. Failure
of the State Governments to service their debts will result in the
426
naira equivalent being deducted at source before the balance of

their statutory allocations are released.
(h) ‘Loan on-lent’ by the Federal Government to the State Government,
the Federal Ministry of Finance and Economic Development would
make due payment and deduct the full amount at source from
the statutory allocations of the borrowing States.
(i) The private sector industries which are export-oriented should
service their debts from their export earnings while others should
utilize the foreign exchange market facilities.
26.6.5 Guidelines On External Borrowing

Guidelines on External Borrowing as enunciated by the Fiscal
Responsibility Act, 2007. Borrowing is interpreted to mean any financial
obligation arising from:
(a) any loan, including principal, interest and fees on such loan;
(b) deferred payment for property, goods or services;
(c) bonds, debentures, notes or similar instruments;
(d) letters of credit and reimbursement obligations in respect thereto;
(e) trade or bankers’ acceptance;
(f) capitalised amount of obligations under leases entered into
primarily as a method of raising financing or of financing the
acquisition of the asset leased;
(g) agreements providing for swaps, ceiling rates, ceiling and floor
rates, contingent participation or other hedging mechanisms with
respect to the payment of interest or the convertibility of currency;
and
(h) conditional sale agreements, capital leases or other title retention
agreement.
26.6.6 Conditions For Borrowing

(a) Any Government in the Federation or its agency and Corporations
which intend to borrow, should specify the purpose for which the
borrowing is intended and present a cost-benefit analysis,
detailing the economic and social benefits of the purpose to which
the intended borrowing is to be applied.
(b) Government at all tiers shall borrow only for capital expenditure
and human development, and such borrowing shall be on
concessional terms with low interest rate and with a reasonable
long amortization period.
(c) Each borrowing shall be subject to:
(i) The existence of prior authorisation in the Appropriation
or other Act or Law for the purpose for which the borrowing
is to be utilised.
(ii) The proceeds of the borrowing being applied solely towards
long-term capital expenditure.
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(d) Level of public debt as a proportion of national income should be

held at a sustainable level as prescribed by the National
Assembly.
(e) Federal Government may borrow from the Capital Market.
(f) The Fiscal Responsibility Commission shall verify compliance
with the limits and conditions for borrowing by each Government
in the Federation on quarterly basis.
(g) The Debt Management Office shall maintain comprehensive,
reliable and current electronic data base of internal and external
public debts, guaranteeing public access to the information.
(h) Servicing of external debts will be the direct responsibility of the
Government that incurred the debt.
(i) The cost of servicing Federal Government guaranteed loans shall
be deducted at source from the share of the debtor Government
from the Federation Account.
(j) Violators of the limits set by the Constitution and relevant Act
shall:
(i) be prohibited from borrowing either internally or externally;
(ii) bring the debt within the established limit by restricting funding
commitments.
(k) All banks and financial institutions shall request and obtain proof
of compliance with the provisions of the relevant sections of the
Fiscal Responsibility Act before lending to any Government in
the Federation.
26.6.7 Getting out of External Debt Trap

Having identified the various causes of Nigeria’s debt problems, the
following methods appear to offer reliefs from the seeming debt trap:
(a) Debt rescheduling.
(b) Debt-equity conversions.
(c) Introduction of counter trade.
(d) Ban on external loans.
(e) Reliance on foreign aid or assistance.
(f) Debt forgiveness / relief.
(g) Debt repudiation.
(h) Economic restructuring programme (This is a long-term solution).
The recipes highlighted above are hereby discussed in more detail:

(a) Debt Rescheduling
This involves the re-arrangement of the repayment terms of debt
by adjusting the interest rate, the grace period, the principal sum
to be liquidated and maturity date. The strategy does not lead to
any reduction in the stock of debt. Rather, it facilitates the
management of the debts by providing some relief. For instance,
Nigeria negotiated series of rescheduling arrangements with the
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Paris Club of Creditors, between 1986 and 1991. However, the

use of this method has been criticised because it merely postpones
the ‘evil day’ for the debtor Nation.
(b) Debt-Equity Conversion

Nigerian Government is currently applying debt-equity swap. It
is an idea of converting foreign debt into equity shares in local
companies. The benefits associated with this approach are:
(i) It will make the economic environment attractive for
foreign investment.
(ii) It will reduce the outstanding stock of the nation’s external
debts, a situation that is likely to reduce debt service
burden.
(iii) It will encourage the creation and development of export-
oriented industries, thereby diversifying the export base
of Nigeria’s economy.
(iv) It is likely to increase access to the appropriate technology,
external market and other benefits associated with foreign
investment.
However, there are possible demerits of this option. They are:

(i) Large increase in money supply that will accompany debt-
equity conversion may complicate the problems of
inflation.
(ii) The likely foreign domination in terms of ownership of
assets, may not favour the country’s economic growth and
development and political freedom.
(c) Counter-Trade
Counter-trade represents a trade arrangement between two
countries under which one Nation makes its major export
available to another country, in exchange for a major import. In
the past Nigeria considered counter trade as a viable medium of
international trade, due to the country’s deteriorating ‘balance
of payments’ position. Nigeria used this method to obtain raw
materials for the development of the petrochemical industries
and Ajaokuta Steel Industry. Algeria and Brazil entered into
counter trade agreement with Nigeria in 1984.
(d) Ban on External Borrowing

This is a temporary measure designed to stop the Government
from further borrowing.
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(e) Reliance on Foreign Aid or Assistance

The word ‘foreign’ represents international transfer of public fund
in form of grants, either directly from one Government to another
(bilateral assistance) or through the vehicle of institutions such
as the World Bank (multilateral assistance).
(f) Debt Repudiation

This involves disowning the debt completely. This approach had
been advocated by many economists. Fidel Castro, in his own
contribution, did not see any sense in developing countries paying
back the debt in view of past colonisation and neo-colonisation
experiences. African countries had more than paid for the debts,
according to Fidel Castro of Cuba. However, there is the possibility
of the imposition of sanctions by the International Monetary Fund
and World Bank, if Nigeria should illegally repudiate its
indebtedness.
(g) Debt Forgiveness Relief

This arises where a creditor Nation decides to forget or write off
the liabilities of a debtor nation. The option has been taken by
Paris Club in favour of some debtors. In 2006, Paris Club of
Creditors granted Nigeria a debt relief of about $18bn. This
translated to about 2.43trillion at an average exchange rate of
130 to $1.
(h) Economic Restructuring Programme

The idea is a long-term solution. It is believed that the poor
performance of the economy led to the debt crisis, hence the
adoption of Structural Adjustment Programme in 1986. The
objectives which informed the initiative were as follows:
(i) To restructure and diversify the productive base of the
economy, in order to reduce dependence on the oil sector
and imports.
(ii) To reduce the debt burden and attract the net inflows of
foreign capital.
(iii) The adoption of a realistic exchange rate policy.
(iv) Privatization and commercialization of public enterprises
so as to ensure their efficiency and effectiveness.
(v) Reduction of complex administrative control.
26.7 CAUSES OF NIGERIA’S DEBT CRISIS

There are factors which led Nigeria and other developing countries into the
debt crises. The major causes include the following:
(a) Change in the economic fortune in the oil sector. Nigeria enjoyed oil
boom in the 70’s and what followed was excessive supply of crude
430
petroleum, leading to oil glut in the world market and sharp drop in
revenue.
(b) Nature of Nigeria’s Economy. Nigeria’s economy is heavily dependent
on one or a few agricultural or mineral commodities. The manufacturing
sector is mostly at the infant stage and relies heavily on imported inputs.
Nigeria equally depends on the advanced countries for the supply of
other imports and finance needed for economic development.
(c) The shift from official to private sources of credit. For a private loan,
interest would be higher and the period of maturity very short, while
the reverse is the case in respect of an official loan.
(d) The problem of satisfying the International Monetary Fund’s
conditionalities has made developing countries, including Nigeria, to
accept expensive loans from private money lenders, the effect of which
is the problem of debt service.
(e) The low level of savings and high propensity to consume foreign goods.
(f) Gross mismanagement, compounded by inappropriate monetary, fiscal
and exchange rate policies.
26.8 APPROACHES TO SOLVING DEBT PROBLEMS IN NIGERIA

As part of the efforts to reduce the burden of external debt in Nigeria, the
following measures have been taken in recent years:
(a) Placement of embargo on new loans to prevent additional debt burden
and fixing the maximum level of debt commitment for Federal and State
Governments.
(b) Reduction of importation of non-essential items.
26.9 DEBT CONVERSION PROGRAMME

This may be in form of:
(a) debt for equity
(b) debt for cash
(c) debt for debt swap
(d) debt for export swap.
(a) Debt for Equity-Swap. This is the most popular option. The swap
involves investment of the naira proceeds of the converted debts in local
companies or firms, in the debtor-country. The creditor therefore becomes
a shareholder in the debtor country’s companies or firms.
(b) Debt for Cash. It involves the conversion of the foreign loans to local
currency. The proceeds of the conversion will be used by the recipient
country to meet its working capital needs.
(c) Debt- For- Debt Swap. This method allows a country’s external debt
to be re-denominated in the local currency of the debtor Nation.
In this way, the payment procedure is eased and redemption can be
used by an investing multinational to inject money into its subsidiary.
431
(d) Debt-for-Export-Swap. It involves the settlement of debt with

export proceeds. The creditors accept goods and write off that portion
of the debts covered by the value of the goods. This arrangement can
be targeted at specific export commodity which Government wishes to
promote as a move to diversify the economy.
26.10 OBJECTIVES OF DEBT EQUITY SWAP OR DEBT CONVERSION

PROGRAMME
The Debt Conversion Programme (DCP) was introduced in July, 1988, with
the following objectives:
(a) Reduction of Nigeria’s external debt by reducing foreign currency
denominated debt, in order to alleviate the debt service burden. As at
December, 1977, a total of US$77.8 million was redeemed through the
Debt Conversion Programme.
(b) Improvement of economic environment in order to attract foreign
investment.
(c) Serving as additional incentive to prevent capital flight.
(d) Stimulating employment opportunities and investment in areas which
are of significance to the local industries.
(e) Encouragement of the creation and development of export oriented
industries, thereby diversifying the export base of the economy.
(f) Increasing the access to appropriate technology, external market and
other benefits associated with foreign investments.
26.11 CATEGORIES OF ELIGIBLE TRANSACTIONS FOR DEBT CONVERSION

These may be briefly highlighted, thus:
(a) Conversion to cash for the purpose of making gifts or grants to Nigerian
entities.
(b) Conversion for project expansion, for recapitalization of investments
project or for privatization of public enterprises.
(c) Conversion for investments in completely new projects.
The above are three categories of applications which could be entertained
by the debt conversion committee.
26.12 PRIORITIES WITHIN ELIGIBLE TRANSACTION CATEGORIES

Within the categories of eligible transactions stated above, the following
economic activities are given priority:
(a) Investment in the production process which utilises at least 80% of local
raw materials, especially in the development of agricultural and agro-
allied industries.
(b) Investment with high labour employment content.
(c) Investment for extraction, exploitation and commercialization of
Nigeria’s mineral, forestry and other natural resources.
(d) Investment that will improve or use existing inventions and discoveries
in Nigeria in terms of new machinery, products or processes, or with
technology component appropriate to the Nigerian situation.
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26.13 PROBLEMS OF DEBT CONVERSION PROGRAMME

The Problems identified include:
(a) Because most debt conversion transactions involve the release of local
currency, there could be unplanned increase in money supply, thus
leading to inflation and exchange rate pressure.
(b) Debt Conversion Programmes offer opportunities for ‘round tripping’. It
involves the commission of a part or all of the redemption proceeds in
the foreign exchange in the parallel or official market, for exportation
immediately or at a later date. This style has ominous implication for
the exchange rate stability.
(c) Debt Conversion Programme tends to increase fears about the possibility
of radical change in the structure of business ownership in favour of
foreigners.
26.14 MINIMISING THE PROBLEMS OF DEBT CONVERSION PROGRAMME

Attempts to minimise the problems rest on the following:
(a) Setting limits on the amount and types of debts to be converted.
(b) Minimal use of debts-for-cash redemption and maximum utilisation
for productive investment.
(c) Blocking the redemption proceeds in an account with the Central Bank
of Nigeria from which disbursements would be made over time,
according to the cash requirements of the projects.
26.15 GENERAL OBLIGATION BONDS

Such bonds are issued by a State Government. They are backed up by the full
fledged credit and tax generating power of the issuing Government. Where a
State Government issues general obligation bonds, the rating of the bonds is
limited to the economic resources of the local tax payers and the State’s share
of revenue from the Federation Account. The bonds are frequently used to pay
for the construction of roads, schools and other public buildings.
26.16 SPECIAL ASSESSMENT BOND

They are financial instruments backed up by the proceeds from a special tax or
assessment levied against those who are expected to benefit from the services
or the envisaged improvement.
26.17 DOCUMENTATION FOR STATE GOVERNMENT DEBT INSTRUMENT

PROJECT -TIED DEBT
The documentation is highlighted as follows:
(a) Profile of the State, showing its population, major industries, their
locations and other major projects embarked upon. The information has
to be submitted with an application to the Securities and Exchange
Commission.
(b) A profile of the assets and liabilities of the State in the last five years in
addition to a 5 year projection.
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(c) Sources of revenue for the past 5 years, indicating the percentage
contribution of each to the total revenue.
(d) The law of the State authorising it or its agency to borrow from
the capital market.
(e) A feasibility report of the project to be financed.
(f) A draft of the Trust Deed in respect of the proposed issue.
(g) The consent of the Federal Ministry of Finance to the State’s request
to borrow from the capital market.
(h) Letter of authority from the State Government to the Central Bank
of Nigeria or the Accountant-General of the Federation, to permit
the Customs and Excise to seek direct recovery of loans and
interest from the affected Government’s statutory allocation, in
case of default.
26.18 PROBLEMS FACING STATE GOVERNMENT IN FINANCING PROJECTS

THROUGH CAPITAL MARKET
The problems include:
(a) Poor situation of accounting on the part of a State Government.
(b) Lack of qualified personnel to effectively evaluate, appraise and monitor
projects.
(c) Poor performance of existing State Government projects which act as
disincentive to potential investors.
(d) Inability of Government to package and market viable projects to the
investing public.
(e) Lack of awareness of the potential of the investing public.
(f) Preference for short-term investments by the public.
26.19 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR REVENUE BONDS

The special requirements are:
(a) Identification of Government’s authority to borrow and the types of
activities to which the enabling legislation applies.
(b) General grant of power to acquire, construct, improve or extend the
special improvement to issue revenue bonds and pledge same for the
payment of these bonds.
(c) Requirement that the issuing body should establish sufficient charges
or rates to operate and maintain the projects and meet principal and
interest payments as scheduled.
(d) Guarantee that the revenue bonds have all the qualities of a negotiable
instrument under the appropriate law of the State.
(e) Provisional design to secure the successful operation of the project.
(f) Remedies to be initiated where there is default.
26.20 DEBT RATIO

This is the relationship between a nations stock of debit plus its fiscal deficit
and its gross domestic product. High ratio means an enormous debt burden.
Foreign countries will need this ratio to evaluate a country’s application for
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loan. The applicant country itself requires the ratio to justify its application for
bilateral and multilateral loans and the conditions attached thereto.
(a) 50%
(b) 30%
(c) 20%
The extent of indebtedness of any nation can be determined by the above ratios.
The ratios above are the ‘cut-off’ points.
26.21 PARIS CLUB

The Paris Club is a cartel of nineteen (19) creditor countries which came into
existence in 1956, when a number of European countries agreed to meet in
Paris to find a mutually acceptable basis for rescheduling the outstanding
balances in their bilateral accounts with Argentina.
Since this period, the Paris Club has become a major informal forum where
countries experiencing difficulties in paying their official debts meet with
debtors for rescheduling of their obligations. Paris Club is an informal group
with no permanent members and it operates under the principle of consensus.
The Club brings together as many of the creditors as are willing to participate.
It holds meetings under informal arrangements. Those meetings are chaired
by a senior official of the French Treasury which also provides small staff to act
as the club secretariat. The ‘key players’ or traditional participants who should
be present during any rescheduling meeting are as follows:
(a) Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD)
(b) European Economic Community (EEC)
(c) IMF - International Monetary Fund
(d) IBRD - The World Bank
(e) The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(f) The debtor countries with their financial and legal consultants.
In 1986, there were 24 rescheduling arrangements with 12 debtor countries.

Nigeria approached the Paris Club in 1986, 1989 and 1996 for debt rescheduling
arrangement. The existing Paris Club has brought some hope of resolving the
debt problem of the severely indebted Third World countries.
26.22 THE PRINCIPLES OF PARIS CLUB RESCHEDULING

The following are the principles:
(a) The principle of imminent default.
(b) The principle of burden sharing.
(c) The principle of conditionality.
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26.22.1 The Principle Of Imminent Default

This principle applies to the debtor countries and requires them to prove
that they are unable to meet their external debt service obligations unless
relief is granted. This inability is usually established through the building
up of arrears. The International Monetary Fund balance of payment
projections of the country are considered as they provide an indication
of the country’s economic position.
The requirement is very important as a debtor country will usually not

be allowed into the rescheduling process without the Club being satisfied
that this condition has been fulfilled.
26.22.2 The Principle Of Burden Sharing

The principle applies to creditor countries. It requires the creditor to be
prepared to share fairly and equitably the burden of the rescheduling
in the proportion of its individual exposure to the debtor country. In effect,
the creditor country has to agree to provide the debtor country with relief
which is commensurate with its exposure or liability.
26.22.3 The Principle Of Conditionality

The principle which is generally regarded as the golden rule of the Paris
Club also applies to debtor nations. It requires the debtor country to
have fund supported adjustment programmes before approaching the
Paris Club for rescheduling process.
The rationale for the principle of conditionality is based on the creditor’s

wish to ensure that debtor countries have in place economic environment
that would make them pay their debts. This requirement has been largely
responsible for the inability of some debtor countries to seek or have
further Paris Club rescheduling of debts.
26.23 FOREIGN AID

Foreign aid has not been flowing in as expected. Foreign aid to poor countries
has declined from what it used to be in the past. International transfer of public
funds had closed the gap or had replaced or solved the problem of shortage of
foreign aid.
From either bilateral or multilateral source, the positive effect of aid to a receiver
country is considered too marginal to the adverse repercussion, which it usually
creates. Many adverse repercussions have been advanced in the economic
literature.
26.24 TRENDS IN NIGERIA’S PUBLIC DEBT

Nigeria’s debt stock has both the external and internal components. The origin
of external debt dates back to 1958 when US$28 Million was contracted for the
436
Nigerian Railway Project. Debts contracted before 1978 were the concessional
types which carried longer repayment periods and low interest rates.
However, from 1978 onwards, due to the oil glut and rapid fall in crude oil
price, the Nigeria economy began to experience considerable pressure that
was evident in the persistent balance of payments deficits, low in external
reserves, deficits in government finances and mounting external debt. The
Federal Government promulgated Decree 30 of 1978 to back up raising loans
from external sources.
The first major borrowing was the jumbo loan of about US$1.00 billion
contracted in 1978 from the International Capital Market (ICM). The loan had a
short term maturity with very high interest rate and was used to finance a
number of projects. Thereafter, external borrowings from private capital markets
were intensified as credits from bilateral and multilateral sources were not
forthcoming as expected. The spate of borrowing increased as State
Governments entered into the borrowing picture with some of them engaging
in imprudent borrowings to finance all sorts of projects of doubtful viability.
All these combined led to the escalation of the debt problem. The total external
debt stock which stood at $13.1billion by end of 1982, rose to $27.3 billion in
1988 and $28.46 billion in 2000. By the end of 2000, the Paris Club accounted
for $21.48 or 75.4 percent, Multilateral Institutions $3.46 billion or 7.2 percent,
Promising Notes $1.46 billion or 5 percent, while Non-Paris Club bilateral
creditors accounted for $66million or 0.2 percent.
The nominal gross domestic public debt of Federal Government which stood at
#1.1 billion in 1970 increased to #7.9 billion in 1980, #84.1 billion in 1990
and #898.25 billion in 2000. Of the 2000 figure, the Treasury Bill accounted
for #465.5 billion or 52 percent, Treasury Bonds #430.6 billion or 47.8 percent
while Development Stocks accounted #2.1 billion or 0.2 per cent.
As at 31st December 2010, the consolidated Federal Government debt stock

was N5,241.7 billion, or 17.8 per cent of GDP compared with N3,818.5 billion,
or 15.1 per cent of GDP in 2009. Analysis of the debt showed that the domestic
component constituted 86.8 per cent and the external 13.2 per cent. The increase
reflected, largely, the substantial borrowing through the issuance of FGN Bonds
and treasury bills to finance projects and the settlement of contractual
obligations.
Total debt serve payments stood at N407.4 billion, or 1.4 per cent of GDP and
comprised N53.3 billion (US$0.35 billion) for external and N354.1 billion for
domestic debt.
The analysis of Nigeria’s debt sustainability revealed that the stock/GDP ratio
which fluctuated between 11.8 and 17.8 % - 2010 remained low relative to the
maximum international threshold of 30 per cent of GDP implying that the debt
is sustainable.
437

Public debt is total money raised or borrowed by the government. The Debt
Management Office in the Presidency manages Nigeria’s public debt which
has escalated to unprecedent level in recent years. But, the current debt stock
should have been higher and more burdensome if not for the Paris Club of
Creditors nations that granted the country debt forgiveness of about US$18
billion in 2006. Despite the increase in the nation’s debt stock since 2006, the
debt stock/GDP ratio which fluctuated between 11.8 and 17.8 per cent during
2006 – 2010 remained low relative to the maximum international threshold
implying that the debt remained sustainable.

26.26.1 Questions
(1a) Nigeria has contracted a number of domestic debt obligations
which can be classified into two. Identify and explain this
classification.
(b) Account for the rapid increase in domestic debt in Nigeria in

recent times.
2(a) Explain clearly what you understand by external debt.
(b) Discuss the main types of external debt with particular reference
to the Nigerian experience.
(3) Advance arguments for and against government borrowing given

the experience of Nigeria.
(4) Discuss the strategies available to a developing country like

Nigeria to reduce its debt burden.

1a) Domestic debt obligations contracted by Nigeria can be classified
into two as follows:
(i) Internal debts contracted using financial instrument: This

type of internal public debt is contracted through the
financial instruments of the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN)
from the commercial banks and non-bank public. The
instruments used include Treasury Bills, Treasury
Certificates and Government Development Stocks. The
CBN underwrites the instruments on behalf of the Federal
Government and takes up unsubscribed parts of the loans.
438
(ii) Trade-related debts owned directly to contractors and

suppliers. This debt arises where payments to contractors
and supplies are delayed or remain unpaid by government
due to paucity of funds.
(b) The rapid increase in the stock of Nigeria’s domestic debts is caused by the
need to:
(i) Finance ever-raising government expenditure
(ii) Finance government budget deficits which are usually designed

to stimulate the economy
(iii) Finance high domestic and international inflation rates resulting

in increased cost of government administration and development
projects.
(iv) Enable government cope with the sharp decline in revenue,

following the collapse of the international crude oil market.
(v) Effectively and fully undertake socio-economic responsibilities

such as expansion of health care and education services, and
construction of bridges as a result of rapid population growth.
(2a) External or foreign debt refers to the debt which the government owned to
foreign citizens, organizations and government specifically, external loans
can be contracted from the government of another country, and from
international institutions like the World Bank Groups and International
Monetary Fund (IMF).
(b) Given the experience of Nigeria, the four main types of external debt are:
(i) Trade arrears: A trade debt arises when Nigeria trades with other
countries and is unable to pay, either services supplied. Nigeria’s
inability to settle her import bills resulted in the accumulation of
trade arrears amounting to $9.8 billion between 1983 and 1988.
(ii) Balance of payments support loans, Persistent unfavourable bop

ay inform government’s decision to seek for bop support loan.
Such loans which are in the form of capital inflow and
accommodations are provided by institutions such as the IMF.
(c) Project-tied loans. These are loans contracted on projects which have
potentials to accelerate economic growth. Such loans can be obtained
from Multilateral Creditors.
439
(d) Loans for socio-economic needs. The provision of the socio-economic

needs of the people such as infrastructure, health, education and other
social amenities may necessitate borrowing from external sources.
(3) Government borrowing has both good and adverse consequences:
The benefits which a country enjoy for borrowing include:
(a) Promotion of economic growth and welfare improvement when borrowed

funds are utilized to finance welfare – enhancing projects such as pipe-
borne water, electricity supply etc.
(b) Creation of new jobs when borrowed funds are used on public works.
(c) Public debt reduce income inequalities if it is spent on social security or
public goods which are readily available to low-income groups.
(d) Those who purchase government securities acquire additional assets
(e) It may be used to control inflation when it leads effectively to a
withdrawal of money from circulation.
Arguments against public debt include that:

(a) Government competes with private companies in the money market and
deprive them of investible resources.
(b) It constitutes a waste of resources when spent on elephant projects that
have no relevance to improving the living standards of people.
(c) Foreign debt servicing deprives the nation hard earned foreign currencies
needed to procure essential inputs in the industrial sector.
(d) Creditors bring the income generated from their investments in
government securities into circulation, to worsen inflationary pressures.
(e) Conditionalities attached to some loans have grave repercussions on
living standards of the people.
(4) Some of the strategies available to a debtor nation to escape from debt trap
include the following:
(a) Debt rescheduling: This involves the re-arrangement of the repayment

terms of debt by adjusting the interest rate, the grace period, the maturity
date to redeem the principal.
(b) Debt-equity swap. It is a process of converting from foreign debt into
equity shares in viable local companies. It will reduce the outstanding
debt stock and debt service burden.
(c) Economic restructuring programme, such as diversification of the
productive base of the economy to reduce dependence on the oil sector
and imports.
(d) Placement of embargo on new loans especially unproductive loan, to
prevent additional debt burden.
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CHAPTER
Skills level
27
Ethical Issues in Public Sector

Accounting and Finance
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC)
4. The Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Act, 2000
5. Code of Conduct for Public Officers
6. Paragraph 11 of the Fifth Schedule, Part 1,
7. Code of Conduct Bureau
8. Code of Conduct Tribunal
9. Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, (NEITI)
Act, 2007
10. General Rule
11. Chapter Review
12. Worked Examples
441
27
ETHICAL ISSUES IN PUBLIC SECTOR

ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE
27.0 PURPOSE
(a) identify and discuss the major institutions charged with the
responsibilities of ensuring compliance to ethical standards in the public
sector; and
(b) itemize ethical offences and discuss the appropriate stipulated sanctions.
27.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to stamp out the rising cases of corruption, fraud, greed and avarice
which are pervasive in the society and in view of the need to overhaul the
image of the country before ‘accountability organs’ such as Transparency
International, the Federal Government of Nigeria introduced various regulatory
laws and measurers.
27.2 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL CRIMES COMMISSION (EFCC)

The EFCC was established by Act No. 5 of 2002, effective from 14 December, to
combat economic and financial crimes in Nigeria.
The Commission is empowered to prevent, investigate, prosecute and sanction
economic and financial crimes and is charged with the responsibility of
enforcing the provisions of other laws and regulations relating to economic
and financial crimes such as The Money Laundering Act 1995, The Advance
Fee Fraud and Other Related Offences Act 1995, The Failed Banks (Financial
Malpractices in Banks) Act 1994, The Banks and Other Financial Institutions
Act 1991, and Miscellaneous Offences Act.
27.2.1 Composition
The Commission shall consist of the following members:
(a) (i) A Chairman, who shall be the Chief Executive and Accounting
Officer of the Commission.
(ii) A serving or retired member of any Government security or law
enforcement agency.
(b) A Director-General who shall be the Head of Administration.
(c) The Governor of the Central Bank or his representative.
(d) A representative each of the following Federal Ministries, not
below the rank of a Director-
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ETHICAL ISSUES IN PUBLIC SECTOR ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE
(i) Foreign Affairs,

(ii) Finance,
(iii) Justice.
(e) The Chairman, National Drug Law Enforcement Agency.
(f) The Director-General, The National Intelligence Agency.
(g) The Director-General, The Department of State Security Service.
(h) The Director-General, Securities and Exchange Commission.
(i) The Commissioner for Insurance.
(j) The Postmaster-General, Nigerian Postal Services.
(k) The Chairman, Nigerian Communications Commission.
(l) The Comptroller-General, Nigeria Custom Services
(m) The Comptroller-General, Nigeria Immigration Services.
(n) A representative of the Nigeria Police Force, not below the rank,
of Assistant Inspector-General.
(o) Four eminent Nigerians with cognate experience in finance,
banking or accounting.
27.2.2 Duties
According to Part II of the Act, the Commission is responsible for:
(a) The enforcement and the due administration of the provisions of
the Act.
(b) The investigation of all financial crimes which include advance
fee fraud, money laundering, counterfeiting, illegal charge
transfers, futures market fraud, fraudulent encashment of
negotiable instruments, computer credit card fraud, contract
scam, etc.
(c) The co-ordination and enforcement of all economic and financial
crime laws and enforcement functions conferred on any other
person or authority.
(d) The adoption of measures to eradicate the commission of
economic and financial crimes.
(e) The adoption of measures to identify, trace, freeze, confiscate or
seize proceeds derived from terrorist activities, economic and
financial crime related offences or the properties, the value of
which corresponds to such proceeds.
(f) The adoption of measures which include coordinated preventive
and regulatory actions, introduction and maintenance of
investigative and control techniques on the prevention of
economic and financial related crimes.
(g) The facilitation of rapid exchange of scientific and technical
information and the conduct of joint operations geared towards
the eradication of economic and financial crimes.
(h) The examination and investigation of all reported cases of
economic and financial crimes with a view to identifying
individuals, corporate bodies or groups involved.
(i) The determination of the extent of financial loss and such other
losses by Government, private individuals or organisations.
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(j) Collaboration with Government bodies both within and outside

Nigeria, carrying on functions wholly or in part analogous with
those of the commission concerning -
(i) The identification, determination, of the whereabouts and
activities of persons suspected of being involved in
economic and financial crimes.
(ii) The movement of proceeds or properties derived from the
commission of economic and financial and other related
crimes.
(iii) The exchange of personnel or other experts.
(iv) The establishment and maintenance of a system for
monitoring international economic and financial crimes
in order to identify suspicious transactions and persons
involved.
(v) Maintaining data, statistics, records and reports on
persons, organisations, proceeds, properties, documents
or other items or assets involved in economic and financial
crimes.
(vi) Undertaking research and similar works with a view to
determining the manifestation, extent, magnitude and
effects of economic and financial crimes and advising
Government on appropriate intervention measures for
combating same.
(k) Taking charge of, supervising, controlling, coordinating all the
responsibilities, functions, activities relating to the current
investigation and prosecution of all offences connected with or
relating to economic and financial crimes, in consultation with
the Attorney-General of the Federation
(l) Carrying out such other activities as are necessary or expedient
for the full discharge of all or any of the functions conferred on
the Commission under the Act.
27.2.3 Powers
Under paragraph 6 of the Act, the Commission has power to:

(a) cause investigations to be conducted as to whether any person
has committed an offence under the Act.
(b) cause investigations to be conducted into the properties of any
person, if it appears to the Commission that the person’s lifestyle
and extent of his properties are not justified by his source of
income.
(c) enforce the provisions of:
(i) The Money Laundering Act 1995.
(ii) The Advance Fee Fraud and Other Related Offences Act
1995,
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(iii) The Failed Banks (Recovery of Debts) Financial

Malpractices in Banks, Act 1994(as amended).
(iv) The Banks and Other Financial Institutions Act 1991 (as
amended).
(v) Miscellaneous Offences Act, and
(vi) Any other law or regulations relating to economic and
financial crimes.
27.2.4 OFFENCES AND CONVICTIONS

A summary of the various offences committed and the penalties
stipulated under part IV, of the ACT is:
(a) Offences which relate to financial malpractices …..5 years
imprisonment or a fine of fifty thousand naira (N50,000) or both
imprisonment and fine.
(b) Offences associated with terrorism………Imprisonment for life.
(c) Offences committed by public officers ….. Between 15 and 25
years imprisonment.
(d) Retaining the proceeds of a criminal conduct…..Not less than 5
years imprisonment or to a fine equivalent to 5 times the value
of the proceeds of the criminal conduct or to both fine and
imprisonment.
(e) Offences in relation to economic and financial crimes……
Imprisonment for a term not less than 15 years and not exceeding
25 years.
Paragraph 20 of the Act says ‘for the avoidance of doubt and without
any further assurance than this Act, all the properties of a person
convicted of an offence under this Act and shows to be derived or acquired
from such illegal act and already the subject of an interim order shall
be forfeited to the Federal Government.’
27.3 THE CORRUPT PRACTICES AND OTHER RELATED OFFENCES ACT, 2000
The Corrupt Practices And other Related Offences Act, 2000, gave birth to the
Independent Corrupt Practices and other Related Offences Commission. The
Commission is a body corporate, endowed with perpetual succession. It has a
common seal and is juristic (that is, may sue and be sued in its corporate
name).
27.3.1 Composition of the Commission

The Commission shall consist of a Chairman and twelve (12) other
members, two of whom shall come from each of the six geo-political
zones, thus:
(a) A retired Police Officer not below the rank of Commissioner of
Police.
(b) A legal practitioner with at least 10 years post call experience.
(c) A retired Judge of a supreme court record.
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(d) A retired Public Servant not below the rank of a Director.

(e) A woman.
(f) A youth not being less than 21 or more than 30 years of age at the
time of his or her appointment.
(g) A Chartered Accountant.
The Chairman shall be a person who has held or is qualified to hold

office as a Judge of a superior court of record in Nigeria.
27.3.2 Appointment of Members

The Chairman and members of the Commission who must be persons of
proven integrity shall be appointed by the President upon confirmation
by the Senate and shall not begin to discharge the duties of their offices
until they have declared their assets and liabilities as prescribed in the
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
The Chairman shall hold office for a period of five (5) years and may be
re-appointed for another term of (5) years. Other members hold office
for (4) years and can be re-appointed for another four (4) years.
27.3.3 Removal of Members

The Chairman or any member can be removed from office by the President
acting on an address supported by two-thirds (2/3rd) majority of the
Senate.
The Commission shall have a Secretary appointed by the President who

under the general direction of the Chairman shall be responsible for
keeping the records of the Commission and the general administration
and control of the staff of the Commission.
27.3.4 Immunities
An Officer of the Commission when investigating or prosecuting a case
of corruption, shall have all the powers and immunities of a Police Officer
under the Police Act and any other laws conferring power on the Police
or empowering and protecting law enforcement agents.
27.3.5 Duties of the Commission

(a) Where reasonable ground exists for suspecting that any person
has conspired to commit or has attempted to commit or has
committed an offence under the Act or any other law prohibiting
corruption, to receive and investigate any report of the conspiracy
to commit, attempt to commit or the commission of such offence
and, in appropriate cases the offenders.
(b) To examine the practices, systems and procedures of public bodies

and where, in the opinion of the Commission, such practices,
446
systems or procedures aid or facilitate fraud or corruption, to direct

and supervise a review of them.
(c) To instruct, advise and assist any officer, agency or parastatals

on ways by which fraud or corruption may be eliminated or
minimized by such officer, agency or parastatal.
(d) To advise Heads of Public Bodies of changes in practices, systems

or procedures compatible with the effective discharge of the duties
of the public bodies as the Commission thinks fit to reduce the
likelihood or incidence of bribery, corruption and related offences.
(e) To enlist and foster public support in combating corruption.
27.3.6 Offences and Penalties

(a) Offence of accepting gratification: Any person who corruptly
asks for, receives or obtains any property or benefit of any kind
for himself or for any other person or agrees or attempts to receive
or obtain any property or benefit of any kind for himself or for
any other person, is liable to imprisonment for seven (7) years.
(b) Offence of giving or accepting gratification through agent:

On conviction, shall be liable to imprisonment for seven (7) years.
(c) Acceptor or giver of gratification to be guilty,

notwithstanding that, the purpose was not carried out or
matter not in relation to principal’s affairs or business:
On conviction shall be liable to imprisonment for (seven) 7 years.
(d) Fraudulent acquisition of property: Any person found guilty,

shall on conviction, be liable to imprisonment for seven (7) years.
(e) Fraudulent receipt of property: Any person who receives

anything which has been obtained by means of act constituting
a felony or misdemeanour inside or outside Nigeria, which if it
had been done in Nigeria would have constituted a felony or
misdemeanour and which is an offence under the laws in force
in the place where it was done, knowing the same to have been
so obtained, is guilty of a felony and the offender shall, on
conviction be liable to imprisonment for seven (7) years.
(f) Penalty for offences committed through postal system: If

the offence by means of which the thing was obtained is a felony,
the offender shall on conviction be liable to imprisonment for
three (3) years, except the thing so obtained was postal matter,
or any chattel, money or valuable security contained therein, in
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which case the offender shall on conviction be liable to

imprisonment for seven (7) years.
(g) Deliberate frustration of investigation being conducted

by the Commission: Any person who, with intent to defraud or
conceal a crime or frustrate the Commission in its investigation
of any suspected crime of corruption under the Act or any other
law destroys, alters, etc any document shall on conviction be liable
to seven (7) years imprisonment.
(h) Making false statements or returns: Any person who

knowingly furnishes any false statement or return in respect of
any money or property received by him or entrusted to his care,
or of any balance of money or property in his possession or under
his control, is guilty of an offence and shall on conviction be liable
to seven (7) years imprisonment.
(i) Gratification by and through agents: Any person who

corruptly accepts, obtains, gives or agrees to give or knowingly
gives to any agent, any gift or consideration as an inducement or
reward for doing, forebearing to do any act or thing, shall on
conviction be liable to five (5) years imprisonment.
(j) Bribery of public officer: Any person who offers to any public
officer, or being a public officer solicits, counsels or accepts any
gratification as an inducement or a reward, in the course of official
duties shall on conviction be liable to five (5) years imprisonment
with hard labour.
(k) Using office or position for gratification: Any public officer

who uses his office or position to gratify or confer any corrupt or
unfair advantage upon himself or any relation or associate shall
be guilty of an offence and shall on conviction be liable to
imprisonment for five (5) years without option of fine.
(l) Any public officer who in the course of official duties,

inflates the price of any good or service above prevailing
market price or professional standards shall be guilty of an
offence under this Act and liable on conviction for a term of seven
(7) years and a fine of one million naira (N1,000,000.00).
27.4 CODE OF CONDUCT FOR PUBLIC OFFICERS

The Fifth schedule, Part 1, of the 1999 Constitution states that “a public officer
shall not put himself in a position where his personal interest conflicts with his
duties and responsibilities.’’
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27.4.1 Restrictions on Specified Officers

A public officer shall not receive or be paid the emoluments of any public
office just as he receives or is paid the emoluments of any other public
office, except where he is not on full time basis, or does not engage in
the running of any private business. However, no public officer shall be
prevented from engaging in farming.
27.4.2 Prohibition of Foreign Accounts

The President, Vice-President, Governors, Deputy Governors, Ministers
of the Government of the Federation, State Commissioners, Members of
the National Assembly and of the Houses of Assembly of the States and
such other public officers or persons as the National Assembly may by
law prescribe shall not maintain or operate a bank account in any country
outside Nigeria.
27.4.3 Retired Public Officers/Certain Retired Public Officers

No public officer shall, after retirement from public service and while
taking pension from public funds, accept more than one remunerative
position as Chairman, Director or Staff of a company controlled by the
Government or any public authority. A retired public servant shall not
receive any other remuneration from public funds additionally to his
pension and the emolument of such one remunerative position. The
holders of the offices of President, Vice-President, Chief Justice of Nigeria,
Governor and Deputy Governor of a State are prohibited from service or
employment in foreign companies or foreign enterprises.
27.4.4 Gifts or Benefits In-Kind

A public officer shall not ask for or accept any gift or benefit for himself
or any other person, in the discharge of his duties. However, he may
accept personal gifts or benefits from relatives or friends as recognised
by custom only.
27.4.5 Bribery of Public Officers

A public officer should not receive any property, gift or benefit of any
kind as a bribe for granting a favour in the performance of his duties.
27.4.6 Abuse of Powers

A public officer shall not do or cause to be done, in abuse of his position,
any arbitrary thing which prejudices the rights of others.
27.4.7 Membership of Societies

A public officer shall not belong to a society, the membership of which
runs incompatible with the dignity of his office.
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27.5 PARAGRAPH 11 OF THE FIFTH SCHEDULE, PART 1, states that every

public officer shall within three months after the coming into force of this Code
of Conduct or immediately after taking office and thereafter:
(a) at the end of every four years, and
(b) at the end of his term of office,
(i) Submit to the Code of Conduct Bureau a written declaration of all

his properties, assets and liabilities and those of his unmarried
children under the age of eighteen years.
(ii) Any statement in such declaration that is found to be false by

any authority or person authorized in that behalf to verify it shall
be deemed to be a breach of this Code.
(iii) Any property or assets acquired by a public officer after any

declaration required under this Constitution and which is not fairly
attributable to income, gift or loan approved by this Code shall
be deemed to have been acquired in breach of this Code unless
the contrary is proved.
27.6 CODE OF CONDUCT BUREAU

Part I of the Third Schedule of the 1999 Constitution established the Code of
Conduct Bureau:
27.6.1 Composition
Code of Conduct Bureau shall consist:
(a) a Chairman; and
(b) nine (9) other members,
each of whom at the time of appointment, shall not be less than
fifty years of age and vacate his office on attaining the age of
seventy years.
The Bureau shall establish such offices in each State of the Federation
as it may require for the discharge of its functions under the Constitution.
27.6.3 Powers Of The Code Of Conduct Bureau

The Code of Conduct Bureau was set up to:
(a) receive declarations by the public officers made under paragraph
12 of Part 1 of the Fifth Schedule of the 1999 Constitution;
(b) examine the declarations in accordance with the requirements
of the Code of Conduct or any law;
(c) retain custody of such declarations and make them available for
inspection by any citizen of Nigeria on such terms and conditions
as the National Assembly may prescribe;
(d) ensure compliance with and, where appropriate, enforce the
provisions of the Code of Conduct or any law relating thereto;
450
(e) receive complaints about non-compliance with or breach of the

provisions of the Code of Conduct or any law in relation thereto,
investigate the complaint and, where appropriate, refer such
matters to the Code of Conduct Tribunal.;
(f) carry out any other functions as may be conferred upon it by the
National Assembly.;
27.7 CODE OF CONDUCT TRIBUNAL

It is made up of a Chairman and two other persons.
27.7.1 Punishments Imposed by the Tribunal

The following are the punishments, which the Code of Conduct Tribunal
shall impose if it finds a public officer guilty of contravention of any of
the provisions of the Code of Conduct for Public Officers, viz:
(a) Vacation of office or seat in any Legislative House.
(b) Disqualification from membership of a Legislative House and
from holding any public office for a period not exceeding ten
years.
(c) Seizure and forfeiture to the State any property acquired in abuse
or corruption of office.
(d) Penalties that may be imposed by any law where the conduct is
also a criminal offence.
(e) Prosecution of the Public Officer punished in a court of law.
27.8 NIGERIA EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES TRANSPARENCY INITIATIVE, (NEITI)

ACT, 2007
. Objectives of the NEITI:

(a) to ensure due process and transparency in the payments made by all
extractive industry companies to the Federal Government and statutory
recipients.
(b) to monitor and ensure accountability in the revenue receipts of the
Federal Government from extractive industry companies.
(c) to eliminate all forms of corrupt practices in the determination,
payments, receipts and posting of revenue accruing to the Federal
Government from extractive industry companies;
(d) to ensure transparency and accountability by government in the
application of resources from payment received from extractive industry
companies, and
(e) to ensure conformity with the principles of Extractive Industries
Transparency Initiative
Functions of NEITI:
(a) develop a framework for transparency and accountability in the reporting
and disclosure by all extractive industry companies of revenue due to or
paid to the Federal Government;
451
(b) evaluate without prejudice to any relevant contractual obligations and

sovereign obligations the practices of all extractive industry companies
and government respectively regarding acquisition of acreages,
budgeting, contracting, materials procurement and production cost
profile in order to ensure due process, transparency and accountability.
(c) ensure transparency and accountability in the management of the

investment of the Federal Government in all extractive industry
companies,
(d) obtain, as may be deemed necessary, from any extractive industry

company an accurate record of the cost of production and volume of
safe of oil, gas or other minerals extracted by the company at my period,
provided that such information shall not be used in any manner
prejudicial to the contractual obligation or proprietary interests of the
extractive industry company,
(e) request from any company in the extractive industry, or from any
relevant organ of the Federal State or Local Government, an accurate
account of money paid by and received from the company at any period,
as revenue accruing to the Federal Government from such company for
that period; provided that such information shall not be used in a manner
prejudicial to contractual obligations or proprietary interest of the
extractive industry company or sovereign obligations of Government,
(f) monitor and ensure that all payments due to the Federal Government
from all extractive industry companies, including taxes, royalties,
dividends, bonuses, penalties, levels and such like are duly made;
(g) identify lapses and undertake measures that shall enhance the capacity
of any relevant organ of the Federal State or Local Government having
statutory responsibility to monitor revenue payments by all extractive
industry companies to the Federal Government,
(h) disseminate by way of publication of records, report or otherwise any

information concerning the revenues received by the Federal
Government from all extractive industry companies as it may consider
necessary;
(i) promote or undertake any other activity related to its functions and which
in its opinion, is calculated to help achieve its overall objectives as
enumerated in section 2 of this Act;
(j) ensure that all fiscal allocations and statutory disbursements due from
the Federal Government to statutory recipients are duly made.
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Appointment of External Auditors for the Extractive Industry

Companies
According to Section 4. (1) of NEITI Act 2007, NEITI shall, in each financial
year appoint independent auditors to audit the total revenue which accrued to
the Federal Government for that year from extractive industry companies, in
order to determine the accuracy of payments and receipts. The independent
auditors appointed under subsection (1) of this section shall undertake a
physical process and financial audit on such terms and conditions as may be
approved by the National Stakeholders Working Group (NSWG). Upon the
completion of an audit, the independent auditors shall submit the reports
together with comments on the Extractive Industries Company to NEITI, which
shall cause same to be disseminated to the National Assembly and the Auditor-
General for the Federation and also ensure their publication. NEITI shall submit
a bi-annual report of its activities to the President and National Assembly.
The Auditor-General for the Federation shall not later than 3 months after the
submission of the audit report to the National Assembly publish any comment
made or action taken by the Government on the audit reports.
National Stakeholders Working Group (NSWG)

The governing body of the NEITI shall be the National Stakeholders Working
Group (in this Act referred to as “the NSWG”)
Functions of NSWG
(a) Be responsible for the formulation of policies, programmes and
strategies for the effective implementation of the objectives and the
discharges of the functions of the NEITI.
(b) Have powers to recommend the annual budget and work-plan of the
NEITI and ensure the periodic review of programmes performance by
the NEITI
Composition of National Stakeholders Working Group (NSWG)

The NSWG shall be constituted by the President and shall consist of a Chairman
and no more than 14 other members one of whom shall be an Executive
Secretary.
In making appointment into the NSWG, the President shall include:

(i) representative of extractive industry companies,
(ii) representative of Civil Society,
(iii) representative of Labour Unions in the extractive Industries,
(iv) experts in the extractive industry, and
(v) one member from each of the six geopolitical zones.
453
Tenure, Allowances and Meetings of National Stakeholders Working

Group (NSWG)
(a) The Chairman and other members of NSWG other than the Executive
Secretary shall serve on part-time basis.
(b) The appointment of Executive Secretary shall be for 5 years and no more.
(c) A person appointed as a member of the NSWG shall hold office for 4
years and no more.
(d) The members of the NSWG as well as any person appointed to any of its
special committees may be paid such allowances out of the funds of the
NEITI as the National Revenue Mobilization and Fiscal Commission may
approve.
(e) The NSWG shall ordinarily meet quarterly for the dispatch of business
at such times and places as it may determine, but not less than four
times in a year.
At every meeting of the NSWG, the Chairman shall preside and in his
absence, a member of the NSWG appointed by the members from among
themselves shall preside. Questions proposed at a meeting of NSWG
shall be determined by a simple majority of members present and voting
and in the event of an equality of votes, the person presiding shall have
a casting vote.
The NSWG may at any time co-opt any person to act as an adviser at
any of its meetings but no person so co-opted shall be entitled to vote at
any meeting.
The validity of the proceedings of the NSWG shall not be affected by the
absence of any member, vacancy among its membership or by any defect
in the appointment of any of the members.
The quorum of the NSWG at any meeting shall be 8 members.
Penalties for Offences Committed by Extractive Industry Companies

(a) An extractive industry company which gives false information or report
to the Federal Government or its agency regarding its volume or
production, sales and income; or renders false statement of account or
fails to render a statement of account required under this Act to the
Federal Government or its agencies, resulting in the underpayment or
non-payment of revenue accruable to the Federal Government or
statutory recipients commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a
fine not less than N30,000,000.
454
(b) Where the Extractive industry has been convicted of an offence under
(a) above, the court shall, in addition to the penalty prescribed there
under, order the company to pay the actual amount of revenue due to
the Federal Government.
(c) An extractive industry company which delays or refuses to give

information or report under this Act, or willfully or negligently fails to
perform its obligations under this Act, commits an offence and is liable
on conviction to a fine not less than N30,000,000.
(d) President may on the recommendation of the NSWG suspend or revoke

the operational license of any extractive industry company which fails
to perform its obligations under this Act.
(e) If any extractive industry company commits an offense against the Act,
every Director or other persons concerned in the management of the
company commits the offence and is liable on conviction to not less
than 2 years imprisonment or a fine not less than N5,000,000 unless
that person proves that
(i) the offence was committed without his consent or connivance,

and
(ii) the person exercised all such diligence to prevent the commission
of the offence as ought to have been exercised by that person,
having regard to the nature of his functions in that company and
to all the circumstance.
(f) A government official who renders false statement of account or fails to

render a statement of account required under this Act to the Federal
Government or its agencies, resulting in the underpayment or non-
payment of revenue accruable to the Federal Government or statutory
recipients, commits an offence and is liable on conviction to not less
than 2 years imprisonment or a fine not less than N5,000,000, unless
that person proves that
(i) the offence was committed without his consent or connivance,
and
(ii) the person exercised all such diligence to prevent the commission
of the offence as ought to have been exercised by that person,
having regard to the nature of his functions in that company and
to all the circumstance.
27.9 GENERAL RULE

(a) Any officer found guilty of contravention of any of the provisions of the
Code of Conduct shall appeal to the Court of Appeal.
455
(b) Prerogative of mercy shall not apply to any punishment imposed by the
Tribunal.

The Nigerian Government is striving to eradicate or at least reduce drastically
corruption, cases of fraud and greed within the society. The Government has
therefore set in place Agencies to propagate the virtues of morality and in the
long run, punish offenders as deterrents to others in the society.
27.11.1 Questions
(1) (a) The Fiscal Responsibility Commission was established by the Fiscal
Responsibility Act 2007 – Outline the following
(i) Composition of the Commission
(ii) Qualification and appointment of members to the Commission
(b) State SIX each of the functions and powers of the Commission.
(2) The Public Procurement Act 2007 established the National Council on
Public Procurement.
Required:
(i) State the composition of the Council
(ii) List SIX functions of the Council
(b)i. What are the objectives of the Bureau of Public Procurement?

ii. List EIGHT each of the powers and functions of the Public Procurement
(3) (a) Part 1 of the Third Schedule of 1999 Constitution established the
Code of Conduct Bureau
(i) State the composition of the Code of Conduct Bureau
(ii) State SIX powers of the Code of Conduct Bureau
(b) Outline the punishment which can be imposed by the Code of
Conduct Tribunal, where a public officer is found guilty of
contravention of any of the provisions of the Code of Conduct.
(4)(a) The EFCC was established by Act No 5 of 2002 to combat economic

and financial crimes in Nigeria.
Required:
(i) Outline the composition of the Commission
(ii) Enumerate EIGHT functions of the Commission.
(iii) In line with paragraph 6 of the Act, state THREE powers of the
Commission
(b)(i) The ICPC was established by the corrupt practices and other Related
Offences Act, 2000. State the composition of the Commission.
456
ii. State EIGHT functions of the Commission

iii. Compare and contrast the EFCC and ICPC
(1) a (i) COMPOSITION OF THE COMMISSION

 A Chairman, who shall be the Chief Executive and Accounting Officer of
the Commission.
 One member from and representing
 The organised private sector
 Civil society – engaged in cases relating to probity, transparency and
good governance.
 The organised labour.
 Federal Ministry of Finance – of a level not below the rank of a
Director.
 Each geo-political zones of the country namely:- North Central,
North East, North West, South East, South South and South West.
(ii) QUALIFICATION AND APPOINTMENT OF MEMBERS TO THE

COMMISSION
 All members of the commission shall be persons of unquestionable
integrity
 All members must possess qualifications of not less than 10 years
cognate post qualification experience.
 The Chairman and other members of the commission other than
the ex-officio members shall be appointed by the President subject
to confirmation by the Senate.
 The Chairman and members of the commission representing the
six geo-political zones shall be full time members.
b (i) FUNCTIONS OF FISCAL RESPONSIBILITY COMMISSION

 To compel any person or government institution to disclose
information relating to public revenues and expenditure.
 To cause an investigation into whether any person has violated
any provisions of the Acts.
 To forward a report of any investigation against any person to
the Attorney-General of the Federation for possible prosecution.
 To monitor and enforce the provisions of this Act.
 To undertake fiscal and financial studies, analysis and
disseminate the result to the general public.
 To disseminate standard practices that will result in the Effective
allocation and management of public expenditure, revenue
(ii) POWERS OF THE COMMISSION

 Power to provide general policy guidelines for the implementation
of the functions of the commission
457
 Power to supervise the implementation of the policies of the

commission
 Power to appoint employee required for of the commission.
 Power to determine and approve the terms and conditions of
service including the disciplinary measures for the employees of
the commission.
 Power to fix the remuneration, allowances and benefits of the
employees of the commission.
 Power to regulate its proceedings in respect if meetings, notices
and keeping of minutes as may be determined by the commission.
 Power to perform any other functions as may be deemed to ensure
efficient performance of the commission.
(2)a (i) COMPOSITION OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL ON PUBLIC PROCUREMENT
The Council shall consist of:
 The Minister of Finance as Chairman

 The Attorney-General and Minister of Justice of the Federation
 The Secretary to the Government of the Federation
 The Head of Service of the Federation
 The Economic Adviser to the President
 Six-Part-Time members to represent:
- Nigeria Institute of Purchase and Supply Management
- Nigeria Bar Association
- Nigeria Association of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Mines
and Agriculture
- Nigeria Society of Engineers
- Civil Society
- The Media
The Director-General of the Bureau who shall be the Secretary of the Council.
(ii) FUNCTIONS OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL ON PUBLIC PROCUREMENT

 To consider, approve and amend the monetary issues relating to the
Act.
 To consider and approve policies on public procurement
 To approve the appointment of the Director of the Bureau
 To receive, review, consider and approve the audited accounts of the
Bureau of Public Procurement
 To approve changes in the procurement process to adapt to
improvements in modern technology
 To perform such other functions as may be deemed necessary to achieve
the objectives of the Act.
458
2 b (i) OBJECTIVES OF THE BUREAU OF PUBLIC PROCUREMENT

 The harmonisation of existing government policies and practices
on public procurement
 The establishment of pricing standards and benchmarks
 Ensuring the application of fair, competitive, transparent and
standard practices for the procurement and disposal of public
assets and services
 The attainment of transparency, competitiveness and
professionalism in the public section procurement system
b (ii)- FUNCTIONS OF THE BUREAU OF PUBLIC PROCUREMENT

 To formulate the general policies and guidelines relating to public
sector procurement.
 To supervise the implementation of established procurement
policies.
 To monitor the prices of tendered items and keep a national
database of standard process.
 To publish the details of major contracts in the procurement
journal.
 To publish papers and electronic editions of the procurement
journal.
 To maintain a national database of the particulars and
classification and categorisation of federal contractors and service
providers.
 To collate and maintain in a database for all federal procurement
plans and information.
 To undertake procurement research and survey.
 To organise training and development programmes for
procurement professionals.
 To prepare and update standard biding and contract document.
 To prevent fraudulent and unfair procurement and where
necessary apply administrative sanctions.
 To review the procurement and award of contract procedures of
every entity to which the Act applies.
b ii.- POWERS OF THE BUREAU OF PUBLIC PROCUREMENT

The bureau shall have the power to:
 To review and or inspect any procurement transaction to ensure
compliance with the provisions of the Act.
 To review and determine whether any procuring entity has
violated any provision of this Act.
 To stop and blacklist any supplier, contractor or service provider
that contravene any provision of this Act.
 To maintain a national database of federal contractors and service
providers.
459
 To maintain a list of firms and persons that have been debarred

from participating in public procurement activity and publish
them in the procurement journals.
 To investigate any aspect of any procurement proceeding where
a breach, default, mismanagement and or collusion has been
alleged, reported or proved against a procuring entity or service
provider.
 To recommend to the Council where there are persistent breaches
of this Act or regulations for suspension, replacement, discipline
and temporary transfer of any officer of any procuring entity or
of the Council.
 To act upon complaints in accordance with the procedures set out
in this Act.
 To nullify the whole or any part of any procurement proceeding
or award which in contravention of this Act.
 To enter into contract or partnership with any company, firm or
person which in its opinion will facilitate the discharge of its
functions.
(3) (i) COMPOSITION OF THE CODE OF CONDUCT BUREAU

Code of Conduct Bureau shall consist of the following:
 A Chairman
 Nine other members each of whom at the time of appointment

shall not be less than fifty years of age and vacate his office on
attaining the age of seventy years.
The Bureau shall establish such offices in each State of the

Federation as it may require for the discharge of its functions
under the constitution.
ii POWERS OF CODE OF CONDUCT BUREAU

The code of Conduct bureau was set up to:
(a) Receive declarations by public officers made under paragraph
12 of Part I of the 5th schedule of the 1999 constitution.
(b) Examine the declarations in accordance with the requirement of
the code of conduct or any law.
(c) Retain custody of such declaration and make them available for
inspection by any citizen of Nigeria on such items and conditions
as the National Assembly may prescribe.
(d) Ensure compliance with and where appropriate enforce the
provisions of the code of conduct or any law relating thereto.
(e) Receive complaints about non-compliance with or breach of the
provisions of the code of conduct or any law in relation thereto.
460
(f) Investigate the complaint above and where appropriate refer such
matters to the Code of Conduct Tribunal.
(g) To carry out any other function as may be conferred upon it by the
National Assembly.
b. PUNISHMENT BY THE CODE OF CONDUCT TRIBUNAL ON ANY

PUBLIC OFFICER GUILTY OF ANY OF THE PROVISIONS OF THE
CODE OF CONDUCT BUREAU
(i) Vacation of office seat in any legislative house
(ii) Prosecution of the public officer in a court of law
(iii) Disqualification from membership of a Legislative House and
from holding any public office for a period not exceeding ten
years.
(iv) Serve penalties imposed by any law where the conduct is a
criminal offence
(v) Seizure and forfeiture to the State any property acquired through
the abuse or corruption of office.
4.(a) COMPOSITION OF ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL CRIMES COMMISSION

(EFCC)
According to the Act of parliament No. 5 of December 2002, the Commission
shall consist of the following members:
(a) A chairman, who shall be the chief executive and Accounting Officer of
the Commission and shall be a serving or retired member of any
government security or law enforcement agency.
(b) A Director General who shall be the Head of Administration.
(c) The Governor of Central Bank or his representative
(d) A representative each of the following Federal Ministries not below the
rank of Director;
(i) Foreign Affairs Ministry
(ii) Ministry of 1Finance
(iii) Ministry of Justice
(e) The Chairman, National Drug Law Enforcement Agency.

(f) The Director General-The National Intelligence Agency
(g) The Director General, the department of State Security Service.
(h) The Director General-Securities and Exchange Commission
(i) The Commissioner for Insurance
(j) The Postmaster General, Nigeria Postal Service
(k) The Chairman, Nigeria Communication Commission
(l) The Comptroller General, Nigeria Customs Service
(m) The Comptroller General, Nigeria Immigration Service
(n) A representative of Nigeria Police Force not below the rank of Assistant
Inspector General.
461
(o) Four eminent Nigerians with vast experience in finance, banking or

accounting.
(ii) FUNCTIONS OF EFCC

1. Enforcement and due administration of the provisions of the Act.
2. Investigation of reported cases of financial crimes such as
Advance Fee Fraud {419}, money laundering, counterfeiting,
illegal charge transfer, contract scam, forgery of financial
instrument, issuance of dud cheques etc.
3. Adoption of measures to identify, trace, freeze confiscate or seize
proceeds derived from terrorist activities.
4. Adoption of measures to identify, trace, freeze and seize proceeds
derived from financial crime related offences.
5. Adoption of measures to eradicate and prevent the commission
of economic and financial crimes with a view to identifying
individuals, corporate bodies or groups involved.
6. Determination of the extent of financial loss and such other losses
by government, private individuals’ and organisations.
7. Collaboration with government bodies within and outside Nigeria
in carrying out the functions of the Act.
8. Dealing with matters connected with extradition, deportation and
mutual, legal or other assistance between Nigeria and any other
country involving economic and financial crimes.
9. The collection, analysis and dissemination of all reports relating
to suspicious financial transactions to all relevant government
bodies.
10. Carrying out and sustaining public enlightenment campaign
against economic and financial crimes within and outside
Nigeria.
iii POWERS OF THE COMMISSION

Under paragraph 6 of the Act, the Commission has power to:-
1. Conduct investigation or cause investigation to be conducted as
to whether any person has committed an offence under the Act.
2. Cause investigation to be conducted into the properties of any
person if it appears to the Commission that the person lifestyle
and extent of his properties are not justified by his source of income
3. Power to enforce the provisions of
 The Bank and Other Financial Institution Act 1991 ( as
amended)
 The Failed Banks (Recovery of Debts) Finance Malpractices
in Banks Act 1994 (as amended)
 The Advance Fee Fraud and Other Related Offence Act
1994
 The Money Laundry ACT 1995
 The Miscellaneous offence Act
462
(b) (i) COMPOSITION OF THE INDEPENDENT CORRUPT PRACTICES AND

OTHER RELATED CRIMES COMMISSION {ICPC}
The Commission shall consist of a chairman and twelve other members, two of
whom shall come from each of the six geo-political zones as follows:
(a) A legal practitioner with at least 10 years post call experience.
(b) A retired judge of a superior court of record
(c) A retired police officer not below the rank of commissioner of police
(d) A retired public servant not below the rank of a director
(e) A woman
(f) A chartered accountant
(g) A youth not less than 21or more than 30 years of age at the time of his or
her appointment.
The Chairman shall be a person who held or qualified to hold office as a

judge of a superior court of record in Nigeria.
(ii) FUNCTIONS OF ICPC

1. To receive and investigate any report of the conspiracy by any
person or group of person who have committed or attempt to
commit an offence under the Act.
2. To prosecute those who are found to have committed any offence
under the Act after the investigation.
3. To examine the systems, practice and procedures of public bodies
such as Ministries, State, Local government or any parastatal.
4. To give supervisory advice to public bodies whose practice systems
and procedures are likely to be susceptible to fraud or corruption
5. To advise, educate and help any officer, Agent, board or
parastatals on the set of programmes that can be embarked upon
to eliminate or reduce to the bearest minimum, the incidence of
fraud and corruption.
6. To intimate the Accounting Officers in the public bodies of any
changes effected in the procedures and systems of administration
as it concerns their Ministries, Parastatals or Departments.
7. To educate the public bodies on the methods of detecting,
preventing and arresting fraud, bribery, corruption and related
offence in their Ministries parastatals or Department.
8. To educate the public against offences like bribery, corruption,
forgery, impersonation, advance fee fraud and other related
offences.
9. To instruct the executives on how to detect, prevent and reduce to
acceptable, level, incidence of corruption and related offences.
10. To involve the general public in waging war against corruption.
463
(iii) DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EFCC AND ICPC

1. The EFCC is primarily charged with the responsibility of enforcing
laws relating to banking, money laundering, Advance Fee
Fraud{419} miscellaneous offences and other related offences
while the ICPC is to enforce laws relating to fraud, corruption
and embezzlement of funds in relation to public services.
2. The EFCC does not have any time limitation as to when a crime
was committed while the ICPC is limited in time to those offences
committed from year 2000.
3. The EFCC has power to prosecute directly without recourse to the

Attorney General’s Office while the ICPC can only prosecute
through the Attorney General’s Office.
464
CHAPTER
Skills level
28
Towards National Fiscal Responsibility
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Fiscal Responsibility Commission
4. Medium Term Expenditure Framework
5. Aggregate Expenditure Ceiling
6. Application of the Act to the States and Local Governments
7. Annual Budget and the Medium-term Expenditure Framework
8. Budgetary Execution and Achievement of Targets
9. Monitoring Budget Implementation
10. Public Revenue
11. Public Expenditure
12. Debt and Indebtedness
13. Interpretation of Borrowing
14. Chapter Review
15. Worked Examples
465
28
TOWARDS NATIONAL FISCAL

RESPONSIBILITY
28.0 PURPOSE
After studying this chapter, readers will be able to:
(a) discuss the institutional and legal framework for fiscal responsibility
in public administration in Nigeria; and
(b) explain the functions and powers of the Fiscal Responsibility
Commission
28.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to strengthen the Nigerian economy, fast track the tempo of socio-
economic development and ensure value for all resources deployed into
physical and intrinsic development, the Nigerian Government has been
enacting various laws and setting up various legally backed commissions.
The Federation Account Allocation Committee, the Economic and Financial
Crimes Commission, the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related
Offences Commission, and the National Commission on Public Procurement
are a few of Government agencies established to ensure that its objective of
improving the living standard of Nigerians is achieved. The Nation has gone
a step further by enacting the Fiscal Responsibility Act, 2007 which is aimed
at providing for prudent management of the Nation’s resources, ensure long-
term macro-economic stability of the national economy and secure greater
accountability and transparency.
28.2 FISCAL RESPONSIBILITY COMMISSION

This Commission was established by the Fiscal Responsibility Act, 2007 to
carry out the following functions, among others:
(a) monitoring and enforcing the provisions of the Act, thereby promoting
the economic objectives of the Nation.
(b) disseminating standard national and international practices that will
ensure greater efficiency in the allocation and management of public
expenditure, revenue collection, debt control and transparency in fiscal
matters.
(c) undertaking fiscal and financial studies, analysis and diagnosis and
disseminating the result to the general public.
28.2.1 Composition of the Commission

The commission is to consist of:
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TOWARDS NATIONAL FISCAL RESPONSIBILITY
(a) a chairman who will be the Chief Executive Officer and Accounting
Officer of the Commission.
(b) One member representing;
(i) organized private sector;
(ii) civil society engaged in causes relating to probity, transparency
and good governance;
(iii) organised labour;
(c) a representative of the Federal Ministry of Finance not below the rank of
a Director;
(d) one member to represent each of the six geo-political zones;
All the members of the Commission shall be persons of proven integrity.
28.2.2 Powers of the Fiscal Responsibility Commission

The Act empowers the Commission to, among other matters,
(a) formulate and provide general policy guidelines for the discharge of
the Commission’s functions;
(b) superintend the implementation of such policy guidelines;
(c) appoint employees to ensure proper and efficient performance of its
functions; and
(d) determine the conditions of service of employees and fix their
remuneration allowances and benefits.
28.3 MEDIUM-TERM EXPENDITURE FRAMEWORK

The Federal Government in consultation with the States would:
(a) prepare and submit to the National Assembly a medium-term
expenditure framework for the next three financial years on which the
National Assembly will deliberate. This would have to be done not later
than six months from the commencement of the Act.
(b) subsequently, not later than four months before the next financial year,-
commences a Medium-Term Expenditure Framework for the next three
financial years will be prepared for the National Assembly ’s
consideration.
28.3.1 Content of the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework

(a) a macro-economic framework setting out the three financial years, the
underlying assumptions and an evaluation and analysis of the macro-
economic projection for the preceding three financial years.
(b) fiscal strategy document setting out:
(i) Federal Government’s medium-term financial objectives;
(ii) the policies of the Federal Government for the Medium Term
relating to taxation, recurrent expenditure borrowings, lending
and investment and other liabilities;
(iii) the strategies, economic, social and developmental priorities of
government for the next three financial years;
467
(iv) an explanation of the financed objectives, strategic, economic,

social and developmental priorities and fiscal measures;
(c) An expenditure and revenue framework which will set out:
(i) estimates of aggregate revenue for the Federation for each
financial year, based on the pre-determined commodity Reference
Price adopted and tax revenue projections;
(ii) aggregate expenditure for each of the next three financial years;
(iii) minimum capital expenditure projection for the Federation for
each of the next three financial years;
(iv) aggregate tax expenditure projection for the Federation for each
of the next three financial years.
(d) a consolidated Debt Statement indicating and describing the fiscal
significance of the debt liability and measures to reduce the liability;
(e) a statement on the nature and fiscal significance of contingent liabilities
and quasi-fiscal activities and measures to offset the crystallization of
such liabilities;
The estimates and expenditure in (c) (i – iv) above should be:

(i) based on reliable and consistent data;
(ii) targeted at achieving the macro-economic projection;
(iii) consistent with and derive from the underlying assumptions contained
in the fiscal strategy document.
28.3.2 Preparation of the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework

The Minister will be responsible for preparing the Medium-Term Expenditure
Framework. In doing this he may hold public consultations on:
(i) The macro-economic framework.
(ii) Fiscal Strategy Document.
(iii) The strategic, economic, social and developmental priorities of
Government.
(iv) Such other matters as he may deem necessary.
The consultation should be open to the public, the press, the citizens,
organizations, group of citizens, etc.
The Minister shall seek inputs from the following organizations:

(i) National Planning Commission.
(ii) Joint Planning Commission.
(iii) National Commission on Development Planning.
(iv) National Economic Commission.
(v) National Assembly.
(vi) Central Bank of Nigeria.
(vii) National Bureau of Statistics.
(viii) Revenue Mobilization Allocation and Fiscal Commission.
468
28.4 AGGREGATE EXPENDITURE CEILING

The estimates of aggregate expenditure and the aggregate amount appropriated
by the National Assembly for each financial year shall not be more than the
estimated aggregate revenue plus a deficit which must not be more than 3%
(three percent) of the Estimated Gross Domestic Product or any sustainable
percentage as may be determined by the National Assembly for each financial
year.
Aggregate expenditure for a financial year may exceed the ceiling indicated
above if in the opinion of the President there is clear and present threat to
national security or sovereignty of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
28.5 APPLICATION OF THE ACT TO THE STATES AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

States and Local Governments which desire shall be assisted by the Federal
Government to manage their fiscal affairs within the medium-term framework.
28.6 ANNUAL BUDGET AND THE MEDIUM-TERM EXPENDITURE

FRAMEWORK
The Medium-Term Expenditure Framework shall be the basis for the preparation
of the estimates of revenue and expenditure to be presented to the National
Assembly.
The annual budget must be accompanied by:

(a) a copy of the underlying revenue and expenditure profile for the next
two years;
(b) a report setting out actual and budgeted revenue and expenditure with
a detailed analysis of the performance of the budget for the 18 months
up to June of the preceding financial year;
(c) a fiscal target broken down into monthly collection targets;
(d) measures of cost, cost control and evaluation of result of programmes
financed with budgetary resources;
(e) a fiscal target document derived from the underlying Medium – Term
Expenditure Framework setting out the following targets for the relevant
financial year:
(i) target inflation rate
(ii) target fiscal account balances
(iii) any other development target deemed appropriate.
(f) a Fiscal Risk document evaluating the fiscal and other related risks to
the annual budget and specifying measures to be taken to offset the
occurrence of such risks.
28.7 BUDGETARY EXECUTION AND ACHIEVEMENT OF TARGETS

Matters to which attention should be focused here include;
469
Annual Cash Plan: The Accountant-General of the Federation shall draw up

an Annual Cash Plan in each financial year, setting out projected monthly cash
flows. This shall be revised periodically to reflect actual cash flows.
Disbursement Schedule: The Minister shall, within 30 days of the enactment

of the Appropriation Act, prepare and publish a disbursement schedule from
the Annual Appropriation Act.
Appropriation Act: Use of Appropriation: Sums appropriated for specific

purposes shall be used solely for those purposes specified in the Appropriation
Act.
Virement Approval: The Ministry may, in exceptional circumstances and in

the overall public interest, recommend to the National Assembly for its approval,
virements from one sub-head account to another within the same Head and
without exceeding the amount appropriated to such head of account.
28.8 MONITORING BUDGET IMPLEMENTATION

The Minister of Finance, through the Budget Office of the Federation, shall
monitor and evaluate the implementation of the Annual Budget, assess the
attainment of fiscal targets and report to the Fiscal Responsibility Commission
and the Joint Finance Committee of the National Assembly. In implementing
their annual budgets, State and Local Governments may adopt those provisions.
28.9 PUBLIC REVENUE

(a) Estimated revenue shall be broken down by the Executive Arm of
Government into monthly collection targets, indicating measures to
combat tax fraud and evasion.
(b) The Executive Arm of Government shall at least 30 days before the
deadline for the submission of its budget proposals, place at the disposal
of the National Assembly, the revenue estimates for the following year.
(c) Any fund due to the Federation from any tier of government may be set
off by the Federation in or towards payment or remittance of any sum
due to that tier of government from the Federation.
28.10 PUBLIC EXPENDITURE

Public Sector Resources Management requires that Government annual
expenditure be kept below its revenue level or, at worst, at par with the annual
revenue from all sources so as to avoid the need to get involved in deficit
financing. Sometimes, however, the need to provide a higher level of and high
quality socio-economic services to the people may demand increased
expenditure. Under this Act, conditions under which this can occur are given
hereunder.
470
28.10.1 Conditions for Increasing Government Expenditure:

(a) Any action of Government which results in increase in expenditure should
be backed up by:
(i) an estimate of the budgetary or financial impact in the year it
becomes effective and in the two subsequent years;
(ii) a statement by the person requesting for the expenditure, stating
that the increase is consistent with the Appropriations Act and
the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework;
(b) Prior budgetary allocation should have been done before granting any
advantage or increase of remuneration, creation of posts or allocation
of career structures and admission of personnel.
(c) All contracts in relation to annual budget execution should comply with
the rules and guidelines on:
(i) procurement and award of contracts
(ii) due process and certification of contract.
28.11 DEBT AND INDEBTEDNESS

(a) All tiers of a Government shall borrow only for capital expenditure and
human development. Such borrowing should also be on concessional
terms with low interest rate and reasonable long amortization period
subject to the approval of appropriate legislative body.
(b) The public debt as a proportion of natural income shall be held at a
sustainable level as prescribed by the National Assembly.
(c) Government may borrow from the capital market.
28.12 INTERPRETATION OF BORROWING

Borrowing means any financial obligation arising from:
(a) any loan including principal, interest and fees on such loan
(b) the deferred payment for property, goods or services
(c) bonds, debentures, notes or similar instruments.
(d) letters of credit and reimbursement obligations with respect thereto
(e) guarantees
(f) trade or banker’s acceptances
(g) capitalized amount of obligations under leases
(h) agreements providing for swap, ceiling rates, ceiling and floor rates
contingent participation or other hedging mechanism with respect to
the payment of interest or the convertibility of currency.
(i) conditional sale agreements, capital leases or other retention agreement.

This chapter dealt with Government’s commendable move to ensure fiscal
responsibility at all levels of public administration and in consonance with the
yearnings of the people. It discussed such fiscal issues like the powers and
duties of the Fiscal Responsibility Commission, Medium Term Expenditure
Framework, Preparation and Implementation of the Annual Budget and
acceptable conditions for borrowing by any tier of government.
471

28.14.1 Questions
(1) Fiscal Responsibility Commission was established by the Fiscal

Responsibility Act; 2007
(a) Give the functions of the Commission as contained in the Act;
(b) What are the powers of Fiscal Responsibility Commission as stated
in the Act?
(2) Justify your understanding of the content of the Medium-Term
Expenditure Framework
(3) (a) Explain the relationship between Annual Budget and the
Medium-Term Expenditure Framework
(b) What are the matters that should be given attention in budgetary
execution to achieve intended target?

1.(a) The following are the functions of the Fiscal responsibility Commission
as contained in the Act:
(i) Monitoring and enforcing the provisions of the Act, thereby

promoting the economic objectives of the nation;
(ii) Disseminating standards for national and international practices
that will ensure greater efficiency in the allocation and
management of public expenditure, revenue collection, debt
control and transparency in fiscal matters;
(iii) Undertaking fiscal and financial studies, analysis and diagnosis
and disseminating the result to the general public;
(iv) Making rules for carrying out its functions under Fiscal
Responsibility Act
(v) Perform any other functions consistent with the promotion of the
objectives of Fiscal Responsibility Act.
(b) The powers of the Fiscal Responsibility Commission will include the
following:
(i) Formulate and provide general policy guideline for the discharge
of the commission’s functions;
(ii) Superintend the implementation of such policy guidelines
(iii) Appoint employees to ensure proper and efficient performance
of its functions;
(iv) Determine the conditions of service of employees and fix their
remuneration allowances and benefits
(v) Compel any person or government institution to disclose
information relating to public revenue and expenditure.
(2) The medium-term is expenditure framework has the following content
472
(a) A micro-economic frame work setting out the three financial years, the
underlying assumption and an evaluation and analysis of the macro-
economic projection for the preceding three financial years.
(b) Fiscal Strategy document setting

(i) Federal government’s medium-term financial objectives
(ii) The policies of the federal government for the medium term
relating to taxation, recurrent expenditure, borrowings, lending
and investment and other liabilities
(iii) The strategies, economic, social and developmental priorities of

government for the next three financial years.
(iv) An explanation of the finance objectives, strategic, economic,

social and developmental priorities and fiscal measures.
(c) An expenditure and revenue framework setting out
(i) Estimates of aggregate revenue for the federation for each

financial year
(ii) Minimum capital expenditure projection for the Federation for

each of the next three financial years.
(iii) Aggregate tax expenditure project for the federation for each of
the next three financial years.
(d) A consolidated debt statement indicating and describing the fiscal

significance of the debt liability and measures to reduce the liabilities
such liabilities.
3(a). The Medium-Term Expenditure Framework constitutes the basis for the
preparation of the estimates of revenue and expenditure to be presented to the
National Assembly.
(b) To achieve set targets in budgetary execution, the attention should be

focused on:
(i) Annual Cash Plan – Crafted by the Accountant-General of the
federation
(ii) Disbursement Schedule – the minister shall within 30 days of

the enactment of the appropriation Act, prepare and publish
disbursement schedule.
(iii) Appropriation Act – which states that sums appropriated should

be used solely for those purposes specified in the appropriation
acts.
473
(iv) Virement Approval – The ministry may recommend virement from

one sub-head account to another within the same head.
(c) An expenditure and revenue framework setting out

(i) Estimate aggregate revenue for the federation for each of the
next three financial years.
(ii) Minimum capital expenditure projection for the federation for
each of the next three financial years.
(iii) Aggregate tax expenditure projection for the federation for each
of the next three financial years.
(d) A consolidated Debt statement indicating and describing the fiscal

significance of the debt liability and measures to reduce the liability.
(e) A statement on the nature and fiscal significance of contingent liabilities

such liabilities.
474
CHAPTER
Skills level

29
Fiscal Federalism and Intergovernment
Fiscal Relations in Nigeria
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Concept of Fiscal Federalism
4. Elements of Fiscal Federalism
5. Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations in Nigeria
6. Chapter Review
7. Worked Examples
475
29
FISCAL FEDERALISM AND

INTERGOVERNMENT FISCAL RELATIONS
IN NIGERIA
29.0 PURPOSE
(a) define fiscal federalism in its different forms;
(b) identify and discuss the elements of fiscal federalism;
(c) explain the basis for fiscal federalism and fiscal decentralisation;
(d) describe and characterise intergovernmental fiscal relations in Nigeria;
and
(e) discuss the problems of intergovernmental fiscal relations in Nigeria
29.1 INTRODUCTION
Many countries including Nigeria can be considered to be Federations in the
practical sense that significant fiscal functions (revenue generation and
incurring of expenditure) are undertaken by different levels of government or
sub national units of government. Such Federal economies have developed
elaborate forms of fiscal arrangements between the Federal (Central) and other
(State and Local) levels of government which jointly determine the way in
which tax bases are allocated and shared among the various levels of
government as well as how funds are to be transferred from one level to another.
Such arrangements have given rise to the economics of fiscal federalism. This
chapter, therefore, discusses fiscal federalism and intergovernmental fiscal
relations in Nigeria. The chapter is organised into two major parts. The first
reviews the general theory of fiscal federalism while the second discusses and
characterised the nature of inter-governmental fiscal relations in Nigeria.
29.2 CONCEPTS OF FISCAL FEDERALISM

Basically, fiscal federalism is a sub-field of public finance that addresses the
vertical structure of the public sector. It is the general normative framework for
assignment of functions to the different levels of government and appropriate
fiscal instruments for carrying out these functions (Oates, 1999:1120). However,
there are two related concepts of fiscal federalism namely political and
administrative federalism.
(a) Political federalism describes the constitutional division of powers
between tiers of government each of which is supposed to be coordinate
and independent.
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FISCAL FEDERALISM AND INTERGOVERNMENT FISCAL RELATIONS IN NIGERIA
(b) Administrative federalism in contrast, is more a matter of

administrative fiat and involves the delegation of functions to sub-
national levels of government. This is in general based on guidelines
and controls created by higher levels of government (e.g. Federal or
State), so that the administrative delegation lacks the autonomy
associated with the decentralization of powers.
Since administrative delegation is common in most political systems,

be it federal or not, e.g. delegation to local governments, the focus is
often more on political federalism.
29.3 ELEMENTS OF FISCAL FEDERALISM

The principal defining elements of fiscal federalism include:
(a) The rationale for adopting a federal structure in a country;
(b) Objectives of fiscal relations;
(c) Rules for the assignment of functions and sources of income to different
tiers of government, i.e. the expenditure assignment arrangement;
(d ) The efficiency of free migration from one jurisdiction to another;
(e) The role of inter-government resource transfers and their most desirable
forms i.e. revenue allocation; and
(f) Principles for intergovernmental transfers
29.3.1 The Rationale for adopting a Federal Structure in a Country

The adoption of a federal structure and/or fiscal federalism is usually underlined
by fundamental objective(s). This underlying objective defines the nature of
the federal structure/fiscal federalism in federating countries. The survey of
older/advanced federations across the globe, for example, revealed the
following main objectives:
(a) resolution of conflicts (Switzerland);
(b) strengthen an efficient system (USA);
(c) maintain a relatively weak state (Germany); and
(d) to take account of current history (Australia).
29.3.2 Objectives of Fiscal Relations

An ideal system of fiscal relations among units in a federation would:
(a) ensure correspondence between sub-national expenditure
responsibilities and their financial resources (including transfers from
the central government) so that functions assigned to sub-national
governments can be effectively carried out;
(b) increase the autonomy of sub-national governments by incorporating
incentives for them to mobilise revenues of their own;
(c) ensure that macroeconomic management policies of the central
government are not undermined or compromised;
(d) give expenditure discretion to sub-national governments in appropriate
areas in order to increase the efficiency of public spending and improve
477
the accountability of sub-national officials to their constituents in the

provision of sub-national services;
(e) incorporate inter-government transfers that are administratively simple,
transparent and based on objective, stable, non-negotiated criteria;
(f) minimise administrative costs and, thereby, economise on scarce
administrative resource;
(g) provide “equalisation” payments to offset differences in fiscal capacity
among states and among local governments so as to ensure that poorer
sub-national governments can offer sufficient amount of key public
services;
(h) incorporate mechanisms to support public infrastructure development
and its appropriate financing;
(i) support the emergence of a governmental role that is consistent with
market-oriented reform; and
(j) be consistent with nationally agreed income distribution goals.
It is important to note that balancing objectives, such as efficiency, revenue

adequacy, and sub-national governments’ autonomy, may be difficult. For
instance, too generous support for sub-national governments may discourage
their own revenue efforts and autonomy, undercut central stabilisation policy.
Also, different countries attach different priorities to each of these objectives,
and the priorities may change over time. And since, not all these objectives
can be achieved simultaneously; therefore, choices need to be made.
29.3.3 The Expenditure Assignment Function

Expenditure assignment deals with the allocation of spending powers and
responsibilities to different levels of government, especially with respect to the
provision and delivery of public goods and services.
For various reasons, such as executive capacity, avoidance of unnecessary

duplication, locational advantage like proximity to consumers, economies of
scale, etc, the central government should engage in certain forms of expenditures
and activities, while lower levels of government should engage in others. The
general guidelines upon which this expenditure assignment is based are:
(a) Efficient provision of public services - by using the jurisdiction
that controls the minimum geographical area that would bear the costs
and benefits of the provision of such services;
(b) Equitable provision of public services – through equal treatment

of all citizens, irrespective of place of residence or employment
(horizontal equity). This can avoid wasteful tax and expenditure
competition among jurisdictions. Thus effective redistribution
programmes are best handled nationally in pursuit of equity, but the
participation of sub national governments in implementing specific
programmes is essential where such programmes can be tailored to
the peculiar circumstances of individual jurisdictions;
478
(c) Preservation of a single internal common market – when sub-

national government try to attract labour, capital and technology, they
may erect local incentives that become barriers to the free flow of goods
and inputs across governmental jurisdictions. Thus the decentralisation
of government regulatory functions may create the possibility of
disharmonious economic relations among levels of government and
disrupt national economic and social integration. Hence, the regulation
of trade and investment is best assigned to the central government;
(d) Economic stabilisation – it is difficult for a sub-national government

to implement successful stabilisation policy because of the openness of
its economy and the nature of stabilisation policy, like monetary and
exchange rate policies, that require coordination by a Central Bank. For
similar reasons, decentralised fiscal policy needs flexibility through the
structuring of tax assignment and fiscal policy coordination and through
regular meetings of officials of central and sub-national governments;
( e) Efficient provision of quasi-public goods – technically, services

like health, education, social welfare and social insurance are private
goods, but they are provided by the public sector on equity grounds.
When they are provided by the central government, this may be in order
to satisfy minimum standards across jurisdictions.
29.3.3.1 Centralisation versus Decentralisation in Fiscal Federalism

The foregoing guidelines on expenditure (and tax) assignment set the basis
for centralisation and decentralisation and their appropriateness generally
and in particular instances. The cases for centralisation in fiscal federalism
hinge on the following considerations:
(a) Economies of scale – these are mostly in public utilities like water,
electricity, sewage, etc., that requires servicing large areas and are
natural monopolies;
(b) Spatial externalities – these arise when the benefits and/or costs of
public services fall on non-residents. In such cases, sub-national
governments are likely to under-supply such services. But where the
costs are not fully internalised, there may be harmful over-provision.
Examples of such services are defence, foreign affairs and national
transport networks which are best provided by the central government;
(c) Compliance and administrative costs: also tend to be lower when
some public services are provided centrally. National regulatory services
are of this nature, e.g., customs, examinations, postal services etc.
Conversely, decentralisation is preferred in some expenditure activities for the

following reasons:
(a) Differences in local needs and tastes – these are best met through
the sub-national provision of public services. Central provision in such
479
cases may lead to waste and under-provision e.g. in education, health,

housing, etc.
(b) Responsiveness to local issues – this occurs where decision-making
over the provision of public services is close to the target population to
be served. It also fosters grassroots participation, greater fiscal
responsibility, accountability and efficiency;
(c) Elimination of multiple layers of jurisdiction – this makes for
more effective control and supervision of public services;
(d) Inter-jurisdictional competition and innovation – these tend to
be fostered when more than one tier of government are involved in the
provision of public services. This argument is an extension of the
competitive model in micro-economics and international free trade.
At the theoretical level, it is generally agreed that the central government would
be in a better position to perform the distribution and stabilization functions
as well as provide national public goods. This is because all of these functions
would be inefficiently performed at the lower government levels for two
interrelated reasons. The first is the difficulty in appropriating the full social
benefits of the programmes undertaken at that level, and second is the tendency
towards free rider problem (the problem of wanting to consume a publicly
provided goods and services without paying at all or sufficiently towards its
provision).
29.3.4 The Efficiency of free Migration from one Jurisdiction to Another

On identifying the possible advantages of the fiscal decentralization in the
previous sub-section, some assumptions were inherent which, being examined
more thoroughly, are not in fact realistic, at least if given a strict interpretation.
Due to this, decentralization is not only an advantageous political instrument,
but it also gives rise to problems or difficulties which, if not solved with special
caution, could turn decentralization into a political and economic disaster
instead of resulting in all of the benefits previously mentioned. Within the scope
of the State economic functions (allocation, distribution and stabilization), the
problems may be considered mainly in terms of the economic functions of
allocation and distribution (even when in decentralization matters both these
aspects seem to get mixed).
Basically, the economic rationale for multilevel/multiunit government is the

existence of public goods and services with differing geographical spread of
benefits and the need to allocate sufficient resources to their provision, given
that the market/private sector fails in their provision. Because of this, the
functions of government have come to be classified into the provision of national,
regional/state and local public goods and services.
This classification is hinged on the spatial limitation of the benefit incidence

of the public goods and services, a conception that justifies the definition of
480
public goods as non-excludable and/or non-rivalry in consumption, subject to

capacity constraint. Some social goods are national in that their benefits spread
across the entire nation (e.g. national defence, macroeconomic stability,
national pride, etc), while others are geographically limited (e.g. local fire
service or street light). For the latter, clearly, the benefits are limited to residents
within the radius of the benefits circle in which the facility is located. Some
other commodities have spillover effects such that a larger and/or central unit
of authority is required to coordinate their supply such as interstate and
interlocal government roads and bridges.
The foregoing inter-jurisdictional concerns (in which the benefits of social goods
and services provided by a level/unit of government transcend beyond the
frontiers of that jurisdiction) directly raises the issue of which economic
functions are best performed by the central government and those by sub-
national governments? Generally, it is commonly agreed for efficiency and
equity sake, that the central government would be in a better position to perform
the distribution and stabilization functions as well as provides national public
goods for which there are substantial benefits spillovers.
This is because these functions will be inefficiently performed at the lower

government tier/level for two interrelated reasons-difficulty in appropriating
the full social benefits of the programmes at that level, and the tendency towards
free rider problem. On the other hand, lower level governments have
comparative advantage in the provision of local public goods and services,
especially those whose preferences vary geographically and for which there
are no substantial economies of scale.
29.3.5 Revenue Allocation

Arising from the expenditure assignment function is the often thorny issue of
revenue allocation. Perhaps the most important issue of fiscal federalism is
the revenue allocation formula, the sharing of national revenue among the
various tiers of government (vertical revenue sharing) as well as the
distribution of revenue among units of government of the same level (that is,
horizontal revenue allocation). In determining how these resources are to be
shared among the tiers of government, the popular practice is that these
revenues be shared according to predetermined principles.
In the extant public finance literature, the principles that are indicated to guide
the implementation of intergovernmental fiscal relations include:
(a) The Principle of Diversity: The federal system must have the ability
to accommodate a large variety of diversities. Hence, the fiscal system
must provide scope for variety and differences to supply national,
regional and local public goods.
(b) The Principle of Equivalence: Based on the geographical incidence
of different public goods, allocative efficiency requires the equalization
481
of locational advantages arising from inter-jurisdictional differences

with a combination of taxes and public goods and services.
(c) The Principle of Centralized Stabilization: This requires the use
of fiscal instruments for achieving macroeconomic objectives of growth,
stabilization and full employment by residents of different geopolitical
units; this requirement controls for what is often referred to as “central
city exploitation thesis”.
(d) Minimum Provision of Essential Goods and Services: This ensures
that fiscal federalism guarantees all citizens, irrespective of where they
reside, the minimum provision of certain basic public goods and services.
(e) Principle of Fiscal Equalization: In order to ensure a minimum
level of public goods and services, the same degree of fiscal equalization
is required. This is called forth as a result of differences in resource
endowment.
(f) The Efficiency Principle: This principle implies that efficiency must
be applied in the allocation of resources. In addition, each level of
government should maximize its internal revenue earnings at minimum
tax efforts.
(g) The Principle of Derivation: The component units of a system should
be able to control some of its own resources as they desire.
(h) The Principle of Locational Neutrality: Interregional fiscal
differences tend to influence location choices of individuals and firms.
Based on different resource endowments, differences in tax capacity
and effort, some decree of locational interference seems to be an
inevitable cost of intergovernmental fiscal relations. Therefore, policy
should focus on minimizing distortions due to some interference. Hence,
differential taxes which create locational distortions should be avoided
as much as practicable.
(i) The Principle of Centralized Redistribution: This principle states
that the redistribution function of fiscal policy through progressive
taxation and expenditure programmes should be centralized at the
federal level. This seems consistent with the principle of locational
mentality. That is, if the redistributive function is decentralized, it can
result in distortions in location decisions.
However, it has been generally observed that the above principles are not
mutually consistent and therefore difficult to apply simultaneously. Therefore,
tradeoffs are necessary in order to address these conflicts. Thus, quite often,
the principles used are determined largely by the subjective interests of the
ruling elite. This is so because no theory exists and can possibly exist showing
which is the most appropriate principle to emphasize, when and how.
A combination of a wide variety of changing factors: socio–economic and

political, all uniquely combined to produce equity and efficiency, are usually
482
the guiding principle. According to Kenneth Wheare, there is none and can be
no final solution to the allocation of financial resources in a federal system.
There can only be adjustments and reallocations in the light of changing
conditions. What a federal system needs, therefore, is a machinery adequate to
make these adjustments and to make them also in such a way that the financial
independence of the central and lower level governments is preserved as far
as possible. Thus, each federal system is a unique case of its own.
29.3.6 Principles for Intergovernmental Transfers

Intergovernmental transfers or grants from higher to lower level government
are a critical part of fiscal arrangement in multilevel governments. It is usually
classified into two broad categories as:
(a) Matching or conditional grants: require that the recipient uses the
grant for a specific purpose as well as provide a specific proportion of
the total programme cost to supplement the amount granted.
(b) Non-matching grants : which may be either conditional or

unconditional, do not require the recipient to provide a matching or
supplementary amount. Such grants are usually spent where it may be
necessary to subsidize programmes considered to be of high priority by
a higher level of government but lower priority by a lower government.
A number of principles have been identified that should guide

intergovernmental transfers. These are:
(a) fiscal imbalance or fiscal gap: this may be horizontal or vertical. The
former refers to the mismatch between revenue- raising and fiscal needs
of government at the same level in a federation, while the latter refers
to the mismatch between revenue means and expenditure needs at the
various levels of government;
(b) redistributive role of the public sector which would sometimes require
the central government to redress regional disparity;
(c) preservation of internal common market, which may require the federal
government to ensure a common minimum level for public services;
stabilization objectives; and
(d) interjurisdictional spillovers which may otherwise lead to under or over
provision of public services.
29.4 INTERGOVENMENT FISCAL RELATIONS IN NIGERIA

The nature and character of intergovernmental relations are discussed in this
sub-section of the chapter. To make for organised discussions, it is structured
into three (3) as follows:
29.4.1 Profile of Fiscal Federalism in Nigeria

There has been a limited degree of fiscal decentralisation in Nigeria since
1954 when the country adopted federalism. With federalism, regional and state
483
governments were given functional responsibilities with separate and

independent budgets. However, the revenues from regional or state remained
grossly inadequate to meet their expenditure responsibilities.
Therefore, states had to fall back on their share of federally collected revenues,
but the federal government retained fiscal supremacy. The bulk of the revenue
made available to the regional and states governments was on the basis of
derivation between 1954 and 1974. The tendency towards equalisation
principle began, however, in 1975 when the government said that the existing
revenue allocation formula accentuated disparities in the level of development
among the states. Overtime, more resources were made available to the states,
but the bulk of the federally collected revenue continued to be retained by the
federal government.
Revenues accruing to the three levels of government consist of tax and non-tax
financial flows which are derived from internal and external sources. The
internal sources are those revenue heads assigned to the three levels of
government by the constitution, while the external sources is made up of
statutory revenue allocation, discretionary grants and value added tax (VAT).
Though there is clear and explicit division of “rights” to revenue sources among
federal, state and local governments, however, the major revenue heads in the
country, including customs duties, mining rents and royalties, petroleum profit
tax and company income tax, all of which account for about 80 per cent of total
national recurrent revenues, fall under the legislative and administrative
jurisdiction of the federal government while the less productive and less buoyant
sources are devolved to the fiscal jurisdiction of state and local governments.
Until 1976, the position of local governments in the Nigerian federal set-up
was not clear, as they were merely decentralised units of the regional and state
governments. The 1999 Constitution gave them recognition as the third tier of
government with specific functions and sources of revenue. Consequently, they
started to enjoy statutorily allocated revenues in 1981.
29.4.2 Overview of Revenue Sharing in Nigeria

The evolution of revenue sharing, both vertical and horizontal has tended to
follow different phases of the evolution of fiscal federalism in the country. These
phases of revenue allocation have been marked by various fiscal or revenue
allocation Commissions/Committees/Reviews, Decrees and Acts, and executive
orders. Tables 29.1 29.2 and 29.3 present the summary of revenue allocation
reviews in Nigeria from 1946 to the present.
484
Table 29.1: Summary of Revenue Allocation Reviews in Nigeria from 1946 to date by Commissions
Ye a r Reviewer P ri n c ip l es / Cri t eri a Allocation Formula/System Remarks
1964 Phillipson 1. Derivation 1. Revenue Allocation Board to make regional The Report found it difficult to reconcile the two
2. Even Progress expenditure proportionate to region’s contribution principles on the allocations of revenues that were
to total Federal non-declared revenues. not declared to the regions.
The recommendations of the report were not specific
to different sources of revenue e.g. import duties on
different commodities
The relative shares of the regions in total national
revenue were also not indicated.
The tax assignment question was also ignored.
1. Derivation 1. 50% of import duties on tobacco according to It did not specify the relative shares of the regions
1951 Hicks-Phillipson and local governments in national revenue.
2. Needs consumption and 100% of duty on motor fuels
3. National Interest The proposal of a uniform income tax system for the
2. capitation of grant of 13shillings per head
country had regressive implications because of
3. 100% education and police grants uneven development and unequal income
4. Special equalization grants5. uniform system of distribution in the country.
income taxation all over Nigeria. The report dealt only partially with issue of tax
jurisdiction.
1953 Louis Chick 1. Derivation 50% of some federally collected taxes should be It is not clear how to arrive at the distributable tax
2. Fiscal autonomy shared among the regions with the Federal proceeds or revenue.
Government keeping the rest The idea of sharing net revenue to the regions after
1. 50% of import duties on tobacco and 100 % of meeting central government needs pandered to
485
import duties on motor fuel according to excessive fiscal centralism.
consumption The relative shares of the regions and local
2. 50% of other import duties to be shared to the East government in national revenue were not stated.
30%, North 30% and West 40%. The issue of tax jurisdiction was also not improved
3. 100% income tax (excluding companies tax)
upon.
according to residence
4. 100% of mining rents and royalties according to
extraction
5. 50% of export duties according to origin
1958 Raisman-Tress 1. Derivation 1. 100% of import duties and excise taxes on tobacco The terms of reference of the Commission were
2. Fiscal autonomy and 100% of import duties on motor fuel to be cumbersome and too lengthy.
shared according to consumption The report ignored local government financing
3. United National policy
2. 100% of export duties according to origin The relative shares of revenue to the regions from
3. 50% of mining rents and royalties according to the Distributable Pool had no clear objective basis.
extraction The revenue contributions from different sources to
4. 35% of other import duties and 30% of mining rents the Distributable Pool were both arbitrary and
and royalties to be paid into the Distributable Pool incomplete.
Account in the ratios: East 31/95, North40/95,West The sharing of oil company profit was also vague
24/95 and Southern Cameroons 5/95 and unsatisfactory
The sharing of tax jurisdiction was still not settled.
Table 29.1: Summary of Revenue Allocation Reviews in Nigeria from 1946 to date by Commissions (contd)
1964 Binn 1. Comparable financial The revenue allocation it proposed involved: Clumsy terms of reference
position for each A (i) Regional allocation: East 31%, North 40%, West Also ignored local government financing
Regional Government 21% and Mid-West 8% (ii) Excise duty on locally There was no objective determination of the relative
2. Needs produced motor spirit and diesel oil to be shared on revenue shares of the regions
3. Paramount financial The report sustained the partial payments of
the proportion consumed in each region (iii) 30% of
revenue from different sources into the Distributable
authority for Federal import duties on certain commodities and mining Pool. In the process, total national revenues were
royalties and rents to be credited to the Distributable unduly segmented and rationed by arbitrary criteria
Government
Pool Account (same as Constitutional Provision. OR between the Federal and Regional governments.
B (i) East 30%, North 42%,West 20%, and Mid-West 8% The use of the “ninety-fifths” ratio for revenue
(ii) same as A(ii) (iii) 35% of import duties on certain sharing was also clumsy
commodities and mining royalties and rent to be Did not give adequate attention to tax jurisdiction.
credited to the Distributable Pool Account.
1968 Dina 1. Derivation 1. Reduced the weight given to derivation principle The Committees report was rejected by the Military
2. Basic Needs 2. Royalties from on-shore mining to be shared with Government and it was not published.However,
3. Minimum National Federal Government 15%,State of Origin 10%, some of its recommendations were said to have
486
Standards State’s Joint Account 70%, Special Grants Account been adopted piece-meal subsequently e.g. the
4. Balanced 5% pricing policy of Marketing Boards, uniform income
3. Distributable Pool Account to be renamed States tax legislation and federal financing of
Development Joint Account universities.It was not clear why it reduced the
4. Uniform tax legislation for the country importance of “derivation” in the sharing of
5. Federal Government to finance all higher education national revenue in view of the increasing share of
oil in national revenue.Three of its four principles of
revenue sharing tended to overlap closely-basic
needs, minimum national standards and balanced
development.It indicated the proportions in which
royalties from on-shore mining were to be shared,
but did not do the same for off-shore oil and total
national revenue, or the Distributable Pool.
1977 Aboyade Horizontal allocation Vertical and horizontal allocation made explicit: The Constituent Assembly of 1978 rejected the Report
criteria among states 1. All federally collected revenue to be paid into one
and LGAs because of its being too technical.
account and shared with Federal Government
1. Equality of access to
57%,States Joint Account 30%, Local Government
development
opportunities (0.25) Fund 10% and Special Grants 3%
2. National minimum 2. Each state to give 10% of its total revenue to its
standards for Local Governments
national integration 3. Special Grants Accounts to used for cleaning oil
(0.22)
3. Absorptive capacity pollution, emergencies and general ecological
(0.20) purposes.
4. Independent revenue
and minimum tax
effort (0.18)
5. Fiscal efficiency
(0.15)
1980 Okigbo Same principles of 1. Federation Account to be shared with Federal Dissenting minority view was associated with
horizontal allocation Government (53%), States (30%), LGAs (10%) and the report. Consequently, the government
among states and LGAs Special Fund (7%) modified and accepted the report.
Four-factor formula was 2. The Special Fund to be shared for the Federal However, on 2nd October 1981, the Supreme Court
487
recommended for the Capital Territory (2.5%), Mineral producing areas
allocations of States’ of Nigeria declared the recommendations of the
(2.0%), other ecological problems (1.0%) and Okigbo Commission as invalid, null and void, and
share of the Federal
Account ,and also for the revenue equalization Fund (1.5%) of no effect whatsoever.
division of the LGAs 3. Creation of special agency for rehabilitation and
among the states: development of mineral producing areas.
1. Minimum
responsibility of (The 1982 Act based on the Okigbo Report altered the
Government (40%)
2. Population above percentages slightly).
responsibilities of
Government (40%)
3. Social Development
Factor-Primary School
Enrolment of which:
Direct Enrolment
=11.25
Inverse Enrolment
=3.75 (15%)
4. Internal revenue
effort (5%) Total
=100%
1988 Danjuma 1. Equality of States 1. Vertical allocation to be: Federal Government

40% 47%,States 30%,LGAs15%, Special Fund (8%)
2. Population 30% 2. Special Fund to be shared to: Federal capital
3. Social Development Territory (1.05),stabilization (0.55%,Savings
10% (2.5%),development of oil producing areas (1.5%),
4. Internal revenue development of non-oil mining areas (0.5%), general
effort 20% ecology (0.5%)
(In January 1990, the Federal Government approved
these allocations with minor changes in %,e.g.,
derivation share reduced to 1%)
3. Primary education Fund of 5% of Federal Account
and contributed by all three tiers of government.
1989 The appointment of The committee The committee recommended that The recommendations of the Commission were
a permanent revenue prescribed the following the powers to determine the adopted and inculcated in the 1999 Constitution.
allocation committee: formulae for the vertical allocation formulae be
National Revenue horizontal vested on the National Assembly.
Mobilization and Fiscal allocation of revenue

Commission (NRMAFC). amongst the states:
1. Equality of states
488
40%
2. Population, 30%
3. Land Mass and
Terrain 10%
Internal revenue
efforts 10%
4. Social development
factor 10 %.
Table 29.2: Summary of Revenue Allocation in Nigeria by Decrees
Ye a r Decree/Criteria P ri n c ip l es / Cri t eri a Allocation Formula/System
1970 Decree No.13 1. Derivation 45% 1. It reduced the states’ share of national revenue
2. Population 2. States were to get 60% instead of 100% of excise duty and 50% instead of 100% of the import duty on motor
3. Equality of States fuel
3. It reduced the States’ share of mining revenue by derivation to 45% (from 50%) and made the federal share
of mining rents and royalties 5%.
1971 Decree No.9 Not mentioned It gave the Federal Government the sole right to off-shore oil rents and royalties. This might be because on-shore oil
operations were disrupted during the civil war and the oil companies were forced to move-offshore
1973 Decree No.6 Derivation 20% 1. All revenues to be shared by the States to pass through the Distributable Pool Account except the 20% of on-
shore mining rents and royalties due to the states of origin by derivation
2. Distributable Pool Account to also include 80% of mining rents and royalties, 35% of import duties,100%of
import duties on motor fuel and tobacco,50% of excise duties and 100% of export duties on produce, hides
and skins.
1984 Allocation of Derivation and other 1. It abolished the Federal Allocation Committee created under the 1981 Act based on Okigbo Report. It
Revenue principles and as in the 1981 reserved 55 percent of the Federation Account exclusively for the federal government and maintained the
(Federation Act based on the Okigbo local governments’ share at 10 percent.
489
Account) Report 2. States share of national revenue increased from 30.5% to 32.5%
Amendment 3. 2% of the 32.5% to be shared among oil producing states on the basis of derivation
Decree No. 36 4. states to share the remaining 30.5% on the basis of the horizontal principles in 1981 Act (on Okigbo Report)
5. 1.5% of Federation Account for ecological problems of mineral producing areas.
1992 Budget Revision Not mentioned 1. Increased Local Government Area share in Federal Account from 15% to 20%.
of Revenue 2. Reduced states share from 30% to 25%
Allocation 3. The 5% increase in LGAs share to cater for primary education (Decree No.3 of 1991 transferred
responsibility for funding and management of primary education to the LGAs.
By June 1992, states allocation reduced from 25% to 24% and mineral producing areas fund slashed from
15% to 3%.
Table 29.3: Summary of Revenue Allocation in Nigeria by Acts
Year Acts/Criteria Principles/Criteria Allocation Formula/System Remarks

1981 Revenue Allocation 1. Equality of states 1. The federation account shall be This is the longest
Act No. 1 (50%), shared amongst the various tiers of standing revenue
2. Population (40%) Government as follows: federal formula in the history of
3. Land area (10%). government, 58.5% percent; state the country.
governments, 31.5%; local governments, This Act was however
10%. widely criticized mainly
2.The 58.5 percent allocated to the on the grounds that it
federal government shall be subdivided allocated too much
as follows: responsibilities and duties of revenue to the federal
the federal government (55 percent), government to the
development of the federal capital detriment of the states
territory (2.5 percent) and ecological and local governments.
problems (1 percent).
3.26.5 Percent of the state allocation
shall be allocated to all states, while the
remaining 5 percent shall be allocated
on the basis of derivation.
4. Two-fifths of the 5 percent of this
derivation fund shall be paid out to the
states in direct proportion to the value
of minerals extracted from their areas
while the remaining three-fifths shall be
paid into a special fund to be
administered by the federal government
for the development of the mineral
producing areas.
1982 Allocation of 1.Minimum Increased the share of the states in the The Federal
Revenue responsibility of vertical revenue allocation from 31.5 to government’s
(Federation government, 40 % 35 percent. share of the federation
Account) Act No. 1 2.Population, 40% The FCT was however now classified as account remained
3. Social a state. unaltered.
development factor The funding for the 1 percent ecological
15% fund was also transferred from the
4. Internal revenue Federal
effort 5 %. Government to the states.
The fund for the development of mineral
producing areas was reduced from 3
percent to 1.5 percent.
490
Table 29.4: Vertical Allocation of the Federation Account, 1981-Till Date

* From the 1999 Constitution, the 13% Derivation provision is accounted for before the revenue is allocated into the
federation account.
2. The current revenue formula is based on the modified grant from the Federal Ministry of Finance, which came
to effect in March, 2004
Table 29.5: Principles and Assigned Weights on Horizontal Revenue Allocation in Nigeria
N ot e: Fig u res are percen tag es.
491
Table 29.4 showed that vertical revenue sharing among the three tiers
of government has followed shifting formula(s), while Table 29.5 also
showed that several principles, factors or proxies (with weights assigned)
have been applied for horizontal revenue allocation among regions and
states over time. These include derivation, even progress, needs, national
interest, fiscal autonomy, united national policy, comparable financial
position for each regional government, minimum national standards,
balanced development, equality of access to development opportunities,
and absorptive capacity. Others are independent revenue generation
and minimum tax effort, fiscal efficiency, minimum responsibility of
government, population, social development factors (education and
health), land area or landmass and terrain. The rationale adduced for
each of these factors or proxies has generated heated debates over time.
For example, the protagonists of derivation principle argued that it would
enable each region/state to align its expenditure with the available
revenue. Simply put, it stresses fiscal discipline. On the other hand, its
antagonists noted that it would make the rich regions/states richer and
the poor regions poorer, thereby worsening the problem of uneven
development.
29.4.3 Problems of Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations in Nigeria.

There are critical issues and problems with decentralisation of government
and intergovernmental fiscal relations in Nigeria. These interrelated issues/
problems are discussed under a number of sub-headings as follows:
(a) Over-dependence on Oil Revenue

The exploration of oil in Nigeria and its high yielding revenue has
continue to undermine the development of the hitherto buoyant
agricultural sector and other viable sectors such as industry, mining
and human capital development. Consequently, oil revenue has become
the major source on which the country critically depends on.
This has with time led to the evolving of “a leech syndrome” among the
component units of the federation. Inevitably, it made the states
dependent on the hand-outs from the Federation Account. The leech
nature of most of the states makes them an economic appendage of the
central government and has eroded the autonomy of the federating units.
This, in a way, established a master-servant relationship between the
Federal Government and the component units. The current revenue
sharing formula encourages laziness and idleness as states rely heavily
on the federal allocation- a situation that makes most states, perhaps,
excluding Lagos, parasitic in nature feeding voraciously on Federation
Account. States have become dearth in initiatives, lacking in vision and
are development-shy.
492
(b) Conflicts over Revenue Sharing Formula

Revenue sharing among the component units of Nigerian federation
has, from the inception, been replete with agitations, controversies and
outright rejections due to the nature of the politics that is involved in it.
The process of revenue sharing is inundated with conflicting criteria
that were, often times, rejected by majority of the states. Consequently,
several attempts at revenue sharing (both vertically and horizontally)
have been made, yet no revenue sharing formula and set of principles
has been considered acceptable among and within tiers of government
at any point in time. A number of interrelated reasons have accounted
for this. The major ones are:
(i) The allocation of revenue to the various levels of government after

1946 reflected a character of strong bargaining powers of the
regions. That is, what went to a particular regional or state
government depended on how well they could influence the
bargaining process;
(ii) With the advent of military regimes, the pattern of revenue sharing
formula appeared biased in favour of the region or state in control
of state power in Nigeria. Simply put, there was no doubt that a
pattern of fiscal structure in which principles or criteria evolved
previously are contested and new principles or formula followed
the same awkward approach used by previous governments;
(iii) Consequently, the alteration of the principles so adopted became

rather easy for the ruling government of the day. The paradox of
the whole situation was that the attempt to find solutions to the
intractable problem of revenue allocation went hand in hand with
the subversion of the same process by the central government;
(iv) lack of consensus on the criteria of distribution;
(v) the absence of reliable socio-economic data;
(vi) the rapid rate of constitutional change and the extent to which
revenue distribution is tied to perceptions of regional and ethnic
dominance; and
Due to all the foregoing, the determining factor in revenue allocation

strongly revolved around political rather than economic criteria, thereby
making the revenue allocation issue in Nigeria contentious and thorny.
(c) Centralising Tendency of Fiscal Relations

There are also the centralising and hegemonic tendencies of the Federal
Government. The radical change from agrarian economy to oil-driven
493
economy further propelled centralism and hegemony of the central

government over the states in Nigeria. Various military regimes through
series of military fiats and decrees consolidated the hegemonic power
of the central government.
The Federal Government in Nigeria, in most cases, unilaterally spends

or decides the modes and methods of spending. A case in point is the
excess crude account which some states are challenging as
unconstitutional. Furthermore, presently, the Federal Government enjoys
unlimited power and too many responsibilities in the exclusive
legislative list. Moreover, fiscal laws seem to give more tax powers to
the federal government than the lower tiers of government. The outcome
of this concentration of spending and revenue-generation powers in the
centre is decrease in internally generated revenue by the lower
governments in a way that compels dependence on higher governments.
(d) Agitation for Resource Control

The historical facts of the use of the principle of derivation (emphasized
earlier and de-emphasized later) have been a source of inter-regional/
states conflict, rivalry and antagonism. The major fall out of the down
play of the principle of derivation, which stipulates that the component
units of a system should be able to control some of its own resources as
they desire, is the agitation for resource control that has taken criminal
dimensions in most of the oil producing communities and states of the
Niger Delta. There have been multifarious cases of kidnapping,
vandalism of oil pipes and installations, desperations and high scale
violence.
29.5 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter has discussed the general theory of fiscal federalism and against
this background, it examined intergovernmental fiscal relations in Nigeria (via
revenue sharing arrangements over time), which was observed to have been
shaped by historical factors and others. A number of critical issues and problems
with decentralisation of government and intergovernmental fiscal relations in
Nigeria were identified and discussed.
29.6.1 Questions
(1) What is fiscal federalism and why is it desirable?
(2) Are the elements of fiscal federalism mutually exclusive or

interdependent?
(3) What is your understanding of the expenditure assignment function,

and what are the guiding principles?
494
(4) Describe the nature and dimensions of the conflict in intergovernmental

relations in Nigeria and suggest solutions
(1) Definition/meaning of Fiscal Federalism

(a) Fiscal federalism basically describes the general normative framework
for assignment of functions to the different levels of government and
appropriate fiscal instruments for carrying out these functions. There
are two aspects to it namely political and administrative. The political
aspect describes the constitutional division of powers between tiers of
government each of which is supposed to be coordinate and independent,
while the administrative component in contrast, is more a matter of
administrative fiat and involves the delegation of functions to sub-
national levels of government based on guidelines and controls created
by higher levels of government (e.g. federal or state).
(b) Arguments of its desirability

The desirability of fiscal federalism lies in the fact if properly
implemented in a country can foster economic growth and development.
This is because it enhances the effectiveness and efficiency of the
government in the provision of essential public goods and services,
revenue sharing arrangement and intergovernmental resource transfers,
among others. For example, government would be effective and efficient
if it undertakes only those functions which it can best perform. Indeed
some functions are best performed by the central government and others
by the lower level governments.
The expenditure assignment function, a critical element of fiscal

federalism provides the general guidelines for the allocation of spending
powers and responsibilities to different levels of government, especially
with respect to the provision and delivery of public goods and services.
Once the assignment function is done with, fiscal federalism provide
clear guidance based on the socio-economic and political dynamics of
a country on how revenue should be shared among tiers of government.
Towards equalising development across a country, fiscal federalism also
provides guidance with respect to principles should guide inter-
governmental transfers or grants.
(c) Identification of the elements of fiscal federalism

The elements of fiscal federalism are:
(i) The rationale for adopting a federal structure in a country
(ii) Objectives of fiscal relations;
(iii) Rules for the assignment of functions and sources of income to
different tiers of government, i.e. the expenditure assignment
arrangement;
495
(iv) The efficiency of free migration from one jurisdiction to another;

(v) The role of inter-government resource transfers and their most desirable
forms i.e. revenue allocation; and
(vi) Principles for intergovernmental transfers
(c ) The argument of mutually exclusive or interdependent

The correct argument here is that the six elements of fiscal federalism are
interdependent rather than been mutually exclusive. Every of the elements
rely on the other and collectively they determine the success or failure of fiscal
federalism in a country. In other words, every of the elements cannot be in
isolation of the other. All of them together define the nature and character of
intergovernmental fiscal relations in a country. To start with if the rationale for
the adoption of a federal structure and/or fiscal federalism is not clear or lacking,
the objectives of fiscal relations will also not be clear, realistic and achievable.
Without clear fiscal relations objectives, the expenditure assignment function
would be largely ad hoc and not focused. This is because the underlying
objectives of fiscal relations would guide the assignment of functions to the
different levels of government. Even though theoretical guidance exists,
however, what works best is informed by exigencies and experiences of a country.
These exigencies and experiences are what the objectives of fiscal relations
would capture or reflect. Once the expenditure assignment function is faulty,
the allocation of revenue would also be faulty and create conflicts among and
within tiers and levels of government. Likewise, the efficiency of migration
from one jurisdiction to another as well as intergovernmental transfers/grants
would also be affected.
Summarily, each elements of fiscal federalism is important and interdependent

in making for a successful fiscal decentralisation and intergovernmental
relations in a country.
(2) (a) Explanations of the Assignment function

Expenditure assignment function is concerned with the allocation of spending
powers and responsibilities to different levels of government, especially with
respect to the provision and delivery of public goods and services. Theoretically,
and for various rationalised reasons, such as executive capacity, avoidance of
unnecessary duplication, locational advantage like proximity to consumers,
economies of scale, etc, the central government should engage in certain forms
of expenditures and activities, while lower levels of government should engage
in others.
(b) Discussion of the Guiding Principles (3marks each for any four
mentioned and explained
The general set of principles which should guide expenditure assignment
includes:
496
(i) Efficient provision of public services - by using the jurisdiction

that controls the minimum geographical area that would bear the costs
and benefits of the provision of such services;
(ii) Equitable provision of public services – through equal treatment

of all citizens, irrespective of place of residence or employment
(horizontal equity). This can avoid wasteful tax and expenditure
competition among jurisdictions. Thus effective redistribution
programmes are best handled nationally in pursuit of equity, but the
participation of sub national governments in implementing specific
programmes is essential where such programmes can be tailored to
the peculiar circumstances of individual jurisdictions;
(iii) Preservation of a single internal common market – when sub-

national government try to attract labour, capital and technology, they
may erect local incentives that become barriers to the free flow of goods
and inputs across governmental jurisdictions. Thus the decentralisation
of government regulatory functions may create the possibility of
disharmonious economic relations among levels of government and
disrupt national economic and social integration. Hence, the regulation
of trade and investment is best assigned to the central government;
(iv) Economic stabilisation – it is difficult for a sub-national government

to implement successful stabilisation policy because of the openness of
its economy and the nature of stabilisation policy, like monetary and
exchange rate policies, that require coordination by a Central Bank. For
similar reasons, decentralised fiscal policy needs flexibility through the
structuring of tax assignment and fiscal policy coordination and through
regular meetings of officials of central and sub-national governments;
(v) Efficient provision of quasi-public goods – technically, services

like health, education, social welfare and social insurance are private
goods, but they are provided by the public sector on equity grounds.
When they are provided by the central government, this may be in order
to satisfy minimum standards across jurisdictions.
(4) (a) Description of the conflict

Intergovernmental fiscal relations in Nigeria has been riddled with conflicts
over time. Several factors and/or issues are involved. However, the major and
more obvious one is that of revenue sharing among the component units of
Nigerian federation. Indeed, from the inception, intergovernmental fiscal
relations have been replete with agitations, controversies and outright
rejections due to the nature of the politics that is involved in it.
The process of revenue sharing is inundated with conflicting criteria that were,
often times, rejected by majority of the states. Consequently, several attempts
497
at revenue sharing (both vertically and horizontally) have been made, yet no
revenue sharing formula and set of principles has been considered acceptable
among and within tiers of government at any point in time. Between 1948 and
today, nine commissions, six military decrees, one act of the legislature and
two Supreme Court judgments have been resorted to in defining and modifying
fiscal interrelationships among the components parts of the federation. The
inconclusiveness of the issue at the past political reform conference and the
recently concluded national conference constitute latest attempts at engaging
this issue.
Thus, the clamour for an equitable revenue allocation remains a thorny issue
as the contentious debate persists. The states continue to criticize the present
lopsidedness in revenue sharing, insisting that the formula is
disproportionately skewed in favour of the Federal Government, thus putting
enormous resources at the center.
The Federal Government contends that it has immense responsibilities of

providing for education, health services, roads, energy and national security
among other areas. Similarly, inter-states conflict, rivalry and antagonism over
the current principles, especially the horizontal allocation has heightened in
recent times. Ensuing debates have therefore continued to emphasize the need
to review the horizontal–sharing indices which tend to favour: the well
established (older) States and local governments to the disadvantage of their
respective new counterparts with low per capita income. Other dimensions of
the argument relate to the oil-rich versus non-oil rich (which has made the oil
rich agitate for resource control), and the economically advantages or
disadvantaged States.
(b) Suggestion(s)
To have an acceptable revenue sharing arrangement and minimize and/or

avoid intergovernmental conflict in fiscal relations in the country requires that
political considerations as basis for revenue allocation be de-emphasised in
favour of economic considerations and imperatives
498
CHAPTER
Skills level

30
International Public Sector Accounting
Standards (IPSAS)
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4,11, 12, 13 AND 14)
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Objectives of the IPSAB
4. Membership of the IPSAB
5. Due Process
6. Presentation of Financial Statements
7. Cash Flow Statement
8. The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates
9. Construction Contracts
10. Inventories
11. Leases
12. Events After the Reporting Date
13. Chapter Review
14. Worked Examples
499
30
INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SECTOR

ACCOUNTING STANDARDS (IPSAS)
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
30.0 PURPOSE
(a) explain what IPSAS are and the relevance of the International Public
Accounting Standards Board; and
(b) discuss the provisions of IPSAS 1, 2, 3,4,11,12, 13 and 14,respectively
30.1 INTRODUCTION
The IPSASB (formerly Public Sector Committee (PSC)) is a Board of IFAC formed
to develop and issue under its own authority International Public Sector
Accounting Standards (IPSASs). IPSASs are high quality global financial
reporting standards for application by public sector entities other than
Government Business Enterprises (GBEs).
30.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE IPSASB

The main objective of the IPSASB is to serve the public interest by developing
high quality public sector financial reporting standards .
The IPSASs are the authoritative requirements established by the authoritative
publications including studies, research reports and occasional papers that
deal with particular public sector financial reporting issues.
30.3 MEMBERSHIP OF THE IPSASB

The members of the IPSASB are appointed by the IFAC Board to serve on the
IPSASB. The IPSASB comprises 18 members, 15 of whom are nominated by
member bodies of IFAC and three of whom are public members. Public members
may be nominated by any individual or organization. In the public sector,
financial reporting accountants are appointed to the IPSASB. These observers
have the privilege of the floor but are not entitled to vote.
30.4 DUE PROCESS

The IPSASB adopts a due process for the development of IPSASs that are provided
the opportunity for comment by interested parties including IFAC member
bodies. Auditors, preparers (including finance ministries), standards setters
and individual are priorities.
The IPSASB’s due process for projects normally, but not necessarily take the
following stages:
500
INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SECTOR ACCUNTING STANDARDS (IPSAS)
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
(a) Study of national accounting requirements and practice and exchange

of views about the issues with national standard-setters.
(b) Consideration of pronouncement issued by.
(i) The International Account Standard Board (IASB)
(ii) National Standard setters, regulatory authority and other
authoritative bodies.
(iii) Professional accounting bodies; and
(iv) Other organisations interested in financing reporting in the public.
(c) Formation of Steering Committees (SC). Projects Advisory Panels (PAPS)
or subcommittees to provide input to the IPSASB on a project,
(d) Publication of an exposure draft for public comment usually for at least
4 months. This provides an opportunity for those affected by the IPSASB’s
pronouncements and are finalised and approved by the IPSAS. The
exposure draft, will include a basis for conclusion;
(e) Consideration of all comments received within the comment period on
discussion documents and exposure drafts, and to make modifications
proposed Standards as considered appropriate in the light of the
IPSASB’s
(f) Publication of an IPSAS which includes a Basis for conclusions that
explains the steps in the IPSASB’s due process and how the IPSASB
reached its conclusions.
The adoption of IPSASs by government will improve both the quality and
comparability of financial information reported by public sector entities around
the world. The IPSASB recognises the right of governments and national
standard-setters to establish accounting standards and guidelines for financial
reporting jurisdictions. The IPSASB encourages the adoption of IPSASs and the
harmonisation of national requirements with IPSASs. Financial statements
should be described as complying with IPSASs only if they comply with all
requirements of each applicable IPSAS.
30.5 PROVISIONS OF EACH IPSAS

30.5.1 IPSAS 1 – PRESENTATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS.
30.5.1.1 Introduction
The aim of this standard is to prescribe the format in which general purpose
financial statements should be presented so that it can be compared with the
entity’s financial statements of previous periods and with the financial
statements of other entities in the same sector.
30.5.1.2 Components of Financial Statements

The standard list the following as a complete set of financial statements:
(a) A statement of financial position.
(b) A statement of financial performance
(c) A statement of changes in net assets/equity
(d) A cash flow statement
501
30.5.1.3 Information to be presented on the Face of the Statement of

Financial Position
The standard provides the following information should be presented on the
face of the statement of financial position:
(a) Property, plants and equipment;
(b) Investment property;
(c) Intangible assets;
(d) Financial assets (excluding amount shown under (e), (g), (h), and (i);
(e) Investment accounted for using the equity methods;
(f) Inventories;
(g) Recoverable from non-exchange transactions (taxes and transfers);
(h) Receivables from exchange transactions;
(i) Cash and cash equivalents;
(j) Taxes and transfers payable;
(k) Payables under exchange transactions;
(l) Provisions;
(m) Financial liabilities (excluding amounts shown under (j), (k), (l);
(n) Non-controlling Interest, presented within net assets/equity; and
(o) Net assets/equity attributable to owners of the controlling entity.
30.5.1.4 Information to be presented on the Face of the Statement of

Financial Performance
As a minimum, the statement shall include line items that present the following
amounts for the period:
(a) Revenue;
(b) Finance costs;
(c) Share of the surplus or deficit of associates and joint ventures accounted
for using the equity method;
(d) Pre-tax gain and loss recognised on the disposal of assets or settlement
of liabilities attributable to discontinuing operations; and
(e) Surplus or deficit
502
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
IPSAS 1
Below are the statement of financial position and statement of Financial Performance
of the Ministry of Works, Obudu State for the years 2012 and 2011:
MINISTRY OF WORKS
Statement of Financial Position as of 31 December
2012 2012 2011 2011

N’000 N’000 N’000 N’000
ASSETS
Current assets
Cash and cash equivalents 180 120
Receivables 170 130
Inventories 150 80
Prepayments 185 90
Investments 145 830 400 820
Non-current assets
Receivable 130 60
Investments 140 56
Other financial assets 130 48
Infrastructure, plant and equipment 260 200
Land and buildings 200 180
Intangible assets 60 80
Other non-financial assets 84 1,004 96 720
Total assets 1,834 1,540
LIABILITIES
Current liabilities
Payables 20 30
Short-term borrowings 18 25
Current portions of borrowing 22 18
Provisions 40 22
Employee benefits 60 41
Superannuation 70 230 36 172
Non-current liabilities
Payables 30 80
Borrowings 34 60
Provisions 48 45
Employee benefits 70 36
Total liabilities 494 480
Net assets 1,340 1,060
NET ASSETS/EQUITY
Capital contributed by other
government entities 482.49 400.00
503
Reserves 40.00 84.49

Accumulated surpluses/(deficits 542.00 375.51
1064.49 860.00
Minority interest 257.51 200.00
1,340.00 1,060.00
MINISTRY OF WORKS
STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE FOR THE YEAR ENDING
31 DECEMBER
(Using Classification of Expenses by function)
2012 2011
Operating Revenue N’000 N’000
Taxes 200 400
Fees, fines, penalties and licences 40 140
Revenue from exchange transactions 85 100
Transfer from other government entities 55 50
Other operating revenue 210 300
Total operating revenue 600 1,000
Operating expenses
General public services 40 60
Defence 60 80
Public order and safety 80 70
Education 20 90
Health 10 70
Social services 30 30
Housing and community amenities 20 25
Recreational, cultural and religion 8 80
Economic affairs 12 75
Environment protection 20 20
Total operating expenses 300 600
Surplus/(deficit) from operating activities 300 400
Finance costs (80) (40)
Gains on sale of property, plant and equipment 120 20
Total non-operating revenue /(expenses) 40 (20)
Surplus/(deficit) from ordinary activities 340 380
Minority interest share of surplus/(deficit)* 132 75.51
Net surplus/(Deficit) before extraordinary items 472 455.51
Extraordinary items 70 (80.00)
542 375.51
*The minority interest share of the surplus/(deficit) from ordinary activities

includes the minority interest share of extraordinary items. The presentation
of extraordinary items net of minority interest is permitted by paragraph 57(c)
of IPSAS 1. Disclosure of the minority interest share of extraordinary items is
shown in the “Notes to the Financial Statements”.
504
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
30.5.2 IPSAS 2: CASH FLOW STATEMENT

This standard requires the presentation of information regarding the historical
changes in cash and cash equivalents of an entity by preparing a cash flow
statement. The statement classifies periodic cash flows into operating, investing
and financing activities. The IFRS on which the standard is based is IAS 7 on
Cash Flow Statement.
30.5.2.2 Classification Of Cash Flows By Activities

(a) Cash flow from operating activities in a public sector entity are indicators
of the extent to which such entity is financed by taxes or sale of goods or
services. Examples of such cash flows are as follows:
(i) Cash receipts from taxes, levies and fines;
(ii) Cash receipts from sale of goods and provision of services by
the entity;
(iii) Cash receipts from grants or transfers and other appropriations
or other budget authority made by a central government or other
public sector entities;
(iv) Cash payments to suppliers for goods and services;
(v) Cash payments to other public sector entities;
(vi) Cash receipts from royalties, fees, commissions and other revenue;
(vii) Cash payments to and on behalf of employees;
(viii) Cash receipts and payments of an insurance entity for premiums
and claims, annuities and other public benefits;
(ix) Cash payments of local property taxes or income tax (where
appropriate).
(x) Cash receipts and payments from contract held for dealing or
trading purposes
(xi) Cash receipts or payments in relation to litigation settlements
(xii) Cash receipts or payments from discontinued operations.
If should be noted however, that IPSAS 2.27 directs that cash flows from
operating activities are reported using either the direct method
recommended by IPSAS Board or the indirect method.
IPSASB recommended direct method so as to provide a reconciliation of

the surplus/deficit from ordinary activities (i.e. statement of financial
performance) with the net cash flow from operating activities (i.e. cash
flow statement) either within the cash flow statement or the notes.
(b) Cash flow from investing activities are cash receipts or payments to
acquire resources that are intended to contribute to the entity’s future
public service delivery. IPSAS 2.25 gives the following as likely items
that could be classified as such activities:
(i) Cash payments to acquire property, plant and equipment,
intangibles and other long-term assets. Payments relating to
505
capitalized development costs and self-constructed property, plant

and equipment are also included;
(ii) Cash receipts from sale of property plant and equipment,
intangibles and other long-term assets;
(iii) Cash payments to acquire equity or debt instruments of other
entities and interest in joint ventures (other than payments for
those instruments considered to be cash equivalents and those
held for dealing or trading purposes);
(iv) Cash receipts from sale of equity or debt instruments of other
entities and interests in joint ventures (other than receipts for
those instruments considered to the cash equivalents and those
held for dealing or trading purposes);
(v) Cash advances and loans made to other parties (other than
advances and loans made by a public financial institution);
(vi) Cash receipts from the repayment of advances and loans made
to other parties (other than advances and loans made by a public
financial institution);
(vii) Cash payments for future contracts, forward contracts, option
contracts and swap contracts except when the contracts are held
for dealing or trading purposes or the payments are classified as
financing activities;
(viii) Cash receipts from future contracts, forward contracts, option
contracts and swap contracts except when the contracts are held
for dealing or trading purposes, or the payments are classified
as financing activities.
Cash flow from financing activities show future claims by providers of

capital to the entity. Example of such valuable information as contained
in IPSAS 2.26 are as follows:
(a) Cash proceeds from issuing debentures, loans, notes, bonds,
mortgages and other short or long-term borrowings;
(b) Cash repayments of amounts borrowed;
(c) Cash payments by a lessee for the reduction of the outstanding
liability relating to a finance lease.
Note that:
(a) Public sector entities are required to report separately all major
classes of gross cash receipts and gross cash payments arising
from investing and financing activities unless the standard
expressly permits reporting cash flows on a net basis in
accordance with IPSAS 2.32 – 35.
(b) Cash flows arising from transactions in a foreign currency are
recorded in the entity’s functional currency by applying to the
foreign currency amount, the exchange rate between the
506
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
functional currency and the foreign currency at the date of the

cash flow.
(c) Cash flows from interests and dividends received and paid are
disclosed separately and classified in a consistent manner from
period to period as either operating, investing or financing
activities
(d) Cash flows arising from taxes on net surplus are classified as
cash flows from operating activities unless they can be allocated
to specific investing or financial activities;
(e) The aggregate cash flows arising from acquisitions/disposals of
subsidiaries or other entities are presented separately and
classified as investing activities.
(f) IPSAS 2.56 requires that entities disclose the components of cash
and cash equivalent and to present a reconciliation of the
amounts in their cash flow statement with the equivalent items
reported in the statement of financial position.
30.5.2.3.1 FORMATS FOR CASH FLOW STATEMENT
(a) DIRECT METHOD

STATEMENT NO. 1, FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF WAZOBIA
Cash flow statement for the year ended 31 December, 2012
2012 2011
Cash flows from operating activities N’000 N’000
Receipts
Statutory Allocations: FAAC x x
Statutory Allocations: Other Agencies x x
Value Added Allocation x x
Direct Taxes x x
Licences and Internal Revenue: x x
Mining x x
Fees x x
Earnings and Sales x x
Sale/Rent of Government Properties x x
Interest and Repayment: General x x
Re-imbursements x x
Miscellaneous Expenditure Including Plea Bargain x x
Share of Special Accounts x x
Total Receipts xx xx
Payments
Personnel Costs x x
Federal Republic Contribution to Pension x x
507
Overhead Charges x x
Consolidated Revenue Fund Charges x x
Service Wide Vote Expenditure x x
Subvention to Parastatals x x
Total Payments xx xx
Net Cash Flow from Operating Activities x x
Cash flows from Investing Activities

Capital Expenditure – Economic Sector x x
Capital Expenditure – Social Service Sector x x
Capital Expenditure – Law and Justice x x
Purchase of Foreign Currency Securities (x) (x)
Capital Expenditure – Regional Development x x
Capital Expenditure – Administrative Sector x x
Net Cash Flow from Investing Activities x x
Cash flows from financing activities

Proceeds from external loans x x
Proceeds from internal loans x x
Proceeds from development of natural resources x x
Repayment of External loans (x) (x)
Repayment of Internal loans (x) (x)
Net cash Flow from financing activities x x

Movement in other cash equivalent accounts
Increase / (decrease) in investments x x
Net increase / (decrease)in below – the- line items (x) (x)
Total cash flow from other cash equivalent accounts x x
Net cash flows for the year x x

Cash and cash equivalent at the beginning of year x x
Cash and cash equivalent at the end of year x x
508
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
RECONCILIATION OF NET CASH FLOWS FROM OPERATING ACTIVITIES

TO NET SURPLUS/(DEFICIT) FROM ORDINARY ACTIVITIES
2012 2011
N’000 N’000
Surplus/(Deficit) from ordinary activities x x
Adjustments for non-cash items:
Depreciation x x
Amortization x x
Increase in provision for doubtful debts x x
Increase in payables x x
Increase in borrowings x x
Increase in provisions relating to employee costs x x
(Gains)/Losses on Sales of Property, Plant &
Equipments (x) (x)
(Gains)/Losses on Sale of Investments (x) (x)
Increase in other current assets (x) (x)
Increase in investment due to revaluation (x) (x)
Increase in receivables (x) (x)
Net cash flows from operating activities x x
(b) INDIRECT METHOD
MINISTRY OF INTER-GOVERNMENTAL AFFAIRS

CASH FLOW STATEMENT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 DECEMBER 2012
2012 2011
N’000 N’000
Surplus/(deficit) from ordinary activities x x
Non-cash movements
Depreciation x x
Amortization x x
Increase in provision for doubtful debts x x
Increase in payables x x
Increase in borrowings x x
Increase in provisions relating to employee costs x x
(Gains)/Losses on sale of property, plant &
equipment (x) (x)
(Gains)/Losses on sale of investments (x) (x)
Increase in other current assets (x) (x)
Increase in investments due to revaluation (x) (x)
Increase in receivables (x) (x)
Net cash flow from operating activities x x
509
CASH FLOWS FROM INVESTING ACTIVITIES

Purchase of plant and equipment (x) (x)
Proceeds from sale of plant and equipment x x
Proceeds from sale of investment x x
Purchase of foreign currency securities (x) (x)
Net cash flows from investing activities x x
CASH FLOWS FROM FINANCING ACTIVITIES

Proceeds from borrowings x x
Repayment of borrowings (x) (x)
Distribution/dividend to government x x
Net cash flows from financing activities x x
Net increase/(decrease) in cash and cash equivalents x x
Cash and cash equivalents at the beginning of year x x
Cash and cash equivalents at the end of year x x
30.5.3 IPSAS 3 - ACCOUNTING POLICIES, CHANGES IN ACCOUNTING

ESTIMATES AND ERRORS
The standard is designed to set out the criteria for selecting and changing
accounting policies, together with the accounting treatment and disclosure of
changes in accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and
corrections of errors.
The standard gives the following definitions among others:
(a) Accounting Policies: are the specific principles, bases, conventions,
rules and practices applied by an entity in preparing and presenting
financial statements.
(b) A Change in Accounting Estimates: is an adjustment of the carrying

amount of an asset or a liability, or the amount of the periodic
consumption of an asset, that results from the assessment of the present
stations of, and expected future benefits and obligations associated with,
assets and liabilities. Changes in accounting estimates result from new
information or new developments and, accordingly, are not correction
of errors.
(c) Prior Period Errors: are omissions from and misstatements in the
entity’s financial statements for one or more prior periods arising from
a failure to use, or misuse of, reliable information that:
(i) Was available when financial statements for those periods were
authorised for issue; and
(ii) Could reasonably be expected to have been obtained and taken
into account in the preparation and presentation of those financial
statements. Such errors include the effects of mathematical
mistakes, mistakes in applying accounting policies, oversights
or misinterpretations of facts and fraud.
510
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
(d) Material omissions or misstatements items are material if they

could, individually or collectively, influence the decisions or assessments
of users made on the bases of the financial statements. Materiality
depends on the nature or size of the omission or misstatement judge in
the surrounding circumstances. The nature or size of the items, or a
combination of both, could be determining factor.
30.5.3.2.1 Changes in Accounting Policies:

According to the standard:
(a) A change from one basis of accounting to another basis of accounting is
a change in accounting policy.
(b) A change in the accounting treatment, recognition or measurement of a
transaction, event or condition within a basis of accounting is regarded
as a change in accounting policy.
The following are not changes in accounting policies:

(a) The application of an accounting policy for transactions, other events or
conditions that differ in substance from those previously occurring; and
(b) The application of a new accounting policy for transactions, other events
or conditions that did not occur previously or that were immaterial.
30.5.3.2.2 Disclosure:
The standard requires the following disclosure:
(a) When initial application of IPSAS is made and has effects on current,
prior or future periods;
(i) The title of the standard
(ii) When applicable, an event of transitional provision
(iii) The nature of the change in accounting policy
(iv) When applicable, a description of transitional provision
(v) When applicable, the transitional provisions that might have an
effect on future periods.
Others are the amount of adjustments by line item affected and if
retrospective application is impracticable, the circumstances for that,
how and from when the change applied.
(b) When a voluntary change in accounting policy is made and has effects
on current, prior or future periods.
(i) The nature of the change in accounting policy
(ii) The reasons why applying the new accounting policy provides
reliable and more relevant information.
(iii) For current and prior period present to the extent practicable,
the amount of the adjustment for each financial statement line
item affected.
(iv) The amount of the adjustment relating to periods before those
presented to the extent practicable.
If retrospective application is impracticable, the circumstance for that,
how and from when the change applied.
511
30.5.4 IPSAS 4: THE EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN FOREIGN EXCHANGE RATES

This standard is meant to prescribe how public sector entities should
account for foreign currency transactions and foreign operations in their
financial statements and how to translate financial statements into a
presentation currency. More importantly, it addresses general issues such
as the exchange rates to be used and how the financial effects of changes
in exchange rates should be accounted for in the financial statements.
The IFRS on which the IPSAS is based is IAS 21 on ‘The effects of changes
in foreign exchange rates.
30.5.4.2 Principal Definitions In The IPSAS

(a) Functional currency is the currency of the primary economic
environment in which the public sector entity operates. The
primary economic environment of an entity is the one in which it
primarily generates and expend cash.
(b) Presentation currency is the currency in which the financial
statements are presented.
30.5.4.3 Scope Of The Standard

Public sector entities preparing financial statements under the accrual
basis of accounting are required to apply IPSAS 4 on the following
premises:
(a) In accounting for transactions and balances in foreign currencies,
except for those derivative transactions and balances that are
within the scope of IPSAS 29 on financial instruments: Recognition
and measurement;
(b) In translating the financial performance and financial position
of foreign operations that are included in the financial statements
of the entity by consolidation, or by the equity method;
(c) In translating an entity’s financial performance and financial
position into a presentation currency.
30.5.4.4 Functional Currency Concept

The following are the factors relevant for determining a public sector entity’s
functional currency:
(a) A functional currency may be changed only if there has been a change
in the underlying transactions events and conditions. This is because
the functional currency reflects the underlying transactions, events and
conditions which needs to be determined.
(b) The requirements of IPSAS 10 on ‘Financial Reporting in
Hyperinflationary economies must be taken into accounts in the entity’s
financial statements when the functional currency is the currency of a
hyperinflationary economy.
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GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
30.5.4.5 Accounting For Transactions In Foreign Currencies

IPSAS 4 is not as relevant to the public sector as the corresponding IFRS is for
the private entities.
In preparing financial statements, every public sector entity decides on its
functional currency, when recognized foreign currency transactions are recorded
in the functional currency by translating the foreign currency amount at the
spot exchange rate between the functional currency and foreign currency at the
date of the transaction.
30.5.4.6 Reporting In Subsequent Period

In accordance with IPSAS 4.27, at each reporting date:
(a) Foreign currency monetary items are translated using the closing rate
(b) Non-monetary items that are measured in terms of historical cost in a
foreign currency are translated using the exchange rate at the date of
the transaction.
(c) Non-monetary items that are quantified at fair value in a foreign currency
are translated using the exchange rates at the date when the fair-value
was determined.
Upon disposal of the net investment, the associated exchange differences

are recognized in surplus or deficit.
30.5.4.7 Translating To The Presentation Currency

The provisions of IPSAS 4 is to grant a reporting entity the right to choose it’s
presentation currency freely. Furthermore, the standard stipulated that every
individual entity within the reporting whose functional currency differs from
the presentation currency must be translated to the reporting entity’s
presentation currency (IPSAS 4.43 et seq).
The financial performance and financial position of a public sector whose

functional currency is not a hyperinflationary economy’s currency are translated
into another presentation currency as follows:
(a) Assets and liabilities for each statement of financial position presented
(including comparatives) are translated at the closing rate at the date
of the statement of financial position.
(b) Revenue and expenses in all statement of financial performance
(including comparative information) are translated at the exchange rate
ruling at the date of transaction. Exchange differences are recognized
as a separate component of net assets/equity.
(c) In the case where the functional currency is the currency of a
hyperinflationary economy, special rules apply for translating the
financial performance and financial position into a presentation currency
(in accordance with IPSAS 4.48).
513
30.5.4.8 Changing The Functional Currency

Public sector entities must apply the translation procedures applicable to
the new functional currency prospectively, as at the date of transition, when
changing the functional currency.
ILLUSTRATION (IPSAS 4) 30-1

(a) A public-sector entity purchases equipment from a foreign supplies for
$6 million on March 31, 2011 when the exchange rate was $2 = N1.
The entity also sells goods to a foreign customer for $3.5 million on
April 30, 2011 when the exchange rate was $1.75 = N1. As at the entity’s
year end on May 31, 2011 the amount have not been paid.
The closing rate of exchange was $1.5 = N1. The entity’s functional
currency is the naira.
Required: Calculate the exchange differences that would be recorded

in the statement of financial performance for the year ended May 31,
2011.
Solution: (a) In the statement of financial position

March 31 – Asset N(6,000,000 2) = N3,000,000
Liabilities (to foreign supplies) = N3,000,000
(applying the functional currency – naira)
On May 31, 2011, the liability, at closing exchange rate is $1.5 = N1 which
amounted to N(6,000,000 1.5) = N4,000,000
Exchange loss N(4,000,000 - 3,000,000) N1,000,000
Cost of asset (before depreciation) N3,000,000
(b) In the Statement of Financial Performance

On April 30/11 Sale N(3,500,000 1.75) = N2,000,000
On May 31/11 Amount N(3,500,000 1.5) = N2,333,333
On May 31/11 Exchange gain N(2,333,333 – 2,000,000) N333,333
NB: IPSAS 4 does not specify where exchange gain or loss should be shown in
the statement of financial performance.
30.5. 5 IPSAS 11 - CONSTRUCTION CONTRACT

The objective of this standard is to prescribe the accounting treatment of costs
and revenue associated with construction contract.
30.5.5.2 Definition
(a) Construction contract: is a contract, or a similar binding arrangement,
specifically negotiated for the construction of an asset or a combination
of assets that are closely interrelated or interdependent in terms of their
design, technology and function or their ultimate purpose or use.
514
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
(b) Contractor: is an entity that performs construction work pursuant to a

construction contract.
(c) Cost plus or Cost Based Contract: is a construction contract in which
the contractor is reimbursed for allowable or otherwise defined costs
and, in the case of a commercially based contract, an additional
percentage of these costs or a fixed fee, if any.
(d) Fixed Price Contract: is a construction contract in which the contractor

agrees to a fixed contract price, or a fixed rate per unit of output, which
in some cases is subject to cost escalation clauses.
30.5.5.3 Contract Revenue

According to the standard, contract revenue should comprise:
(a) The initial amount of revenue agreed in the contract; and
(b) Variations in contract work, claims incentive payments to the extent that:
(i) It is probable that they will result in revenue; and
(ii) They are capable of being reliably measured.
30.5.5.4 Contract Costs

Contract costs should comprise:
(a) Costs that relate directly to the specific contract;
(b) Costs that are attributable to contract activity in general and can be
allocated to the contract on a systematic and rational basis; and
(c) Such other costs as are specifically chargeable to the customer under
the terms of the contract.
30.5.5.5 Recognition of Contract Revenue and Expenses

When the outcome of a construction contract can be estimated reliably, contract
revenue and contract costs associated with the construction contract should be
recognised as revenue and expenses respectively by reference to the stage of
completion of the contract activity at the reporting date.
In the case of a fixed price contract, the outcome of a construction contract can
be estimated reliably when all the following conditions are satisfied.
(a) Total contract revenue, if any, can be measured reliably;
(b) It is probable that the economic benefits or service potential associated
with the contract will flow to the entity;
(c) Both the contract costs to complete the contract and the stage of contract
completion at the reporting date can be measured reliably;
(d) The contract costs attributable to the contract can be clearly identified
and measured reliably so that actual contract costs incurred can be
compared with prior estimates.
In the case of a cost plus or cost based contract, the outcome of a construction
contract can be estimated reliably when all the following conditions are
satisfied:
515
(a) It is possible that the economic benefits or service potential associated

with the contract will flow to the entity; and
(b) The contract cost attributable to the contract, whether or not specifically
reimbursed, can be clearly identified and measured reliably.
When the outcome of a construction contract cannot be estimated reliably:

(a) Revenue should be recognised only to the extent of the contract costs
incurred that it is probable will be recovered; and
(b) Contract costs should be recognised as expenses in the period in which
they are incurred.
30.5.5.6 Recognition of Expected Deficits

According to the standard, construction contracts in which it is intended at
inception of the contract that contract costs are to be fully recovered from the
parties to the construction contract, when it is probable that total contract costs
exceed total contract revenue, the expected deficit should be recognised as an
expense immediately.
30.5.5.7 Disclosure
The standard stipulates that an entity should disclose:
(a) The amount of contract revenue recognised as revenue in the period;
(b) The methods used to determine the contract revenue recognised in the
period; and
(c) The methods used to determine the stage of completion of contracts in
progress.
An entity should disclose each of the following for contracts in progress at the
reporting date:
(a) The aggregate amount of costs incurred and recognised surpluses (less
recognised deficits) to date;
(b) The amount of advances received; and
(c) The amount of retentions.
The standard further states that an entity should present:

(a) The gross amount due from customers for contract work as an asset; and
(b) The gross amount due to customers for contract work as a liability.
30.5.6 IPSAS 12: INVENTORIES

This standard deals with the valuation and presentation of inventories in the
financial statements in the context of historical cost system, the most widely
adopted basis on which financial statements are presented.
The standard does not deal with inventories accumulated under long-term
construction contracts. It provides guidance on the determination of cost and
its subsequent recognition as an expense, including any write-down to net
516
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
realizable value. It also provides guidance on the cost formulas that are used
to assign costs to inventories.
The IFRS on which the IPSAS is based is IAS 2 on Inventories:
30.5.6.2 Contents Of The Standard

In accordance with IPSAS 12.9, inventories are assets:
(a) Held for sale in the ordinary course of business;
(b) In the process of production for such sale or distribution;
(c) To be consumed in the production of goods or services for sale;
(d) In the form of materials or supplies to be consumed or distributed in the
rendering of service;
(e) Held for sale or distribution in the ordinary course of operations.
Inventories also include goods purchased for resale, such as merchandise

purchased by a retailer and held for resale, or land and other property held for
sale. Inventories also encompass finished goods produced or work-in-progress
being produced and include materials and supplies awaiting use in the
production process.
Specifically, in the public sector, inventories also comprise goods purchased or

produced by the entity that are distributed to third parties for no charge or for
a nominal charge. An example would be children’s books produced by a ministry
of Children Affairs for donation to schools. Other examples of inventories in the
public sector given in IPSAS 12.12 include: “ammunitions, maintenances
materials, spare-parts, strategic stockpiles (e.g. energy reserves or medicine
in government hospitals and clinics) stocks of unissued currency, stamps, work-
in-progress and property held for sale.”
30.5.6.3 Exceptions From The Provisions of IPSAS 12

IPSAS 12 applies for all inventories except for:
(a) Work-in-progress arising under construction contract;
(b) Financial instruments;
(c) Biological assets related to agricultural activity and agricultural produce
at the point of harvest;
(d) Work-in-progress of services to be provided for no charge or nominal
consideration directly in return from the recipients.
IPSAS 12 does not apply for the measurement of the following inventories:
(a) Producers’ inventories of agricultural or forest products, agricultural
produce after harvest, and minerals and mineral products, to the extent
that they are measured at net realizable value in line with well
established practices in certain industries. When such inventories are
measured at net realizable value, changes in that value are recognized
in surplus or deficit in the period of change.
517
(b) Inventories of commodity broker-traders who measure their inventories

at fair value less costs to sell. When such inventories are measured at
fair value, less costs to sell, changes in that value are recognized in
surplus or deficit in the period of change.
30.5.6.4 Measurement of Inventories

Inventories should be measured at the lower of cost and net realizable value,
except where IPSAS 12.12 applies. Inventories should be measured at the lower
of cost and current replacement cost where they are held for:
(a) Distribution at no charge or nominal charge;
(b) Consumption in the production process of goods to be distributed at no
charge or for a nominal charge in line with IPSAS 12.17.
Note that the cost of inventories comprises:

(a) All costs of purchase;
(b) Costs of conversion; and
(c) Other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present
location and state (IPSAS 12.18).
The costs of purchase of inventories comprise:

(a) The purchase price;
(b) Import duties and other taxes;
(c) Transport, handling and other costs directly attributable to the
acquisition of finished goods, materials and supplies.
Trade discounts, rebates and other similar items are deducted in determining
the costs of purchase;
The costs of conversion of inventories in accordance with IPSAS 12.20 include
full production-related costs.
The formula for arriving at the costs of conversion of inventories is as follows:

Direct costs + fixed production overheads + variable production
overheads + other costs = costs of conversion.
30.5.6.5 Costs of Conversion

The costs of conversion of inventories include costs directly related to the units
of production, such as direct labour, a systematic allocation of fixed and variable
production overheads that are incurred in converting materials to finished
goods.
Fixed production overheads are those indirect costs of production that remain
relatively constant regardless of the volume of production: Examples of such
costs are depreciation and maintenance of factory buildings and equipment,
and the cost of factory management and administration.
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GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
Variable production overheads are those indirect costs of production that vary
directly, or nearly directly with the volume of production, such as indirect
materials and indirect labour.
Other costs included in the costs of inventories only to the extent that they are
incurred in bringing inventories to their present location and condition.
30.5.6.6 Exceptions to the Costs of Inventories

The following costs are excluded from the cost of inventories and recognized as
expenses in the period in which they are incurred:
(a) Abnormal amounts of wasted materials, labour, or other production costs;
(b) Storage costs, unless those costs are necessary in the production process
prior to a further production stage;
(c) Administrative overheads that do not contribute to bringing inventories
to their present location and conditions;
(d) Selling costs.
30.5.6.7 Cost of Inventories of a Service Provider

The cost of inventories of a service provider consists primarily of the labour
and other costs of personnel directly engaged in providing the service, including
supervisory personnel and attributable overheads. The cost of labour not
engaged in providing the service are not included. Labour and other costs
relating to sales and general administrative personnel are not included but
are recognized as expenses in the period in which they are incurred.
30.5.6.8 Cost Formula

When applying IPSAS 12.28, an entity should use the same cost formula for all
inventories having similar nature and use to the entity. For inventories with
different nature or use, different cost formulas may be justified. A difference in
geographical location of inventories (and in respective tax rules), by itself, is
not sufficient to justify the use of different cost formulas.
The cost of inventories, other than those dealt with in IPSAS 12.25, should be
assigned by using the first-in, first-out (FIFO) or weighted average cost formulas.
The FIFO formula assumes that the items of inventory are sold on first-come,
first-serve basis. Consequently, the items remaining in inventory at the end of
the period are those most recently purchased or produced.
The weighted-average cost formula make for the cost of each item determined
by adding the purchase cost of a given item at the beginning of a period to the
purchase cost of the item at the end of a given period and divide by two to give
a weighted average cost. However, such average can be calculated on periodic
basis, or as each additional shipment is received, depending upon the
circumstances of the entity.
519
30.5.6.9 Net Realisable Value

This is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of operations less the
estimated costs of completion and the estimated cost necessary to make the
sale, exchange or distribution.
30.5.7. IPSAS 13 – LEASES

The aim of the standard is formulated to prescribe, for lessees and lessors, the
appropriate accounting policies and disclosures to apply in relation to finance
and operating leases.
30.5.7.2 Definitions: The following are some of the definitions provided by the
standard:
(a) The Commencement of the Lease Term: is the date from which the
lessee is entitled to exercise its right to use the leased asset. It is the
date of initial recognition of the lease (i.e. the recognition of the lease,
as appropriate).
(b) Contingent Rent: is that portion of the lease payments that is not fixed
in amount but is based on the future amount of a factor that changes
other than the passage of time (e.g. percentage of future sales, amount
of future use, future prices, and future market rates of interest)
(c) A finance Lease: is a lease that transfers substantially all the risks
and rewards incidental to ownership of an asset. Title may or may not
eventually be transferred.
Gross Investment in the lease: is the aggregate of:

(a) The minimum lease payments receivable by the lessor under a finance
lease; and
(b) Any unguaranteed residual value accruing to the lessor. Guaranteed
residual value is;
(i) For a lease, that part of the residual value that is guaranteed by
the lessee or by a party related to the lessee (the amount of the
guarantee being the maximum amount that could, in any event,
become payable); and
(ii) For a lessor, that part of the residual value that is guaranteed by
the lessee or by a third party unrelated to the lessor that is
financially capable of discharging the obligation under the
guarantee.
The Inception of the lease: is the earlier of the date of the lease
agreement and date of commitment by the parties to the principal
provisions of the lease. As at this date:
(a) A lease is classified as either an operating or a finance lease; and
(b) In the case of a finance lease, the amounts to be recognised at the
commencement of the lease term are determined
520
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
Initial Direct Costs: are incremental costs that are directly attributable
to negotiating and arranging a lease, except for such costs incurred by
manufacturer or trade lessors.
The Interest Rate Implicit in the Lease: is the discount rate that, at
the inception of the lease, causes the aggregate present value of:
(a) The minimum lease payments; and
(b) The unguaranteed residual value; to be equal to the sum of :
(i) The fair value of the leased asset; and
(ii) Any initial direct costs of the lessor.
(d) A Lease: is an agreement whereby the lessor conveys to the lessee in
return for a payment or series of payments the right to use an asset for
an agreed period of time.
(e) The Lease Term: is the non-cancellable period for which the
lessee has contracted to leasee the asset together with any further
terms for which the lease has the option to continue to lease the asset,
with or without further payment, when at the inception of the lease it is
reasonably certain that the lessee will exercise the option.
(f ) The Lessee’s Incremental Borrowing Rate of Interest: is the rate
of interest the lessee would have to pay on a similar lease or, if that is
not determinable, the rate that, at the inception of the lease, the lessee
would incur to borrow over a similar term, and with a similar security,
the funds necessary to purchase the asset.
(g) Minimum Lease Payment: are the payments over the lease term that
the lessee is, or can be, required to make, excluding contingent rent,
costs for services and, where appropriate, taxes to be paid by and
reimbursed to the lessor, together with:
(i) For a lessee, any amounts guaranteed by the lessee or a party
related to the lessee; or
(ii) For a lessor, any residual value guaranteed to the lessor by:
 The lessee;
 A party related to the lessee; or
 An independent third party unrelated to the lessor that is
financially capable of discharging the obligations under
the guarantee.
However, if the lessee has an option to purchase the asset at a price that
is expected to be sufficiently lower than the fair value at the date the
option becomes exercisable for it to be reasonably certain, at the
inception of lease, that the option will be exercised, the minimum lease
payments comprise minimum payment required to exercise it.
(g) Net Investment in the Lease: is the gross investment in the lease
discounted at the interest rate implicit in the lease.
(h ) A non- cancellable Lease: is a lease that is cancellable only:
(i) Upon the occurrence of some remote contingency;
521
(ii) With the permission of the lessor;

(iii) If the lessee enters into a new lease for the same or an equivalent
asset with the same lessor; or
(iv) Upon payment by the lessee of such an additional amount that,
at inception of the lease, continuation of the lease is reasonably
certain.
(i) An Operating Lease: is a lease other than a finance lease.
(j) Unearned Finance Revenue: is the difference between:
 The gross investment in the lease; and
 The net investment in the lease
(k) Unguaranteed Residual Value: is that portion of the residual value
of the leased asset, the realization of which by the lessor is not assured
or is guaranteed solely by a party related to the lessor.
(l) Useful Life: is the estimated remaining period, from the
commencement of the lease term, without limitation by the lease term,
over which the economic benefits or service potential embodied in the
asset are expected to be consumed by the entity.
30.5.7.3 Classification of Leases

These are classified into two:
(a) Finance Lease
(b) Operating lease
A lease is classified as a finance lease if it transfers substantially all the risks
and rewards incidental to ownership. A lease is classified as an operating lease
if it does not transfer substantially all risks and rewards incidental to ownership.
According to the standard, the following are the characteristics of a finance

lease of which the presence of any or combinations would normally lead to a
lease being classified as finance lease.
(a) The lease transfer ownership of the asset to the lessee by the end of the
lease term;
(b) The lessee has option to purchase the asset at a price that is expected to
be sufficiently lower than the fair value at the date the option becomes
exercisable for it to be reasonably certain, at the inception of the lease,
that the option will be exercised;
(c) The lease term is for the major part of the economic life of the asset even
if title is not transferred;
(d) At the inception of the lease the present value of the minimum lease
payments amounts to at least substantially all of the fair value of the
leased asset;
(e) The leased assets are of such a specialised nature that only the lessee
can use them without major modifications; and
(f) The leased assets cannot easily be replaced by another asset. Other
indicators that individually or in combination could also lead to a lease
being classified as a finance lease are:
(g) If the lessee can cancel the lease, the lessor’s losses associated with
the cancellation are borne by the lessee;
522
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
(h) Gains or losses from the fluctuation in the fair value of the residual
accrue to the lessee (for example in the form of a rent rebate
equalling most of the sales proceeds at the end of the lease); and
(i) The lessee has the ability to continue the lease for a secondary period
at a rent that is substantially lower than the market rent.
30.5.7.4 Disclosure
Lease in the Financial Statement of Lessee
Finance Lease
At the commencement of the lease term lessees shall recognise assets acquired
under finance leases as assets and associated lease obligations as liabilities
in their statement of financial position. The assets and liabilities shall be
recognised at amounts equal to the fair value of leased property or, if however
the present value of the minimum lease payments, each determined at the
inception of the lease. If this is practicable to determine, if not, the lessee’s
incremental borrowing shall be used.
Lessees shall disclose the following for finance leases:

(a) For each class of asset, the net carrying amount at the reporting date;
(b) A reconciliation between the total of future minimum lease payment at
the reporting date, and their present value;
(c) In addition, the entity shall disclose the total of future minimum lease
payment at the reporting date, and their present value, for each of the
following period:
(i) Not later than one year;
(ii) Later than one year but not later than five years; and
(iii) Later than five years.
(d) Contingent rents recognised as an expense in the period;
(e) The total future minimum sublease payments expected to be received
under non-cancellable subleases at the reporting date; and
(f) A general description of the lessee’s material leasing arrangements
including, but not limited to, the following:
(i) The basis on which contingent rent payable;
(ii) The existence and terms of renewal or purchase options and
escalation clauses; and
(iii) Restrictions imposed by lease arrangements, such as those
concerning return of net surplus, return of capital contributions,
dividends, additional debt and further leasing.
30.5.7.5 Leasee Payment under Operating Lease

Lease payment under an operating lease shall be recognised as an expense on
a straight line basis over the lease term unless another systematic basis is
representative of the time pattern of the user’s benefit.
Lessees shall make the following disclosures for operating leases:
523
(a) The total of future minimum lease payments under non-cancellable

operating leases for each of the following periods:
(ii) Later than one year but not later than five year; and
(iii) Later than five year;
(b) The total future minimum sublease payments expected to be received
under non-cancellable subleases at the reporting date;
(c) Lease and sublease payments recognized as an expense in the period,
with separate amounts for minimum lease payments contingent rents,
and subleases payments; and
(d) A general description of the lessee’s significant leasing arrangements
including, but not limited to, the following:
(i) The basis on which contingent rent payment are determined;
(ii) The existence and terms of renewal or purchase options and
escalation clauses; and
(iii) Restrictions imposed by lease arrangements, such as those
concerning return of net surplus, return of capital contributions,
dividends, additional debt and further leasing.
30.5.7.6 Leases in the financial statement of lessors

Finance Lease
Lessor shall recognise lease payment receivable under finance lease as assets
in their statements of financial position. They shall present such assets as a
receivable at an amount equal to the net investment in the lease.
Lessors shall disclose the following for finance leases:
(a) Reconciliation between the total gross investment in the lease at the
reporting date, and the present value of minimum lease payments
receivable at the reporting date. In addition, an entity shall disclose the
gross investment in the lease and the present value of minimum lease
payments receivable at the reporting date, each of the following periods;
(ii) Later than one year but not later than five year; and
(b) Unearned finance revenue;
(c) The unguaranteed residual values accruing to the benefits of the lessor;
(d) The accumulated allowance for uncollectible minimum lease payment
receivable;
(e) Contingent rent recognised in the statement of financial performance;
and
(f) A general description of the lessor’s material leasing arrangements.
30.5.7.7 Lessor Payment under Operating Lease

Lessor shall present assets subject to operating leases in their statement of
financial position according to the nature of the asset. Leases payment under
an operating lease shall be recognized as an expense on a straight line basis
524
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
over the lease term unless another systematic basis is representative of the
time pattern in which benefits derived from the leased asset is diminished
Lessors shall disclose the following operating lease:
(a) The future minimum lease payments under non-cancellable operating
leases in the aggregate and for each of the following periods:
(ii) Later than one year and not later than five year; and
(b) Total contingent rents recognised in the statement of financial
performance in the period; and
(c) A general description of the lessor’s leasing arrangements.
30.5.7.8 Sales and Leaseback Transactions

If a sale and leaseback transactions results in finance lease, any excess of
sales proceeds over the carrying amount shall not be immediately recognised
as revenue by a seller-lessee. Instead, it shall be deferred and amortised over
the lease term.
If a sale and leaseback transaction result in a finance lease and it is clear that
the transaction is established at fair value, any gain or loss shall be recognised
immediately except that, if the loss is compensated by future lease payments
at below market price, then it shall be deferred and amortised in proportion to
the lease payments over the period for which the asset is expected to be used.
For operating leases, if the fair value at the time of sale and leaseback
transactions is less than the carrying amount of the asset, a loss equal to the
amount of the difference between the carrying amount and fair value shall be
recognised immediately.
30.5.8. IPSAS 14: EVENTS AFTER THE REPORTING DATE

This standard is based on events, both favourable and unfavourable that occur
between the reporting date and the date when the financial statements are
authorized for use. Assets and liabilities should be adjusted for events occurring
after the reporting date that provide additional evidence to assist with the
estimation of amounts relating to conditions existing at the reporting date or
that indicate that the going concern assumption in relation to the whole or a
part of the entity is not appropriate.
30.5.8.2 Process For Authorisation Of The Financial Statements

The process involved in the authorization for issue of financial statements will
vary depending upon the management/structure and procedures followed in
preparing and finalizing the financial statements, but the date of authorization
for issue will normally be the date on which the statements are authorized for
issue outside the entity.
525
30.5.8.3 Exceptions to Adjustments of Events After Reporting Date

Adjustments to assets and liabilities are not appropriate for events occurring
after the reporting date and the date on which the financial statements are
authorized for issue. The fall in market value does not normally relate to the
condition of investments at the reporting date, but reflects circumstances which
have occurred in the following period.
However, disclosure is generally made of events in subsequent period that

represents unusual changes to the condition of assets or liabilities at the
reporting date (e.g. the destruction of a major production plant by fire, after
the reporting date). Note also that events occurring after the reporting date
that are indicative of conditions that arose subsequent to the reporting date
are disclosed, if their non-disclosure would affect the ability of the users of the
financial statements to make proper evaluations and take proper decisions
(e.g. a major acquisition of another entity).
Statutory requirements also may sometimes require the disclosure of certain

financial information that occurred after the reporting date.
Events occurring after the reporting date may indicate that the whole or part of
the business of the enterprise ceases to be a going-concern. A deterioration in
operating results and financial position after the reporting date may indicate
a need to consider whether it is proper to use the going-concern assumption in
the preparation of the financial statements.
30.5.8.4 Reporting Date

Reporting date means the date of the last day of the reporting period to which
the financial statements relate.
30.5.8.5 Types of Events at the Reporting Date

In accordance with IPSAS 14.5, there are two types of events at the reporting
date:
(a) Events after the reporting date that provide evidence of conditions that
existed at the reporting date. These are adjusting events after the
reporting date;
(b) Events after the reporting date that are indicative of conditions that
arose after the reporting date. These are non-adjusting events after the
reporting date.
The authorizing body to authorize financial statements of government

entity may be a parliament (National or state assembly) or a local council
(IPSAS 14.7). The date of authorization for issue of financial statement
will be determined in the context of the particular jurisdiction. The audit
opinion is given on the basis of these financial statements.
526
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
Whether or not government announced intention requiring recognition

as adjusting events would depend upon whether they provide more
information about the condition existing at the reporting date and
whether there is sufficient evidence that they can and will be fulfilled.
Usually, the announcement of government intentions will not lead to
the recognition of adjusting events. Instead, they would generally qualify
for disclosure as non-adjusting events.
Relevant Period for IPSAS 14
Reporting Date of
date authorisation
Start of fiscal year End of fiscal year Approval to issue

(e.g. 1. 1. 2010) (e.g. 31. 12. 2010) (e.g. 30. 4. 2011)
30.5.8.6 Accounting Treatment Of Events After The Reporting Date

In line with IPSAS 14.10, an entity must adjust the amounts recognized in its
financial statements to reflect adjusting events after the reporting date. As an
illustration, an adjusting event after the reporting date could be the settlement
after the reporting date of a litigation (court case) confirming that the entity
had a present obligation at the reporting date. The entity adjusts any previously
recognized provision related to this court case in accordance with IPSAS 19 on
Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets or recognizes a new
provision.
The receipt of information after the reporting date indicating that an asset was
impaired at the reporting date, or that the amount of a previously recognized
impairment loss for that asset needs to be adjusted, also qualifies as an
adjusting event after the reporting date. This is why the bankruptcy of a debtor
which occurs after the reporting date usually conforms that a loss already
existed at the reporting date on a receivable account and that the entity needs
to adjust the carrying amount of the receivable account.
The IFRS on which the IPSAS is based is IAS 10 – Events after the Balanced
Sheet date
30.5.8.7 Other Disclosure Obligations

IPSAS 14.26 states that an entity must disclose the date when the financial
statements were authorized for issue and the body that gave such authorization.
527
If another body has the power to amend the financial statements after the
issuance, the entity must disclose that fact.
30.6 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter discussed the evolution of the IPSASB, its membership and
functions. The nature of the due process it follows in discharging its functions
was also examined. The provisions of IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 and 14 are
discussed in turn.

30.6.1 Questions
(1a) Cash flows from operating activities are primarily derived from the
principal cash-generating activities of an entity. Give any five (5) of
such cash generating activities as contained in IPSAS 2 on Cash Flow
Statements.
(1b) Explain the two methods for reporting cash flows from operating
activities in accordance with IPSAS 2 on Cash Flow Statements.
2. Below is the Statement of Financial Performance (Extracts) for Yebaisa

State Internal Revenue Service:
2013 2012
N’000 N’000
Surplus from ordinary activities 79,000 84,000
Extraordinary item –
Loss on destruction of Overseas
broadcasting operation (Note1) — (31,500)
Net Surplus for the period 79,000 52,500
Note to the Financial Statements extracts)

On 1 October 2012, the overseas information technology operations of the entity
were destroyed by earthquake. The results of this overseas operations had
previously been reported in the “Broadcasting” segment. The loss arising from
the disaster was accounted for as an ‘Extraordinary item’ as earthquakes are
uncommon in this region. The loss arising from the earthquake is the net
carrying amount of the assets and liabilities of the operations at the date of the
earthquake.
The revenue recognized relating to this operation from 1 January 2012 to 1

October 2012 was N10,000,000 and the surplus was N2,000,000.
Fundamental Errors
During 2013, the entity discovered that revenue from income taxes was
incorrect. Income tax of N6,500,000 that should have been recognized in 2012
were omitted from 2012 and recognized as revenue in 2013.
528
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13 AND 14)
The entity’s accounting records for 2013 show revenue from taxation of
N600,000,000 (including N65,000,000 taxation which should have been
recognized in 2012) and expenses of N865,000,000).
In 2012, the entity reported: N’000

Revenue from taxation 340,000
User charges 30,000
Other operating revenue 300,000
Total revenue 670,000
Expenses 600,000
Net Surplus 70,000
Required: prepare,
(a) Statement of financial Performance for the Revenue service for 2013
and 2012, under the Benchmark treatment.
(b) Statement of Changes in Net Assets/Equity for 2013 and 2012, under
the Benchmark treatment.
3. Give the circumstances which may give rise to the separate disclosure of items
of revenue and expenses in accordance to IPSAS 3.26.
4. (a) What are the factors an entity consider in determining its functional
currency in accordance with IPSAS 4?
(b) What are the factors that provide evidence of an entity’s functional
currency?

(1a) The following are the cash generating activities as contained in IPSAS 2
on Cash Flow Statements:’
(i) Cash receipts from taxes, levies and fines;
(ii) Cash receipts from charges for goods and services provided by
the entity;
(iii) Cash receipts from grants, transfer and other appropriations, or
other budget authority made by central government or other
public sectors entities;
(iv) Cash receipts from royalties, fees, commission and other revenue;
(v) Cash payments to other public sector entities to finance their
operations (not including loans);
(vi) Cash payments to suppliers of goods and services;
(vii) Cash payments to and on behalf of employees
(viii) Cash receipts and cash payments of an insurance entity for
premiums and claims, annuities and other policy benefits;
(ix) Cash payments of local property taxes or income taxes in relation
to operating activities;
(x) Cash receipts and payments from contracts held for dealing or
trading purpose;
529
(xi) Cash receipts or payments from discontinued operations;

(xii) Cash receipts or payments in relation to litigation settlement.
(1b) The two methods by which an entity should report cash flow from operating
activities are:
(i) The direct method and
(ii) The indirect method
The Direct method Involves disclosure of major classes of gross cash receipts
and gross cash payments
The Indirect method Involves disclosure of net surplus or deficit adjusted

for the effects of transactions of a non-cash nature, any deferrals or accruals of
past or future operating cash receipts or payments, and items of revenue or
expense associated with investing activities.
Note that entities are encouraged to report cash flow using the direct method.
The direct method provides information which may be useful in estimating
future cash flows and which is not available under the direct method.
2. Yebaisa Internal Revenue Service Statement of Financial Performance (extracts)

for the period ending 31 October 2013 and 2012 (under the Benchmark
treatment)
2013 N’000 2012N’000(Restated)

Revenue from taxation wkg1 535,000 405,000
User charges 40,000 30,000
Other operating revenue 400,000 300,000
Total revenue 975,000 735,000
Expenses (865,000) (600,000)
Net Surplus 110,000 135,000
(b)
2013N’000 2012N’000(Restated)
Opening accumulated surpluses
as previously reported 170,000 100,000
Correction of fundamental
error (Note 1) 65,000 -
Opening accumulated surpluses 235,000 100,000
Net Surplus 110,000 135,000
Closing accumulated surpluses 345,000 235,000
Workings (1Revenue from Taxation 600,000 340,000

Add: Income Taxes revenue for 2012 - 65,000
Less: Income Taxes revenue for 2013 (65,000)
535,000 405,000
530
GROUP A (IPSAS 1, 2, 3, 4, v11, 12, 13 AND 14)
3. The following are the circumstances that may give rise to the separate disclosure
of items of revenue and expenses in accordance to IPSAS 3.26:
(a) The write-down of inventories to net realizable value or property, plant
and equipment to recoverable amount, as well as the reversal of such
write-downs;
(b) A restructuring of the activities of an entity and the reversal of any
provisions for the cost of restructuring;
(c) Disposals of items of property, plant and equipment;
(d) Privatizations or other disposals of long term investments;
(e) Discontinued operations;
(f) Litigations settlement; and
(g) Other reversals of provisions.
4. The factors an entity will consider in determining its functional currency will
include the followings:
(a) The currency:
(i) that revenue is raised from, such as taxes, grants and fines;
(ii) that mainly influences sales prices for goods and services. This
is usually the currency in which sales prices for its goods and
services are denominated and settled;
(iii) of the county whose competitive forces and regulations mainly
determine the sales prices of its goods and services;
(b) The factors that provide evidence of an entity’s functional currency will
include;
(i) The currency in which funds from financing activities (i.e. issuing
debt and equity instruments) are generated;
(ii) The currency in which receipts from operating activities are
usually retained.
531
532
CHAPTER
Skills level
31

Standards (IPSAS)
GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Borrowing Costs
4. Consolidated and Separate Financial Statements
5. Investments in associates
6. Interest in Joint Ventures
7. Related party Disclosures
8. Impairment of Non-Cash-Generating Assets
9. Disclosure of Financial Information about the General Government
Sector
10. Revenue for Non-Exchange Transactions (Taxes and Transfers)
11. Chapter Review
12. Worked Examples
533
31

GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
31.0 PURPOSE
(a) Discuss the provisions of IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8,20, 21, 22 and 23 respectively
31.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the provisions of another of the IPSAS. These are IPSAS
5, 6, 7, 8,20, 21, 22 and 23.
31.2 PROVISIONS OF THE IPSAS
31.2.1 IPSAS 5 – BORROWING COSTS

31.2.1.1 INTRODUCTION
This standard prescribes the accounting treatment for borrowing costs. The
standard generally requires the immediate expensing of borrowing costs.
However, the standard permits, as an allowed alternative treatment, the
capitalisation of borrowing costs that is directly attributable to the acquisition,
construction or production of a qualifying asset.
The standard defined the following terms:

(a) Borrowing Costs: are interests and other expenses incurred by an entity
in connection with the borrowing of funds.
(b) Expenses: are decreases in economic benefits or service potential during

the reporting period in the form of outlays as consumption of assets or
incurrence of liabilities that result in decrease in net assets/equity, other
than those relating to distributions to owners.
(c) Economic Entity: means a group of entities comprising a controlling

entity and one or more controlled entities.
(d) Government Business Enterprise (GBE): means an entity that has

all the following characteristics:
(i) has the power to contract in its own name;
(ii) has been assigned the financial and operational authority to carry
on a business;
534
INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SECTOR ACCOUNTING STANDARDS (IPSAS)
GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
(iii) Sells goods and services, in the normal course of its business to
other entities at a profit or full cost recovery;
(iv) Is not reliant on continuing government funding to be a going
concern (other than purchases of outputs at arm’s length); and
(v) Is controlled by a public sector entity.
( e) Borrowing Costs: the standard further explains the components of

borrowing costs which may include;
(i) Interest on bank overdrafts and short-term and long-term
borrowings;
(ii) Amortisation of discounts or premium relating to borrowings;
(iii) Amortisation of auxiliary costs incurred in connection with the
arrangement of borrowings;
(iv) Finance charges in respect of finance lease; and
(v) Exchange differences arising from foreign currency borrowings
to the extent that they are regarded as an adjustment to interest
costs.
31.2.1.2 Borrowing Costs Treatment: the standard prescribes that:
(a) Borrowing costs should be recognised as an expense in the period in
which they are incurred, except to the extent that they are capitalised.
(b) Borrowing costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition,
construction or production of a qualifying asset should be capitalised
as part of the costs of that asset.
31.2.1.3 Disclosure
The standard prescribes that the financial statements should disclose:
(a) The accounting policy adopted for borrowing costs;
(b) The amount of borrowing costs capitalised during the period; and
(c) The capitalisation rate used to determine the amount of borrowing costs
eligible for capitalisation (when it was necessary to apply a
capitalisation rate to funds borrowed generally)
31.2.2 IPSAS 6:CONSOLIDATED AND SEPARATE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

IPSAS 6 presents relevant information and practical illustration on the
requirements of the preparation and presentation of consolidated financial
statements, and accounting for controlled entities in the separate financial
statements of the controlling entity. The standard contains guides on the scope
of a consolidated group of an economic entity and describes the consolidation
procedures.
Although, Government Business Enterprises (GBEs) are not compelled to comply

with this standard in preparing their financial statements, the provisions of
the standard will apply where a public sector entity that is not a GBE has one
or more controlled entities that are GBEs. In such case, the standard is expected
to be applied in consolidating the GBEs into the financial statements of the
535
economic entity, and in accounting for investments in GBEs in the controlling

entity’s financial statements.
The standard also presents rules on accounting for public sector subsidiaries,
jointly controlled public sector entities and associates in the separate financial
statements of the controlling entity in respect of the venturer, and the investors.
The IFRS on which the IPSAS is based is IAS 27 on “Consolidated and Separate
Financial Statements”.
31.2.2.2 PRINCIPAL TERMS IN THE STANDARD

(a) Economic entity: This refers to a group of entities comprising a
controlling entity, which is a public sector parent, and one or more
controlled entities (i.e. public sector subsidiaries).
(b) Control: This is the power to govern both the financial or operating
policies of an entity by the public sector parent in order to benefit from
its activities. The financial statement of an economic entity is referred
to as consolidated financial statements. This term is used both by IPSAS
and IFRS (for private companies).
(c) Separate financial statement: Are financial statements presented

by a controlling entity, an investor in an associate or a venturer in a
jointly controlled entity, in which the investments are accounted for on
the basis of direct net assets/equity interest rather than on the basis of
the reported results and net assets of the investees.
A controlling entity consolidates its controlled entities by preparing consolidated

financial statements in accordance with the provisions of the standard. However,
the following criteria will make the presentation of a consolidated financial
statements unnecessary (as contained in IPSAS 6.16) if it satisfies the following
criteria:
(a) The controlling entity is
(i) Itself a wholly-owned controlled entity and users of the
consolidated financial statements of the entity are unlikely to
exist, or their information needs are met by consolidated financial
statements of its controlling entity;
(ii) A partially owned controlled entity of another entity and its other
owners including those not otherwise entitled to decide on the
presentation of consolidated financial statements, have been
informed about, and do not object to such a decision.
(b) The controlling entity’s debt or equity instruments are not traded in a
public market (i.e. stock exchange);
(c) The controlling entity did not file, nor is it in the process of filing its
financial statements with a securities commission or other regulatory
536
GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
organization for the purpose of issuing any class of instruments in a

public market;
(d) This controlling entity’s ultimate or any intermediate controlling entity
produces consolidated financial statements available for public use that
are IPSASs-compliant.
Where any of the criteria above hold sway, a controlling entity may elect
not to present consolidated financial statements and instead present
only separate financial statements.
31.2.2.3 SCOPE OF THE CONSOLIDATED GROUP FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

The following provisions of IPSAS 6 relate to the scope of the Consolidated Group
Financial Statements:
(a) IPSAS 6.20 specifies that consolidated financial statements are generally
required to include all public sector subsidiaries in the group
consolidated entities;
(b) IPSAS 6.21 specifies that the only exception to the rate above are those
controlled entities where control is created temporarily only because
they are acquired and held exclusively for the purpose of disposal within
12months of the acquisition date, and management is actively looking
for a buyer.
The following graph illustrates the scope of consolidated financial statements

discussed above;
Scope of consolidated financial statements: include all controlled entities of

the controlling entities, except for entities (ref. IPSAS 6.20
Control is intended to be temporary because the controlled entity is acquired
and held exclusively with a view to its disposal within twelve months from
acquisition. (ref. IPSAS 6.21
Management is actively seeking a buyer (IPSAS 6. 21)

Scope of consolidated financial statements
Include all controlled entities of the controlling entities, except

for entities (ref. IPSAS 6.20
Control is intended to be temporary because the controlled entity

is acquired and held exclusively with a view to its disposal within
twelve months from acquisition. (ref. IPSAS 6.21
Management is actively seeking a buyer (IPSAS 6. 21)
Figure 31.1 Scope of consolidated financial statements.
537
31.2.2.4 CONSOLIDATION PROCEDURES

The following are the procedures expedient for the preparation of consolidated
financial statements:
(a) The financial statements of the controlling entities and their controlled
entities are combined on a line-by-line basis by adding together similar
or identical items of assets, liabilities, net assets/equity, revenue and
expenses;
(i) The financial statements of the controlling entity and its controlled
entities used in the preparation of the consolidated financial
statements shall be prepared as of the same reporting date.
Interim financial statements are prepared as of the same date
as the financial statements of the controlling entity, where the
reporting dates of the controlling entity and a controlled entity
are different;
(ii) When the date of the financial statements of a controlled entity
used in the preparation of consolidated financial statements
differs from that of the controlling entity, adjustments are made
for the effects of significant transactions or events occurring
between that date and the date of the controlling entities financial
statements, the difference in the date which may not be more
than three months. The length of the reporting periods and any
difference in the reporting dates must be the same period to
period.
In accordance with IPSAS 6.43, the following steps are germane in order
to make sure that the consolidated financial statements present financial
information about the economic entity as if it were a single entity:
(b) There is elimination of the carrying amount of the shares belonging to
the controlling entity in each controlled entity and the controlling entity’s
share in the net assets/equity of each controlled entity.
(c) Minority interests in the surplus or deficit of consolidated subsidiaries
for the reporting period are identified separately.
(d) Minority interests in the net assets/equity of consolidated controlled
entities are identified and presented in the consolidated statement of
financial position separately from liabilities and the controlling entities
shareholders net assets/equity.
Minority interests in the net assets/equity consist of:

(i) The amount of the minority interests at the date of the original
combination;
(ii) The share of the changes in net assets/equity attributable to the
minority interest from the date of combination.
Note that all intercompany balances, transactions, revenue and expenses

between entities are eliminated in full in line with IPSAS 6.45. Uniform
accounting policies are to be used to present the consolidated financial
statements for similar or identical transactions and other events in
similar circumstance.
538
GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
31.2.3 IPSAS 7 – INVESTMENT IN ASSOCIATES

This standard provides the basis for accounting for ownership interests in
associate, that is, the investment in the other entity which confers on the investor
the risks and rewards incidental to an ownership interest.
31.1.3.2 Definitions: The standard provides the following definitions:

(a) An associate: is an entity, including an unincorporated entity such as
a partnership, over which the investor has significant influence and that
is neither a controlled entity nor an interest in a joint venture.
i. Significant influence: (for the purpose of this standard) is the
power to participate in the financial and operating policy
decisions of the investee but is not in control or joint control over
those policies
The existence of significant influence by an investor, as specified by the

standard, is usually evidenced in one or more of the following ways:
(b) Representation on the board of directors or equivalent governing body
of the investee;
(c) Participation in policy-making processes, including participation in
decisions about dividends or other distributions;
(d) Material transactions between the investor and investee;
(e) Interchange of managerial personnel;
(f) Provision of essential technical information.
31.2.3.3 Disclosure
The following disclosures among others are required:
(a) The fair value of investment in associate for which there are published
price quotations;
(b) Summarised financial information of associates;
(c) The reasons why investor holds less than 20% of voting power in investee
but concludes that it has significant influence;
(d) The reasons why investor holds more than 20% of voting power in investee
but concludes that it does not have significant influence;
(e) The reporting date of the financial statements of an associate, which
such financial statements are used in applying the equity method and
are as of a reporting date, or for a period that is different from that of the
investor, and the reason for using a different reporting date or different
period;
(f) The nature and extent of any significant restrictions (e.g. resulting from
borrowing arrangements or regulatory requirements) on the ability of
associates to transfer funds to the investor in the form of cash dividends,
or similar distributions, or repayment of loans or advances;
(g) The unrecognised share of losses of an associate, both for the period
and cumulatively, if an investor has discontinued recognition of its share
of losses of an associate;
539
(h) The fact that an associate is not accounted for using the equity method;
(i) Summarised financial information of associates, either individually or
in groups that are not accounted for using the equity method, including
the amounts of total assets, total liabilities, revenues and surplus or
deficits.
31.2.4 IPSAS 8: FINANCIAL REPORTING OF INTERESTS IN JOINT VENTURES

This Standard is a standard that guides the financial reporting of interests in
Joint Ventures. A Joint Venture can be defined as a binding agreement involving
two or more parties pooling their resources together towards a given economic
objective which is subject to a joint control. Joint Ventures are formed mainly
to take advantage of the resources owned by the respective parties in the Joint
Ventures. A major peculiarity of a joint venture is the pooling together of
resources (technological know-how, finance, manpower, physical infrastructure,
etc) so as to accomplish set goal of the venture.
This standard establishes guidelines on the scope of accounting for interests in

joint ventures, the alternative methods that might be adopted and the
circumstances under which interests in joint ventures might be accounted for,
less any provision for impairment.
A joint venture arrangement usually specifies the original capital contribution

and the sharing of revenue or other forms of consideration and expenses between
the venturers.
31.2.4.2 A JOINT CONTROL OF THE JOINT VENTURE

There is the binding arrangement whereby the venturers agree to sharing
formula of control over the chosen activity.
Such arrangement requires that no single venture is in a position to unilaterally

control the activity. The arrangement requires the consent of all the venturers
and those decisions which may require the consent of a specified majority of
the venturers.
31.2.4.3 SCOPE OF THE STANDARD

The standard does not apply to venturer’s interests in jointly controlled entities
held by:
(a) Venture capital organizations
(b) Mutual funds unit trusts or similar entities such as investment-linked
insurance funds.
31.2.4.4 FORMS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF JOINT VENTURES:

( a ) Jointly Controlled Operations: This is a venture where two or more
venturers combine their operations, resources and expertise in order to
manufacture, market or distribute jointly, a particular product e.g. ship
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GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
or aircraft. Different parts of the manufacturing process are handled by

each of the venture. The cost of each production part is borne by the
maker-venturer. The joint-venture activities may be carried out by the
venturer’s employees alongside the venturer’s similar activities. The
joint venture agreement usually provides a means by which the revenue
from the sale or provision of the joint product or service and any expenses
incurred in common are shared among the venturers.
For interests in jointly controlled operations, a venture should recognize

in its separate financial statements and consequently in its consolidated
financial statements:
The assets that it controls and liabilities that it incurs; and the expenses
that it incurs and its share of the revenue that it earns from the sale or
provision of goods or services by the joint venture
It should be noted that no adjustments or other consolidation procedures

are required in respect of assets, liabilities, revenue and expenses when
the venture presents consolidated financial statements, since the items
have been recognized in the separate financial statements of each of
the venturers.
(b) Jointly Controlled Assets: This involves the joint-usage of the assets
of the venture by the venturers. Each of the venturer has control over the
assets taking a share of the output from the assets and bearing an agreed
share of the expenses incurred in the course of the usage of the assets.
Examples of such jointly-controlled assets will include a toll-gate

belonging to a local government but which was constructed by a private
company through private-public ownership, thereby giving the private
company and the local authority power to partaker in the share of the
revenue and expenses of the toll-gate.
The following should be recognized in the separate financial statements
and consequently in the consolidated financial statements of a jointly
controlled assets:
(i) Its share of the jointly controlled assets, classified according to
the nature of the assets;
(ii) Any liabilities which it has incurred;
(iii) Its share of any liability incurred jointly with the other venturers
in respect of the joint venture;
(iv) Any revenue from the sale or use of the output of the joint venture
together with its share of any expenses incurred by the joint
venture;
(v) Any expenses which it has incurred in respect of its interest in
the joint venture, e.g. those related to financing the venturer’s
interest in the assets and selling its share of the output.
541
(c) Jointly Controlled Entity; This is an entity which involves the

establishment of a corporation, a partnership or other entity in which
each venture has an interest.
A jointly controlled entity controls the assets of the venture, incurs

liabilities and expenses and earn revenue.
A typical jointly controlled entity is born when two entities combine

their activities in a particular line of service delivery by bringing relevant
assets and liabilities into the jointly-controlled entity.
In consolidating jointly controlled entities, any of these two methods

can be used:
31.2.4.5 Benchmark Treatment-Proportionate Consolidation:

This method of consolidation provides that each of the venturers, record their
assets and liabilities, revenue and expenses by combining line-by-line similar
items.
A venturer should discontinue the use of proportionate consolidation from the
date on which it ceases to have joint control over a jointly controlled entity.
31.2.4.6 Allowed Alternative Treatment-Equity Method:

The use of the equity method is supported by those who argue that it is
inappropriate to combine controlled items with jointly controlled items and by
those who believe that venturers have significant influence, rather than joint
control over assets and liabilities, revenue and expenses.
A venture should discontinue the use of the equity method from the date on
which it ceases to have joint control over, or have significant influence in, a
jointly controlled entity.
The following interests should be accounted for as investments.

(a) An interest in a jointly-controlled entity which is acquired and held
exclusively with a view to its subsequent disposal in the near future.
(b) An interest in a jointly controlled entity which operates under severe
long-term restrictions that significantly impair its ability to transfer
funds, or provide other non-financial benefits to the venturers.
31.2.5 IPSAS 20 - RELATED PARTY DISCLOSURES

This standard is formulated to require the disclosure of the existence of related
party relationships where control exists and the disclosure of information about
transactions between entity and its related parties in certain circumstances.
This information is required for accountability purposes and to facilitate better
understanding of financial position and performance of the reporting entity.
The principal issues in disclosing information about related parties are
542
GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
identifying which parties control or significantly influence the reporting entity

and determine what information should be disclosed about transactions with
those parties.
31.2.5.2 Definitions
The following terms are used in this standard:
Close members of the family of an individual are close relatives of the
individual or members of the individual’s immediate family who can be
expected to influence, or be influenced by that individual in their dealings
with the entity.
Key management personnel are:

(a) All directors or members of the governing body of the entity; and
(b) Other persons having the authority and responsibility for planning,
directing and controlling the activities of the reporting entity. Where
they meet this requirement key, management personnel include;
(i) Where there is a member of the governing body of a whole of
government entity who has the authority and responsibility for
planning, directing and controlling the activities of the reporting
entity, that member;
(ii) Any key advisor of that member; and
(iii) Unless already included in (a), the senior management group of
reporting entity, including the chief executive or permanent head
of the reporting entity.
Oversight means the supervision of the activities of an entity, with the authority
and responsibility to control, or exercise significant influence over the financial
and operating decisions of the entity.
Related parties are considered to be related if one party has the ability to
control the other party or exercise significant influence over the other party in
making financial and operating decisions or if the related party entity and
another entity are subject to common control. Related parties include:
(a) Entities that directly, or indirectly through one or more intermediaries,
control, or are controlled by the reporting entity;
(b) Associates (see IPSAS 7, Investment in Associates);
(c) Individual holding, directly or indirectly, an interest in the reporting
entity that gives them significant influence over the entity, and close
members of the family of any such individual;
(d) Key management personnel, and close members of the family of key
management personnel; and
(e) Entities in which a substantial ownership interest is held, directly or
indirectly, by any person described in (c) or (d), or over which such a
person is able to exercise significant influence.
543
Related-party transaction is a transfer of resources or obligations between

related parties, regardless of whether a price is charged. Related-party
transaction with any other entity that is related party solely because of its
economic dependence on the reporting entity of the government of which it
forms part.
Remuneration of key management personnel is any consideration or benefits

derived directly or indirectly by key management personnel from the reporting
entity for service provided in their capacity as members of the governing body
or otherwise as employees of the reporting entity.
Significant influence (for the purpose of this standard) is the power to participate
in the financial and operating policy decisions of an entity, but not control
those policies. Significant influences may be exercised in several ways, usually
by representation on the board of directors or equivalent governing body but
also by, for example, participation in the policy making process, material
transactions between entities within an economic entity, inter-change of
managerial personnel or dependence on technical information. Significant
influence may be gained by an ownership interest, statute or agreement. With
regard to an ownership interest, significant influence is presumed in
accordance with the definition contained in IPSAS 7
31.2.5.3 Disclosure
31.2.5.3.1 Disclosure of Control
Related parties relationships where control exists should be disclosed
irrespective of whether there have been transactions between the related parties.
31.2.5.3.2 Disclosure of Related Party Transactions

In respect of transactions between related parties other than transactions that
would occur within a normal supplier or client/recipient relationship on terms
and conditions no more or less favourable than those which is reasonable to
expect the entity would have adopted if dealing with that individual or entity
at arm’s length in the same circumstances, the reporting entity should be
disclosed:
(a) The nature of related party relationship;
(b) The types of the transactions that have occurred; and
(c) The element of the transactions necessary to clarify the significance of
these transactions to its operations and sufficient to enable financial
statements provide relevant and reliable information for decision
making and accountability purposes.
The following are examples of situations where related party transactions
may lead to disclosures by reporting entity:
(i) Rendering or receiving of services;
(ii) Purchase or transfers/sales of property and other asset;
(iii) Purchase or transfers/sales of goods (finished or unfinished);
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GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
(iv) Agency agreements;

(v) Leasing agreements;
(vi) Transfer of research and development;
(vii) License agreements;
(viii) Finance (including loans, capital contributions, grants whether
in cash or in kind and other financial support including cost
sharing arrangements); and
(ix) Guarantees and collaterals.
31.2.5.4 Disclosure of Key Management Personnel

An entity shall disclose:
(a) The aggregate remuneration of the key management personnel and the
number of individuals determined on a full time equivalent basis,
receiving remuneration within this category, showing separately major
classes of key management personnel and including a description of
each classes;
(b) The total amount of all other remuneration and compensation provided
to key management personnel, by reporting entity during the reporting
period showing separately the aggregate amounts provided to:
(i) Key management personnel; and
(ii) Close members of the family of the management personnel; and
(c) In respect of loans which are not widely available to persons who are
not key management personnel and loans whose availability is not
widely known by members of the public, for each individual member of
key management personnel and each close member of the key
management personnel:
(i) The amount of loans advanced during the period and terms and
conditions thereof;
(ii) The amount of loans repaid during the period:
(iii) The amount of the closing balance of all loans and receivables;
and
(iv) Where the individual is not a director or member of the governing
body or senior management group of the entity, the relationship
of the individual to such.
31.2.6 IPSAS 21 – IMPAIRMENT OF NON-CASH-GENERATING ASSETS

The objective of this standard is to prescribe the procedures that an entity applies
to determine whether a non-cash-generating asset is impaired and to ensure
the impairment losses are recognised. This standard also specifies when an
entity would reserve an impairment loss and prescribes disclosures.
The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings specified:
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31.2.6.1.1An Active Market is a market in which all the following conditions exist:
(a) The items traded within the market are homogeneous;
(b) Willing buyers and sellers can normally be found at any time; and
(c) Prices are available to the public.
31.2.6.2.2 Carrying Amount is the amount at which an asset is recognised in the

statement of financial position after deducting any accumulated depreciation
and accumulated impairment losses thereon.
31.2.6.2.3 Cash-Generating Assets are assets held with the primary objective
of generating a commercial return.
31.2.6.2.4 Costs of Disposal are incremental costs directly attributable to the

disposal of an asset, excluding finance cost and income tax expense.
31.2.6.2.5 Depreciation (amortisation) is the systematic allocation of the

depreciable amount of an asset over its useful life.
31.2.6.2.6 Fair Value less Costs to sell is the amount obtainable from the sale
of an asset in an arm’s length transaction between knowledgeable, willing
parties, less the costs of disposal.
31.2.6.2.7 Government Business Enterprise means an entity that has all the
following characteristics:
(a) Has the power to operate in its own name;
(b) Has been assigned the financial and operational authority to carry on a
business;
(c) Sells goods and services in the normal course of its business, to other
entities at a profit or full cost recovery;
(d) Is not reliant on continuing government funding to be a going concern
(other than purchases of outputs at arm’s length); and
(e) Is controlled by a public sector entity.
31.2.6.2.8 Impairment Loss of a non-cash-generating asset is the amount

by which the carrying amount of an asset exceeds its recoverable service
amount.
31.2.6.2.9 Non-Cash-generating assets are assets other than cash-generating

assets.
31.2.6.2.10 Recoverable Service amount is the higher of a non-cash-generating

asset’s fair value less costs to sell and its value in use.
31.2.6.2.11 Useful life is either:

(a) The period over which an asset is expected to be available for use by an
entity; or
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GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
(b) The number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from

the asset by an entity.
Value in use of a non-cash-generating asset is the present value of the
asset remaining service potential.
31.2.6.3 Identifying an Asset that may be Impaired

An entity shall assess at each reporting date whether there is any indication
that an asset may be impaired. If any such indication exists the entity shall
estimate the recoverable service amount of an asset.
In assessing whether there is any indication that an asset may be impaired, an

entity shall consider, as a minimum, the following indications:
(a) External Sources of Information

(i) Cessation, or near cessation, of the demand or need for the services
provided by the asset;
(ii) Significant long-term changes with an adverse on the entity have
been taken place during the period or will take place in the near
future, in the technological, legal or government policy
environment in which the entity operates.
(b) Internal Sources of Information

(i) Evidence is available of physical damage of an asset;
(ii) Significant long-term changes with an adverse on the entity have
taken place during the period or are expected to take place in
near future, in the extent to which, or manner in which, an asset
is used or expected to be used. These changes include the asset
becoming idle, plans to discontinue or restructure the operation
to which an asset belongs, or plans to dispose of an asset before
the previously expected date;
 A decision to halt the construction of an asset before it is
completed or in a usable condition; and
 Evidence is available from internal reporting that indicates
that the service performance of an asset is, or will be,
significantly worse than expected.
31.2.6.4 Recognising and Measuring an Impairment Loss

If, and only if, the recoverable service amount of an asset is less than its carrying
amount, the carrying amount of an asset shall be reduced to its recoverable
service amount. That reduction is an impairment loss.
An impairment loss shall be recognised immediately in surplus or deficit. When

the amount estimated for an impairment loss is greater than the carrying
amount of the asset to which it relates, an entity shall recognise a liability if,
and only if, that is required by another IPSAS.
547
After the recognition of an impairment loss, the depreciation (amortization)

charge for the asset shall be adjusted in future periods to allocate the asset’s
revised carrying amount, less its residual value (if any), on systematic basis
over its remaining useful life.
31.2.6.5 Reversing an Impairment Loss

An entity shall assess at each reporting date whether there is an indication
that an impairment loss recognised in prior periods for an asset may no longer
exist or may have decreased, if any such indication exists, the entity shall
estimate the recoverable service amount of the asset.
In assessing whether there is an indication that an impairment loss recognised

in prior periods for an asset may no longer exist or may have decreased, an
entity shall consider, as a minimum the following indications:
31.2.6.6 External Sources of Information

(a) Resurgence of the demand or need for service provided by the asset;
(b) Significant long-term changes with a favourable effect on the entity
have taken place during the period, or will take place in the near future,
in the technological, legal or government policy environment in which
the entity operates.
31.2.6.7 Internal Sources of Information

(a) Significant long-term changes with a favourable effect on the entity
have taken place during the period, or are expected to take place in the
near future, in the extent to which, or manner in which, an asset is used
or expected to be used. These changes include costs incurred during the
period to improve or enhance an asset’s performance or restructure the
operation to which the asset belongs.
(b) A decision to resume construction of the asset that was previously halted
before it was completed or in a usable condition.
(c) Evidence is available from internal reporting which indicates that the
service performance of an asset is, or will be, significantly better than
expected.
An impairment loss recognised in prior periods, of an asset shall be

reversed if, only if, there has been a change in the estimates used to
determine the asset’s recoverable service amount since the last
impairment cost was recognised. If this is the case, the carrying amount
of the asset shall, except as described in the next paragraph, be
increased to its recoverable service amount. That increase is a reversal
of an impairment loss.
548
GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
The increased carrying amount of an asset attributable to a reversal of

an impairment loss shall not exceed the carrying amount that would
have been determined (net of depreciation or amortisation) had no
impairment loss been recognised for the asset in prior periods.
A reversal of an impairment loss for an asset shall be recognised

immediately in surplus or deficit.
After a reversal of an impairment loss is recognised, the depreciation

(amortisation) charge for the asset shall be adjusted in future periods
to allocate the asset’s revised carrying amount, less its residual value
(if any), on a systematic basis over its remaining useful life.
31.2.6.8 Redesignation of Assets

The redesignation of assets from cash-generating assets to a non-cash-
generating assets or from non-cash-generating assets to cash-generating assets
shall only occur when there is a clear evidence that such a redesignation is
appropriate. A redesignation, by itself, does not necessarily trigger an
impairment test or reversal or an impairment loss arises from, as a minimum,
the listed indications applicable to the asset after redesignation.
31.2.6.9 Disclosure
An entity shall disclose the following for each class of assets:
(a) The amount of impairment losses recognised in surplus or deficit during
the period and the line item(s) of the statement of financial performance
in which those impairment losses are included;
(b) The amount of reversals of impairment losses recognised in the surplus
or deficit during the period and the line item(s) of the statement of
financial performance in which those impairment losses are reversed.
An entity that reports segment information in accordance with IPSAS 18,
‘Segment Reporting’ shall disclose the following for each segment reported by
the entity;
(a) The amount of reversals of the impairment losses recognised in the
surplus or deficit the period.
(b) The amount of reversals of impairment losses recognised in surplus or
deficit during the period.
An entity shall disclose the following for each material impairment loss
recognised or reversed during the period:
(i) The events and circumstances that led to the recognition or the
reversal of the impairment loss;
(ii) The amount of the impairment loss recognised or reversed;
(iii) The nature of the asset;
(iv) The segment to which the asset belongs, if the entity reports
segment information in accordance with IPSAS 18;
549
(v) Whether the recoverable service amount of the asset is its fair
value less costs to sell or its value in use;
(vi) If the recoverable service amount is fair value less costs to sell,
the basis used to determine fair value less cost to sell (such as
whether fair value was determined by reference to an active
market);
(vii) If the recoverable service amount is value in use, the approach
used to determine value in use.
An entity shall disclose the following information for the aggregate of

impairment losses recognised during the period for which no information
is disclosed in accordance with the paragraph above:
(a) The main classes of assets affected by impairment losses (and
the main classes of assets affected by reversals of impairment
losses).
(b) The main events and circumstances that led to the recognition of
these impairment losses and reversals of impairment losses.
31.2.7 IPSAS 22-DISCLOSURE OF FINANCIAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE

GENERAL GOVERNMENT SECTOR
The objective of this standard is to prescribe disclosure requirements for
governments which elect to present information about the General Government
Sector (GGS) in their Consolidated Financial Statements .The disclosure of
appropriate information about the GGS of a government can enhance the
transparency of financial reports, and provide for a better understanding of
the relationship between the market and non-market activities of the
government and between financial statements and statistical bases of financial
reporting.
The General Government Sector comprises all organisational entities
of the general government as defined in statistical bases of financial
reporting.
Government Business Enterprises means an entity that has all the
following characteristics:
(a) Is an entity with the power to contract in its own name;
(b) Has been assigned the financial and operational authority to
carry on a business;
(c) Sells goods and services, in the normal course of its business, to
(d) Is not reliant on continuing government funding to be a going
(e) Is controlled by a public sector entity.
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GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
31.2.7.3 General Government Sector (GGS)

Under statistical bases of financial reporting, the public sector comprises the
GGS, Public Financial Corporation and Public Non-Financial Corporation sector.
Additional subgroups within these sectors may be identified for statistical
analytical purposes.
The GGS is defined as consisting of all resident central, state and local
government units and social security funds at each level of government, and
non-market non-profit institutions controlled by government units. Under
statistical bases of financial reporting, the GGS encompasses the central
operations of government and typically includes all those resident non-market
non-profit entities that have their operations funded primarily by the
government and government entities. As such, the financing of these entities is
sourced primarily from appropriation or allocation of the government’s taxes,
dividends from government corporation, other revenues, and borrowings. The
GGS typically includes entities such as government departments, law courts,
public educational institutions, public health care units and other government
agencies. The GGS does not include PFCs or PNFCs.
31.2.7.4 Public Financial Corporations Sector

The PFC Sector comprises resident government controlled financial corporations,
quasi-corporations and non-profit institutions which primarily engage in
financial intermediation and the provision of financial services for the market.
Included within this sectors are government controlled banks, including central
banks, and other government financial institutions that operate on a market
basis.
31.2.7.5 Public Non-Financial Corporations Sector

The PNFC Sector comprises resident government controlled non-financial
corporations, quasi-corporations and non-profit institutions that produce goods
or non-financial services for the market. Included within this sector are entities
such as publicly owned utilities and other entities that trade in goods and
services. Statistical bases of financial reporting define:
(a) Corporations as legal entities created for the purpose of producing goods
and services for the market;
(b) Quasi-corporations as enterprises that are not incorporated or otherwise

legally established but function as if they were corporations; and
(c) Non-profit institutions are legal or other entities which produce or

distribute goods and services, but which do not generate financial gain
for their controlling entity.
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31.2.7.6 Disclosures
Disclosure made in respect of the GGS shall include at least of the following:
(a) Assets by major class, showing separately the investment in other
sectors;
(b) Liabilities by major class;
(c) Net assets/ equity;
(d) Total revaluation increments and decrements and other items of revenue
and expense recognised directly in net assets/ equity;
(e) Revenue by major class;
(f) Expenses by major class;
(g) Surplus or deficit;
(h) Cash flows from operating activities by major class;
(i) Cash flows from investing activities; and
(j) Cash flows from financing activities.
Entities preparing GGS disclosures shall disclose the significant controlled

entities that are included in the GGS and any changes in those entities from the
prior period, together with an explanation of the reasons why any such entity
that was previously included in the GGS is no longer included.
31.2.8 IPSAS 23 – REVENUE FROM NON-EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS:

(TAXES AND TRANSFER)
The objective of this standard is to prescribe requirements for the financial
reporting of revenue arising from non-exchange transactions, other than non-
exchange transactions that give rise to an entity combination. The standard
deals with issues that need to be considered in recognising and measuring
revenue from non-exchange transactions including the identification of
contributions from owners.
The following terms are used in the standard with the meanings specified:
31.2.8.2.1 Conditions on Transferred Assets are stipulations that specify that

the future economic benefits or service potential embodied in the asset is
required to be consumed by the recipient as specified or future economic benefits
or service potential that must be returned to the transferor.
31.2.8.2.2 Control of an Asset arises when the entity can use or otherwise benefit
from the asset in pursuit of its objectives and can exclude or otherwise regulate
the access of others to that benefit.
31.2.8.2.3 Exchange Transactions are transactions in which one entity receives

assets or services, or has liabilities extinguished, and directly gives
approximately equal value (primarily in the form of cash, goods, services or
use of assets) to another entity in exchange.
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GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
31.2.8.2.4 Fines are economic benefits or service potential received or receivable

by public sector entities, as determined by a court or other law enforcement
body, as a consequence of the breach of laws or regulations.
31.2.8.2.5 Non-Exchange Transactions are transactions that are not exchange

transactions. In a non-exchange transaction, an entity either receives value
from another entity without directly giving approximately equal value in
exchange, or gives value to another entity without directly receiving
approximately equal value in exchange.
31.2.8.2.6 Restrictions on Transferred Assets are stipulations that limit or

direct the purposes for which a transferred asset may be used, but do not specify
that future economic benefits or service potential is required to be returned to
the transferor if not deployed as specified.
31.2.8.2.7 Stipulations on Transferred Assets are terms in laws or regulation,

or a binding arrangement, imposed upon the use of a transferred asset by
entities external to the reporting entity.
31.2.8.2.8 Tax Expenditures are preferential provisions of the tax law that provide
certain tax payers with concessions that are not available to others.
31.2.8.2.9 The Taxable Event is the event that the government, legislature or
other authority has determined will be subject to taxation.
31.2.8.2.10 Taxes are economic benefits or service potential compulsorily paid or

payable to public sector entities, in accordance with laws and or regulations,
established to provide revenue to the government. Taxes do not include fines or
other penalties imposed to breaches of the law.
31.2.8.2.11 Transfers are inflows of future economic benefits or service potential

from non-exchange transactions, other than taxes.
31.2.8.3 Measurement of Assets on Initial Recognition

An asset acquired through a non-exchange transaction shall initially be
measured at its fair value as at the date of acquisition.
31.2.8.4 Recognition of Revenue from Non-Exchange Transactions

An outflow of resources from a non-exchange transaction recognised as an
asset shall be recognised as revenue, except to the extent that a liability is also
recognised in respect of the same inflow.
If an entity satisfies a present obligation recognised as liability in respect of

an inflow of resources from a non-exchange transaction recognised as an asset,
553
it shall reduce the carrying amount of the liability recognised and recognise
an amount or revenue equal to that reduction.
31.2.8.5 Measurement of Revenue from Non-Exchange Transactions

Revenue from non-exchange transactions shall be measured at the amount of
the increase in net assets recognised by the entity.
31.2.8.6 Present Obligations Recognised as Liabilities

A present obligation arising from a non-exchange transaction that meets the
definition of a liability shall be recognised as a liability when and only when:
(a) It is probable that an outflow of resources embodying future economic
benefits or service potential will be required to settle the obligation;
and
(b) A reliable estimate can be made of the amount of obligation.
31.2.8.7 Measurement of Liabilities on Initial Recognition

The amount recognised as a liability shall be the best estimate of the amount
required to settle the present obligation at the reporting date.
31.2.8.8 Disclosure
An entity shall disclose either on the face of, or in the notes to, the general
purpose financial statements:
(a) The amount of revenue from non-exchange transactions recognised
during the period by major classes showing separately:
i. Taxes, showing separately major classes of taxes; and
ii. Transfer, showing separately major classes of transfer revenue.
(b) The amount of receivables recognised in respect of non-exchange
revenue;
(c) The amount of liabilities recognised in respect of transferred assets
subject to conditions;
(d) The amount of assets recognised that are subject to restrictions and the
nature of those restrictions;
(e) The existence and amounts of any advance receipts in respect of non-
exchange transactions; and
(f) The amount of any liabilities forgiven.
An entity shall disclose in the notes to the general purpose financial statements;
(a) The accounting policies adopted for the recognition of revenue from non-
exchange transactions;
(b) For major classes of revenue from non-exchange transactions, the basis
on which the fair value of inflowing resources were measured;
(c) For major classes of taxation revenue which the entity cannot measure
reliably during the period in which the taxable events occurs, information
about the nature of the tax; and
The nature and type of major classes of bequests, gifts, donations showing
separately major classes of goods in-kind received.
554
GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
31.3 CHAPTER REVIEW

This chapter examined the provisions of IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 and 23. The
objective is to facilitate better awareness and their applications.
31.4.1 Questions
(1) (a) Borrowing Costs are costs associated to borrowed funds.

Enumerate costs that can be classified as such.
(b) What is the process of determining the borrowing costs eligible
for capitalization?
(2) (a) Distinguish between a controlling entity and a controlled entity
in accordance with IPSAS 6.
(b) What is the scope of consolidated financial statements as
contained in IPSAS 6?
(3) National Communication Commission (NCC) acquired a 40% interest in
the capital of ICT Limited on the date of incorporation, January 1, 2009,
for N2,500,000. This enabled NCC to exercise significant influence over
the Associate company, ICT Limited.
On December 31, 2012, the shareholders’ equity of ICT Limited was as follows:
N’000
Capital 3,750
Reserves 1,227
Accumulated surplus 4,750
Total 9,727
The following extracts were taken from the financial statements of ICT Limited
for the year ending December 31, 2013:
Statement of Financial Performance

N’000
Net Surplus 2,650
Extraordinary item (28)
Net Profit for the period 2,622
Statement of Changes in Equity

N’000
Accumulated surplus at the beginning of the year 4,750
Net surplus for the period 2,622
Dividend Paid (1,800)
Accumulated surplus at the end of the year 5,572
555
In November 2013, NCC sold inventories to ICT Limited for the first time. The
total sales amounted to N500,000 and NCC earned a surplus of N50,000 on the
transaction. None of the inventories had been sold by ICT Limited by December
2013. The income tax rate is 30%.
Required: What is the carrying amount of the investment in ICT Limited, using
the equity method?
4. (a) Define the term ‘economic entity” in accordance with IPSAS 8 on ‘

Financial Reporting of interests in Joint ventures’.
(b) There is usually a binding arrangement subsisting among venturers.
What are the matters involved in such arrangement as contained in IPSAS 8
on ‘Financial reporting of interests in joint ventures’?
1.(a) Borrowing costs may include the following:

(i) Interest on bank overdraft and short-term and long-term borrowings;
(ii) Amortisation of discounts or premiums relating to borrowings;
(iii) Amortisation of ancilliary costs incurred in connection with the
arrangement of borrowings;
(iv) Finance charges in respect of finance lease;
(v) Exchange differences arising from foreign currency borrowings; to the
extent that they are regarded as an adjustment to interest costs.
(b) The amount of borrowing costs eligible for capitalization should be determined
by applying a capitalization rate to the outlays on that asset. The capitalization
rate should be the weighted average of the borrowing costs applicable to the
borrowings of the entity that are outstanding during the period, other than
borrowings made specifically for the purpose of obtaining a qualifying asset.
The amount of borrowings costs capitalized during a period should not exceed
the amount of borrowing costs incurred during that period.
2.(a) A controlling entity is an entity that has one or more controlled entities. A
controlling entity is mandated to present consolidated financial statements.
A controlling entity that is a wholly owned controlled entity, or is virtually wholly

owned, need not present consolidated financial statements provided users of
such financial statements are unlikely to exist or their information needs are
met by the controlling entity’s consolidated financial statements; or in the case
of one that is virtually wholly owned, the controlling entity obtains approval of
the owner of the minority interest such a controlling entity should disclose the
reason why consolidated financial statements have not been presented together
with the bases on which controlled entities are accounted for in its separate
financial statements. The name and the principal address of its controlling
entity that publishes consolidated financial statements should also be disclosed.
556
GROUP B (IPSAS 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 22 AND 23)
(b) The scope of consolidated financial statements in accordance with IPSAS 6 are
as follows:
(i) A controlling entity which issues consolidated financial statements
should consolidated all controlled entities, foreign and domestic, other
than those referred to under IPSAS 6.22
(ii) A controlled entity should be excluded from consolidation when;
 Control is intended to be temporary because the controlled entity
is acquired and held exclusively with a view to its subsequent
disposal in the near future; or
 It operates under severe external long term restrictions which
prevent the controlling entity from benefitting from its activities.
3. Calculation of the carrying amount of Investment in ICT Limited

N’000
Original cost of investment in ICT Ltd 2,500.0
Post acquisition surplus accounted for
at the beginning of the year (40% x N1,227,000
+ 4,750,000) 2,390.8
Carrying amount on January 1, 2013 4,890.8
N’000
Attributable portion of net surplus for the period (working) 1,062.8
Dividend received (40% of N1,800,000) (720)
Total 342.8
Working: Attributable portion of Net surplus

N’000
Net surplus (40% x N2,622,000) 1,048.8
After-tax rate of unrealized surplus (40% x (70% x N50,000) 14.0
1,062.8
4. (a) The term ‘economic entity, as contained in IPSAS 8 is used to define, for financial
reporting purposes, a group of entities comprising the controlling entity and
controlled entities. Such entity could also be called administrative entity’
‘financial entity’, ‘consolidated entity’ or ‘group’.
An economic entity may include entities with both social policy and commercial
objectives, e.g. a government housing department may be an economic entity
which include entities that provide housing for a nominal charge, as well as
entities that provide accommodation on a commercial basis.
(b) The matters involved in a binding arrangement subsisting among venturers in

accordance with IPSAS 8 on financial reporting of interests in joint ventures
will include the following;
557
(i) The activity duration and reporting obligations of the joint venture;
(ii) The appointment of board of directors or equivalent governing body of
the joint venture and the voting rights of the venturers;
(iii) Capital contributions by the venturers;
(iv) The sharing by the venture of the output revenue, expenses, surpluses
or deficits, or cashflows of the joint venture.
558
CHAPTER
Skills level
32

Standards (IPSAS)
GROUP C (IPSAS 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 AND 24)
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Revenue from Exchange Transactions
4. Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies
5. Financial Instruments: Disclosure & Presentation
6. Investment Property
7. Property, Plant and Equipment
8. Segment Reporting
9. Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets
10. Presentation of Budget Information in Financial Statements
11. Chapter Review
12. Worked Examples
559
32

GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 AND 24)
32.0 PURPOSE
(a) Discuss the provisions of IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24,respectively
32.1 INTRODUCTION
9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24
32.2.1 IPSAS 9: REVENUE FROM EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS

33.2.1.1 Introduction:
The standard is aimed at prescribing the accounting treatment of revenue
generated from events and transactions relating to exchange.
33.2.1.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS

(a) Exchange Transactions: These are transactions in which an entity
receives assets or services or discharges liabilities and gives the same
equal value to another entity in exchange. This may be in form of cash,
goods, services or use of resources of another entity.
(b) Fair Value: This is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged
or a liability discharged between knowledgeable and willing parties in
an arms length transaction.
(c) Non-Exchange Transactions: These are transactions that are not
exchange transactions. In this type of transaction, an entity either
receives value from another entity without directly giving approximately
equal value in exchange.
(d) Revenue: This is the gross inflow of economic benefits or service
potential during the reporting when those inflows result in an increase
in net asset or equity other than increases arising from owners
contributions.
( e) Rendering Of Service: When the outcome of a transaction involving
the rendering of services can be estimated reliably, revenue associated
with the transaction should be recognized by the reference to the stage
of completion of the transaction at the reporting date. The amount of
revenue can be measured reliably when:
560
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
(i) It is possible that the economic benefit or service potential

associated with the transaction will-flow to the entity.
(ii) The stage of completion of the transaction at the reporting state

can be reliably measured.
(iii) The costs incurred for the transaction and the cost to complete
the transaction can be measured reliably.
33.2.1.3 SALE OF GOODS

According to the standard, revenue from sale of goods should be recognized
when the following conditions are met in totality:
(a) The entity has transferred the rewards of ownership of goods and the
significant risks involved to the buyer.
(b) The entity does not restrain neither the continuing managerial
involvement to the degree usually associated with ownership nor
reflective control over the goods sold.
(c) The amount of revenue can be measured reliably.
(d) It is probable that the economic benefits or service potential

associated with the transaction will flow to the entity.
(e) The cost incurred or to be incurred in respect of the transaction can be

reliably measured.
33.2.1.4 INTERESTS, ROYALTIES AND DIVIDENDS

Revenue arising from the use of an entity’s assets by others resulting in interest,
royalties and dividends should be recognized when:
(a) It is probable that the economic benefits or service potential associated
with the transaction will flow to the entity and
(b) The amount of the revenue can be measured reliably.
33.2.1.5 DISCLOSURE
The standard requires the following disclosure:
(a) The accounting policies adopted for the recognition of revenue including
the method adopted to determine the stage of completion of transactions
involving the rendering of services.
(b) The amount of each significant category of revenue recognized during

the period including revenue arising from:
(i) The rendering of services
(ii) The sale of goods
(iii) Interest
561
(iv) Royalties
(v) Dividends
(c) The amount of revenue arising from exchange of goods or services

included in each significant category of revenue.
32.2.2 IPSAS 10: FINANCIAL REPORTING IN HYPER INFL ATIONARY

ECONOMIES
This standard covers (The corresponding IAS is IAS 29) how financial statements
are prepared using the currency prevalent in a hyperinflationary economy. In
a hyperinflationary economy, financial reporting using the local currency makes
the preparation of such statement unrealistic. The reason is that money loses
purchasing power at such a rate that comparison of amounts from transactions
and other events that have occurred at different times, even within the same
reporting period is misleading.
The standard does not establish an absolute rate at which hyperinflation is

deemed to arise. Hyperinflation is indicated by characteristics of the economic
environment of a country which include, but not limited to, the following:
(a) The general population prefers to keep its wealth in non-monetary assets
or in a relatively stable currency. Amounts of local currency held are
immediately invested to maintain purchasing power;
(b) The general population regards monetary amounts not in terms of the
local currency but in terms of a relatively stable foreign currency. Prices
may be quoted in that currency;
(c) Sales and purchases on credit take place at prices that compensate for
the expected loss of purchasing power during the credit period, even if
the period is short;
(d) Interest rates, wages and prices are linked to a price index;
(e) The cumulative inflation rate over three years is approaching, or exceeds
100%.
32.2.2.2 The Re-statement of Financial Statements
(a) Statements of financial position not expressed in terms of the measuring

unit current at the reporting date are restated by applying a general
price index. Monetary items are not restated because they are already
expressed in terms of the monetary unit current at the reporting date.
562
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
Such monetary items are money held and assets and liabilities to be
received or paid in fixed or determinable amount of money.
(b) Assets and liabilities linked by agreement to changes in prices, such as

index linked bonds and loans, are adjusted in accordance with the
agreement in order to ascertain the amount outstanding at the reporting
date. These items are carried at this adjusted amount in the restated
statement of financial position.
(c) Statement of Financial Performance: The standard requires that all

items in the statement of financial performance are expressed in terms
of the measuring unit current at the reporting date. All amounts are,
therefore, needed to be restated by applying the change in the general
price index from the date when the items of revenue and expenses were
initially recorded.
(d) Cash Flow Statement: The standard requires that all the items in the
cash flow statement are expressed in terms of the measuring unit current
at the reporting date.
(e) Corresponding Figures: Corresponding figures for the previous reporting

period are restated by applying a general price index so that the
comparative financial statements are presented in terms of the
measuring unit current at the end of the reporting period. Information
that is disclosed in respect of earlier periods is also expressed in terms
of the measuring unit at the end of the reporting period.
(f) Consolidated Financial Statements: A controlling entity that reports in

the currency of a hyperinflationary economy may have controlled entities
that also report in the currencies of hyperinflationary economies. The
financial statements of any such controlled entity need to be restated
by applying a general price index of the country in whose currency it
reports before they are included in the consolidated financial statements
issued by its parent. Where such a controlled entity is a foreign controlled
entity, its restated financial statements are translated at closing rates.
The financial statements of controlled entities that do not report in the
currencies of hyperinflationary economies are dealt with in accordance
with IPSAS 4 on “The effects of changes in foreign exchange rates”.
32.2.2.3 Selection and Use of the General Price Index
The restatement of financial statements in accordance with this standard

requires the use of a general price index that reflects changes in general
purchasing power. All entities that report in the hyperinflationary currency of
the same economy should use the same index.
563
32.2.2.4 ECONOMIES CEASING TO BE HYPERINFLATIONARY
When an economy ceases to be hyperinflationary and an entity discontinues

the preparation and presentation of financial statements prepared in
accordance with this standard, it should treat the amounts expressed in the
measuring unit current at the end of the previous reporting period as the basis
for the carrying amounts in its subsequent financial statements.
32.2.3 IPSAS 15 – FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS: DISCLOSURE AND

PRESENTATION
The objective of this standard is to enhance financial statement users’
understanding of the significance of on-balance-sheet and off-balance-sheet
financial instruments to a government’s or other public sector entity’s financial
position, performance and cash flows. In this standard, references to the balance
sheet in the context of on-balance-sheet and off-balance-sheet have the same
meaning as statement of financial position.
The following terms are used in this standard with the meaning specified:
(a) An equity instrument is any contract that evidences a residual interest
in the assets of an entity after deducting all of its liabilities.
(b) Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or
liability settled, between knowledgeable willing parties in an arms
length transaction.
(c) Financial asset is any asset that is:
(i) Cash;
(ii) A contractual right to receive cash or another financial asset from

another entity;
(iii) A contractual right to exchange financial instruments with another

entity under conditions that are potentially favourable;
(iv) An equity instrument of another entity.
(d) A financial instrument is any contract that gives rise to both financial
asset of one entity and a financial liability or equity instrument of
another entity.
( e) Financial liability is any liability that is a contractual obligation:

(i) To deliver cash or another financial asset to another entity; or
(ii) To exchange financial instruments with another entity under

conditions that is potentially favourable.
564
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
(f ) An insurance contract (for the purposes of this standard) is a contract

that exposes the insurer to identified risks or loss from events or
circumstances occurring or discovered within a specified period,
including death (in the case of annuity, the survival of annuitant),
sickness, disability, property damage, injury to others and interruption
of operations.
(g) Market value is the amount obtainable from the sale or payable on
the acquisition, of a financial instrument in an active market.
(h ) Monetary financial assets and financial liabilities (also referred

to as monetary financial instruments) are financial assets and financial
liabilities to be received or paid in fixed determinable amounts of money.
32.2.3.3 Presentation
(a) Liabilities and Net Assets/Equity
The issuer of a financial instrument should classify the instrument, or
its component parts, as a liability or net assets/equity in accordance
with the substance of the contractual arrangement on initial recognition
and the definitions of a financial liability and an equity instrument.
(b) Interest, Dividends, Losses and Gains

Interest, Dividends, Losses and Gains relating to a financial instrument,
or a component part, classified as financial liability should be reported
in the statement of financial performance as expense or revenue.
Distributions to holders of a financial instrument should be debited by
the issuer directly to net assets/equity.
(c ) Offsetting of a Financial Asset and a Financial Liability

A financial asset and a financial liability should be offset and the net
amount reported in the statement of financial position when an entity:
(i) Has a legally enforceable right to sell off the recognised amounts;
and
(ii) Intend either to settle on a net basis, or to realize the asset and
settle the liability simultaneously.
32.2.3.4 Disclosure
(a) Disclosure of Risk Management Policies
An entity should describe its financial risk management objectives and
policies, including its policy for hedging each major type of forecasted
transaction for which hedge accounting is used.
565
(b) Terms, Conditions and Accounting Policies

For each class of financial asset, financial liability and equity instrument,
both recognised and unrecognised, an entity should disclose:
(i) Information about the extent and nature of the financial
instruments, including significant terms and conditions that may
affect the amount, timing and certainty of future cash flows; and
(ii) The accounting policies and methods adopted, including the

criteria for recognition and the basis for measurement applied.
(c) Interest Rate Risk
For each class of financial asset and financial liability, both recognised
and unrecognised, an entity should disclose information about its
exposure to interest rate risk, including:
(i) Contractual completion or maturity date, whichever date is

earlier; and
(ii) Effective interest rates, when applicable.
(d) Credit Risk
and unrecognised, an entity should disclose information about its
exposure to credit risk, including:
(i) The amount that best represents its maximum credit risk exposure
at the reporting date, without taking account of the fair value of
any collateral, in the event other parties fail to perform their
obligations under financial instrument; and
(ii) Significant concentrations of credit risk
( e) Fair Value
and unrecognised, an entity should disclose information about fair value.
When it is not practicable within constraints of timeliness or cost to
determine the fair value of a financial asset or financial liability with
sufficient reliability, that fact should be disclosed together with
information about the principal characteristics of the underlying
financial instrument that are pertinent to its fair value.
32.2.3.5 Financial Assets Carried at an Amount in Excess of Fair Value

When an entity carries one or more financial assets at amount in excess of
their fair value, the entity should disclose:
(a) The carrying amount and the fair value of either the individual assets
or appropriate groupings of those individual assets; and
566
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
(b) The reasons for reducing the carrying amount, including the nature of
the evidence that provide the basis for management’s belief that the
carrying amount will be recovered.
32.2.3.6 Hedges of Anticipated Future Transactions

When an entity has accounted for a financial instrument as hedge of risk
associated with anticipated future transactions, it should disclose:
(a) A description of the anticipated transactions, including the period of
time until they are expected to occur;
(b) A description of the hedging instruments; and
(c) The amount of any deferred or unrecognised gain or loss and the expected
timing of recognition as revenue or expense.
32.2.3.7 Other Disclosures

Additional disclosures are encouraged when they are likely to enhance financial
statement users’ understanding of financial instruments. It may be desirable
to disclose such information as:
(a) The total amount of the change in the fair value of financial assets and
financial liabilities that has been recognised as revenue or expense for
the period;
(b) The total amount deferred or unrecognised gain or loss on hedging

instrument other than those relating to hedges of anticipated future
transactions; and
(c) The average aggregate carrying amount during the year of recognised
financial assets and financial liabilities, the average aggregate
principal, stated, notional or other similar amount during the year of
unrecognised financial assets and financial liabilities and the average,
aggregate fair value during the year of all financial assets and financial
liabilities. Particularly when the amount on hand during the year of all
financial assets and liabilities, particularly when the amount on hand
at the reporting date are representative of amounts on hand during the
year.
32.2.4 IPSAS 16: INVESTMENT PROPERTY

Investment Property is a property (land or building, or part of a building, or
both) held to earn rentals or for capital appreciation or both, rather than for:
(a) Use in the production of supply of goods or services or for
administrative purposes;
(b) Sale in the ordinary course of operations
Examples of investment property will include:
567
(a) land held by a government hospital or capital appreciation which

may be sold at a beneficial time in future
(b) Land held for a currently undetermined future use:
(c) A building owned by the reporting entity (or held by the reporting
entity under a finance lease)
(d) A building that is vacant but is held to be leased out under one or
more operating leases on a commercial basis to external parties.
32.2.4.2 Nature Of Investment Property

A public sector entity (other than a GBE) may be established to manage a
government property portfolio on a commercial basis. An investment property
will include, specifically, property held by the entity, other than property held
for resale in the ordinary course of operations. Other public sector entities may
also hold properties for rentals or capital appreciation and use of the cash
generated to finance these other activities. As illustration, a university or a
local government may own a building for the purpose of leasing on a
commercial basis to external parties to generate funds, rather than to be used
in producing goods and services.
Investment property is held for the purpose of earning rental or for capital
appreciation or both. Therefore investment property generates cash flow largely
independent of other assets held by an entity.
32.2.4.3 Non-Investment Properties

(a) Property held for sale in the ordinary courses of operations or in the
process of construction or development for such sale.
(b) Property being constructed or developed on behalf of third parties e.g.

where a service department of a ministry enters into construction
contracts with entities external to its government.
(c) Owner-occupied property including property held for future use as owner-
occupied property held for future development as subsequent use as
owner-occupied property, property occupied by employees such as
housing for military or police personnel.
(d) Property that is being constructed or developed for future use as

investment property. Until construction or development is complete, at
which time the property becomes investment property; such property
does not acquire investment property status.
(e) Property held to provide a social service, and which also generates cash
flows;
(f) Property held for strategic purpose which could be accounted for in
accordance with IPSAS 17 (on Property, Plant and Equipment)
568
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
32.2.4.4 Measurement Of Recognised Investment Property

Measurement of recognized investment property involve the following
process:
Measurement of recognized assets using any of these two applicable
methods:
(a) Fair Value Model - Investment property is measured at fair value
unless there is clear evidence when the entity first acquires an
item of investment property that the fair value of the asset is not
reliably determined;
(b) Cost Model – Investment property is measured at fixed cost less

any accumulated depreciation and any accumulated impairment
losses.
Chosen method shall be applied to all of an entity’s investment property.
32.2.4.5 Accounting Treatment on Disposal or Retirement of Investment

Property
An investment property should be eliminated from the statements of financial
position on disposal or when the property involved is permanently withdrawn
from use and no future economic benefits or service potential are expected
from its disposal. Determination of gains or losses arising from the retirement
or disposal of investment property is arrived at by looking at the difference
between the net disposal proceeds and the carrying amount of the asset and
recognized in surplus or deficit of the period of the retirement or disposal.
32.2.4.6 Initial Adoption of Accrual Accounting on IPSAS

On adoption of the accrual basis of accounting for the first time, an entity
recognised of investment property as an adjustment to the opening balance of
accumulated surpluses or deficits for the period in which the standard is first
adopted.
An entity that adopts accrual accounting for the first time in accordance with
IPSASs may initially recognize investment property at cost or fair value. For
investment properties that were acquired at no cost, or for a nominal cost, cost
of the investment property’s fair value as at the date of acquisition.
32.2.4.7 Fair Value Model

The model requires that an entity should report the effect of adopting the
standard on its effective date (or earlier) as an adjustment to the opening
balance of accumulated surpluses or deficits for the period in which the IPSAS
is first adopted. In addition:
(a) If the entity has previously disclosed publicly, in the financial statements
or otherwise, the fair value of its investment property in earlier periods
(determined on a basis that satisfies the definition of fair value in IPSAS
569
16.6 and the guidance in paragraphs IPDSD 16.37 -54) the entity is
encouraged, but not required, to:
i. Adjust the opening balance of accumulated surpluses or deficits

for the earliest period presented for which such fair value was
disclosed publicly; and
ii. Restate comparative information for those periods;
(b) If the entity has not previously disclosed publicly the information
described in (a), the entity should not restate comparative information
and should disclose such fact.
32.2.4.8 Cost Model

This is the model adopted by entities before the initial adoption of the standard.
It recognizes investment properties on a basis other than cost. IPSAS 3 apply
to any change in accounting policies that occurs when an entity first adopts
this standard and choose to use the cost model. The effect of the change in
accounting policies includes the reclassification of any amount held in
revaluation surplus, for investment property.
32.2.4.9 ILLUSTRATION 32-1

Below are the Statement of Financial Position and Statement of Financial
Performance of the Ministry of Works, Obudu State for the years 2012 and 2011.
Ministry of Works
Statement of Financial Position as at 31 December
2012 2012 2011 2011
ASSETS N’000 N’000 N’000 N’000
Current Assets
Cash and Cash Equivalents 180 120
Receivables 170 130
Inventories 150 80
Prepayments 185 90
Investments 145 830 400 820
Non-Current Assets
Receivables 130 60
Investments 140 56
Other Financial Assets 130 48
Infrastructure, Plant and Equipment 260 200
Land and Buildings 200 180
Intangible Assets 60 80
Other non-Financial Assets 84 1,004 96 720
Total Assets 1,834 1,540
570
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
LIABILITIES
Current Liabilities
Payables 20 30
Short-Term Borrowings 18 25
Current Portion of Borrowings 22 18
Provisions 40 22
Employee Benefits 60 41
Non-Current Liabilities
Payables 30 80
Borrowings 34 60
Provisions 48 45
Employee Benefits 70 36
Total Liabilities 494 480
Net Assets 1,340 1,060
NET ASSETS/EQUITY
Capital Contributed by
Government Entities 482.49 400.00
Reserves 40.00 84.49
Accumulated Surpluses/(deficits) 542.00 375.51
1,064.49 860.00
Minority Interest 275.51 200.00
1,340.00 1,060.00
MINISTRY OF WORKS
STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31
DECEMBER (using Classification of Expenses by function)
2012 2011
Taxes 200 400
Fees, Fines, Penalties and Licenses 50 150
Transfer from other government entities 55 50
Other operating revenue 210 300
Total operating revenue 600 1,000
Operating Expenses
General Public Services 40 60
Defence 60 80
Public order and safety 80 70
Education 20 90
Health 10 70
571
Social Services 30 30
Housing and Community Amenities 20 25
Recreational, Cultural and Religion 8 80
Economic Affairs 12 75
Environmental Protection 20 20
Total Operating Expenses 300 600
Finance Costs (80) (40)
Gains on sale of property, plant and
equipment 120 20
Total of non-operating revenue/
(expenses) 40 (20)
Surplus/(deficit) from ordinary activities 340 380
Net surplus/(deficit) before extraordinary
items 472 455.51
542 375.51
*The minority interest share of the surplus/(deficit) from ordinary activities includes
the minority interest share of extraordinary items. The presentation of
extraordinary items net of minority interest is permitted by paragraph 57© of
IPSAS 1. Disclosure of the minority interest share of extraordinary items is shown
in the ‘Notes to the Financial Statements’.
MINISTRY OF WORKS
STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE FOR THE FYEAJR ENDED
31 DECEMBER, (Using he classification of Expenses by nature)
2012 2011
Taxes 200 400
Fines, Fees, Penalties and Licences 50 150
Transfers from other government entities 55 50
Other Operating Revenue 210 300
Total Operating Revenue 600 1,000
Operating Expenses
Wages, Salaries and Employee Benefits 100 200
Grants and other Transfer Payments 70 120
Supplies and Consumables Used 80 80
Depreciation and amortization expenses 20 70
Other operating Expenses 30 130
Total Operating Expenses 300 600
Surplus/deficit) from operating activities 300 400
Finance Costs (80) (40)
572
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
Gains on sale of property, plant and equipment 120 20

Total non-operating revenue/(expenses) 40 (20)
Surplus/(deficit) from other activities 340 380
Net surplus/(deficit) before extraordinary items 472 455.51
542 375.51
*The minority interest share of the surplus/(deficit) from ordinary activities

includes the minority interest share of extraordinary items. The presentation
of extraordinary items net of minority interest is permitted by paragraph 57©
of IPSAS 1. Disclosure of the minority interest share of extraordinary items is
shown in the ‘Notes to the Financial Statements.
32.2.5 IPSAS 17 – PROPERTY, PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
The standard is set up to prescribe the accounting treatment for property,
plant and equipment so that users of financial statements can discern
information about an entity’s investment in its property, plant and equipment
and the charges in such investment. The principal issues in accounting for
property, plant and equipment are the recognition of the assets, the
determination of their carrying amounts and depreciation charges and
impairment losses to be recognised in relation to them.
(a) Carrying Amount: (for the purpose of this standard) is the amount at
which an asset is recognised after deducting any accumulated
depreciation and accumulated impairment losses.
(b) Class of Property, Plant and Equipment: means a grouping of assets
of similar nature or function in an entity’s operations that is shown as a
single item for the purpose of disclosure in the financial statements.
(c) Cost: is the amount of cash or cash equivalents paid and fair value of
the other consideration given to acquire an asset at the time of its
acquisition or construction.
(d) Depreciation: is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount
of an asset over its useful life.
( e) Depreciable Amount: is the cost of an asset, or other amount
substituted for cost, less its residual value.
(f ) Entity Specific Value: is the present value of the cash flows an entity
expects to realise from the continuing use of an asset and from its disposal
at the end of its useful life or expect to incur when setting a liability.
(g) Exchange Transactions: are transactions in which one entity receives
assets or services, or has liabilities extinguished, and directly gives
573
approximately equal value (primarily in the form of cash, goods, services,

or use of assets) to another entity in exchange.
(h ) Fair Value: is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged or
liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm’s
length transaction.
(i) An Impairment Loss: of a cash generation asset is the amount by
which the carrying amount of an asset exceeds its recoverable amount.
(j) An Impairment Loss of a Non-Cash Generating Asset: is the
amount by which the carrying amount of an asset exceeds its recoverable
service amount.
(k) Non-exchange Transactions: are transactions that are not exchange
transactions. In non-exchange transaction, an entity either receives value
from another entity without directly giving approximately equal value
in exchange, or gives value to another entity without directly receiving
approximately equal value in exchange.
(l) Property, Plant and Equipment: are tangible items that:
(i) Are held for use in the production or supply of goods or services,
for rental to others, or for administrative purposes; and
(ii) Are expected to be used during more than one reporting period.
(m) Recoverable Amount: is the higher of a cash-generating asset’s fair

value less costs to sell and its value in use.
(n) Recoverable Service Amount: is the higher of a non-cash-generating
asset’s fair value less costs to sell and its value in use.
(o) The Residual Value of an asset is the estimated amount that an entity
would currently obtain from disposal of the asset, after deducting the
estimated costs of disposal, if the asset were already of the age and in
the condition expected at the end of its useful life. Useful Life is
(i) The period over which an asset is expected to be available for
use by an entity; or
(ii) The number of production or similar units expected to be obtained

from the asset by an entity.
32.2.5.3 Recognition
The cost of an item of property, plant and equipment shall be recognised as an
asset if, and only if:
(a) It is probable that future economic benefits or service potential
associated with the item will flow to the entity; and
(b) The cost or fair value of the item can be measured reliably.
32.2.5.4 Measurement at Recognition

(a) An item of property plant and equipment that qualifies for recognition
as an asset shall be measured at its cost.
574
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
(b) Where an asset is acquired through a non-exchange transaction, its cost

shall be measured at its fair value as at the date of acquisition.
32.2.5.5 Disclosure
The financial statements shall disclose, for each class of property, plant and
equipment recognised in the financial statements:
(a) The measurement bases used for determining the gross carrying amount;
(b) The depreciation method used;
(c) The useful life of the depreciation rate used;
(d) The gross carrying amount and the accumulated depreciation

(aggregated with accumulated impairment losses) at the beginning and
end of the period; and
(e) A reconciliation of the carrying amount at the beginning and end of the
period showing;
(i) Additions;
(ii) Disposals;
(iii) Acquisition through any entity combinations;
(iv) Increases or decreases resulting from revaluations;
(v) Impairment losses recognised in surplus or deficit in accordance

with IPSAS 21;
(vi) Impairment losses reversed in surplus or deficit in accordance

with IPSAS 21;
(vii) Depreciation;
(viii) The net exchange differences arising on the translation of the

financial statements from the functional currency into a different
presentation currency, including the translation of a foreign
operation into the presentation currency of the reporting entity;
and
(ix) Other charges.
The financial statements shall also disclose for each class of property,
plant and equipment recognised in the financial statements:
(a) The existence amounts of restrictions on title, and property, plant and
equipment recognised in the financial statements:
(b) The amount of expenditure recognised in the carrying amount of an

item of property, plant and equipment in the course of the construction;
575
(c) The amount of contractual commitments for the acquisition of property,

plant and equipment; and
(d) If it is not disclosed separately on the face of the statement of financial

performance, the amount of compensation from third parties for items
of property, plant and equipment that were impaired, lost or given up
that is included in surplus or deficit.
If a class of property, plant and equipment is stated at revalued amounts, the

following shall be disclosed:
(a) The effective date of the revaluation;
(b) Whether an independent valuer was involved;
(c) The methods and significant assumptions applied in estimating the

assets fair values
(d) The extent to which the assets’ fair values were determined directly by
reference to observable prices in an active market or recent market
transaction on arm’s length terms or were estimated using other
valuation techniques;
(e) The revaluation surplus, indicating the change for the period and any
restrictions on the distribution of the balance to shareholders or other
equity holders;
(f) The sum of all revaluation surpluses for individual items of property,
plant and equipment within that classes; and
(g) The sum of all revaluation deficits for individual items of property, plant
and equipment within that classes.
32.2.6 IPSAS 18 – SEGMENT REPORTING

The purpose of the standard is to establish principle for reporting financial
information by segments. The disclosure of this will:
(a) Help users of the financial statement to better understand the entity’s
past performance and to identify the resources allocated to support the
major activities of the entity; and
(b) Enhance the transparency of financial reporting and enable the entity
to better discharge its accountability obligation.
The following terms are used in this standard:
(a) Accounting Policies
(b) Financing Activities
(c) Investing Activities
576
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
(d) Operating Activities

(e) Revenue
See previous standards
32.2.6.3 Definition of a Segment

A segment is a distinguishable activity or group of activities of an entity for
which it is appropriate to separately report financial information for the purpose
of evaluating the entity’s past performance in achieving its objectives and for
making decisions about the future allocation of resources.
32.2.6.4 Reporting by Segment

An entity should identify its separate segments in accordance with the
requirement of the above paragraph of this standard and should present
information about those segments.
32.2.6.5 Definition of Segment Revenue, Expense, Assets, Liabilities and

Accounting Policies
The following additional terms are used in this standard with the meanings
specified:
(a) Segment Revenue: is revenue reported in the entity’s statement of
financial performance that is directly attributable to a segment and the
relevant portion of entity revenue that can be allocated on a reasonable
basis to a segment, whether from budget appropriation or similar, grants,
transfer, fines, fees or sales to external customer or from transaction
with other segment of the same entity. Segment revenue does not include:
(i) Interest or dividend revenue: including interest earned on
advances or loan to others segment unless the segment operation
are primarily of a financial nature; or
(ii) Gains on sales of investment or gains on extinguishment of debt

unless the segment operations are primarily of a financial nature.
Segment revenue include an entity’s share of a net surplus (deficit) of

associates, joint ventures, or other investment accounted for under the
equity method only if those items are included in consolidated or total
entity revenue.
Segment revenue includes a joint venturer’s share of the revenue of a
jointly controlled entity that is accounted for by proportionate
consolidation in accordance with IPSAS 8, “interest in joint ventures”.
(b) Segment Expense is an expense resulting from operating activities of

a segment that is directly attributable to the segment and the relevant
portion of an expense that can be allocated on a reasonable basis to the
segment including expenses relating to the provision of goods and
services to external parties and expenses relating to transaction with
other segment of the same entity. Segment expense does not include:
577
(i) Interest, including interest incurred on advances or loan from

other segment, unless the segment operations are primarily of
financial nature;
(ii) Losses on sales of investment or losses on extinguishment of debt

unless the segment operations are primarily of a financial nature.
(iii) An entity’s share of net deficit or losses of associate joint ventures,

or other investment accounted for under the equity method;
(iv) Income tax or income-tax equivalent expense that is recognised

in accordance with accounting standard dealing with obligations
to pay income tax or income-tax equivalent; or
(v) General administrative expense, head office expense, and other

expense that arise at the entity level and relate to the entity as a
whole. However, costs are sometimes incurred at the entity level
on behalf of a segment, such costs are segment expenses if they
relate to the segment’s operating activities and they can be directly
attributed or allocated to the segment on a reasonable basis.
(c) Segment Assets are those operating assets that are employed
by a segment in its operating activities and that either is directly
attributable to the segment on a reasonable basis.
(d) Segment Liabilities are those operating liabilities that result
from the operating activities of a segment and that are either
directly attributable to the segment or can be allocated to the
segment on a reasonable basis.
( e) Segment accounting policies are the accounting policies
adopted for preparing and presenting the financial segments of
the consolidated group or entity as well as those accounting
policies that are related specifically to segment reporting.
32.2.6.6 Disclosure
An entity should disclose segment revenue and segment expense for each
segment. Segment revenue from budget appropriation or similar allocation,
segment revenue from other external sources and segment revenue from
transactions with other segments should be separately reported.
An entity should disclose the total carrying amount of segment asset for each
segment.
An entity should disclose the total carrying amount of segment liabilities for
each segment.
An entity should disclose the total cost incurred during the period to acquire
segment asset that are expected to be used during more than one period for
each segment.
578
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
An entity should disclose for each segment the aggregate of the entity’s share
of the net surplus (deficit) of associates, joint ventures, or other investments
accounted for under the equity method if substantially all of those associates’
operations are within that single segment.
If an entity’s aggregate share of the net surplus (deficit) of associates, joint

venture, or other investments accounted for under the equity method is disclosed
by segment, the aggregate investments in those associates and joint ventures
should also be disclosed by segment.
An entity should present a reconciliation between the information disclosed

for segments and the aggregate information in the consolidation or entity
financial statements. In presenting the reconciliation, segment revenue should
be reconciled to entity revenue from external sources (including disclosure of
the amount of entity revenue from external sources not included in any segment’s
revenue); segment expense should be reconciled to entity asset; and segment
liabilities should be reconciled to entities liabilities.
32.2.6.7 Other Disclosure Matters

In measuring and reporting segment revenue from transactions with other
segments, inter-segment transfers should be measured on the basis that they
occur. The basis of pricing inter-segment transfers and any change therein
should be disclosed in the financial statement.
Changes in accounting policies adopted for segment reporting that have a

material effect on segment information should be disclosed, and prior period
segment information presented for comparative purposes should be restated
unless it is impracticable to do so. Such disclosure should include a description
of the nature of the change, the reasons for the change, the fact that comparative
information has been restated or that is impracticable to do so, and the financial
effect of the change on its segments and it does not restate prior period segment
information on the new basis because it is impracticable to do so. For the
purpose of comparison, an entity should report segment data for both the old
and new bases of segmentation in the year in which it changes the identification
of its segments.
If not otherwise disclosed in the financial statements or elsewhere in the annual

report, an entity should indicate:
(a) The types of goods and services included in each reported service
segment;
(b) The composition of each reported geographical segment; and
579
(c) If neither a service nor geographical basis of segmentation is

adopted, the nature of the segment and activities encompassed
by it.
32.2.7 IPSAS 19 – PROVISIONS, CONTINGENT LIABILITIES AND CONTINGENT

ASSETS
The objective of this standard is to define provisions, contingent liabilities and
contingent assets and identify the circumstances in which provisions should
be measured and the disclosures that should be made about them. The standard
also requires that certain information be disclosed about contingent liabilities
and contingent assets in the notes to the financial statements to enable users
to understand their nature, timing and amount.
(a) A Constructive Obligation is an obligation that derives from an
entity’s actions where:
(i) By an established pattern of past practice, published policies or
a sufficiently specific current statement, the entity has indicated
to other parties that will accept certain responsibilities; and
(ii) As a result, the entity has created a valid expectation on the part
of those other parties that it will discharge those responsibilities
(b) A Contingent Asset: is a possible asset that arises from past events
and whose existence will be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-
occurrence of one or more uncertain future events not wholly within the
control of the entity.
(c) A Contingent Liability: is

(i) A possible obligation that arises from past events and whose
existence will be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-
occurrence of one or more uncertain future events not wholly
within the control of the entity; or
(ii) A present obligation that arises from past events but is not
recognised because:
 It is not probable that an outflow of resources embodying

economic benefits or service potential will be required to
settle the obligation; or
 The amount of the obligation cannot be measured with

sufficient reliability.
580
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
(d) Executor Contracts: are contracts under which neither party has
performed any of its obligations, nor both parties have partially
performed their obligation to an equal extent.
( e) A Legal Obligation: is an obligation that derives from:
(i) A contract (through its explicit or implicit terms);
(ii) Legislation; or
(iii) Other operation of law
(f ) Liabilities: are present obligations of the entity arising from past events,
the settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow from the entity
of resources embodying economic benefits or service potential.
(g) An Obligation Event: is an event that creates legal or constructive
obligation that results in an entity having no realistic alternative to
settling that obligation.
(h ) An Onerous Contract: is a contract for the exchange of assets or services
in which the unavoidable cost of meeting the obligations under the
contract exceeds the economic benefits or services, potential expected
to be received under it.
(i) A Provision: is a liability of uncertain timing or amount.
(j) A Restructuring: is a program that is planned and controlled by
management, and materially changes either:
(i) The scope of an entity’s activities; or
(ii) The manner in which those activities are carried out.
(a) Provision
A provision should be recognised when:
(i) An entity has a present obligation (legal or constructive) as a result of a
past event;
(ii) It is probable that an outflow or resources embodying economic benefits

or service potential will be required to settle the obligation; and
(iii) A reliable estimate can be made of the amount of the obligation.
If these conditions are not met, no provision should be recognised.
(b) Present Obligation

In some cases, it is not clear whether there is a present obligation. In these
cases, a past event is deemed to give rise to a present obligation if, taking
account of all available evidence, it is more likely than not that a present
obligation exists at the reporting date.
581
32.2.7.4 Measurement
(a) Best Estimate
The amount recognised as a provision should be the best estimate of the
expenditure required to settle the present obligation at the reporting
date.
The best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present
obligation is the amount that an entity would rationally pay to settle
the obligation at the reporting date or to transfer it to a third party at
that time.
(b) Risk and Uncertainties

The risks and uncertainties that inevitably surround many events and
circumstances should be taken into account in reaching the best estimate
of a provision.
(c) Present Value

Where the effect of the time value of money is material, the amount of a
provision should be the present value of the expenditures expected to be
required to settle the obligation.
The discount rate (or rates) should be a pre-tax rate (or rates) that reflect(s)
current market assessments of the time value of money and the risks
specific to the liability. The discount rate(s) should not reflect risks of
which future cash flow estimates have been adjusted.
(d) Future Events

Future events may affect the amount required to settle an obligation
and should be reflected in the amount of a provision where there is
sufficient objective evidence that they will occur.
32.2.7.5 Expected Disposal of Assets

Gains from the expected disposal of assets should not be taken into account in
measuring a provision.
32.2.7.6 Reimbursements
Where some or all of the expenditure required for settling a provision is expected
to be reimbursed by another party, the reimbursement should be recognised
when, and only when, it is virtually certain that reimbursement will be received
if the entity settles the obligation. The reimbursement should be treated as a
separate asset. The amount recognised for the reimbursement should not exceed
the amount of the provision.
In the statement of financial performance, the expense relating to a provision

may be presented net of the amount recognised for a reimbursement.
582
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
32.2.7.7 Changes in Provisions

Provisions should be reviewed at each reporting date and adjusted to reflect
the current best estimate. If it is no longer probable that an outflow of resources
embodying economic benefits or service potential will be required to settle the
obligation, the provision should be reversed.
32.2.7.8 Use of Provisions

A provision should be used for expenditures for which the provision was
originally recognised.
32.2.7.9 Restructuring
The following are examples of events that may fall under the definition of
restructuring:
(a) Termination or disposal of an activity or service;
(b) The closure of a branch office or termination of activities of a government

agency in a specific location or region or the relocation of activities from
one region to another;
(c) Changes in management structure, for example, eliminating a layer of

management or executive service; and
(d) Fundamental reorganisations that have a material effect on the nature

and focus of the entity’s operations.
A constructive obligation to restructure arises only when an entity:

(i) Has a detailed format plan for the restructuring identifying at
least:
 The activity/operating unit or part of an activity/operating unit

concerned;
 The principal locations affected;
 The location and approximate number of employees who will

be compensated for terminating their services’
 The expenditure that will be undertaken; and
 When the plan will be implemented.
(ii) Has raised a valid expectation in those affected that it will carry
out the restructuring by starting to implement that plan or
announcing its main features to those affected by it.
32.2.7.10 Disclosure
(a) For each class of provision an entity should disclose:
(i) The carrying amount at the beginning and end of the period
583
(ii) Additional provisions made in the period, including increases to

existing provisions;
(iii) Amounts used (i.e. incurred and charged against provision)

during the period
(iv) Unused amounts reversed during the period; and
(v) The increase during the period in the discounted amount arising
from the passage of time and the effect of any change in the
discount rate.
Comparative information is not required.

(b) An entity should disclose the following for each class of provision:
(i) A brief description of the nature of the obligation and the expected
timing of any resulting outflows of economic benefits or service
potential;
(ii) An indication of the uncertainties about the amount or timing of

those outflows. Where necessary to provide adequate information,
an entity should disclose the major assumptions made
concerning future events.
(iii) The amount of any expected reimbursement, stating the amount

of any asset that has been recognised for that expected
reimbursement.
(c) Where an entity elects to recognise in its financial statements provisions

for social benefits for which it does not receive consideration that is
approximately equal to the value of goods and services provided, directly
in return from the recipients of those benefits, it should make the
disclosures required in paragraph 1 and 2 in respect of those provisions
(d) Unless the possibility of any outflow in settlement is remote, an entity

should disclose for each class of contingent liability at the reporting
date, a brief description of the nature of the contingent liability and
where practicable:
(i) An estimate of its financial effect
(ii) An indication of the uncertainties relating to the amount or timing

of any outflow; and
(iii) The possibility of any reimbursement.
(e) Where an inflow of economic benefits or service potential is probable,

an entity should disclose a brief description of the nature of the
contingent assets at the reporting date, and, where practicable, an
estimate of their financial effect.
584
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
(f) In extremely rare cases, disclosure of some or all of the information

required above can be expected to prejudice seriously the position of
the entity in a dispute with other parties on the subject matter of the
provision, contingent liability or contingent asset. In such cases, an entity
need not disclose the information, but should disclose the general nature
of the dispute, together with the fact that, and reason why the information
has not been disclosed..
32.2.8 IPSAS 24- PRESENTATION OF BUDGET INFORMATION IN FINANCIAL

STATEMENT
This standard requires a comparison of budget amounts and the actual amount
arising from execution of the budget to be included in the financial statements
of entities which are required to, or elect to, make publicly accountable. The
standard also requires disclosure of an explanation of the reasons for material
differences between the budget and actual amounts. Compliance with the
requirement of this standard will ensure that public sector entities discharge
their accountability obligations and enhance the transparency of their financial
statements by demonstrating compliance with the approved budget(s) for which
they are held publicly accountable and, where the budget(s) and the financial
statements are prepared on the same basis, their financial performance in
achieving the budgeted results.
(a) Accounting basis means the accrual or cash basis of accounting as
defined in the accrual basis IPSASs and Cash basis IPSAS.
(b) Annual budget means an approved budget for one year. It does not
include published forward estimates or projections for periods beyond
the budget period.
(c) Appropriation is an authorization granted by a legislative body to
allocate funds for purpose specified by the legislature or similar authority.
(d) Approved budget means the expenditure authority derived from laws,
appropriation bills, government ordinances and other decisions related
to the anticipated revenue or receipts for the budgetary period.
( e) Budgetary basis means the accrual, cash or other basis of accounting
adopted in the budget that has been approved by the legislative body.
(f ) Comparable basis means the actual amounts presented on the same
entities and for the same accounting basis, same classification basis,
for the same entities and for the same period as the approved budget.
(g) Final budget is the original budget adjusted for all reserves, carry
over amounts, transfer, allocations, supplemental appropriations, and
other authorised legislative, or similar authority, changes applicable to
the budget period. Published forward estimates or projections for periods
beyond the budget period.
(h ) Original budget is the initial approved budget for the budget period.
585
32.2.8.3 Presentation of a comparison of Budget and Actual amounts

Subject to the requirement of the paragraph below (presentation and
Disclosure), an entity shall present a comparison of the budget amounts for
which it is held publicly accountable and actual amounts either as a separate
additional financial statement or as an additional budget columns in the
financial statements currently presented in accordance with IPSASs. The
comparison of budget and actual amounts shall present separately for each
level of legislative oversight:
(a) The original and final budget amounts;
(b) The actual amounts on a comparable basis; and
(c) By way of the note disclosure, an explanation of material differences

between the budget for which the entity is held publicly accountable
and actual amounts, unless such explanation is included in other public
documents issued in conjunction with the financial statements and a
cross reference to those documents is made in the notes.
32.2.8.4 Presentation and disclosure

An entity shall present a comparison of budget and actual amounts as additional
budget columns in the primary financial statements only where the financial
statements and the budget are prepared on a comparative basis.
32.2.8.5 Changes from original to Final Budget

An entity shall present an explanation of whether changes between the original
and final budget are a consequence reallocations within the budget, or other
factors:
(a) By way of note disclosure in the financial statements; or
(b) In a report issued before, at the same time as, or in conjunction with the
financial statements, and shall include a cross reference to the report in
the notes to the financial statements.
32.2.8.6 Note Disclosure of Budgetary Basis, period and scope

An entity shall explain in notes to the financial statements the budgetary basis
and classification basis adopted in a budget.
An entity shall disclose notes to the financial statements the period of the
approved budget
An entity shall identify in notes to the financial statements the entities included
in the approved budget.
586
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
32.2.8.7 Reconciliation of Actual Amounts on a Comparable Basis and Actual

Amounts in the Financial Statements
The actual amounts presented on a comparable basis to the budget in accordance
with the paragraph above (comparable basis) shall, where the financial
statements and the budgets are not prepared on a comparable basis, be
reconciled to the following actual amounts presented in the financial
statements, identifying separately any basis, timing and entity differences:
a) If the actual basis is adopted for the budget, total revenues, total
expenses and net cash flows from operating activities, investing
activities and financing activities; or
b) If a basis other than the accrual basis is adopted for the budget, net
cash flows from operating activities, investing activities and financing
activities
The reconciliation shall be disclosed on the face of the statement of comparison

of budget and actual amounts or in the notes to the financial statements.
32.3. CHAPTER REVIEW

The chapter has discussed the provisions contained in IPSAS 9, 10, 15, 16,
17, 18, 19 and 24.
32.4.1 Questions
1. (a) What are the exempted revenues not addressed in IPSAS 9 on ‘Revenue from
Exchange transactions?
(b) According to IPSAS 9, the amount of revenue in relation to Rendering of Service
can be reliably measured when certain conditions are met. State the conditions.
2.(a) What are the characteristics of an economic environment of a country

as indicated by hyperinflation?
(b) Give the disclosures to be made in the financial statements prepared in a
hyperinflationary economy.
3.(a) Segment expense is an expense resulting from the operating activities of a

segment that is directly attributable to the segment. List the expenses that
cannot be classified as segment expense:
(b) What are the disclosures (as contained in IPSAS 18.52-75) that are required of
Entity’s financial statements in relation to segment reporting.
4.(a) List those provisions of contingent liabilities and contingent assets that are not
covered by IPSAS 19.
(b) List the provisions an entity is expected to disclose under IPSAS 19 on provisions,
contingent liabilities and contingent assets.
587
1.(a) Though, addressed in other IPSASs, the following revenues are not addressed
by IPSAS 9:
(i) Lease agreements (treated by IPSAS 13 on ‘Leases’);
(ii) Dividends arising from investments which are accounted for under the
equity method (treated by IPSAS 7 on ‘Accounting for investments in
Associates),
(iii) Gains from the sale of property, plant and equipment (treated in IPSAS
17 on ‘Property, Plant and Equipment);
(b) (i) If it is possible that the economic benefit or service potentials associated
with the transaction will flow to the entity.
(ii) The stage of completion of the transaction at the reporting state can be
reliably measured.
(iii) The costs incurred for the transaction and the cost t ocomplete the
transaction can be reliably measured.
2.(a) The characteristics of the economic environment of a country as indicated by

hyperinflation include:
(i) The general population prefers to keep its wealth in non-monetary assets
or in a relatively stable foreign currency. Amount of local currency held
are immediately invested to maintain purchasing power;
(ii) The general population regards monetary amounts not in terms of the
local currency but in terms of a relatively stable currency. Prices may
be quoted in that currency;
(iii) Sales and purchases on credit take place at prices that compensate for
the expected loss of purchasing power during the credit period, even if
the period is short;
(iv) Interest rates, wages and prices are linked to a price index;
(v) The cumulative inflation rate over three years is approaching, or exceeds,
100%.
(b) The following disclosures should be made in the financial statements prepared
in a hyperinflationary economy:
(i) The fact that the financial statements and the corresponding figures for
previous period have been restated for the changes in the general
purchasing power of the reporting currency and as a result, are stated
in terms of the measuring unit current at the reporting date; and
(ii) The identity and level of the price index at the reporting date and the
movement in the index during the current and the previous reporting
periods.
3.(a) Expenses that will not qualify as segment expenses will include:
588
GROUP C (IPSAS 9,10,15, 16,17,18,19 and 24)
(i) Extraordinary items;

(ii) Interest including interest incurred on advances or loans from other
segments unless the segment’s operations are primarily of a financial
nature;
(iii) Losses on sales of investment or losses on extinguishment of debt unless
the segments’ operations are primarily of a financial nature;
(iv) An entity’s share of net deficit or losses of associates, joint ventures, or
other investments accounted for under the equity method;
(v) Income tax or income tax equivalent expense that is recognized in
accordance with accounting standards dealing with obligations to pay
income tax or income tax equivalents;
(vi) General administrative expenses, head office expenses and other
expenses that arise at the entity level and relating to the entity as a
whole. However, costs are sometimes incurred on behalf of the segment.
Such costs are segments expenses if they relate to the segments operating
activities and they can be directly attributed or allocated to the segment
on a reasonable basis.
(b) The disclosure requirements applied to entity financial statement in

accordance with IPSAS 18.52-75 will include the following:
(i) An entity should disclose segment revenue and segment expenses
for each segment. Segment revenue from budget appropriation
or similar allocation, segment revenue from external sources and
segment revenue from transactions with other segments should
be separately reported;
(ii) An entity should disclosure the total carrying amount of segment’s
assets for each segment;
(iii) An entity should disclose the total carrying amount of segment’s
liabilities for each segment;
(iv) An entity should disclose the total cost incurred during the period
to acquire segment assets that are expected to be used during
more than one period for each segment.
4. (a) Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets that are not covered by
IPSAS 19 will include the following:
(i) Those provisions resulting from financial instruments that are carried
at fair value;
(ii) Those provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets resulting
from executory contracts, other than where the contract is onerous subject
to other provisions;
(iii) Those provisions and contingent liabilities arising from social benefits
provided by an entity for which it does not receive consideration that is
approximately equal to the value of goods and service provided directly
in return from the recipients of those benefits;
589
(iv) Those provisions and contingent liabilities in insurance entities from

contracts with policy holders;
(v) Those provisions and contingent liabilities covered by another IPSAS;
(vi) Those provisions arising in relation to income taxes equivalents;
(vii) Those provisions and contingent liabilities arising from employees
termination benefits that arise as a result of a restructuring;
(b) For each class of provision, an entity should disclose the following in its financial
statements:
(i) The carrying amount at the beginning and end of period;
(ii) Additional provisions made in the period, including increase to existing
provisions;
(iii) Amount used (that is, incurred and charged against the provision) during
the period;
(iv) Unused amount reversed during the period;
(v) The increase during the period in the discounted amount arising from
passage of time and the effect of any change in the discount rate.
590
CHAPTER
Skills level
33

Standards (IPSAS)
GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31 AND 32)
Contents
1. Purpose
2. Introduction
3. Employee Benefits
4. Impairment of Cash Generating Assets
5. Financial Instrument: Presentation
6. Financial Instrument: Recognition and Measurement
7. Financial Instrument: Disclosures
8. Service Concession Arrangement: Grantor
9. Summary and Conclusion
10. Revision Question
591
33

GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 AND 32)
33.0 PURPOSE
(a) discuss the provisions of IPSAS 25,26,27,28,29,30,31 and 32,respectively
33.1 INTRODUCTION
25,26,27,28,29,30,31 AND 32

33.2.1 IPSAS 25 – EMPLOYEE BENEFITS
The standard is set to prescribe the accounting and disclosure for employee
benefits. The standard requires an entity to recognize:
(a) A liability when an employee has provided service in exchange of
employee benefits to be paid in the future; and
(b) An expense when the entity consumes the economic benefits or service
potential arising from service provided by an employee in exchange for
employee benefits. Employee benefits include:
(i) Short-term employee benefits, such as wages, salaries and social

security contributions, paid annual leave and paid sick leave,
profit-sharing and bonuses (if payable within twelve months of
the end of the period) and non-monetary benefits (such as
medical care, housing, cars and free or subsidised goods or
services) for current employees;
(ii) Post-employment benefits such as pensions, other retirements
benefits, post-employment life insurance and post-employment
medical care;
(iii) Other long-term employee benefits, which may include long-
service leave or sabbatical leave, jubilee or other long-service
benefits, long-term disability benefits and, if they are not payable
wholly within twelve months after the end of the period, profit-
sharing, bonuses and deferred compensation; and
(iv) Termination benefits.
592
GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
(a) Actuarial Gains and Losses comprise:
(i) Experience adjustments (the effects of differences between the
previous actuarial assumptions and what has actually occurred);
and
(ii) The effects of changes in actuarial assumptions.
(b) Assets Held by a Long-Term Employee Benefit Fund are assets

(other than non-transferable financial instruments issued by the
reporting entity) that:
(i) Are held by an entity (a fund) that is legally separated from the
reporting entity and exists solely to pay or fund employee benefits;
and
(ii) Are available to be used only to pay or fund employee benefits,
are not available to the reporting entity’s own creditors (even in
bankruptcy), and cannot be returned to the reporting entity, unless
either:
(iii) The remaining assets of the fund are sufficient to meet all the
related employee benefit obligations of the plan or the reporting
entity; or
(iv) The assets are returned to the reporting entity to reimburse it for
employee benefits already paid.
(c) Composite Social Security Programs are established by legislation

and:
(i) Operate as multi-employer plans to provide post-employment
benefits as well as to
(ii) Provide benefits that are not of consideration in exchange for
service rendered by employees
(d) Current Service Cost is the increase in the present value of the defined
benefit obligation resulting from employee service in the current period.
( e) Defined Benefit Plans are post-employment benefits plans other than

defined contribution plans.
(f ) Defined Contribution Plans are post-employment benefit plans under

which an entity pays fixed contributions into a separate entity (a fund)
and will have no legal constructive obligation to pay further contributions
if the fund does not hold sufficient asset to pay all employee benefits
relating to employee service in the current and prior periods.
(g) Employee Benefits are all forms of consideration given by an entity

in exchange for service rendered by employees.
593
(h ) Interest Cost is the increase during a period in the present value of a

defined benefit obligation which arises because the benefits are one
period closer to settlement.
(i) Multiemployer Plans are defined contribution plans (other than state
plans and composite social security programs) or defined benefit plans
(other than state plans) that:
(i) Pool the assets contributed by various entities that are not under
common control; and
(ii) Use those assets to provide benefits to employees of more than
one entities, on the basis that contribution and benefit levels are
determined without regard to the identity of the entity that
employs the employees concerned.
(j) Other Long-Term Employee Benefits are employee benefits (other

than post-employment benefits and termination benefits) which do not
fall due wholly within twelve months after the end of the period in which
the employees render the related service.
(k) Past Service Cost is the increase in the present value of the defined
benefit obligation for employee service in prior periods, resulting in the
current period from the introduction of, or changes to, post-employment
benefits or other long-term employee benefits. Past service cost may be
either positive (where benefits are introduced or improved) negative
(where existing benefits are reduced)
(l) Plan Assets comprise:

(i) Assets held by a long-term employee benefit fund; and
(ii) Qualifying insurance policies.
(m) Post-employment Benefits are employee benefits (other than

termination benefits) which are payable after the completion of
employment.
(n) Post-employment Benefit Plans are formal or informal arrangements

under which an entity provides post-employment benefits for one or
more employees.
(o) The Present Value of a Defined Benefit Obligation is the present

value, without deducting any plan assets, of expected future payments
required to settle the obligation resulting from employee service in the
current and prior periods.
594
GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
(p) A Qualifying Insurance Policy is an insurance policy issued by an

insurer that is not a related party (as defined in IPSAS 20) of the
reporting entity, if the proceeds of the policy:
(i) Can be used only to pay or fund employee benefits under a defined
benefit plan; and
(ii) Are not available to the reporting entity’s own creditors (even in
bankruptcy) and cannot be paid to the reporting entity, unless
either:
 The proceeds represent surplus assets that are not needed for
the policy to meet all the related employee benefits
obligations; and
 The proceeds are returned to the reporting entity to reimburse
it for employee benefits already paid.
(q) The Return on Plan Assets is interest, dividends and other revenue
derived from the plan assets, together with realised and unrealised gains
or losses on the plan assets, less any costs of administering the plan
and less any tax payable by the plan itself.
(r) Short-Term Employee Benefits are employee benefits (other than

termination benefits) which fall due wholly within twelve months after
the end of the period in which the employees render the related service.
(s) State Plans are plans other than composite social security programs
established by legislation which operate as if they are multi-employer
plans for all entities in economic categories laid down in legislation.
(t) Termination Benefits are employee benefits payable as a result of

either:
(i) An entity’s decision to terminate an employee’s employment
before the normal retirement date; or
(ii) An employee’s decision to accept voluntary redundancy in
exchange for those benefits.
(u) Vested Employee Benefits are employee benefits that are not
conditional on future employment.
33.2.1.3 Statement of Financial Position (Paragraph 65 of this standard)

The amount recognised as a defined benefit liability shall be the net total of
the following amounts:
(a) The present value of the defined benefit obligation at the reporting date;
(b) Plus any actuarial gains (less any actuarial losses) not recognised;
(c) Minus any past service cost not yet recognised; and
595
(d) Minus the fair value at the reporting date of plan assets (if any) out of
which the obligations are to be settled directly. (Paragraph 69 of this
standard)
The amount determined under paragraph 65 may be negative (an asset). Any
entity shall measure the resulting asset at the lower of:
(a) The amount determined under paragraph 65; and
(b) The total of;
(i) Any cumulative unrecognised net actuarial losses and service
cost; and
(ii) The present value of any economic benefits available in the form
of refunds from the plan or reductions in future contributions to
the plan. The present value of these economic benefits shall be
determined using the discount rate that reflects the time value of
money.
33.2.1.4 Reimbursement (Paragraph 121 of this standard)

When and only when, it is virtually certain that another party will reimburse
some or all the expenditure required to settle a defined benefit obligation, an
entity shall recognise its right to reimbursement as a separate asset. The entity
shall measure the asset at fair value. In all other respects, an entity shall treat
that asset in the same way as plan assets. In the statement of financial
performance, the expense related to a defined benefit plan may be presented
net of the amount recognised for a reimbursement.
33.2.1.5 Disclosure
An entity shall disclose information that enables users of financial statements
to evaluate the nature of its defined benefit plans and the financial effects of
changes in those plans during the period.
An entity shall disclose the following information about defined benefit plans:
(a) The entity accounting policy for recognising actuarial gains and losses;
(b) A general description of the type of plan;
(c) A reconciliation of opening and closing balances of the present value of

the defined benefit obligation showing separately, if applicable, the
effects during the period attributable to each of the following:
(i) Current service cost;
(ii) Interest cost;
(iii) Contributions by plan participants;
(iv) Actuarial gains and losses;
(v) Foreign currency exchange rate changes on plans measured in a
currency different from the entity’s presentation currency;
(vi) Benefits paid;
(vii) Past service cost;
596
GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
(viii) Entity combinations;

(ix) Curtailments; and
(x) Settlements.
(d) An analysis of the defined benefit obligation into amount arising from
plans that are wholly unfunded and amounts arising from plans that
are wholly or partly funded;
(e) A reconciliation of the opening and closing balances of the fair value of
the plan assets and of the opening and closing balances of any
reimbursement right recognised as an asset in accordance with
paragraph 121 showing separately, if applicable, the effects during the
period attributable to each of the following:
(i) Expected return on plan assets;
(ii) Actuarial gains and losses;
(iii) Foreign currency exchange rate changes on plans measured in a
currency different from the entity’s presentation currency;
(iv) Contribution by employer;
(v) Contributions by plan participants
(vi) Benefits paid
(vii) Entity combinations;
(viii) Settlements.
(f) A reconciliation of the present value of the defined benefit obligation in

(c) and the fair value of the plan assets in (e) to the assets and liabilities
recognised in the statement of financial position, showing at least:
(i) The net actuarial gains or losses not recognised in the statement
of financial position;
(ii) The past service cost not recognised in the statement of financial
position;
(iii) Any amount not recognised as an asset, because of the limit in
paragraph 69(b)
(iv) The fair value at the reporting date of any reimbursement right
recognised as an asset in accordance with paragraph 121 (with
a brief description of the link between the reimbursement right
and the related obligation); and
(v) The other amounts recognised in the statement of financial
position.
(g) The total expense recognised in the statement of financial performance

for each of the following, and the line item(s) in which they are included:
(i) Current service cost;
(ii) Interest cost;
(iii) Expected return on plan assets;
(iv) Expected return on any reimbursement right recognised as an
asset in accordance with paragraph 121
597
(v) Actuarial gains and losses;

(vi) Past service cost;
(vii) The effect of any curtailment or settlement; and
(viii) The effect of the limit in paragraph 69(b)
(h) The total amount recognised in the statement of changes in net asset/
equity for each of the following:
(i) Actuarial gains and losses; and
(ii) The effect of the limit in paragraph 69(b)
(i) For entities that recognise actuarial gains and losses in the statement
of changes in net asset/equity, the cumulative amount of actuarial gains
and losses recognised in that statement;
(j) For each major category of plan assets, which shall include, but is not
limited to equity instrument, debt instruments, property and all other
assets, the percentage of amount that each major category constitutes
of the fair value of the total plan assets;
(k) The amount included in the fair value of plan assets for:
(i) Each category of the entity’s own financial instruments; and
(ii) Any property occupied by, or other assets used by, the entity.
(l) A narrative description of the basis used to determine the overall expected
rate of return on assets, including the effect of the major categories of
plan assets;
(m) The actual return on plan assets as well as the actual return on any
reimbursement right recognised as an asset in accordance with
paragraph 121;
(n) The principal actuarial assumptions used as at the reporting date,

including, when applicable:
(i) The discount rate;
(ii) The basis on which the discount rate has been determined;
(iii) The expected rate of return on any plan assets for the period
presented in the financial statements;
(iv) The expected rate of return for the periods presented in the
financial statements on any reimbursement right recognised as
an asset in accordance with paragraph 121;
(v) The expected rate of salary increase (and of changes in an index
or other variable specified in the formal or constructive terms of
a plan as the basis for future benefit increases);
598
GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
(vi) Medical cost trend rates; and

(vii) Any other material actuarial assumption used. An entity shall
disclose each actuarial assumption in absolute terms (for
example, as an absolute percentage) and not just as a margin
between different percentages or other variables;
(o) The effect of an increase of one percentage point and the effect of a
decrease of one percentage point in the assumed medical cost trend
rates on:
(i) The aggregate of the current service cost and interest cost
components of net periodic post-employment medical costs; and
(ii) The accumulated post-employment benefit obligation for medical
costs.
For the purpose of this disclosure, all other assumptions shall be held
constant. For plans operating in a high inflation environment, the
disclosure shall be the effect of a percentage increase or decrease in the
assumed medical cost trend rate of a significant similar to one
percentage point in a low inflation environment;
(p) The amounts for the current annual and previous four annual periods
of;
(i) The present value of the defined benefit obligation, the fair value
of the plan assets and the surplus or deficit in the plan; and
(ii) The experience adjustments arising on:
The plan liabilities expressed either as (1) an amount or (2) a percentage
of the plan liabilities at the reporting date; and
The plan assets expressed either as (1) an amount or (2) a percentage
of the plan liabilities at the reporting date.
(q) The employer’s best estimate, as soon as it can reasonably be

determined, of contributions expected to be paid to the plan during the
annual period beginning after the reporting date
33.2.2IPSAS 26- IMPAIRMENT OF CASH GENERATING ASSETS

The objective of the standard is to prescribe the procedures that an entity applies
to determine whether a cash generating asset is impaired and to ensure that
impairment losses are recognised. This standard also specifies when an entity
should reverse an impaired lost and prescribe disclosures.
(a) Cash-generating assets are assets held with the primary objective of
generating a commercial return.
(b) A cash-generating unit is the smallest identifiable group of assets
held with the primary objective of generating a commercial return that
599
generates cash inflow from continuing use that are largely independent
of the cash inflow from other assets or groups of assets.
(c) An impairment loss of a cash-generating asset is the amount by
which the carrying amount of an asset exceeds its recoverable account
(d) Non cash generating assets are assets other than cash generating
asset
( e) The recoverable amount of an asset or a cash-generating unit is its
fair value less costs to sell and its value in use.
(f ) Value in use of a cash-generating asset is the present value of the
estimated future cash flows expected to be derived from the continuing
use of an asset and from its disposal at the end of its useful life.
33.2.2.3 Identifying an asset that may be impaired

An entity shall assess at each reporting date whether there is any indication
that an asset may be impaired. If any such indication exists, the entity shall
estimate the recoverable amount of the asset.
In assessing whether there is any indication that an asset may be impaired, an
entity shall consider, as a minimum, the following indications:
External sources of information

(a) During the period, an asset’s market value has declined significantly
more than would be expected as a result of the passage of time or normal
use;
(b) Significant changes with an adverse effect on the entity have taken place
during the period, or will take place in the near future, in the
technological, market, economic or legal environment in which the entity
operates or in the market to which an asset is dedicated;
(c) Market interest rate or other market rates of return on investments have
increased during the period, and those increases are likely to affect the
discount rate used in calculating an asset’s value in use and decrease
in the asset’s recoverable amount materially;
Internal sources of information

(d) Significant changes with an adverse effect on the entity have taken place
during the period, or are expected to take place in the near future, in the
extent to which, an asset is used or is expected to be used. These changes
include the asset becoming idle, plans to discontinue or restructure the
operation to which an asset belongs, plans to dispose of an asset before
the previously expected date, and reassessing the useful life of an asset
as finite rather than indefinite; and
(e) Evidence is available from internal reporting that indicates that the
economic performance of an asset is, or will be, worse than expected.
600
GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
33.2.2.4 Value in Use

The following elements shall be reflected in the calculation of an asset’s value
in use:
(a) An estimate of the future cash flows the entity expects to derive from the
asset;
(b) Expectations about possible variations in the amount or timing of those
future cash flows;
(c) The time value of money, represented by the current market risk free
rate of interest;
(d) The price for bearing the uncertainty inherent in the asset; and
(e) Other factors, such as illiquidity that market participants would reflect
in pricing the future cash flows the entity expects to derive from the
asset.
33.2.2.5 Reversing an impairment loss

An entity shall assess at each reporting date whether there is an indication
that an impairment loss recognised in prior periods for an asset may no longer
exist or may have decreased, if any such indication exists, the entity shall
estimate the recoverable service amount of the asset.
In assessing whether there is an indication that an impairment loss recognised

in prior periods for an asset may no longer exist or may have decreased, an
entity shall consider, as a minimum the following indications:
External Sources of Information

(a) The asset’s market value has increased significantly during the period;
(b) Significant changes with a favourable effect on the entity have taken
place during the period, or will take place during the period, or will
take place in the near future, in the technological market, economic or
legal environment in which the entity operates or in the market to which
the asset is dedicated;
(c) Market interest rate or other market rates of return on investments have
decreased during the period, and those decreases are likely to affect the
discount rate used in calculating an asset’s value in use and increase in
the asset’s recoverable amount materially;
Internal Sources of Information

(a) Significant changes with a favourable effect on the entity have taken
place during the period, or are expected to take place in the near future,
in the extent to which, or manner in which, the asset is used or is expected
to be used. These changes include costs incurred during the period to
improve or enhance the asset’s performance or restructure the operation
to which the asset belongs; and
601
(b) Evidence is available from internal reporting that indicates that the
economic performance of an asset is, or will be, better than expected.
33.2.2.6 Disclosure
An entity shall disclose the criteria developed by the entity to distinguish cash
generating assets from non-cash-generating assets.
An entity shall disclose the following for each class of assets:

(a) The amount of impairment losses recognised in surplus or deficit during
the period and the line item(s) of the statement of financial performance
in which those impairment losses are included.
(b) The amount of reversals of impairment losses recognised in the surplus

of deficit during the period and the line item(s) of the statement of
financial performance in which those impairment losses are reversed.
An entity is encouraged to disclose assumptions used to determine the

recoverable amount of assets during the period. An entity is required to disclose
information about the estimates used to measure the recoverable amount of
cash-generating unit when an intangible asset with an indefinite useful life is
included in the carrying amount of that unit.
33.2.3 IPSAS 27 AGRICULTURE

33.2.3.1 Introduction:
The IPSAS 27 deals with the accounting treatment and disclosures in relation
to agricultural practice. It specifically deals with the accounting treatment of
assets that are biological in nature as regards to their period of growth,
degeneration, production and procreation and the basis for the measurement
of agricultural produce at the period they are ready for harvesting.
33.2.3.1 Basic definitions

(a) Agricultural Activity: This is the management by an entity of the
biological assets for sale, distribution or for conversion into agricultural
produce. This comprises of such activities like raising live stock, forestry,
annual or perennial cropping, cultivation of plantations, floriculture and
fish farming.
(b) Agricultural Produce: This is described as the harvested product of

an entity’s biological assets.
(c) Biological Asset: This is described as a living animal or plant.
(d) Biological Transformation: This is described as the aggregate process

of growth, degeneration, production and procreation which culminated
into qualitative and quantitative changes in a biological asset.
602
GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
(e) Costs To Sell: These are the incremental costs which are directly
incurred during the sale of an asset. This does not include finance costs
and income taxes paid.
33.2.3.2 Scope of Accounting Treatment of Biological Assets

(a) Biological Assets and Agricultural Produce: In relation to the two
above a public sector entity employing the accrual basis of accounting
has to apply IPSAS 27 at the point of harvest. However, after the point of
harvest, IPSAS 12 which deals with Inventories is to be used for the
accounting standard.
(b) Recognition of Biological Assets and Agricultural Produce:

According to the Standard, an entity shall recognize a biological asset
or agricultural produce ONLY when:
(i) The entity controls the assets as a result of past events.
(ii) There is the probability that future economic benefits or service
hitherto associated with the asset will flow into the entity.
(iii) The fair value or the cost of the asset can be measured reliably.
(c) Measurement of Biological Asset and Agricultural Produce

(i) Biological Asset: The standard reiterated that a biological asset
be measured on initial recognition and at each reporting date at
its fair value less costs to sell until disposal except where the fair
value cannot be measured reliably.
(ii) Agricultural Produce: Agriculture produce harvested from an
entity’s biological assets is measured at its fair value less costs
to sell at the point of harvest.
(d) Determination of Fair value for a Biological Asset or

Agricultural Produce:
Section 14 of the standard states that the fair value of an asset is based
on its present location and condition. For instance the fair value of a
barn of yams is the price for the yams in the market less the transport
and other incidental cost of taking the yams to the market which is an
active market.
However, where there exists no active market, the standard recommend
any or combination of the following as reference point for determining
the fair value.
(i) The most recent market transaction price
(ii) Market price for similar assets with adjustment to reflect
differences.
(iii) The agricultural sector benchmark i.e. per hectare of crops per
kg of meat.
603
33.2.3.4 Measurement of a Biological Asset

(a) Determination of Fair Value if Market Prices are not Available
There are situations where market determined prices or values may not
be available for a biological asset in its present state. In determining
fair value in this situations, an entity should use the Present Value of
expected net cash flows from the asset discounted at a current
market–determined rate. Section 27 of the standard provides that an
entity should include the net cash flows that the market participants
would expect the asset to generate in its most relevant market.
(b) Measurement When Fair Value Cannot Be Reliable Determined

Where market determined prices or value of a biological asset cannot
be reliably measured and other estimates of fair value are not reliable,
than the biological asset is required to be measured at its cost less any
accumulated depreciation and any accumulated impairment losses.
(c) Accounting Treatment of Gains or Losses

(i) Gains or Losses Arising on Initial Recognition
In accordance with Sections 30 and 32 of the Standard, gain or
loss arising on initial recognition of a biological asset or
agricultural produce at fair value less costs to sell is included in
surplus or deficit for the period in which it relates e.g. a gain or
loss arising when a kid is given birth to or when crops are
harvested.
(Ii) Gains or Losses from a Change in Fair Value less
Costs to Sell
Sections 30 of the Standard states that gains or losses arising from a
change in fair value less costs to sell of a biological asset is taken as
surplus or deficit for the relevant period in which it relates.
33.2.4 IPSAS 28: FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS: PRESENTATION

The main objective of the standard is to establish the principles for presentation
of financial instruments as liabilities or net assets/equity purposely for
offsetting financial asset and financial liabilities. The standard applies to the
following:-
(a) Classification of financial instruments into financial assets, financial

liabilities and equity instruments.
(b) Classification of related interest, dividends or similar distributions, losses

and gains
(c) Circumstances in which financial instruments and liabilities should be

offset.
604
GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
IPSAS 28 is based on IAS 32.
33.2.4.2 Basic Definitions

(a) Equity Instrument is any contract that evidences a residual interest
in the assets of an entity after deducting all its liabilities.
(b) Financial Instrument is any contract that gives rise to both a financial
asset of one entity and a financial liability or equity instrument of
another entity.
(c) Financial Asset: is any asset that is:

(i) Cash
(ii) An equity instrument of another entity or a contractual right to
receive cash or another financial asset from another entity or to
exchange financial assets or financial liabilities with another
entity.
(iii) A contract that will or may be settled in the entity’s own equity
instruments and is a non-derivative for which the entity is or
may be obliged to receive a variable number of the entity’s own
equity instruments or a derivative that will or may be settled
other than by the exchange of a fixed amount of cash or another
financial asset for a fixed number of the entity’s own equity
instruments.
(d) Financial Liability: is any liability that is:

(i) A contractual obligation to deliver cash or another financial asset
to another entity or to exchange financial assets or financial
liabilities with another entity under conditions that are potentially
unfavorable to the entity.
(ii) A contract that will or may be settled in the entity’s own equity
instruments and is a non-derivative for which the entity is or
may be obliged to deliver a variable number of the entity’s own
equity instruments or a derivative that will or may be settled
other than by the exchange of a fixed amount of cash or another
financial assets for a fixed number of the entity’s own equity
instruments.
(e) Puttable Instrument: is a financial instrument that gives the holder

of the instrument the right to put it back to the issuer for cash or another
financial asset or is automatically put back to the issuer as a result of
an uncertain future event or death of the instrument holder or retirement
of instrument holder.
(f) Financial Guarantee Contract: is a contract that requires the issuer

to make specified payments to re-imburse the holder for a loss it incurs
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because a specified debtor has failed to make payment as at when due

in accordance with the original terms of a debt instrument.
33.2.4.3 Scope of Ipsas 28

The scope of the standard excludes insurance contracts but deals with financial
guarantee contracts and with insurance contract that transfer financial risk.
In other words, contracts that are insurance contracts but involve the transfer
of so financial risks may be treated as financial instruments.
33.2.4.4 Presentation of Liabilities and Equity

The standard states that the issuer of a financial instrument shall classify the
instrument or its component parts on initial recognition in accordance with the
subsistence of the contractual arrangement as a financial liability, a financial
asset or an equity instrument (substance over form).
33.2.4.5 Presentation of Treasury Shares

Where an entity re-acquires its own equity instruments, the instruments so re-
acquired (Treasury Shares) shall be deducted from net assets/equity and no
gain or loss shall be recognized in surplus or deficit arising from an entity’s
own equity instruments.
33.2.4.6 Presentation of Interest, Dividends Or Similar Distributions,

Losses And Gains
The standard stipulates that interest, dividends losses and gains relating to a
financial instrument are recognized as revenue or expenses in surplus or deficit.
Distributions to holders of an equity instrument are debited directly to net assets/
equity.
33.2.4.7 Offsetting a Financial Asset and a Financial Liability

Financial assets and financial liabilities shall be offset when an entity has a
legally enforceable right to set off and intends either to settle on a net basis, or
to realize the asset and settle the liability simultaneously.
33.2.5 IPSAS 29: FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS: RECOGNITION AND

MEASUREMENT
The standard is set up to establish principles for recognizing and measuring
financial assets, financial liabilities and some contracts to buy or sell non-
financial items.

(a) Financial Instrument
(b) Financial Asset
(c) Financial liability
(d) Equity Instruments
(a –d) above are as defined in IPSAS 28
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GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
33.2.5.3 Categories of Financial Instruments

(a) Financial Assets are categorised as follows:
 Financial Assets at fair value through surplus or deficit
 Held-to-maturity instrument
 Loans and receivables
 Available for sale financial assets
(b) Financial Liabilities are categorized as follows:

 Financial Liabilities at fair value through surplus or deficit
 Other financial liabilities
33.2.5.4 Financial Assets or Financial Liabilities at Fair Value Through

Surplus or Deficit
These are financial instruments that are either classified as held for trading or
are designated as such on initial recognition.
(a) Held For Trading:
A financial asset or financial liability is classified as “Held for Trading”
if
 It is acquired or incurred purposely for selling or re-purchasing.
 It is derivative
 It is a part of a portfolio of identified financial instruments that are
managed together on initial recognition and there is evidence of
actual short-term profit.
(b) Designated: A financial asset or financial liability at fair value through

surplus or deficit is designated as such on initial recognition if:
 It eliminates or significantly reduces a measurement or recognition
inconsistently that would otherwise arise from measuring assets or
liabilities or recognizing the gains and losses on them on different
bases:
 A group of financial assets, financial liabilities or both that is
managed and its performance is evaluated on a fair value basis, in
accordance with a documented risk management or investment
strategy, and information about the group is provided internally on
that basis to the entity’s key management personnel.
(c) Held-To-Maturity Investments: These are non-derivative financial

assets with fixed or determinable payments and fixed maturity, other
than “loans and receivables” for which there is a positive intention and
ability to hold to maturity and which have not been designated as “at
fair value through surplus or deficit” or as “available-for-sale”.
(d) Loans And Receivables

These are non-derivative financial assets with fixed or determinable
payments that are not quoted in active market, do not qualify as
607
“financial assets held for trading” and have not been designated as
“at fair value through surplus deficit” or a “available-for sale”.
( e) Available For Sale Financial Assets: Are non-derivative financial

assets that are designated as available for sale or is not classified as
“loans and receivable”, “held-to-maturity investments, financial assets
at fair value through surplus or deficit”.
(f ) Other Financial Liabilities: Are those liabilities that are not “held
for trading” or that have not been designated as “at fair value through
surplus or deficit”.
(g) Amortised Cost Of A Financial Asset Or Financial Liability: Is

the amount at which the financial instrument is measured at initial
recognition less principal repayments plus or minus the cumulative
amortization, and minus any reduction for impairment or un-collectivity.
(h ) Effective Interest Rate: Is the rate that exactly discounts estimated

future cash payments or receipts through the expected life of the financial
instrument or when appropriate, a shorter period to the net carrying
amount of the financial asset or financial liability.
33.2.5.5 Designation
The decision to designate a financial asset or a financial liability to an extent
is similar to an entity’s choice of accounting policy adopted. This is because
the accounting treatment of a specified financial instrument is a function of its
classification.
However designation as either a “fair value through surplus or deficit or

“available-for-sale” is allowed only upon initial recognition.
Section 16 of the standard states that an entity can only recognize a financial
asset or a financial liability in its statement of financial position when the
entity becomes a party to the contractual provision of those instruments.
33.2.5.7 Initial Measurement

In accordance with Section 45 of the standard when a financial asset or financial
liability is recognized initially, an entity is required to measure it at its fair
value. In the case a financial asset or financial liability not at fair value through
surplus or deficit, an entity shall measure it at its fair value plus transaction
costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition or issue of the financial
asset or financial liability.
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GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
33.2.5.8 Subsequent Measurement

(a) Financial Assets: For the purpose of measuring a financial asset after
initial recognition the accounting treatment of a particular financial
instrument depends on its classification. These are as follows:
(i) Financial assets at fair value through surplus or deficit” are
measured at their fair value without any deduction for
transactions costs they might have incurred on sale. The resultant
gains or losses are recognized in surplus or deficit.
(ii) “Loans and Receivables” and “held-to-maturity investments”
are measured at amortised cost using the effective interest
method. Gains or Losses are recognized in surplus or deficit when
the financial asset is derecognized or impaired.
(iii) Available-for –sale financial asset whose fair value can be
reliably measured are measured at their fair values without any
deduction for transaction costs that may be incurred on sale.
(iv) Gains and Losses in respect of the fair value measurement are
directly recognized in net assets/equity.
Investments that do not have quoted market prices in an active market
and whose value cannot be reliably measured are measured at cost.
The impairment losses if any are recognized in surplus or deficit.
(b) Financial Liabilities

The subsequent measurement of financial liabilities depends on its
classification:
(i) Financial Liabilities at fair value through surplus or deficit are
measured at their fair value while gains and losses are
recognized in surplus or deficit.
(ii) Other financial liabilities are measured at cost. Gains or Losses
are recognized in surplus or deficit when the financial liability
is derecognized or impaired.
33.2.5.9 Derognition of a Financial Asset

Derognition is defined as the removal of a previously recognized financial
asset or financial liability from an entity’s statement of financial position.
An entity derecognizes a financial asset only when the contractual right to

the cash flows from the financial asset expire or a waived or an entity
transfers the financial asset and such transfer qualifies for derecognition
in accordance with section 19 of the standard.
33.2.5.10 Derecognition Of A Financial Liability

An entity shall remove a financial liability or part of it from its statement of
financial position when and only when it is extinguished.
A financial liability is deemed to have been extinguished when the obligation

specified in the contract is discharged, waived, expired or is cancelled.
609
33.2.5.11 Financial Reporting Under the Cash Basis of Accounting Objective

The purpose of this standard is to prescribe the manner in which general
purpose financial statements should be presented under the cash basis of
accounting.
Information about the cash receipts, cash payments and cash balances of
an entity is necessary for accountability purposes and provides input useful
for assessment of the ability of the entity to generate adequate cash in the
future and the likely sources and uses of cash. In making and evaluating
decisions about the allocation of cash resources and the sustainability of
the entity’s activities, users require an understanding of the timing and
certainty of cash receipts and cash payments.
Compliance with the requirements and encouragements of this standard

will enhance comprehensive and transparent financial reporting of the cash
receipts, cash payments and cash balances of the entity. It will also enhance
comparability with the entity’s own financial statements of previous periods
and with the financial statements of other entities which adopt the cash
basis of accounting.
Definitions
(a) Cash comprises cash on hand, demand deposits and cash
equivalents.
(b) Cash Basis means a basis of accounting that recognises transactions
and other events only when cash is received or paid.
(c) Cash Equivalents are short-term, highly investments that are
readily convertible to known amount of cash and which are subject
to an insignificant risk of changes in value.
(d) Cash Flows are inflows and outflows of cash.
( e) Cash Payments are cash outflows
(f ) Cash Receipts are cash inflows.
(g) Control of Cash arises when the entity can use or otherwise benefit
from the cash in pursuit of its objectives and can exclude or regulate
the access of others to that benefit.
(h ) Government Business Enterprise means an entity that has all
the following characteristics:
(i) Is an entity with the power to contract in its own name;
(ii) Has been assigned the financial and operational authority to
carry on a business;
(iii) Sells goods and services, in the normal course of its business, to
(iv) Is not reliant on continuing government funding to be a going
(v) Is controlled by a public sector entity
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GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
33.2.5.12 Presentation and Disclosure Requirements

Definitions
The following terms are used in this standard with the meanings
specified:
(a) Accounting policies are the specific principles, bases,
conventions, rules and practices adopted by an entity in preparing
and presenting financial statements.
(b) Materiality information is material if its omission or
misstatement could influence the decisions or assessments of
users made on the basis of the financial statements. Materiality
depends on the nature or size of the item or error judged in the
particular circumstances of omission or misstatements.
(c) Reporting date means the date of the last day of the reporting
period to which financial statements relate.
(d) Economic Entity means a group of entities comprising a
controlling entity and one or more controlled entities.
33.2.6. IPSAS 30: FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS: DISCLOSURES (IPSAS 30 is

based on IFRS 7)
The main objective of the standard is to require entities to provide disclosure
in their financial statements that enable them to evaluate:
(a) the importance of financial instruments for the entity’s financial state
and performance
(b) the nature and extent of risks that has arose from financial instruments
to which the entity is exposed during and at the end of the relevant
reporting period.
(c) how the entity manages the risk above.

(a) Credit Risk: is the risk that one party to a financial instrument will
cause financial loss for the other party by failing to discharge an
obligation.
(b) Currency Risk: is the risk that the fair value or future cash flow of a
financial instrument will fluctuate because of changes in foreign
exchange rate.
(c) Interest Rate Risk: is the risk that the fair value or future cash flows of
a financial instrument will fluctuate because of changes in market
interest rates.
(d) Liquidity Risk: is the risk that an entity will encounter difficulty in
meeting obligations associated with financial liabilities that are settled
by delivering cash or another financial asset.
611
( e) Loans Payable: are financial liabilities other than short-terms trade

payables on normal credit terms.
(f ) Market Risk: is the risk that the fair value or future cash flows of a
financial instrument will fluctuate because of changes in market prices.
(g) Other Price Risk: is the risk that the fair value or future cash flow of a
financial instrument will fluctuate because of changes in market price.
(h ) Past Due: A financial asset is said to be past due when a counter party
has failed to make a payment when contractually due.
33.2.6.3 Scope of IPSAS 30

The standard applies to both recognized and unrecognized financial
instruments. Recognized and unrecognized financial instruments and
financial liabilities are those within and outside the scope of IPSAS 29
respectively.
33.2.6.4 Overview of the Disclosure

This can be classified into two:
(a) Financial Statement disclosures resulting from financial instruments:
 General disclosures on financial instruments
 Specific disclosures on financial instruments
 Specific disclosures on concessionary loans.
(b) Risk Disclosures Resulting from Financial Instruments:

 Disclosures on Credit risks
 Disclosures on liquidity risks
 Disclosures on market risks
These are further highlighted below:
33.2.6.4.1 General Disclosures on Financial Instruments

(a) The carrying amounts of financial instruments according to the category
have to be shown in statement of financial position or as notes.
(b) All entities have to disclose items of revenue, expense and gains or losses
resulting from financial instruments in their statement of financial
performance or in the notes.
All entities are required to disclose the significant accounting policies
relevant to an understanding of their financial instruments.
33.2.6.4.2 Specific Disclosures on Financial Statements

An entity must provide additional disclosures if:
(a) Financial assets or financial liabilities have been designated.
(b) Financial assets have been reclassified
(c) Financial assets have been transferred
612
GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
(d) Financial assets have been pledged or held as collateral.

(e) The impairment of financial assets have been recorded in a separate
account.
(f) Defaults of loans payable or breaches of loan agreement terms have
occurred.
(g) Financial assets or financial liabilities have been recorded at fair value.
33.2.6.4.3 Specific Disclosures and Concessionary Loans

Concessionary Loans are loans granted to or received by an entity on below-
market terms e.g. loans to developing countries small farms, student loans, or
housing loans to low income earners. The specific disclosures in relation to
such loans are:
(a) A reconciliation between the opening and closing balance of the loans.
(b) The nominal value of the loans at the end of the period.
(c) The purpose and terms of the loans
(d) The assumptions for valuations
33.2.6.4.4 Disclosures on Credit Sales

Specific disclosures by category of financial instrument that are required in
particular for financial assets that are either past due or impaired collateral
and other credit enhancements obtained have to be named, quantified and
explained.
33.3.6.4.5 Disclosures on Liquidity Risks

A maturity analysis must be disclosed for derivative and non-derivative
financial liabilities.
33.2.6.4.6 Disclosures on Market Risks

Besides qualitative disclosures on the market risks arising from financial
instruments an entity has to quantify its market risks. A sensitivity analysis is
required to be disclosed for each type of market risk.
33.2.7 IPASAS 31: INTANGIBLE ASSET (IPSAS 31 is based on IAS 38)

The basic objective of the standard is to prescribe the accounting treatment for
intangible assets that are not treated specifically in other IPSAS. The standard
requires an entity to recognise an intangible asset if certain criteria are met
and also specifies how to measure the carrying amount and specific disclosures
required about intangible assets.
33.2.7.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS

(a) Amortisation is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount
of an intangible asset over its useful life.
(b) Development is the application of research findings or other knowledge
to a plan or design for the production of new or substantially improved
613
materials, devices, product, processes, systems or services before the

start of commercial production or use.
(c) Depreciable Amount is the cost of an asset or other amount substituted
for cost less its residual value.
(d) Development is the application of research findings or other knowledge
to a plan or design for the new or substantially improved materials,
devices, products, processes, systems or services before the start of
commercial production or use.
( e) Impairment Loss is the amount by which the carrying amount of an
asset exceeds its recoverable amount.
(f ) Intangible Asset is an identifiable non-monetary asset without
physical substances. Examples of intangible assets in the public sector
are computer software, patents, copyrights and acquired import quotas.
(g) Research is the original and planned investigation undertaken with
the prospect of gaining new scientific or technical knowledge and
understanding.
33.2.7.3 SCOPE OF IPSAS 31

The IPSAS applies to:
(a) expenditure on advertising, training, start-up, research and
development activities.
(b) legal documentation in the case of a license or patent or film.
For the determination whether an asset that incorporates both intangible

and tangible elements should be treated under IPSAS 17 or as an
intangible assets under IPSAS 31, an entity uses judgment to assess
which element is more significant. The standard shall be applied in
accounting for tangible assets except:-
(i) Intangible assets that are within the scope of another standard
(ii) Financial assets
(iii) The recognition and measurement exploration and evaluation costs.
(iv) Expenditure on the development and extraction of minerals, oil, natural
gas and similar non-regenerative resources
(v) Intangible assets or goodwill acquired in a business combination.
(vi) Power and rights conferred by legislation, a constitution or by equivalent
means.
33.2.7.4 RECOGNITION
(a) An intangible asset is an identifiable non-monetary asset without
physical substance. An intangible asset is identifiable when it:
 Is separable i.e. it can be separated or removed from an entity
and disposed of, licensed, rented or exchanged, either
individually or together with a related contract asset or liability.
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GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
 Arises from rights from binding arrangements irrespective of

whether such rights are transferable or separable from the entity
or from other rights and obligations.
(b) Control is another condition that can be employed in the recognition of
an intangible asset. A public sector entity controls an asset if the entity
has the power to obtain the future economic benefits or service potential
flowing from the underlying resource of the entity.
(c) An intangible asset shall only be recognized if:
 It is probable that the expected future economic benefits or service
potential that are attributable to the asset will flow to the entity.
 The cost or fair value of the asset as appropriate can be reliably
measured,
(d) Internally Generated Goodwill is not recognized as an asset because it

is not an identifiable resource i.e. it is not separable.
According to section 55 of the Standard, an intangible asset arising from

development shall be recognized if an entity can demonstrate the following:
(a) The technical feasibility of completing the intangible asset so that it
will be available for use
(b) Its intention to complete the intangible asset and use or sell it.
(c) Its ability to use or sell the intangible asset.
(d) How the intangible asset will generate probable future economic benefits
or service potential.
(e) The availability of adequate technical, financial and other resources to
complete the development and to use or sell the intangible asset.
(f) Its ability to measure reliably the expenditure attributable to the
intangible asset during its development.
33.2.7.5 INITIAL MEASUREMENT

In general, an intangible asset that is separately acquired through an exchange
transaction is measured initially at cost. The cost of a separately acquired
intangible asset comprises:-
(a) Its purchase price, including import duties and non-refundable purchase
taxes, after deducting trade discounts and rebates.
(b) Any directly attributable cost of preparing the asset for its intended use.
An intangible asset that is acquired free of charge, or for nominal consideration,

through a non-exchange transaction i.e. measured at its fair value at the date
it is acquired e.g. licenses to operate radio and T.V. stations, import licenses or
airport landing rights.
33.2.7.6 SUBSEQUENT MEASUREMENT

For subsequent measurement of an intangible asset, an entity can decide to
use the cost model or the revaluation model as its adopted accounting policy.
615
If an intangible asset is accounted for using the revaluation model, all other
assets in its class shall also be accounted for using the same model except
there are no active markets for those assets as applicable to intangible assets
in IPSAS 17 S 43.
An intangible asset with a finite useful life is amortised while an intangible
asset with an indefinite useful life is not. Therefore, an entity is required to
assess whether the useful life of an intangible asset is finite or indefinite.
The amortization commences when the asset is ready for use and ceases the
date the asset is held for sale or derecognized whichever comes earlier.
33.2.8 IPSAS 32: SERVICE CONCESSION ARRANGEMENTS: GRANTOR

The standard establishes the accounting and reporting requirement for the
grantor in a service concession arrangement; the grantor here being the public
sector.

(a) Service Concession Arrangement
This can be described as “public private partnership” that contains an
asset as well as a service component. It is a binding arrangement
between a grantor and an operator in which:
 The operator uses the service concession asset to provide a public
service on behalf of the grantor for a specified period of time.
 The operator is compensated for its services over the period of the
service concession arrangement.
(b) Binding Arrangement

This describes contracts and other arrangements that confer similar
rights and obligations on the parties to it as if they were in the form of a
contract.
(c) Grantor
A grantor is the entity that grants the right to use the service concession
asset to the operator whereas the operator is the entity that uses the
service concession asset to produce public services subject to the grantor’s
control of the asset.
(d) Services Concession Asset is an asset (property, plant and equipment

or an intangible asset) used to provide service in a service concession
arrangement that:
(i) is provided by the operator which;
 The operator constructs, develops or acquired from a third party
or
 is an existing asset of the operator
616
GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
(ii) Is provided by the grantor which;

 is an existing asset of the grantor or
 is an upgrade to an existing asset of the grantor
( e) Whole-of-life-asset is an asset that is used in a service concession

arrangement for its entire result.
33.2.8.3 Scope of the Standard

The standard provides that there is an operator constructing or developing an
asset used to provide a public service or upgrading an existing asset and
operating and maintaining the asset for a specified period of time. The operator
is paid for its services over the period of the arrangement.
The standard in accordance with section 6 does not apply to arrangements that
do not involve the delivery of public services and to arrangements that contain
service and management components where the asset is not controlled by the
grantors e.g. outsourcing and service contracts.
33.2.8.4 Recognition of Service Concession Asset

IPSAS 32 requires the grantor to recognize an asset which is provided by the
operator as a service concession asset if the under listed criteria are met.
(a) The grantor controls what services the operator must provide with the
asset to whom it must provide them and at what price or at least regulates
them.
(b) The grantor controls through ownership, beneficial entitlements or
otherwise any significant residual interest in the asset at the end of the
term of the arrangement. The same is applicable where the operator
upgrades an existing asset of the grantor.
33.2.8.5 Measurement of a Service Concession Asset

A grantor accounting to Sections 9 and 10 of the Standard shall initially measure
a service concession asset recognized as such at its fair value.
33.2.8.6 Recognition of the Liability in a Service Concession Arrangement

Generally, the recognition of a service concession asset implies recognition of
a liability. Only when an existing asset of the grantor is reclassified as a service
concession asset then the grantor shall not recognize a liability.
33.2.8.7 Measurement of the Liability in a Service Concession Arrangement

Initially, the liability recognized in a service concession arrangement shall be
measured at the same amount as the service concession asset i.e. fair value.
However, the amount is subject to adjustment by the amount of any other
consideration e.g. cash from the grantor to the operator or vice-versa.
Furthermore, in reference to the compensation, the grantor receives; the
“financial liabilities model” is applied when the grantor makes payments to
the operator.
617
However, the “grant of a right to the operator made” is applied where the
operator is compensated by the grantor by:
(a) Granting the operator the right to earn revenue from third party users of
the service concession asset or
(b) Granting the operator access to another revenue-generating assets for
the operator’s use.
33.2.8.8 The Financial Liability Model

Under this model, the grantor compensates the operator for the construction,
development, acquisition or upgrade of a service concession asset and service
provision by making a pre-determined series of payments to the operator, and
therefore shall account for the liability therefrom, as a financial liability. All
incidental charges like finance charges and charges for services provided by
the operator shall be expensed while any pre-determined services of payments
to the operator by the grantor shall be used to reduce the financial liability.
33.2.8.9 The Grant of a Right to the Operator Model

In the grant of a right to the operator model the grantor compensates the
operator for the construction, development, acquisition or upgrade of a service
concession asset by granting the operator the right to earn revenue from third
party users of the services concession asset or another revenue-generating asset.
In this model, the grantor takes a service concession asset while the operator
receives an intangible asset that would have given rise to revenue for the grantor.
33.2.8.10 Dividing the Arrangement

Where the grantor compensates the operator partly by making payment and
partly by the grant of a right to the operator, the portion of the total liability
should be accounted for separately.
The amount initially recognized for the total liability is the same amount as
the fair value of the service concession asset.
The grantor is required to account for each part of the liability according to
Section 18 paragraph 26 of the Standard which is either according to the
provisions of the financial liability model or to the provisions of the grant of a
right to the operator model.
33.3 CHAPTER REVIEW

The chapter has discussed the provisions contained in IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28,
29, 30, 31 and 32.
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GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
33.4.1 Questions
(1) On December 31, 2012 a Private University in Nigeria’s Long-life
University’s Statement of financial Position includes a pension liability
of N150million. Management has decided to adopt IPSAS 25 as of
January 2013, for the purpose of accounting for employee benefits. At
that date, the present value of the obligation under IPSAS 25 is calculated
at N780 million, and the fair value of plan assets is determined at N520
million. On January 1, 1998, the entity had improved pension benefits.
(Cost for non-invested benefits amounted to N24 million, and the average
remaining period until vesting was eight years).
Required: Calculate the transactional liability.
(2) (a) Define ‘impairment’ in accordance with IPSAS 26 on

‘Impairment of Cash-generating assets.
(b) What are the disclosure for each material impairment loss
recognized or reversed during the period for a cash-generating.
(3) (a) List the financial instruments that are not covered by IPSAS 28
on ‘Financial Instruments: Presentation’ under accrual basis of
accounting.
(b) What are the various ways in which a contract to buy or sell a
non-financial item can be settled net in cash or another financial
instrument or by exchanging financial instruments?
(1) Long Life University

Calculation of Transitional Liability
N’000
Present value of the obligation 780,000
Fair value of plan assets (520,000)
Past-service cost to be recognized
in later periods (24,000,000 x 3/8) (9,000)
Transitional liability 251,000
Liability already recognized (150,000)
Increase in liability 101,000
NB: The entity might (in accordance with the transitional provision of IAS
19) choose to either recognize the transitional liability of N101 million
immediately or recognize it as an expense on a straight-line basis for up to
five (5) years.
619
(2) (a)IPSAS 26 defines ‘impairment’ as a loss in the future economic benefits or

service potential of an assets, over and above the systematic recognition of the
loss of the assets’ future economic benefits or service potential embodied in an
assets to the entity that controls it. A good example will be a Motor-park built
by a local council that is currently being used at 50% of capacity. Since it is
held for commercial purposes and management has estimated that it generates
a commercial rate of return when usage is at 80% of capacity and above. The
decline in usage has not been supported by significant increase in parking
charges. The asset is therefore, regarded as impaired because its carrying
amount exceeds its recoverable amount.
(b) An entity shall disclose the following for each material impairment loss
recognized or reversed during the period for a cash-generating asset;
(i) The events and circumstances that led to the recognition or reversal of
the impairment loss;
(ii) The amount of the impairment loss recognized or reversed;
(iii) For a cash-generating asset;

 The nature of the asset, and
 If the entity reports segment information in accordance with IPSAS
18, the reported segment to which the asset belongs, based on the
entity’s reporting format;
(iv) For a cash-generating unit:

 A description of the cash-generating unit (such as whether it is a
product line, a plant, a business operation, a geographical area, or
a reported segment);
 The amount of the impairment loss recognized or reversed by class
of assets, and if the entity reports segment information in accordance
with IPSAS 18, by reported segment based on the entity’s reporting
format;
 If the aggregation of assets for identifying the cash generating unit
has changed since the previous estimate of the cash-generating unit’s
recoverable amount (if any), a description of the current and former
way of aggregating assets and the reason for changing the way the
cash-generating unit is identified;
(v) Whether the recoverable amount of the asset is its fair value less costs
to sell or its value in use;
(vi) If the recoverable amount is fair value less costs to sell, the basis used
to determine fair value less costs to sell (such as whether fair value was
determined by reference to an active market); and
620
GROUP D (IPSAS 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 and 32)
(vii) If the recoverable amount is value in use, the discount rate(s) used in
the current estimate and previous estimate (if any) of value in use.
(3) (a) The financial instruments that are covered by IPSAS 28 under accounting are:
(i) Those interests in controlled entities, associates or joint ventures that
are accounted for in accordance with IPSAS 6 on ‘Consolidated and
separate financial statements’ likewise IPSAS 7 on Investments in
Associates or IPSAS 8 on ‘Interests in Joint Ventures.
In some cases, however, IPSAS 6, 7, or 18 permits an entity to account

for an interest in a controlled entity, associates, or joint venture using
IPSAS 29 on ‘Financial Instruments’. Recognition and measurement.
In those case, entities shall apply the requirements. Entities shall also
apply IPSAS 28 to all derivatives linked to interests in controlled entities,
associates and joint ventures.
(ii) Employer’s rights and obligations under employees benefit plans to

which
IPSAS 25 on ‘Employee benefits’ applies

 Obligation arising from insurance contracts. IPSAS 28 however,
applies to:
(a) Derivatives that are embedded in insurance contracts if IPSAS 29

requires the entity to account for them separately.
(b) Financial guarantee contracts, if the issuer applies IPSAS 29 in

recognizing and measuring the contracts, but shall apply the relevant
international or national accounting standard dealing with insurance
contracts if the issuer elects to apply that standard in recognizing and
measuring them.
(c) The following are the various ways in which a contract to buy and sell a
non-financial item can be settled net in cash or another financial
instrument or by exchanging financial statements:
(i) When the terms of the contract permit either party to settle it net
in cash or another financial instrument or by exchanging
financial statements;
(ii) When the ability to settle net in cash or another financial

instrument or by exchanging financial instruments is not explicit
in terms of the contract, but the entity has a practice of settling
621
similar contracts net in cash or another financial instrument, by

exchanging financial statements;
(iii) When, for similar contracts, the entity has a practice of taking
delivery of the underlying and selling if within a short period
after delivery for the purpose of generating a profit from short-
term fluctuations in price or dealer’s margin; and
(iv) When the non-financial item is the subject of the contract and is
readily convertible to cash.
622
APPENDICES
623
624
APPENDIX I
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Accountant-General of the Federation (AGF)

The Chief Accounting Officer of the receipts and payments of the Federal Government,
saddled with the responsibility of general supervision of the accounts of all Ministries
and Extra-Ministerial Departments and preparation of Annual Financial Statements
of the Nation.
Accounting Rate of Return

Approach of appraising performance which divides an Accounting measure of income
(or profit) by an accounting measure of investment. Also known\ as Accrual Accounting
Rate of Returns.
Accrual Basis
The basis under which revenues are recorded when earned and expenditures
acknowledged as liabilities when known or benefits received, notwithstanding the
fact that the receipts or payments of cash could take place wholly or partly in other
Accounting periods.
Actual Costs
Amounts ascertained on the basis of historical costs incurred.
Adjustment Voucher
Adjustment Voucher is an amendment by way of transfer from one account to another,
without movement of cash. It is in the form of a journal entry.
Advances
Advances are cash sums of money such as “short-term” loans, granted to the employees
in the service of an organisation.
Allocated Stores
Allocated Stores are those stores whose costs are allocated and remain a charge to the
sub-head of expenditure in which funds for their purchase are provided in the Estimates.
They may be either purchased directly or obtained from the Unallocated Stores stock.
They are taken on numerical charge and may be placed in an Allocated Stores or put
to immediate use.
Annuity
A series of equal Naira payments for a given number of years.
Audit
An Audit is an independent appraisal process often governed by statute for examining,
investigating and verifying the financial statements of any organisation or entity by
a competent and qualified person, so appointed. The Auditor seeks to establish an
625
opinion concerning the truth, accuracy, reliability and fairness or otherwise of the
financial statements and the underlying records which are under review.
Audit Queries
Audit queries are observations raised by the Auditor about missing links in a particular
financial transaction.
Auditor-General for the Federation (AGF)
This is the officer responsible under the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria, for the audit and report on the public accounts of the Federation, including
all persons and bodies established by law entrusted with the collections, receipts,
custody, issue, sale, transfer or delivery of any stamps, securities, stores, or other
properties of the Government of the Federation and for the certification of the Annual
Accounts of Government.
Accounting Officer
Accounting Officers are the Permanent Secretaries of the Ministries and Heads of Extra-
Ministerial Departments. They are saddled with the responsibility of the day-to-day
financial affairs of the Ministries or Extra-Ministerial Departments by ensuring proper
budgetary and accounting systems and safeguarding assets.
“Above-the-Line” Accounts
These are the expenditures budgeted for in the Estimates. At the time of the preparation
of the budget one can reasonably ascertain the anticipated amount of incomes
receivable and expenditures incurable. Examples of costs which may be Budgeted for
are salary expenditure and overhead expenses. Revenues anticipated include
collections from customs and excise duties.
“Below-the-Line” Accounts
These are the accounts created and controlled by the Accountant-General of the
Federation, of which at the time of preparation of the budget, one cannot reasonably
ascertain the exact amount of incomes receivable and expenditures incurable. The
expenditures under these accounts are not budgeted for in the Estimates. Examples
are all advances granted.
Book Value
Also called “net book value.” It is original cost, less any accumulated depreciation,
depletion or amortisation.
Break-Even Point
Point of sales volume (or activity) where total revenues and total expenses converge
or intersect.
Budget
A budget is a financial and/or quantitative statement prepared and approved prior to
a defined period of time, for the purpose of attaining a set of given objectives.
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APPENDIX I: GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Budgetary Control
This is concerned with ensuring that incomes and expenditures are in line with the
budgets and that wastages are reduced to the barest minimum.
Concepts
Concepts are broad basic assumptions underlying the preparation of financial
statements of an enterprise. They include ‘Consistency’, ‘Materiality’, ‘Periodicity’,
‘Duality’, ‘Entity’, ‘Historical Cost’ and ‘Going Concern’ assumptions.
Cash Basis
The basis of accounting under which revenue is recorded only when cash is received
and expenditure recorded only when cash is paid, irrespective of the fact that the
transactions might have occurred in the previous accounting period.
Cash Budget
Schedule of anticipated cash receipts and payments.
Cash Control
Relates to the series of coordinated actions which have to be undertaken in order to
ensure that all incomes due to Government are collected on a timely basis and that
fraud is prevented.
Cash Flow Statement

Statement which reveals the cash generated (inflows) and cash expended(outflows),
confirming the affordability or otherwise of liquid resources.
Certainty
One hundred percent (100%) assurance about which event will take place.
Certificate of Cash and Bank Balances

A statement which certifies that the actual cash balance agrees with that indicated on
the Transcript.
Commitment Basis
Under this basis, financial transactions are recorded right from the Boardroom where
management takes decision to spend. Once such decisions are taken money will be
set aside, and such fund cannot be expended for other purposes. It is a basis that
records an anticipated expenditure evidenced by a contract or a Local Purchase Order
as determined by the administration.
Contribution Margin
Revenue minus variable costs; may be expressed as a total, per unit or a ratio.
Consolidated Revenue Fund (CRF)

Consolidated Revenue Fund established by Section 80 of the 1999 Constitution of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria pools together all revenues, except those which are
specifically designated to other Funds.
627
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Primary criterion for picking among alternative systems. As a system is changed, its
additional benefits should outrun its excepted additional costs.
Cost of Capital
A synonymy for required rate of return.
Contingency Fund
Contingency Fund has its legality under Section 83 of the 1999 Constitution. It is to
meet unforeseen, unbudgeted and urgent situations such as natural disasters.
Counter-Trade
Counter-Trade represents a commercial arrangement between two countries under
which a Nation makes available its major exports to another country in exchange for
major imports.
Debt-Forgiveness
Arises where a creditor Nation decides to forget or write off the liabilities of a debtor
Nation.
Debt Management
Refers to how the Central Government is able to operate the Public Debt stock without
adverse economic effects. It includes souring for debt finance, judicious repayment
terms, etc.
Debt Repudiation
A situation of debtor country completely disowning the debt outstanding.
Development Fund
The existence of the Development Fund was strengthened by the 1999 Constitution of
the Federal Republic of Nigeria, although created earlier by Section 25 of the Finance
(Control & Management) Act of 1958. The Fund is established for the purpose of
executing capital development projects such as the construction of roads and bridges.
Expected Value
Arithmetic and weighted average, using probabilities as weights.
Expenditure Control
Expenditure control is the string of coordinated actions which have to be taken to
ensure that all expenditures are ‘wholly’, ‘necessarily’, ‘reasonably’ and ‘exclusively’
incurred for the purposes for which they are meant.
Extra-Budgetary Spending Concept
States that government should not undertake any action without a prior budget on it.
It assumed that all Government revenues and expenditures must be budgeted for.
External Reserves
The financial assets standing to the credit of a country at a particular point in time.
628
Fixed Cost
A cost which remains unchanged in total for a given period of time, in spite of wide
activity changes.
Fund
‘Fund’ is “a separate fiscal and accounting entity in which resources are held, governed
by special regulations, separated from other funds and established for specific
purposes. It keeps separate accounting records.”
Federation Account Revenue Heads

Federation Account is a distributable pool established by Section 162 of the 1999
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria from which allocations are made to the
Federal, State and Local Government Councils on such terms and in manner prescribed
by the law. The Federation Account is one into which shall be paid all revenues collected
by the Government of the Federation, except the proceeds from the PAYE of the personnel
of the Armed Forces of the Federation, The Nigeria Police Force, Foreign Service Officers
and Residents of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.
Federal Pay Officer

An officer in charge of a Federal Pay Office in the State. He performs the same functions
as those of the Sub-Accounting Officer.
Financial Regulations/Accounting Manual
Rules governing the management of public funds. The rules deal with the procedures
to be adopted for the receipts and disbursements of public funds and how to ensure
accountability.
Foreign Aid
The international transfer of public funds in the form of grants either directly from
one Government to another (bilateral assistance) or indirectly through the vehicle of
an international body as the World Bank (multilateral assistance).
Gratuity
Lump sum of money paid once to a retired officer who has served for the minimum of
5 years in service.
Imprest Holder
An Officer other than a Sub-Accounting Officer entrusted with the disbursement of
public moneys whose vouchers cannot be presented immediately to a Sub-Accounting
Officer. He is required to keep an imprest cash book.
Imprest
A small amount of money set aside to meet petty cash payments, the vouchers of
which cannot be presented to a Sub-Accounting Officer immediately.
Incremental Cost
The variation in total cost between two alternative decisions.
629
Internal Rate of Return

The rate of interest at which the present value of expected cash inflows from an
investment equals the present value of expected cash outflows of the project or decision
variable.
Investment Appraisal
A technique directed at finding out the least possible cost of an investment and the
maximum economic benefit which may accrue from the investment of resources in it.
Investigation
An enquiry commissioned by a client firm or Government to find out the cause or
causes of an event, so that remedial actions may be taken.
Modified Cash Basis

Under this basis, the books of accounts are left open for a maximum period of three
months after the end of the year, in order to capture substantial amount of incomes or
expenses relating to the previous year which had just ended.
Modified Accrual Basis

Under this basis, both the cash and the accrual bases are employed simultaneously
where applicable, in order to ascertain the financial viability of a specific unit of a
Ministry. For example, the Government may wish to ascertain the financial viability
of say, Family Advancement Unit of the Ministry of Women’s Affairs.
Net Present Value (NPV)

Approach of computing the expected value or utility of a given investment by
discounting all anticipated future cash flows to the present moment, using some
predetermined minimum desired rate of return.
Next-of-Kin
Person whose name was furnished by a decreased officer on his record of service kept
in the office of the Establishment or furnished by him to the Ministry, in writing, at
any time before his death.
Non-Self Accounting Unit

A Ministry or Extra-Ministerial Department which has no control whatsoever over any
of its accounting records. The Unit prepares vouchers but has to make payments
through the Treasury.
Officer Controlling Expenditure

An officer in charge of the various Vote. Heads of each Ministry or Extra-Ministerial
Department. He is saddled with the responsibility of monitoring Government
expenditure and ensuring that there is no extra-budgetary spending.
Opportunity Cost
The maximum amount which could have been obtained if the productive good or
service had been put to an alternative use.
630
Parastatals
Agencies established by Government with the main aim of carrying out certain projects
or performing services to the Nation, at the least possible, or some times prescribed,
fees.
Pension
It is a monthly salary paid to a retired officer who has served for a statutory period.
Pension is payable for the minimum period of five years or till death.
Public Debt
That part of money owing by Government to the various creditors, institutions, other
Governments and individuals resident in and outside Nigeria.
Ratio Analysis
Involves expressing one figure as a ratio or percentage of another, to bring out the
weakness or strength in any organisation’s financial affairs.
Retirement
The cessation of service after an officer has served for a minimum of 10 years qualifying
the person for gratuity and Pension.
Revenue Collector
He is an Officer other than a Sub-Accounting Officer, entrusted with the official receipts,
licences or ticket booklets for the regular collection of some particular form of revenue
on behalf of the Government, and must keep a cash book.
Revenue Control
Concerned with the procedures which safeguard the collection of revenues, monitoring
them and ensuring resultant accountability.
Risk
Relative dispersion around an expected value.
Shadow Price
A measure of the maximum amount of contribution foregone by failing to have one
more unit of scare capacity in a specified environment. It is a type of opportunity loss.
Self Accounting Unit

A Ministry or Department which has full control over all its accounting records. The
Unit relates to the Treasury (i.e. the Accountant-General’s office), through the
preparation of monthly Transcripts.
Standing Imprest
May be reimbursed from time to time during the financial year by submitting paid
vouchers to the Sub-Accounting Officer.
631
Special Imprest
Operated from the commencement of a financial year until the objectives for which it
is set up has been achieved, after which an account is rendered and all unspent balance
lapses.
Sub-Accounting Officer
An officer entrusted with the receipt, custody and disbursement of public money, and
required to maintain one of the recognised cash books, together with such other books
that may be required by the Accountant-General.
Statement NO. 1 = Statement of Cash Flow

This is a statement which identifies the sources of cash inflows, the items on which
cash was expended during the reporting period and the cash balance as at the reporting
date.
Statement NO. 2 = Statement of Assets and Liabilities

This is the balance sheet of the Federal Government, showing the various fund accounts
on the liability side and investments and cash held against such funds on the asset
side, with comparative figures for the previous year.
Statement NO. 3 = Statement of Consolidated Revenue Fund

The Fund derives its existence from Section 80(1) of the 1999 Constitution, which
says that all collections made by and accruing to the Central (Federal) Government
by way of taxing and sharing of the Federation Account shall be paid into the
Consolidated Revenue Account. The statutory outflows from this Fund are
Consolidated Revenue Charges such as the salaries due to judges, Auditor-General
and the Nigeria Police Personnel.
Statement NO. 4 = Statement of Capital Development Fund

The Fund is meant to finance capital projects such as the building of public hospitals.
Stores
All moveable property purchased from public funds, or otherwise acquired by
Government. Stores in Public Sector Accounting refer to stocks of materials and
equipment purchased with Government money.
Token Vote
Nominal provision for a Head or Sub-head of an expenditure or revenue in an estimate.
‘Token Vote’ is often represented by the symbol 10e. It is a reminder to provide money
for the activity function as soon as possible.
Transcript
The summary of the total payments and receipts as posted in the cash book. It is the
final accounts of all Self-Accounting and Limited Self-Accounting Units.
632
Treasury Inspection Questionnaire

A set of standard questions to be answered and a list of documents to be inspected
during the time of visits to the different Accounts Departments, by the Treasury Officers.
Unallocated Stores
Those purchased for general stock rather than for a particular work or service, for
which the final Vote of Charge cannot be stated at the time of purchase.
Uncertainty
Possibility that an actual amount will deviate from an expected amount. Probability
of occurrence is un-ascertainable.
Value-for-Money Audit
The review of the financial transactions to confirm that the organisation has received
value economically, efficiently and effectively.
Vote Book
A memorandum accounts book used for monitoring Government expenditures and
ensuring that there is no extra-budgetary spending.
Voucher
A voucher is a document showing evidence of receipt or payment of money.
Warrants
Financial authorities issued by the Minister of Finance through which expenditures of
Government are incurred.
Zero-Base Budgeting
Budgeting from the ‘basement’ or ‘ground-up’ as if the budget were being introduced
for the first time.
633
634
APPENDIX II
STUDY AND EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES

This appendix contains notes on:
(a) Using the questions and answers provided in the manual;
(b) Effective study; and
(c) Examination technique.
2.1 Questions and answers
1. These questions are either

(a) Questions intended to test the understanding of the points arising
out of the particular Chapter; or
(b) Examination questions inserted at a stage where it is considered
the student will be best able to give a reasonable answer.
2. Most answers are given in outline, but some examination answers go a
little further, in order to provide greater guidance and provide students
with the basis for study.
3. When answers are comprehensive, you could not be expected to write
them in the time allowed. Do not worry, if you feel you cannot write such
answers; you are not expected to. But you must grasp the main points or
principles involved, which will form the basis for good marks in an
examination.
4. Do not worry, if your answer differs, there is often more than one
approach. You must satisfy yourself however, that it is only the approach
that differs, and that you have not missed the fundamental principles.
5. Authors’ Comments. These have been included, to give additional points
or elaborate on matters arising out of the subject covered by the question,
to which it is felt, you should give some thought.
Using the answers

6. Have a shot at each question yourself, before consulting the answer, you
will achieve nothing if you do not do this. Write your answer out in full
or jot down the main points. Do not hurry to the answer.
7. Look at the answer. (See para 5 in the case of examination answers).
Study the particular area thoroughly now, making sure of your
understanding. Repeat the process outlined in para 7and this paragraph,
after a suitable interval. You must do this, to get any benefit at all. Make
sure the main points stick.
9. Just browsing through the answers will really get you nowhere. You must
test yourself, by writing down your version of the answer.
2.2 Effective study

Introduction
1. These notes are intended for those who are new to studying for
examination subjects, although those who are not may also benefit. They
635
have been written in relation to study, involving the reading of textbooks,

and they apply to all subjects. It is often very difficult to pick out the
important principles from such books. Careful reading of these notes,
will be of benefit even in studying the manual.
General
2. Study, means more than just reading a piece of literature. It means,
close concentrated reading, with a notebook at your side. Unless you
are one of a few people who can absorb material by just one general
read through it, do not kid yourself.
3. Read a small area, making notes as you go along. Then ask yourself –
“what have I just learnt?” Write down what you think it was all about.
Then look again and you may be surprised to find you have missed a
key point or points – they must be down in your notebook and eventually
in your head.
Compilation of notebook
4. A well-compiled NOTEBOOK is a must. Use block capitals or different
colour inks, to headline the main areas and subdivisions of those areas.
Notes made during lectures or private study, should not go straight into
your NOTEBOOK. Take them down on a “rough” paper and write them
in your NOTEBOOK, as soon as possible after the lecture or study period,
thinking about what you are writing.
Memory aids
5. Mnemonics are very useful – if the sequence of points in the textbook is
not significant, change it if it makes for a better mnemonic.
6. Association of the points with familiar objects, which will serve to recall
them, is also useful.
7. Some people memorise things by saying them over and over out loud,
others have to write them down time after time.
8. Many students have small blank cards and using one side of each card
for each study area, put down the main points. They carry the cards
everywhere with them and use every opportunity to study them. As they
are small they are easily carried. It is surprising how much of your day
can be utilised this way.
Programme
9. Map out a programme for yourself; set targets and achieve them. One
thing is certain, studying is not easy, but it is not too difficult, if you go
about it in an orderly purposeful way. Many students fail their
examinations through bad preparation. Tackle your studies as you would
a project at work, systematically. Allocate a number of hours each week
to each subject. Try fixing specific times for each subject, then keep to
them, by refusing to let anything keep you from your planned task.
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APPENDIX II: STUDY AND EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES
Revision
10. Revise periodically. The nearer the examination gets, the more you
should concentrate on the major headlines in your notebook and less
with the supporting details.
2.3 Examination technique
First impressions
1. However well prepared you may be, you are still likely to look at the
paper on the day and say to yourself, after a quick look at the questions,
“There’s not much here I can do”.
2. The atmosphere of the exam room has something to do with this. Try to
blot everything from your mind, other than the job in hand. Concentrate
hard. If you feel a bit panicky (most people do – despite the apparent
looks of serenity around you) grip the table, take a deep breath, and get
on with it. Remember things are never as bad as they seem!
Time allocation
3. Allocate each question time appropriate to the number of marks after
first setting aside 15 - 20 minutes (of a 3 hour paper say), for initial
reading of the questions, and final review of your answers. At the end of
the allotted time for a question, go on to the next – remember, the first 5
or 10 marks on the new question are more readily picked up than the
last 1 or 2 on the previous question.
4. The temptation will be to say “I’ll write just one more sentence”, but
before you know where you are, you would have written several more
and probably just managed to scrape another mark, whereas the same
time on the next question, could have earned 5 or 6 marks. TIME
ALLOCATION IS IMPORTANT.
5. Always leave some writing space, between your answers to each
question, as you move on, because you may recall part of the answers
to earlier questions, as you answer latter questions. Then you can quietly
go back to update in the space reserved.
6. If you are running out of time write down the main headings first, leaving
a few lines between each – at least the examiner will see that you had
the overall picture. Then go back putting in as much supporting detail
as you can.
General approach
7. Read the instructions at the top of the paper
8. Read the question paper once through. Make your choice of questions
quickly. Pick the easiest (if one appears so) and get on with it.
637
Individual question
9. Read the question again carefully. The question will involve a key
principle or set of principles. What are they? It is so easy to make the
wrong decision at this stage, so read the question, underlining what
appear to be the key words. This should help you. Irrelevancy has been
heavily critcised by examiners.
10. Do not rush into action with your pen yet. Jot down on a piece of scrap
paper, the main headings you will use in your answer. All this will take
time – about 5 minutes or more, but the careful thought and outline
answer represent marks already earned.
11. If the question is set out in a particular sequence, that is:
a. ……………………
b. ……………………
c. ……………………etc.
then answer it in that sequence or you’ll have a hostile examiner to
cope with.
12. Use the particular terminology used in the question, the examiner can
then link the points in your answer, to the relevant parts of the question.
13. Assumptions are sometimes required (for example because of the lack
of standardisation of terminology in this subject). Having stated your
assumptions, make sure that what you write is consistent with them. Do
ensure, however, that
your assumptions are valid and are not just a device for changing the
meaning of the question to suit your knowledge!
14. Tabulate where appropriate, using block capitals, for your main headings
and underline subheadings. Underline words or phrases which require
emphasis. Use a ruler.
15. Leave a line between your paragraphs and subparagraphs. This makes
for a good layout. However, do not write one very other line within
paragraphs, or on one side of the paper only – examiners are waste
conscious!
16. Write out each word clearly, don’t forget you are not the examiner reading
your answers. In your hurry, be legible.
Layout of Answers
17. Tabulate where appropriate, using block capitals, for your main headings
and underline subheadings. Underline words or phrases which require
emphasis. Use a ruler.
18. Leave a line between your paragraphs and subparagraphs. This makes
for a good layout. However, do not write on every other line within
paragraphs, or on one side of the paper only - examiners are waste
conscious!
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APPENDIX II: STUDY AND EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES
19. The use of different colour pens, where appropriate, is useful but do not
overdo it. In fact one black and red felt-tip pen would be sufficient (use
the felt-tip pens which have a fine point).
Charts and diagrams

20. A descriptive heading or title must be given to each diagram (using the
one in the question if indicated).
21. Do not squeeze a diagram into a corner – spread it out.
22. Do not clutter your diagram up with too much detail – this defeats the
object, which should be clarity.
23. Give a key to the symbols and the different lines you’ve used, and again
– use a ruler.
End of examination procedure

24. Have a quick look at each answer, checking for grammatical errors and
badly formed letters.
25. Ensure each answer sheet has your number on it and do not leave any
lying on the table.
Conclusion
26 Good technique plays a large part in examination success; this is a fact.
Refuse to be panicked, keep your head, and with reasonable preparation
you should make it.
27 Remember – you do not have to score 100% to pass.
28 A final point; once you’re in the examination room, stay there and make
use of every minute at your disposal.
29 Practice your technique, when answering the questions set in the manual.
639
640
APPENDIX III
CASE STUDY WITH SUGGESTED

SOLUTIONS
1. The following extracts from the Sunday Punch of March 15, 2009, “NIGERIA’S DEBT STILL
$3.72BN” relates to the external debt position of Nigeria.
Nigeria’s external debt after three years of exiting Paris Club of debtors’ list remains at
$3.72 billion. SUNDAY PUNCH investigations show.
Figures obtained from the Debt Management Office by our correspondent in Abuja on
Friday put the Federal Government’s share of the Nation’s current debt stock as at December
31, 2008 at $2.5bn, while the 36 States and the Federal Capital Territory jointly owe $1.67bn,
consisting mainly of multilateral debts.
The Federal Government also owes a separate $547.5m classified as “Non-Paris” loan. A
debt relief deal by the former President Olusegun Obasanjo’s administration in 2005 resulted
in writing off $18bn debt by the Paris Club of creditors. The Obasanjo government also
paid a whopping $12bn in one fell swoop to Nigerian foreign creditors as part of the
desperate bid to exit the club of chronic debtor nations. The Federal and State Governments
as at December 2004 owed Paris Club $25.4bn and USD 5.4 billion respectively.
Dr Abraham Nwankwo, the Director-General of the DMO, told SUNDAY PUNCH that about 84
percent of the debts currently owed by the Nigerian Governments are multi-lateral loans
sourced from credit organizations, including the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development. African Development Bank. International Fund for Agricultural Development
and ECOWAS FUND.
A breakdown of the figures shows Lagos topping the chart with a debt burden of $279.7m
followed by Oyo and Kaduna which are indebted to the tune of $110.04m and $109.1m
respectively. From the rear, the FCT, Borno and Jigawa States owe $14.2m and $16.9m
respectively.
The DMO Director-General described the current national debt profile as normal since,
according to him, “Nigerians” traditional reasoning and inclination to avoid debt is not
reasonable for any modern economy”.
Assuring that the DMO is assisting the Federal Government and the States to effectively
manage their debts through reliable data base, Dr. Nwankwo said that Government needed
the debts to provide water, education and other basic amenities.
The Lagos State Commissioner for Finance, Mr. Rotimi Oyekan’s view of the debt owed by
the Federal and State Governments was similar to Nwankwo’s, arguing that the most
important thing is for the money to be used for projects that are beneficial to the people
“as we are doing in Lagos”. “You don’t talk about debt for the sake of debt but for a specific
purpose and for management. For us, we have started a debt issuance programme to
supplement our resources every year to ensure that we can do more for the people”,
Oyekan said.
REQUIRED
(a) Briefly distinguish between Paris Club of Creditors and London Club of Creditors.
(b) State and explain TWO (2) reasons why Nigeria had to borrow from the Paris Club
of Creditors.
(c) “Reproductive Debt” and “Deadweight Debt” are terms which occur in National
Public Debt matters. What do the terms mean?
641
(d) As a potential Federal Minister of Finance, state the advice you will offer the President
on the ways out of a debt trap.
SUGGESTED SOLUTION
(a) The Paris Club of Creditors consists of nineteen creditor countries from which developing
Nations have been borrowing to finance their socio-economic development. The Club came
into existence informally in 1956. It is therefore an informal group. Membership is not
permanent. The Club operates on the basis of concensus. Its members informally meet
with debtor countries which could not meet their debt obligations for debt rescheduling.
Members of the club include United States of America, United Kingdom, France, Canada,
Germany, Federal Republic of Germany.
London Club of creditors on the other hand is made up of Commercial Banks all over the
world, Multilateral Creditors like the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), African
Development Bank (ADB) and European Investment Bank (EIB), Promissory Note Holders
and other bilateral creditors.
(b) Reasons why Nigeria had to borrow from the Paris Club of Creditors include the following;
(i) Population explosion and increased urbanisation required greater care for people’s
welfare and provision of infrastructural facilities in the cities and villages.
(ii) Need for industrial development required financing of assets whose benefits spread
over several years.
(iii) Expansion of governmental activities requiring expanded facilities.
(iv) Need to finance self-liquidating projects which would benefit the masses.
(v) There was the need to finance budget deficit.
(vi) Need to provide social, state and health security as well as education.
(vii) It was necessary to achieve economic development and stabilisation.
(viii) Low level of national revenue as a result of the oil glut of the 80’s
(ix) Need to provide employment, improved living standard and general economic
well being of the people.
(x) Need to avoid increased tax burden.
(xi) Need to meet emergency situations.
(c) Reproductive Debt is one which is fully covered or balanced by the possession of assets of
equivalent value. Proceeds of this type of debt is deployed to investment projects. Income
derived from the operation of projects is used to pay back the debt and interest thereon.
Deadweight Debt is one which does not have any corresponding assets. The principal sum
and the interest on the debt are normally sourced from taxation. While reproductive debt
does not create additional burden for the people, deadweight debt causes increased burden
since additional tax has to be levied on the populace to repay the debt.
(d) As a potential Federal Minister of Finance the following advice will be offered to the President
on ways and means to get out of a debt trap:
(i) Ensuring consistent balanced or surplus budgets.
(ii) Diversifying the economy. Stop relying on oil revenue only.
(iii) Reducing importation of non-essential items or placing embargo on new loans.
(iv) Adopting any of the following debt management techniques;
 Debt Rescheduling
 Debt Equity Conversions
 Using Counter Trade System
 Pursuing Debt Relief
 Looking for foreign aid.
“WE CAN’T IMPLEMENT BUDGET.”
642
APPENDIX III: CASE STUDY WITH SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
2. President U’maru Yar’Adua said, on Thursday, that his administration would not be able to
fully implement the 2009 budget because of the dwindling Government revenue, which he
said, had dipped by 30 percent in three months.
The President stated this in a letter which he wrote to the Speaker, House of Representatives,
Honourable `Dimeji Bankole, and which was read on the floor of the chamber by Deputy
Speaker, Honourable Usman Bayero Nafada, who presided over the session.
President U’maru Yar’Adua wrote the letter based on the motion moved on the floor of the
House last Wednesday, accusing the Presidency of implementing the 2009 budget in a
selective manner. In the letter, the President who lamented the poor revenue base of the
country, as a result of the drastic fall in revenue from crude oil, disclosed that his Government
was proposing a comprehensive review of the 2009 budget with a view to dropping some
of the projects embedded in the document.
President U’maru Yar’Adua also, in the letter, highlighted a four-pronged approach in
reviewing the budget, including aligning and rationalising Government spending with
revenue flows and prioritising expenditure to focus on projects central to the realisation of
the administration’s seven-point Agenda. According to him, the approach also included
virement proposals to reallocate resources from projects for which “we do not have capacity
for implementation and effective supervision to critical projects.”
Others include “submission of a Supplementary Budget to the National Assembly to fund
particularly critical projects that were left out in the 2009 budget and initiating dialogue
with the National Assembly to address issues of constitutional separation of powers in
relation to budget execution. “This revenue shortfall has been exacerbated by the challenge
of financing the fiscal deficit.” We had identified sources of financing the deficit, such as
accessing the international and local capital markets.” “However, we have stepped down
plans to issue the $500 million denominated international bond due to the ongoing global
financial crisis, which has adversely affected international liquidity. The administration is
also being cautious in-excessively accessing the domestic financial markets to avoid the
risk of crowding out the private sector and stifling economic growth.”
“Finally, although we have introduced measures to improve internally generated revenue,

including customs reforms and audit of MDAs internally generated revenues, there are
still challenges in meeting our financing needs,” the President said.
The President stated in the letter that even some of the projects that were crucial for the
attainment of his seven-point Agenda had been slashed or completely removed from the
budget, disclosing those affected as including provisions for power-related projects critical
to the attainment of targeted 600 megawatts by the end of 2009; allocations for the Multi
Year Tariff Order (MYTO) which he said was critical to the ongoing power sector reforms. He
also disclosed that vote for security of oil and gas assets to improve the security around oil
installations; arrears for parastatal agencies monetisation; provision for public sector wage
adjustment; provision for FCT water treatment plant; construction of soldiers’ accommodation
necessary to improving security under the seven-point Agenda and the President’s
contingency, which is a vital provision that provides the administration with the necessary
resources to promptly respond to urgent and unanticipated expenditure were affected as
well.
Members, who reacted to the letter on the floor, urged that copies of the document be
made available to every member of the House while a date will be set aside to deliberate
on it.
Sources: Nigerian Tribune, Friday 15 May, 2009. The Nation, Friday 15 May,
2009.
643
R e q u i re d :
(a) What is the major reason for the dwindling Government revenue?
(b) State the steps the President intends to take in regard to the 2009 budget.
(c) How does the Government intend to finance the 2009 budget hundred percent? What
constraints does the Government face in carrying out this intention?
(d) What is the position of the Fiscal Responsibility Act in relation to deficit financing?
(e) What advice would you offer the Federal Government to stem the negative impact of the
global economic melt down and poor revenue base?
SUGGESTED SOLUTION
(a) The dwindling Government revenue in recent months is mainly due to a drastic fall in the
price of crude oil from over $150 per barrel in January, 2008 to $37 per barrel in December,
2008. Output of crude oil also went down as a result of the crisis in the Niger Delta area.
Besides, non-oil revenue projections remain out of tune with reality.
(b) The President intends to carry out a review of the 2009 budget by:
(i) aligning and rationalising Government spending with revenue inflows;
(ii) prioritising expenditure to focus on projects central to the realisation of the
administration’s Seven-Point Agenda;
(iii) virement proposals to relocate resources from projects for which Government does
not have the capacity to implement and effectively supervise to other critical projects;
(iv) submitting a supplementary budget to the National Assembly to fund such critical
projects which were left out of the 2009 budget.
(c) Year 2009 budget is a deficit budget. The deficit is to be financed by borrowing through
international and local capital markets. Initial proposal was to issue $500 million
denominated international bond. The ongoing global financial crisis has however affected
international liquidity adversely, hence the need to put the proposal on hold. Excessively
accessing the domestic financial markets on the other hand could lead to the risk of crowding
out the private sector and stifling economic growth.
(d) The position of the Fiscal Responsibility Act, 2007 on borrowing to finance any budget
deficit is that debt can be incurred only to finance capital expenditure and human
development. Such borrowing should also be at concessional low rate of interest with a
long repayment period.
(e) Government can stem the negative impact of the global economic meltdown and poor
revenue base by diversification and paying greater attention to agriculture and other
revenue generating economic activities. The crusade against corruption, resource wastage,
ineptitude and political instability should be accentuated.
644
APPENDIX IV
BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCES
Aboyade O. “Nigerian Public Enterprises as an Organisation Dilemma” – Proceeding

of the 1973 Annual Conference of the Nigeria Economic Society page 27-43.
Adams, R. A. “Public Sector Accounting and Finance Made Simple” 3rd Edition, 2004.
Asechemie, D. P. S., “Anatomy of Public Sector Accounting in Nigeria”, Sunray Books
Limited.
Awoyemi, E. O., “A Guide to Government Accounting and Internal Audit’, Onibonoje
Press, Ibadan.
Daniel, G. I., “Public Sector Accounting”, Ahmadu Bello University Press, Zaria, 1999.
Fayemi Olubunmi - “Principles of Local Government Accounting”, 1991.
Finney, Robert G. “Powerful Budgeting for Better Planning and Management
Association”, New York, 1993.
Glynn, J. J., “Public Sector Financial Control and Accounting”, Blackwell.
Hassan, M. M., “Government Accounting”, Malthouse Press Limited, Lagos, 2001.
Horngren, Charles T. “Cost Accounting (A Managerial Emphasis)”, Fifth Edition 1986
– Prentice (Hall International Editions Englewood Cliffs, N. J. 07632) United States
of America.
Ifede Dapo and D. O. O. Obisesan, “Accountancy for Banking and Finance Students”,
Achievers Tutors, Ibadan, 1994.
Johnson, E. I., “Public Sector Accounting and Financial Control”, Financial Training,
Lagos, Nigeria.
Jones, R. and Pendelbury, M. “Public Sector Accounting”, ELBS/Pitman.
Kayode-Bowale, E. I. and D. O. O. Obisesan, ”Auditing and Information Technology”,
King Julius Publishers, Ado-Ekiti, 2003.
Musgrave, R. A. and Musgrave, P. B., “Public Finance in Theory and Practice”, MacGraw
– Hill, New York.
Oshisami, K., “Government Accounting and Financial Controls”, Spectrum Books
Limited, Ibadan.
John Sizer (1981), “Terotechnology and Life Cycle Costing and Perspectives in
Management Accounting”, Heinemann/ICMA; London,
John Sizer (1985), “An Insight into Management Accounting”: Penguin Books Limited,
Middlesex, England.
Vatter W. J., “The Fund Theory of Accounting and its Implications for Financial Reports”,
University of Chicago, Chicago, 1947.
645
NIGERIAN GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS
 Audit Ordinance, 1956

 Finance (Control and Management) Act, Cap 144 LFN 1990
 Udoji Commission’s Main Report of the Public Service Review, 1974
 Aboyade Technical Committee’s on Revenue Allocation, 1977.
 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1979 and 1999
 Financial Regulations (Revised) 2006.
 Okigbo Presidential Commission’s Report on Revenue Allocation.
 Twenty Years of Central Banking in Nigeria, 1959.
 Independent Corrupt Practices Commission Act, 2000.
 Financial Memoranda for Local Government Reform Act, 1988.
 Views of the Government of the Federation on the Report of the Presidential
Commission on Parastatals, 1982.
 Civil Service and Local Government Reform Act, 1988
 Pension Reform Act, 2004.
 Local Government Basic Constitutional and Transitional Provision Act No. 23 of
1991.
 Revenue Allocation Act 1989.
 Federal Government Appropriation Act, 2005.
 Lagos State Government Budget, 2005.
 Treasury Inspection Questionnaires and Reports, 2000.
 Nigeria Public Sector Auditing Standard, 1997.
 Circular No. F15775 of June 2001 on Reform of Tender Procedures
 National Power Authority Enabling Act , 1965.
 Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission Act, 2000
 Economic and Financial Crimes Commission Act of 2002.
 Fiscal Responsibility Act, 2007.
 Money Laundering Act, 1995
 Advance Fee Fraud and Other Related Offences Act, 1994
 Failed Banks (Financial Malpractices in Banks) Act, 1994.
 Banks and Other Financial Institutions Act, 1991.
 Public Procurement Act, 2007.
OTHERS
 International Financial Reporting Standards
 International Accounting Standards
 International Public Sector Accounting Standards
646
INDEX
A Benchmark Treatment 529, 530, 542
Bicycle Advances 274
Absorptive Capacity 492 Binding Arrangement 514, 540, 553, 556,
Abuse of Powers 449 557, 616
Account Current 43 Biological Assets 517, 602, 603
Accountability 7, 12, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, Biological Transformation 602
30, 43, 193, 199, 217, 236, 237, 253, 321, Board of Enquiry 145, 146, 153, 154, 157,
331, 332, 333, 442, 451, 452, 466, 478, 480, 158, 159, 160, 264, 268
542, 544, 576, 585, 610, 629, 631 Board of Survey 127, 145, 146, 151, 152,
Accountant General of the Federation 420 153, 154, 155, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161, 268
Accounting Officer 25, 26, 27, 30, 31, 32, 34 Borrowing Costs 533, 534, 535, 555, 556
36, 37, 42, 44, 91, 92, 95, 100, 106, 146, Budget 626, 627, 628, 633, 643, 645, 646
147, 152, 153, 154, 167, 169, 235, 253, 261 Budget Committee 169
263, 268, 272, 311, 312, 317, 442, 457, 461, 625,
626, 629, 631, 632, 641 C
Accounting Policies 129, 379, 384, 510, 511,
566, 576, 577 Capital Expenditure Warrants 70, 72, 76, 78
Accrual Basis 9, 625, 630 Capital Fund 76, 387, 388
Accrual basis 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 369, 400, Capital Subvention 389
512, 569, 585, 587, 603, 619 Capital Value Method 167
Active Aarket 546, 550, 565, 576, 603, 607, Carrying Amount 546, 573
609, 620 Carrying amount 557
Ad hoc 496 carrying amount 510, 523, 525, 527, 528
Adjustment Voucher 93, 94, 315, 625 538, 546, 547, 548, 549, 554, 556, 557, 566,
Advances 42, 154, 267, 272, 273, 274, 275, 567, 569, 574, 575, 578, 583, 589, 590, 600, 602,
276, 292, 304, 313, 314, 317, 318, 319, 372, 608, 613, 614, 620
506, 516, 539, 577, 578, 589, 626, 627 Cash and Cash Equivalent 131, 139, 144
Advances for Estacode for Overseas Tours 275 Cash and cash equivalent 507, 508
Agricultural Activity 517, 602 Cash Basis 8, 9, 610, 627, 630
Agricultural Produce 517, 602, 603, 604 Cash basis 7, 8, 9, 13, 131, 177, 327, 369,
Allocated Stores 146, 147, 162, 625, 633 400, 585, 610
Allocation function 407 Cash Budgeting 191, 213
Allowed Alternative 534, 542 Cash Control 97, 101, 627
An Associate 536, 539, 540 Cash Equivalent 144, 175
Analysis Book 116, 117, 122 Cash Float 99, 180
Annual Value Method 166 cash float
Appraisal Method 337, 356 Cash Flow Statement 142, 174, 367, 374,
Appropriation Acts 3, 7, 72, 83, 84, 473 375, 377, 388, 499, 505, 563, 627
Audit 5, 20, 27, 28, 29, 30, 57, 83, 87, CASH GENERATING ASSETS
121, 170, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, Cash Generating Assets 591, 599, 600, 602
252, 253, 256, 257, 259, 325, 326, 327, 331, cash generating unit 620
386, 453, 526, 626, 630, 645 Cash Office 92, 97, 98, 104, 291, 292
Audit Alarm Committee 170, 188 Cash Survey 311
Audit Queries 626 Central Pay Office 311, 314
Available for sale financial assets 607, 608 Charges 130, 134, 174, 313, 529, 530, 632
Cheque book 100, 311
B Cheque Summary Register 312
Code of Conduct Bureau 7, 21, 24, 116, 441,
Balance of Payments Support Loans 424, 439 450, 456, 460
Bank Reconciliation 97, 102, 103, 104, 109, Code of Conduct bureau 460
122 Commercial policy 349, 407
Bank Reconciliation Statement 102, 103, 104, Commitment basis 7, 8, 10, 627
109, 122 Committed Growth 191, 201
Base Estimate 191, 198 Concepts 627
Below the line account 114 Condemned Stores 145, 151
Conditions on Transferred Assets 552
647
Consolidated Revenue Fund 5, 56, 60, 61, Fair Value less Costs to sell 546, 550, 574,
65, 130, 134, 627, 632 600, 603, 604, 620
Consumable stores 147, 159, 162 Fair Value Model 569
Contingencies Clause 235 Finance Lease 520, 522, 523, 524
Contingency Fund 45, 46, 60, 61, 62, 75, Financial assets 19, 503, 565, 566, 567, 604,
133, 211, 628 605, 606, 607, 608, 613, 628
Contingent rent 520, 524 Financial Liability 565, 605, 606, 608, 609
Contract Costs 515, 516 Financial liability model 618
Contract Revenue 515 Fiscal policy 7, 19, 325, 407, 479, 482, 497
Control of an Asset 552 Fiscal Transparency 17, 18, 19, 22
Correspondence Advances 274, 276 Fixed Price Contract 515
Cost Based Contract 515 Full employment 193, 408, 482
Cost Model 569 Functional currency 506, 507, 512, 513, 514,
cost model 570, 615 529, 531, 575
Cost plus 515
Costs of Inventories 519 G
Credit Risk 566, 611 Government Business Enterprise (GBE) 534
Current service cost 596, 597, 599 Government Ministries 2
D Grantor 616, 617, 618
Debt 10, 19, 27, 47, 63, 75, 141, 181, H

301, 317, 325, 372, 406, 409, 411, 413, Held for sale 371, 377, 517, 568, 616
419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 428, Held for trading 607, 608
429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, Holding to account 18, 20, 23
439, 440, 466, 468, 471, 472, 473, 474, 506,
523, 524, 531, 536, 577, 578, 589, 598, 606, 628, I
641, 642, 644
Debt forgiveness 428 Impairment loss 527, 545, 547, 548, 549,
Sebt instruments 372, 417, 421, 422, 423, 600, 601, 614, 619, 620
506, 598 Inception of the lease 520, 521, 522, 523
Defined Benefit plans 594, 596 Initial Direct Costs 521
Defined Contribution Plans 593 Initial Measurement 608, 615
Depreciable amount 546, 573, 613, 614 Insurance contract 565, 606
Disclosure 451, 510, 511, 526, 527, 529, Intangible asset 602, 613, 614, 615, 616, 618
530, 531, 542, 550, 561, 573, 576, 579, 585, Interest Rate Implicit 521
586, 589, 592, 599, 611, 619 Interest Rate Risk 566, 611
Inventories 383, 499, 502, 503, 517, 518,
E 519, 570, 603
Investment Property 383, 559, 567, 568, 569
Economic Entity 534, 536, 611
Economic growth 193, 404, 406, 408, 410, J
411, 418, 419, 420, 424, 429, 439, 440, 495
Equity instrument Jointly Controlled Assets 541
564, 565, 566, 598, 605, 606 jointly controlled assets 541
Exchange Transactions 552, 553, 554, 573, Jointly Controlled Entity 542
587 jointly controlled entity 536, 542, 577
External balance 406, 411
L
F Lease term 520, 521, 522, 523, 525
Fair value 513, 518, 521, 522, 523, 525, 539 Lessor 520, 521, 522, 524
546, 550, 553, 554, 566, 567, 569, 570, 573 Liquidity Risk 611
574, 575, 589, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 603, Loans Payable 612, 613
604, 607, 608, 609, 611, 612, 613, 615, 617, 618,
648
NDEX
M Public Sector Accounting 3

Puttable Instrument 605
Market risks 612, 613
Market value 526, 565, 600, 601 Q
Material Omissions 510
Misstatements 510, 611 Qualifying Insurance Policy 595
Modified Cash Basis 7, 9, 630 R
Monetary financial assets 565
Monetary policy 406 Re-statement of Financial Statements 562
Money Order 57, 100 Redesignation of Assets 549
Motivation 115, 204 Redistribution function 407,482
Motor Vehicle Advances 120, 273 Related parties 542, 543, 544
Multiemployer Plans 594 Rendering of accounts 18, 20 23
Rendering of service 517, 560
N Reporting Date 499, 525, 526, 527
National Interest 492 Reporting date 129, 384, 513, 515, 516,
National Pension Commission 295, 297, 303, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 538, 539, 547,
306 560, 562, 563, 566, 567, 581, 582,
Need 8, 13, 22, 58, 59, 60, 185, 195, 196, 583, 584, 588, 595, 596, 597, 599, 600, 601,
202, 203, 223, 320, 327, 331, 408, 418, 419, 603, 632
420, 422, 426, 434, 439, 442, 470, 478, 480, 4 Research 48, 212, 237, 329, 330, 332, 349,
98, 526, 547, 548, 552, 556, 563, 585, 641, 642, 643, 644 387, 388, 405, 444, 459, 500, 545, 613, 614
Net Assets/Equity 382, 384, 502, 529, 565, 571 Return on Plan Assets 595, 597, 598
Net Present Value 336, 340, 341, 342, 346, Revenue Allocation Formula 53, 61, 65,
347, 358, 361, 364, 630 481, 484
Net Realisable Value 520 Revolving Fund 75, 76, 77
Next of Kin 280, 282, 284, 299, 305 Risk Management Policies 565
Non-controlling Interest 502 Rolling Plan 191, 199
Non-Exchange Transactions 553, 554, 560, 574 S
O Security Control 100
Officer 26 Selective Tenders 225, 233
Officer Controlling Expenditure 630 Self Accounting Unit
Operating Activities 130, 371, 373, 376, 384, 113, 115, 116, 630, 631
508, 577 Separate financial statement 536
Operating activities 129, 377, 373, 374, 383, Service concession arrangement 616, 617
504, 505, 507, 509, 528, 529, 530, 531, Service concession asset 616, 617, 618
552, 572, 577, 578, 587, 589 Special Fund 64, 75, 77
Operating Lease 522, 523, 524 State Plans 594, 595
Operator 616, 617, 618 Statutory Allocation
Organogram 123, 125, 165 130, 134, 139, 142, 143, 163, 167
Other financial liabilities 607, 608, 609 Statutory allocation 138, 173, 183, 188
Other Price Risk 612 Stores 27, 28, 29, 57, 93, 94, 127, 146,
Oversight 6, 543, 586 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 154, 156,
157, 159, 160, 161, 162, 255, 256, 259, 263,
P 266, 268, 320, 626
Sub-Accounting Officer 25, 31, 34, 36, 42,
Past due 612, 613 91, 312, 629, 631, 632
Past service cost 594, 596, 598 Sub-accounting officer 36, 107
Plan Assets 594, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599,
619 T
Presentation Currency 512, 513, 575, 596, 597
Price stability 406, 408, 411 Tax Expenditure 468, 473, 474
Prior Period Errors 510 Transcript 319, 627, 631, 632
Privatisation 47, 63, 403, 408 transcript
649
U W
Unallocated stores 93, 94, 147, 149, 160, Warrants
625, 633 70, 71, 72, 74, 76, 78, 83, 178, 312, 314, 633
Unguaranteed residual value 520, 521, 522 Whole-of-life 617
Useful life 337, 546, 548, 549, 573, 574, will 635, 636, 637, 638
575, 600, 602, 613, 616
V
Value in use 546, 550, 574, 600,
601, 620, 621
Virement Warrant 70, 72, 74, 78, 314
Vote Book 11, 25, 40, 41, 43, 84, 87, 91, 92,
94, 319, 633
Voucher 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 100, 107,
151, 155, 234, 293, 294, 313, 314, 315, 320, 625, 633
650

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Skills level

Public Sector Accounting and Finance

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria, December 2014

Public Sector Accounting and Finance

Although the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria (ICAN) traditionally changes

Public Sector Accounting and Finance

The Institute is deeply indebted to the underlisted locally-sourced rewriters, reviewers

Public Sector Accounting and Finance

Rotimi A. Omotosho, FCA

Public Sector Accounting and Finance

AfDB African Development Bank

GAAFR Government Accounting Auditing and Financial Reporting

Public Sector Accounting and Finance

(A) EXAMINATION QUESTION FORMAT

1. Each paper in Foundation level shall consist of two sections A and B

Section A: Shall comprise twenty (20) compulsory multiple-choice

Section B: Shall comprise six open-ended questions (essay,

2. Skills and Professional levels shall comprise open-ended questions

Section A: One (1) compulsory question of 30 marks.

Content and Competences

A. FRAMEWORK AND CONCEPT 20%

1. The Constitutional and Regulatory Framework of Public Sector

2. Public Sector Accounting Concepts and Pronouncements

B PLANNING AND BUDGETING 20%

Planning and Budgeting in Public Sector

(ii) Describe the objectives/uses of annual budget in the public

(b) Differentiate between Rolling Plans and Perspective Plans

(c) Describe Budgeting Process and Budgetary Control

(d) Appraise projects in the public sector using

C. REPORT AND AUDIT 30%

1. Public Sector Accounting and Financial Reporting

(b) Prepare Statutory Financial Statements in Federal and State

(c) Interpret public sector financial statements using relevant and

2. Accounting for Public Sector Organizations and Government

3. Public Sector Audit

(f) Explain the financial responsibilities of public sector officers.

(a) The economic environment and role of the public sector.

(ii) External loans: Multilateral, Paris Club, London Club,

Applicable Accounting Standards:

IPSAS IFRS Standa rd

IPSAS WITHOUT IFRS EQUIVALENT

 IPSAS 21 Impairment of Non-Cash-Generating Assets

Public Sector Accounting and Finance

Front Page .............................................................................................................. i

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC SECTOR ACCOUNTING AND

1.8 Chapter Review ............................................................................. 11

CHAPTER 2: ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR ............................ 1 7

CHAPTER 3: FINANCE OFFICERS OF GOVERNMENT.................................. 2 5

3.22.1 Below-The-Line Accounts .................................................... 42

CHAPTER 4: SOURCES OF GOVERNMENT REVENUE ................................. 4 5

CHAPTER 5: AUTHORIZATION OF GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE, CONTROL

CHAPTER 6: EXPENDITURE CONTROL ........................................................ 8 1

CHAPTER 7: PREPARATION OF VOUCHERS ...................................... 8 9

7.4.1 Questions ............................................................................ 93

CHAPTER 8: FUNCTIONS OF THE CASH OFFICE ........................................ 9 7

CHAPTER 9: PREPARATION OF MONTHLY TRANSCRIPTS OF

CHAPTER 10: TREASURY FINAL ACCOUNTS ............................................. 12 3

CHAPTER 11: STORES AND STORES ACCOUNTING ................................. 14 5

11.17.3 Actions to be Effected by the Accounting Officer ............. 153