PREFACE

This book was prepared to assist the students in this course: Navigation 1
Navigation Instruments with Compasses
Competence: A-II/1 F1.C1. Plan and conduct a passage and determine position
KUP: AII/1F1.C1.KUP4: Ability to determine the ship’s position by use of electronic navigational aids
KUP: AII/1F1.C1.KUP5: Ability to operate the echo-sounder and apply the information correctly.
KUP: AII/1F1.C1.KUP6: Compass – magnetic and gyro
1. Knowledge of the principles of magnetic and gyro-compasses
Course Outcome: CO1: Operate electronic navigational equipment such as GPS, AIS, echo-sounder, gyro
and magnetic compass.
CO2: Determine errors of the magnetic and gyro-compasses
CO3: Determine errors of the magnetic and gyro-compasses and apply corrections in
obtaining true course and bearing.

This course is foundation of navigation courses as it introduces the student to modern electronic
navigational equipment including the principles of magnetism leading to application of compass
correction, of both magnetic and gyro, to obtain corrected compass reading.

By three methods we may learn wisdom:

First, by reflection, which is noblest;
Second, by imitation, which is easiest;
and third by experience, which is the bitterest.
Confusius

“Tell me and I forget.

show me and I remember.
involve me and I learn.
Benjamin Franklin

Education is the most powerful weapon

which you can change the world…
Nelson Mandela

The root of education is bitter,

but the fruit is sweet…
Aristotle

“Good teaching is more giving of right questions

than a giving of right answers”.
Josef Algers

Research and compiled by:

Second Officer Juanito M.Merano, Jr.

Page i
 CONTENTS
Topic 1 - Basic principles of Terrestrial Navigation --------------------------------- Pages 1 to 4
Topic 2 - LORAN – C SYSTEM ------------------------------------------------------------- Pages 5 to 10
Topic 3 - eLORAN --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Pages 11 to 16
Topic 4 - Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) ---------------------------- Pages 17 to 19
Topic 5 - Global Navigation Satellite Systems & GPS ----------------------------- Pages 20 to 29
Topic 6 - Augmented Satellite Systems ----------------------------------------------- Pages 30 to 36
Topic 7 - GLONASS ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Pages 37 to 42
Topic 8 - Galileo ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Pages 43 to 48
Topic 9 - ECHO-SOUNDERS -------------------------------------------------------------- Pages 49 to 74
Topic 10 - The Magnetism of the Earth and the Ship's Deviation ------------- Pages 75 to 80
Topic 11 - The Magnetic Compass ------------------------------------------------------ Pages 81 to 87
Topic 12 - The Gyro-Compass ------------------------------------------------------------ Pages 88 to 93
Topic 13 - Compass Course and Bearing Corrections ------------------------------ Pages 94 to 98
Topic 14 - Errors of the Compass and Azimuths --------------------------------------- Pages 99 to 103
Topic 15 - Fluxgate Compass -------------------------------------------------------------- Pages 104 to 109
Topic 16 - (MLC) The errors of the magnetic compass and their correction- Pages 110 to 115
Topic 17 - The errors of the magnetic compass and their correction --------- Pages 116 to 124
Topic 18 - (MLC) The Principles of Gyro-Compass ---------------------------------- Pages 125 to 129
Topic 19 - (MLC) Gyro-Compass Errors and Corrections -------------------------- Pages 130 to 133
Topic 20 - (MLC) Systems under the control of the master gyro and the
operation and care of the main types of gyro-compasses in use at Sea - Pages 134 to 138

Page ii
 Instructor’s Guide (IG)
Prelim covers:
Topic 1 - 2 hrs.
Topic 2 - 3 hrs.
Topic 3 - 2 hrs.
Topic 4 - 10 hrs.
Topic 5 - 10 hrs.
Topic 6 - 1 hr.
Topic 7 - 1 hr.
Topic 8 - 1 hr.
Topic 9 - 9 hrs.
Topic 10 - 6 hrs.

Midterm covers:
Topic 10 - 6 hrs.
Topic 11 - 6 hrs.
Topic 12 - 6 hrs.
Topic 13 - 3 hrs.
Topic 14 - 13 hrs.
Topic 15 - 1 hr.
Topic 16 - 3 hrs.
Topic 17 - 27 hrs.

Finals
Topic 17 - 27 hrs.
Topic 18 - 3 hrs.
Topic 19 - 7 hrs.
Topic 20 - 2 hrs.

Total for the whole Semester – 116 hrs.

Page
iii
 Bachelor of Science in Marine Transportation
Navigation Instruments with Compasses
Table A-II/1 and A-II/2 Function: Navigation
STCW’78 as amended

Navigation 1 – Navigational Instruments with Compasses

Introduction to course:
The course focuses on the various satellite navigational systems.
Electronic equipment and computer has taken over the role of celestial navigation in determining ship
position when landmarks are not available. However, although the navigator is only an end user of the
product, he/she has to be familiar with its principle of operation because certain conditions affect its
accuracy. The navigator has to be familiar with these conditions in order to minimize if not neutralize
the causes of inaccuracies. Similarly, just like any sophisticated equipment, a computer has its
advantages and disadvantages. It will discuss also the principles of magnetism leading to application of
compass correction, of both magnetic and gyro compasses, to obtain corrected compass reading.

Topic 1: Basic principles of Terrestrial Navigation

Introduction to the topic

A fix requires two elements from at least two sources; two bearings, a bearing and a distance, and two
distances. Electronic navigation equipment that uses radio waves to fix ship position employs the same
principle of requiring two elements from two different sources. Radio waves are transmitted from a
radio station. A ship fixes its position from two radio waves emitted by at least two radio stations
located away from each other. What the electronic navigation equipment onboard ship measures is the
time difference between the transmission from the source and until these radio waves are received on
board. From here ship position are calculated as indicated in the illustration below.One hyperbola is an
LOP, a fix requires at least two LOPs to make a fix. Hyperbolic navigation is the system used by Loran,
Decca and Omega.

LO: At the end of the lesson the learner explains the principle of how ship position is derived through
hyperbolic navigation.

TERMS and DEFINITIONS

Hyperbola (hyperbolae/s - plural) is the point of convergence (locus) of all points in a flat plane, the
difference of which is the foci (focus - plural)
Locus (loci - singular) is the point of convergence
Focus – center of activity (Foci – is singular)
Ellipses – oval in shape
Phase – distance between two hyperbolas
LOP – Line Of Position (a ship is anywhere along that line, it is not yet a fix)
base line - line between two stations
phase - distance between hyperbolae

Page 1
 Hyperbolic navigation refers to a class of navigation systems based on the difference in timing
between the reception of two signals, without reference to a common clock. This timing reveals
the difference in distance from the receiver to the two stations. Plotting all of the potential locations of
the receiver for the measured delay produces a series of hyperbolic lines on a chart. Taking two such
measurements and looking for the intersections of the hyperbolic lines reveals the receiver's location to
be in one of two locations. Any other form of navigation information can be used to eliminate this
ambiguity and determine a fix.

Hyperbolic Operation A minimum of 3 shore stations are required, a master and two slaves.
The patterns produced are the classic hyperbolic lines, with the stations located at the focus of the
hyperbolae. The accuracy depends on the 'angle of cut' of the hyperbolae, which itself is dictated by the
geometry of the chain. The chain may be extended by the addition of more slave stations, such that
continuos coverage of an area of coastline is achieved. The user may select 3 pairs of stations on the
receiver for display of the lane information.

Hyperbolic System operating principles

HiFix was a short range precision positioning system primarily for marine hydrographic survey purposes,
capable of providing a fix with an accuracy of about 1.5m at 30 miles from the shore stations. HiFix was
a hyperbolic system using a chain
of three transmitters, one as
master and two as slaves. As
with most such systems, for
example Decca, the operating
principle was that the
transmitters radiated a carrier
phase locked to an accurate
source, and the receiver
measured the difference in
phase between the signals
received from the three
transmitters. Unlike Decca
however, where the transmitters
radiated a continuous
transmission on different but
harmonically related
frequencies, HiFix used the time-
share principle where the transmitters radiated on the same frequency, but in sequence. This is
explained further in the 'System Description' section.

Hyperbolic system principles

The principle on which all
hyperbolic navigation and
positioning systems operate
is essentially the same. If two
transmitters radiating a radio
wave in the same phase are

Page 2
located at the ends of a baseline, as shown in the diagram below, then a receiver in the centre of the
baseline will receive the wave in the same phase since the time-of-flight of the wave to the receiver
from both transmitters is the same. Applying this principle in reverse, if the receiver is receiving the two
waves in phase, then it must be located either at the centre of the baseline or somewhere along the
perpendicular line l - l'.
However, in practice the transmitters are further apart than a single wavelength (which is only about
160 metres in the case of HiFix on 1900 kHz) so consequently there will be several points along the
baseline where the signal is received in phase. Unlike the simple case outlined above however, when
plotted out from the baseline, these points of equal phase will produce a family of curves instead of a
straight line. These curves are referred to as hyperbolae, and a set of hyperbolae generated by the
master and one slave are referred to as a pattern. If, at the receiver, we are receiving signals with a
particular phase relationship then we know that we are somewhere along one of these curves.

In order to give a navigational 'fix'- i.e. to find out exactly where on the curve we are, we need another
pair of transmitters and to carry out the phase measurement process on the pattern produced by these
as well. The hyperbolae from this second pair will overlap those from the first, producing a 'lattice': If we
can establish our location along a hyperbola from each pattern, then we have found our position. In
practice, one of the transmitters can be common to both pairs- with HiFix, this is the Master or A
station; those at the ends of the two baselines are the B and C slaves. The diagram below shows a
section of coastline with the 3 sites and their overlapping pattern of hyperbolae. It must be remembered
that the fix was
always in relation
to the position of
the chain
transmitters, and
these had
therefore to be
accurately known.

Resolution
Points of zero phase difference are referred to as 'lanes'. It is not necessary to rely on these however
since the receiver can measure phase differences at points in between lanes. The maximum resolution
of the system is expressed as the smallest distance within a lane that can be measured and is limited by
a number of factors. In the case of HiFix the maximum resolution of the system is given as 0.01 lane,

Page 3
which at an operating frequency of 1900kHz would be 1.6 metres. Since the distance between
hyperbolae and hence lanes increases with distance away from the transmitters, the accuracy of the
system reduces in proportion. The operator would have to take this into account when a fix is obtained.

Lane ambiguity
It may have become apparent to you that there are actually several points where the same phase
relationships can be measured from both the A-B and A-C sectors of the chain. This is true and the result
is that a fix is not unique. This is a characteristic of hyperbolic systems, and is referred to as 'lane
ambiguity'. Different radio location systems tackle the problem in different ways. Decca, for instance,
periodically broke the normal transmission format and transmitted a signal that enabled the receiver to
get a rough fix- to within a lane. On resumption of the normal transmission, phase measurements were
taken and the exact position within the lane displayed.

HiFix in its simplest form had no inherent capability to resolve lane ambiguity. The receiver did,
however, have a 'lane counter' display. Therefore, a navigator using HiFix always had to start from a
known position- perhaps by taking bearings on visual objects or radio beacons on the shore. As the
vessel moved, lane counters incremented every time a complete lane was crossed. Users would still
have to periodically mark a position with a buoy. Ultimately this was a major drawback, and a system
using two radio frequencies was developed (mode B) which could be used to give lane resolution. This
used the fact that at different RF frequencies, the lane pattern shifts. Subtracting one pattern (the
higher frequency) from the other results in a coarse lane pattern that allows the user to fix their position
to within half a lane.

Range-Range operation
An alternative to hyperbolic mode was Range-Range mode. This involved carrying the master
transmitter actually aboard the vessel, whilst the slaves remained ashore. The receiver, also aboard the
vessel, would therefore be at zero distance (and therefore phase difference) from the master
transmitter. With this arrangement, instead of hyperbolae, a set of concentric rings around each slave
were obtained, and positional fixes could be obtained where the rings overlapped. The advantage of this
approach was that the spacing of the rings stays the same as the vessel moves away from the shore, so
the resolution may be higher at greater ranges but the angles at which they intercept become less
favourable. Nevertheless under particular conditions, an improvement in accuracy over hyperbolic
mode could be obtained.

Errors
Several factors influenced the accuracy obtainable under practical conditions. The first of these was the
sitting of the master and slave stations. For best results they would ideally have been located with the
baselines at an angle to each other. They also needed to be located right on the coast, since radio waves
refract as they cross the coastline. Also, the accuracy of the system would have been affected by radio
propagation conditions; in particular after dark when the signals become reflected by the ionosphere
and therefore interfence from the sky wave would have occurred.

Reference____________________________________________________________________
http://www.alancordwell.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/nav/hifix/hifixopprinc.html

Page 4
Topic 2: LORAN – C SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

The Loran is a system of marine navigation using hyperbolas. The Loran consists of a chain of
transmitting stations one being the master and the others as secondary. A Loran receiver measures the
time difference (TD) between when the vessel receives the master signal and when it receives each of
the secondary signals. When this elapsed time is converted to distance, the locus of points (points of
convergence) forms the hyperbolic LOP. The intersection of two or more of these LOP’s produces a fix of
the vessel’s position. Refer to Fig. 3
The simplicity of GPS makes it user-friendly which explains why GPS replaced usefulness of Loran as
primary mode of electronic marine navigation. However, it will be explained below why Loran has not
been phased out.

LO: At the end of the lesson, the learner explains how Loran navigation works and accuracy affecting it.

TERMS and DEFINITIONS

Loran – Long Range Navigation
Loran C – also called standard Loran or just Loran replacing the old Loran A
eLoran – Enhanced Loran

Terms and definitions in Topic 1 also applies.

Basic principles of Loran-C and eLoran

system
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE LORAN-C SYSTEM
One ground station in a LORAN network is
designated as the “master” station in the
network. This station transmits groups of
pulses which are disseminated in all
directions. Several hundred miles away in
different directions, two or more “slave”
stations receive the master pulse groups and
transmit similar groups of pulses which are
accurately synchronized with the signals
received from the “master” station. The
constant time-differences between the
reception of the master pulses and the
corresponding slave pulses establish the
LORAN line-of-position (LOP). The line
joining two transmitters is called the
“baseline” and its perpendicular bisector is
called the “centerline” (see Figure 5). If both
master and slave pulses are transmitted
simultaneously, they will be received
simultaneously on the centerline, and the

Page 5
corresponding time-difference will be zero. ON either side of the centerline, the pulse from the master
station is received first. The farther the receiver is removed from the centerline, the greater will be the
time-difference between reception of the pulses. In the present LORAN system, the master and slave
station pulses are not transmitted simultaneously. Each slave transmission is delayed a controlled
amount so that the master station pulse is always received first. Therefore, time-difference increase
from a minimum value at the slave station to a maximum at the master station. Data defining the lines
of constant time-difference for each pair of stations are computed and made available to the user in the
form of LORAN-C tables or charts. When obtaining navigational information from the LORAN system, the
navigator measures the time-differences between the receipt of the master and slave signals on his
receiver, consults the charts or tables, and interpolates between the tabulated lines-of-position to
determine the line-of-position corresponding to the measured time-difference.

Reference________________________________________________________________
http://www.alancordwell.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/nav/hifix/hifixopprinc.html

Page 6
Enhanced Loran is an internationally-standardized positioning,
navigation, and timing (PNT) service for use by many modes of
transport and in other applications. It is the latest in the long-
standing and proven series of low-frequency, LOng-RAnge
Navigation (LORAN) systems, one that takes full advantage of
21st century technology.
eLoran meets the accuracy, availability, integrity, and continuity
performance requirements for aviation non-precision
instrument approaches, maritime harbor entrance and
approach maneuvers, land-mobile vehicle navigation, and
location-based services, and is a precise source of time and
frequency for applications such as telecommunications1.
eLoran is an independent, dissimilar, complement to Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). It
allows GNSS users to retain the safety, security, and economic benefits of GNSS, even when their
satellite services are disrupted.

How do we determine the time difference?

• Each station, starting with the Master, transmits a series of pulses with the following shape:
• Each station transmits a series of eight of these pulses
• Pulse separation is 1000μs (1ms)
Note: In most chains the master transmits a ninth pulse after 2000μs. This can be used to indicate the
status or integrity of the chain’s signals

This pulse has a bandwidth of about

20kHz

How do we identify the pulses from each station?

• The stations transmit their signals in sequence. The delay between signals from each station is
such that the signal from the previous transmission is out of the coverage area before the next is
sent.
• Thus they always appear in the same order

Reference________________________________________________________________
Loran's Capability to Mitigate the Impact of a GPS Outage on GPS Position, Navigation, and Time Applications; Prepared for the
Federal Aviation Administration, Vice President for Technical Operations, Navigation Services Directorate; dated March 2004

Page 7
 • A group consisting of a
Master and up to four
slaves is called a chain
• Each chain is identified by
a Group Repetition Rate
(GRI) which is the time
between transmissions
from the master.

How ambiguity in a position line is resolved

CYCLAN was the first fully automatic LORAN system. The cyclic ambiguity problem was
solved through the use of pulse transmissions on two frequencies 20 kc/s apart (180 and 200 kc/s were
used at first, followed by operation on 160 and 180 kc/s). Slope matching on the first 50 microseconds of
the pulses was followed by cycle matching within the pulse envelope for precise determination of arrival
time-differences.
Incorrect cycle-matching at one frequency was readily apparent by an obvious mismatch at the second
frequency utilized. CYCLAN coverage was limited to the groundwave region and gave a range of about
1000-1500 miles (depending on local noise). Operational tests with CYCLAN were complicated by serious
interference problems involving broadcast stations and aeronautical radio beacons on adjacent
frequencies. The tests did show, however, that the
RF cycle- identification problem could be solved.
Very significant progress was also made in the area
of instrumentation. It became necessary to seek
another solution when the Atlantic
City (1947) Radio Conference designated the 90-
110 kc/s band (20 kc/s bandwidth) for the
development of long range navigational system
CYCLAN required a total bandwidth of
approximately 40 kc/s.

Sky waves affects the measured time difference.

• Receivers require a data base which provides
• the location (Lat/Lon) of the Master and
Slave stations
• the GRI of the chains to be used
• the Time Delays for the individual stations
• The LORAN C signal travels both by ground wave and sky wave
• ground wave gives stable, reliable timing
• sky wave does not due to the variable nature of the ionosphere
• ground wave is attenuated more and hence is weaker and can be contaminated by the sky wave
• Since sky wave is always delayed by a minimum of 30μs, the positive-going zero crossover of the
third cycle of the ground wave is used for timing

Reference__________________________________________________________________
www.doe.carleton.ca/courses/ELEC4600/Nav_LORAN_C_bw.ppt

Page 8
Radii of coverage areas
After the accuracy contours are drawn on the planning charts, these contours are investigated to insure
that an adequate signal covers the area. If the geometry of the chain provides the desired accuracy over
a region but the signal paths are such that the signal is so greatly attenuated that the receiver is unable
to deliver the navigation information, the accuracy contours must be limited by range radii (based on
the specifications of the receiver) which indicate the limit of signal coverage. Reconciliation between
these two requirements results in
the final coverage diagram showing the effective area covered by the navigational system.

Example of LORAN Chart:

Reference________________________________________________________________
Loran's Capability to Mitigate the Impact of a GPS Outage on GPS Position, Navigation, and Time Applications; Prepared for
the Federal Aviation Administration, Vice President for Technical Operations, Navigation Services Directorate; dated March
2004

Page 9
(Note to instructor: Please acquire a video in relation to this subject matter for more detailed
explanation. You can find it in YouTube there’s a lot of it.)

Questions:

1. How LORAN C works?

a) Explain the hyperbolic System.
b) One station is referred to as the Master and the others as Slaves. How could you determine
your LOP.
c) How do we determine the time difference.
d) How do we identify the pulses from each station?
e) How ambiguity in a position line is resolved
If you can answer from question a to e then you can explain how LORAN C works.
2. How ambiguity in a position line is resolved

Page
10
Topic 3: eLORAN

Introduction
The usefulness of Loran has diminished due to the introduction of the more reliable
GPS. However, there is a growing disadvantage to the overdependence to GPS. So much so
that Loran is being enhance hence eLoran, “e” for enhanced. An example of eLoran is Eurfix.
Another reason for not discontinuing Loran is the fact that satellite may be disrupted or
intentionally interrupted (ex. in times of war) by jamming since it relies on satellite radio signal.
Although the Loran is liable to disruption just like the GPS however, it can be fixed because it is
terrestrial in nature, which could be fixed in much shorter time than satellite-based.

LO: At the end of the lesson the learner were being able to:
• Explains basic operating principles of eLoran
• The principal difference between eLoran and traditional Loran-C system
• The use of eLoran when satellite services are disrupted.
• Explains that eLoran transmissions are synchronized to an identifiable, publicly-
certified, source of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) by a method wholly independent
of GNSS
• Describes the advantages and limitations of eLoran

Operating Principles of eLORAN

eLoran meets a set of worldwide standards and operates wholly independently of GPS,
GLONASS, Galileo, or any future GNSS. Each user’s eLoran receiver will be operable in all
regions where an eLoran service is provided. eLoran receivers shall work automatically, with
minimal user input.
The core eLoran system
comprises modernized
control centers, transmitting
stations and monitoring
sites. eLoran transmissions
are synchronized to an
identifiable, publicly-certified,
source of Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC) by a
method wholly independent
of GNSS. This allows the
eLoran Service Provider to
operate on a time scale that
is synchronized with but
operates independently of
GNSS time scales.
Synchronizing to a common
time source will also allow
receivers to employ a
mixture of eLoran and satellite signals.
The principal difference between eLoran and traditional Loran-C is the addition of a data
Reference________________________________________________________________________________
Loran's Capability to Mitigate the Impact of a GPS Outage on GPS Position, Navigation, and Time Applications; Prepared for the
Federal Aviation Administration, Vice President for Technical Operations, Navigation Services Directorate; dated March 2004

Page
11
channel on the transmitted signal. This conveys application-specific corrections, warnings, and
signal integrity information to the user’s receiver. It is this data channel that allows eLoran to
meet the very demanding requirements of landing aircraft using non-precision instrument
approaches and bringing ships safely into harbor in low-visibility conditions. eLoran is also
capable of providing the exceedingly precise time and frequency references needed by the
telecommunications systems that carry voice and internet communications.

Principal difference between eLoran and traditional Loran-C system.

The predecessor of eLoran, Loran-C, delivered a positioning accuracy of 460 meters, principally
to mariners sailing in coastal and oceanic waters. When the Global Positioning System (GPS)
appeared in the1980s, with its positioning accuracy of tens of meters, many began to regard
Loran-C as irrelevant. However, others saw it as an essential source of position and time that
could still be relied upon if GPS failed.
In September 2001, almost simultaneously with the “9/11” act of terrorism, the US Government
published its “Volpe Report”. This spelled out the degree to which the US, like other nations
worldwide, was starting to base its critical infrastructures on GPS. The Report explained the
vulnerability of GPS (and similar GNSS systems) to disruption by intentional or unintentional
interference. It identified Loran as a potential solution to this important problem. This attracted
interest worldwide, and provided an impetus to modernize the Loran system in the US.
The US Loran evaluation and modernization program resulted in this new version of Loran with
significantly improved performance. It has much better accuracy, integrity, and continuity while
continuing to meet Loran-C’s traditional availability requirements (Table 1). These
improvements are realized mainly through the addition of a data channel. This data channel
allows eLoran to meet the very demanding requirements of landing aircraft using so-called non-
precision instrument approaches, and bringing ships safely into harbor in low-visibility
conditions. eLoran was also shown to be capable of providing the exceedingly precise time and
frequency
References needed by the Availability Integrity Continuity
telecommunications systems that
carry voice and internet
communications. Accuracy
-7
0.004 – 0.01 nautical mile (8 – 20 0.999 – 0.9999 0.999999 (1 x 10 ) 0.999 – 0.9999 over
meters) 150 seconds

The use of eLoran when satellite services are disrupted

eLoran meets a set of world-wide standards and will run wholly independently of GPS,
GLONASS, Galileo, or any future GNSS. Each user’s eLoran receiver will be operable in all
regions where eLoran service is provided. eLoran receivers shall work automatically, with
minimal user input.
The foundation for the eLoran signal is the US Coast Guard Specification of the Transmitted
Loran-C Signal. However, for eLoran use, many of the tolerances have been tightened in order
to ensure that eLoran meets the new, much higher, standards. Details of these changes will be
Reference_____________________________________________________________________________
Specification of the Transmitted LORAN-C Signal, United States Coast Guard, COMDTINST M16562.4A, 1994

Page
12
specified in later documents. The change to eLoran will not preclude the continued use of
legacy Loran-C receivers, but legacy users will not benefit from the additional data channel
capabilities of eLoran. Because eLoran signals travel over the surface of the earth (i.e., they are
groundwaves), they are subject to small propagation delays that depend on the electrical
conductivity of the ground. To achieve the high level of accuracy required for aviation
approaches, harbor entrance and approach maneuvers, and to recover precise time, these
propagation delays must be measured and the corrections must be applied. User and System
Monitor Receivers will store and employ these Signal Propagation Corrections to maximize the
accuracy and also provide integrity for the solutions they deliver.
Operating and monitoring systems of eLoran
The world’s shipping industry is experiencing strong growth, which is expected to continue.
Ships are getting larger and faster, sea-lanes are becoming more crowded, and crews are
increasingly relying on electronic navigation systems to operate in this environment9. The newly
proposed concept of e-Navigation will improve safety, security, and protection of the marine
environment as well as potentially reducing costs. It will provide bridge officers with all the
information they need on a single display. In order to make these critical e-navigation services
available, the system will require a supply of position and timing data of exceptionally high
accuracy and reliability.
This information will come principally from GNSS. But GNSS alone cannot be guaranteed to
meet the availability and reliability required. Uniquely, the combination of GNSS and eLoran will
do so, with the two systems operating independently of one another, but providing a single
combined output data stream. Thus, eLoran is the key that will enable e-Navigation to deliver its
full range of benefits and maintain safety through redundancy10. The high availability achieved
could also lead to a reduction in the number of traditional physical aids to navigation - lights and
buoys – with potentially substantial cost savings.
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) sets the navigation performance requirements for
systems to gain acceptance into the World Wide Radionavigation System (WWRNS). These
apply in harbor entrances, harbor approaches and those coastal waters with a high volume of
traffic and/or a significant degree of risk.

Accuracy Signal Availability Time to Alarm Service Reliability

10 meters (95%) 0.998 over 2 years 10 seconds 0.9997 over 3
hours

Table 4 – IMO requirements for harbor or coastal operations

A number of demonstration projects and studies in the US and Europe have shown that eLoran
can meet these requirements. The most demanding specification is the accuracy of 10 meters
(95%). Achieving this requires two key components. The signal propagation errors along the
channels and throughout the harbors must be measured. The resulting Signal Propagation
Corrections are published, and stored in each receiver. Real-time differential Loran corrections
are applied to remove the small fluctuations in the signals due to weather or transmitter timing
variations. By using these real-time corrections, ships achieve the exceptional accuracy
required for safe navigation in confined waterways.
Reference____________________________________________________________________________
World-Wide Radionavigation System. International Maritime Organisation, Resolution A.953(23), December 2003

Page
13
eLoran supplies the precise timing needed to support not only e-Navigation, but also the
Automatic Identification System (AIS) and synchronized lights in harbor areas. The performance
requirement that eLoran must meet for these timing applications is the International
Telecommunication Union’s (ITU) standard ITU G.81113. This specifies the relative phase
-11
stability required of primary reference clocks: 1 × 10 .
An important bonus of using eLoran – something GNSS cannot provide – is the eLoran
compass. When the receiver is used with an H-field (Magnetic Loop) antenna it can be
employed as an automatic direction-finder taking bearings on the transmitting stations. From
these, the receiver calculates the ship’s heading, generally with an accuracy of better than 1°,
and independent of the ship’s movement.
eLoran maritime equipment will be required to meet Description
minimum operational performance standards (MOPS) that
will be issued in due course by the IMO, the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) or eLoran service
providers. These documents will also specify the interfaces
of the eLoran receiver with ship-borne navigation equipment
such as the Electronic Chart Display and Information
System (ECDIS) or AIS. Benefit
Safety
• Maintains e-Navigation operations when GNSS
is disrupted rather than the ship reverting to
traditional operations using physical aids to
navigation (AtoN).

• Enables permanent or temporary virtual AtoNs to be

used to mark dangerous waters. In conjunction
with a robust collision warning systems, this will
enhance the safety of life at sea.
Security
• Supports robust collision warning systems
during GNSS disruptions.

• Maintains Vessel Traffic Service situational

awareness using the marine Automatic
Identification System when GNSS is disrupted.
Economic
• Potentially reduces the number of collisions and
groundings leading to a reduction in oil spills and
assists with pollution monitoring

• Potentially decreases the total cost of AtoN service

provision.
• Potentially improves on-board operational efficiency
including routing and access to ports.

Page
14
Time & Frequency
Using GNSS is now the principal method of recovering UTC time world-wide. GNSS is
extensively employed as a time source in the telecommunications and many other industries. It
provides time with an accuracy of 5 – 100 nanoseconds.
eLoran is a viable alternative source of time, since its transmissions are precisely synchronized
to UTC. The data channel carries messages that receivers use to identify the timing of each
individual eLoran pulse from each station. Other messages on this channel also correct for
small variations caused by propagation delays. Employing them allows absolute UTC time to be
recovered with an accuracy of 50 nanoseconds. Thus an eLoran timing receiver can serve as a
reference clock, a primary source of time, or as an alternative to GNSS; combined GNSS-Loran
timing receivers are available commercially.
A particular advantage of eLoran over GNSS is the availability of its signals indoors. This avoids
the need to install an outside antenna with a clear view of the sky, something that can be
particularly difficult (and even expensive) in downtown city-center locations and high-rise
buildings.

eLoran is also used as a source of precise frequency; Description

frequency is the rate of change of a clock. eLoran timing
-
receivers have been shown to meet the Stratum 1 (1x10
11
) frequency standard, even without differential
corrections. And this can be done with an indoor antenna!
Benefit
Safety
• Ensures continuity of telecommunications
network for E-911 or E-112

Security
• Maintains power grid phase
synchronization, flow control and fault
isolation
• Provides the timing source for encrypted
communications

Economic
• Maintains synchronization of wired and
wireless telecommunications without the
need for expensive external oscillators

• Time-stamps banking and share trading

transactions
• Synchronizes digital television.

Advantages of eLORAN
Enhanced Loran is an internationally-standardized positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT)
service for use by many modes of transport and in other applications. It is the latest in the long-

Page
15
standing and proven series of low-frequency, LOng-RAnge Navigation (LORAN) systems, one
that takes full advantage of 21st century technology.
eLoran meets the accuracy, availability, integrity, and continuity performance requirements for
aviation non-precision instrument approaches, maritime harbor entrance and approach
maneuvers, land-mobile vehicle navigation, and location-based services, and is a precise
source of time and frequency for applications such as telecommunications.
eLoran is an independent, dissimilar, complement to Global Navigation Satellite Systems
(GNSS). It allows GNSS users to retain the safety, security, and economic benefits of GNSS,
even when their satellite services are disrupted.

Questions:

1. Explains basic operating principles of eLoran

2. What is the principal difference between eLoran and traditional Loran-C system
3. What is the use of eLoran when satellite services are disrupted.
4. Explains that eLoran transmissions are synchronized to an identifiable, publicly-
certified, source of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) by a method wholly independent
of GNSS
5. What are the advantages and limitations of eLoran

Reference________________________________________________________________________________
2005 Radionavigation Plan. Published by US Department of Defense, Department of Homeland Security, and Department of
Transportation, January 2006

Page
16
Topic 4: Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)

Introduction: The primary purpose of GNSSs is to provide positions. Different methods of positioning
with GNSS exist with the achieved positioning accuracy varying from 10 meter to the millimetre level.
Generally we distinguish between the usage of GNSS code observations and GNSS code and phase
observations. It started with satnav or satellite navigation, which evolved into the present GPS.

L.O.: At the end of the lesson the students/learners were be able to:
o Describes the principles of operation of global navigation satellite systems
o Explains that the system will provide continuous world-wide position-fixing
capabilities.
o Describes the intended level of accuracy of the system

GNSS Positioning with code observations

The basic principle of obtaining positions using GNSS is based on the observation of distances to the
satellites. Satellite positions are broadcasted in navigation messages coded into the satellite signals, the
time of transmission of the signal is also coded into the satellite signal. The difference between time of
transmission and time of reception of the coded GNSS satellite signal gives the traveling time.The
distance to a satellite can be obtained by multiplying the traveling time of the GNSS signal from the
satellite to the users GNSS receiver by the speed of the GNSS signal (approximately 300,000 km/s).

Examples of GNSS positioning with code observations are:

Single point positioning

Once a distance to a single satellite is measured the user's position can be anywhere on a sphere with
the radius of the measured distance around the satellite. A second distance creates another sphere that
intersects with the first sphere, the intersection has the shape of a circle. Adding a third observed
distance creates another intersection that gives the user's position.
Time synchronization between the satellites time system and the user's GNSS receiver is essential to
obtain distances to the satellites. The GNSS satellites are equipped with atomic clocks and the
navigation messages contain information about the stability and time offset for each satellite clock so
that the satellites are all in the same time system. The receiver usually has a unstable clock that needs to
be synchronized with the satellite time system. The time offset of the receiver creates a common bias in
all observed distances to the tracked satellites by the receiver. In order to determine the time offset of
the receiver and correct for the bias in the observed distance, a fourth distance to a satellite is necessary
to obtain the correct user position. The observed distances are called 'code-pseudoranges' because of
the bias in the observed distance obtained from the code observation due to the receiver clocks time
offset. The positioning technique described here is known as single point positioning and gives a
positioning accuracy of approximately 10 metres.

Differential positioning
GNSS signals are affected by various errors while broadcasted and travel from the satellite to the
receiver. The errors can be satellite dependent (satellite biases, clock and orbit errors), line-of-sight
dependent (atmospheric delays, multipath) or receiver dependent (receiver biases, clock error). The
satellite dependent errors and the atmospheric delays are similar for two

Reference_______________________________________________________________________________
http://gnss.curtin.edu.au/GNSS_pos.cfm

Page
17
receivers that are close to each
other, because the signal comes from
the same satellite and
travels through the same
atmosphere. If one of the receivers
has a known position the errors in
the distance measurement can be
estimated for that station for each
satellite. Applying these estimated
errors as correction to the
observations of the second station
reduces the effects of the satellite
dependent errors and atmospheric
effects significantly. Using this
technique, which is known as D-GPS when it applied to GPS only, with code pseudoranges gives a
position accuracy at the metre level.

GNSS system will provide continuous world-wide position-fixing capabilities

Recently, there is an increase interest in positioning techniques based on Global Navigation Satellite
Systems (GNSS) such as Global Positioning System (GPS), cellular network infrastructure or on the
integration of the two technologies for
a wide spread of applications such as
Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL),
tracking systems, navigation,
Pedestrian Navigation Systems (PNSs),
intelligent transportation Systems,
precise positioning and emergency
callers. During the last 15 years there
are many important events in the field
of satellite navigation systems such as:
(a) the full operational GPS in 1993,
when 24 GPS satellites were
operating in their assigned
orbits, available for navigation use
and providing Standard Positioning
Services 2 (SPS),
(b) the new European satellite system
Galileo,
(c) the modernized of US satellite
system GPS, and
(d) the reconstruction of Russian satellite system Glonass. The increasing demand for commercial
location-based services (LBS) has driven cellular-phone and network manufacturers
to focus on positioning solutions, which are even more accurate than the regulatory mandates for
positioning of emergency callers and other user services and applications. LBS projects aim to improve
user-friendly info-mobility services for position determination by combining wireless
Reference_____________________________________________________________
http://www.aero.org/education/primers/gps/GPS-Primer.pdf (access date 12/2005).

Page
18
communications, satellite navigation (GNSS) and geographic information systems (GIS), based on a
mobile client/server architecture (Lohnert et al., 2001). The meaning of GNSS is the technical
interoperability and compatibility between various satellite navigation systems such as modernized GPS,
Galileo, reconstructed GLONASS to be used by civilian users without considering the nationalities of
each system in order to promote the safety and convenience of life (GALILEO, 2003; Feng, 2003). Our
interest here is to outline the new technologies and applications evolved and appeared from the
integration between the GNSS, GIS and wireless communications. We will give an introduction of GNSS
by introducing the characteristic of the three satellite systems (GPS, GLONASS and Galileo), signal
structure, receiver design, math model of single point positioning and differential positioning, Wide area
differential positioning such as WAAS, EGNOS, and MSAS, GNSS and wireless applications such as RTK
network and LBS including AVL and other services will be reviewed. Key Words: Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS), Global Positioning System (GPS), GLONASS, Geographic Information System
(GIS), GALILEO, LBS, AVL, Wireless Networks, WAAS, EGNOS, Applications of GNSS/GIS to city planning
and engineering.

GNSS COMPONENTS
The GNSS consist of three main satellite technologies: GPS, Glonass and Galileo. Each of them consists
mainly of three segments: (a) space segment, (b) control segment and (c) user segment. These segments
are almost similar in the three satellite technologies, which are all together make up the GNSS. As of
today, the complete satellite technology is the GPS technology and most of the existing worldwide
applications related to the GPS technology. The GNSS technology will become clearer after the
operation of Galileo and the reconstruction of Glonass in the next few years.

Level of accuracy of the system

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) technology has become vital to many applications that range
from city planning engineering and zoning to military applications. It has been widely accepted globally
by governments and organizations. That is why we expect to have very soon at least three GNSS
systems: the USA GPS, European Galileo, and the Russian Glonass systems. There is a multibillion dollar
investment in this field and intensive worldwide research activities. The impressive progress in wireless
communications and networks has played a great role in increasing interest in GNSS and providing
enabling methodologies and mechanisms. It is expected that all 3G and future generations of cellular
phones will be equipped with GNSS chips. GNSS technology dominates the outdoor navigation, which
provides accuracy to the range of few meters to 10 m in single point positioning technique or sub-meter
to a few meter level in differential GNSS technique (DGNSS). Different techniques have been developed
recently for 34 indoor positioning. They offer either absolute or relative positioning capabilities with
acceptable precision (Hightower and Borriello 2001). Combining these technologies with GNSS allows to
provide a more reliable and robust location solution. Most common implementation of Hybrid
technology for GSM, GPRS and WCDMA is to combine A-GNSS with Cell-ID.

Questions:

1. Explain the basic principle of Global Navigation Satellite System.

2. What is the difference between single point positioning and Differential positioning.
3. The GNSS consist of three main satellite technologies: GPS, Glonass and Galileo. Each of them
consists mainly of three segments. Explain those segments
Reference_____________________________________________________________________
http://www.gps.faa.gov/Programs/WAAS/waas.htm.

Page
19
Topic 5: Global Navigation Satellite Systems & GPS

Introduction

The Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) system was established by the United States Department of
Defense (DoD) to provide a real-time navigation system for the US military. Since its inception it has
grown to provide not only world-wide, all-weather navigation, put precise position determination
capabilities to all manner of users. The resulting precision available exceeds any previously attainable
without large expenditures of time and resources. This introduction will provide a brief description of
how the system works and how it may be used. The operation of the GPS system is divided into several
topics. An attempt has been made to cover each topic in such a way that a new user will have sufficient
information to understand the critical elements of the system.

LO: At the end of the lesson the students/learners were be able to:
1. Describes the basic principles of the Global Positioning System (GPS)
2. Describes the system configuration
3. Explains the frequencies that are used
4. Describes the C/A & P codes
5. Describes how the basic line measurement is obtained
6. Describes the Dilution of Precision (DOP)
7. Describes the various DOPs that are used
8. Describes the various errors of GPS
9. Describes the reasons for selective availability and the effect it may have on the accuracy of a fix
10. Describes differential GPS
11. Describes the accuracy obtainable with GPS and how the accuracy can be downgraded
12. Explains WGS 84
13. Explains why a fix obtained from the GPS receiver cannot be plotted direct onto a navigational
chart
14. Explains datum shifts
15. Describes the advantages and limitations of GPS

Principles of Global Positioning System (GPS)

At the same time when a GPS Satellite is revolving around the earth it will transmit continuously
satellite signal to the earth. Users on the earth will use various kinds of satellite receiver for the
reception of these satellite signals. From the various characteristics and features of the signal received
the distance between the satellite and the receiver may be derived as well as the baseline vector from
each individual receiver scattered on the surface of the earth. A computation of data received with
geometrical principle (Trilateration uses intersections of spheres) will find out the position of these
receivers and likewise the applications in navigation, positioning and other survey are made possible.

System Configuration

The system has two main elements: a fixed and a mobile stations. Both stations are GPS receivers with
respective antennas that can estimate position information with the usual +/-50 m. accuracy. They work
together to provide higher accuracy by subtracting the position readings and using the fact that one of
them is static. The following paragraphs describe each station, the data output and the storage process.

Page
20
Fixed GPS Station
The fixed station GPS receiver was installed inside a plastic case
together with a power supply and a radio modem. The case was
isolated with foam and only wires would come out of the case. This
wires connected the GPS receiver with the GPS antenna, and the
radio modem with a radio antenna. A power cable also connected
the fixed station power bus to a tent power outlet. Connected to AC
power by a power cable buried in snow (power present only when
generator on). This station is located about 15 meters away from
the tent.

This configuration generated a warning in the GPS receiver every

time the system was powered again. It is necessary to have a UPS or
battery for permanent power for base station. That also allow for
more integration time, to obtain a precise reference position for the
fixed-mobile stations.

Another issue was the position of both antennas. The radio modem antennas have to be as high as
possible from the snow to achieve a better range of trouble less communication. After having comms
problems at a few meters distance between both stations. We raised the fixed station radio modem
antenna to 2 meter high. That improved the communications to a few hundred meters. Unfortunately, it
was not possible to perform modifications to the mobile station.

Mobile Station
The mobile station in part of the radar-sled. It consist of several
electronic units. Those of relevance for the GPS system are the
GPS receiver, the radio modem and the portable computer. The
GPS receiver is connected to the GPS antenna, and serially to the
radio modem and the portable computer.
The power for all the units comes from a car battery. This battery
is connected to a 12VDC bus and power is distributed to all units.
The initial power distribution did not take into account the voltage
drop in the lines, and the voltage at the GPS receiver was lower than 11V when the battery had medium
charge. This prevented the proper operation of the receiver, that would shut down itself. The problem
was addressed by making the wires shorter.

Frequencies that are used

Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites broadcast microwave signals to enable GPS receivers on or
near the Earth's surface to determine location, velocity, and time. The GPS system itself is operated by
the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) for use by both the military and the general public.
GPS signals include ranging signals, used to measure the distance to the satellite, and navigation
messages. The navigation messages include ephemeris data, used to calculate the position of each
satellite in orbit, and information about the time and status of the entire satellite
Reference_________________________________________________________________
Litton, James D.; Graham Russell & Richard K. Woo, "Method and apparatus for digital processing in a global positioning system
receiver", issued 1996-11-19, assigned to Leica Geosystems

Page
21
constellation, called the almanac.
There are 4 signals available for civilian
use. In order of date of introduction,
these
are: L1 C/A, L2C, L5 and L1C.[1]L1 C/A is
also called the legacy signal and is
broadcast by all satellites. The other
signals are called modernized signalsand
not broadcast by all satellites. In
addition, there are restricted signals, also
broadcast to the general public, but
whose encoding is secret and are
intended to be used only by authorized
parties. Nonetheless, some limited use of restricted signals can be made by civilians without access to
the secret encoding details; this is
called codeless andsemi-codeless access,
and is officially supported.[2]
The interface to the User Segment (GPS
receivers) is described in the Interface
Control Documents (ICD). The format of
civilian signals is described in the Interface
Specification (IS) which is a subset of the
ICD.
C/A & P codes
There is an ongoing difference of opinion
as to whether P-Code or C/A-Code GPS
should be utilized for range tracking
applications, particularly on training
ranges. As in any difference of opinion,
there are usually two sides to the
argument. In this paper we will attempt
to come to some logical conclusions
regarding the subject. The first step of
course is to identify the basic differences
between C/A-Code and P-Code GPS. The
major difference in the codes is in the
chip rate. C/A-Code is transmitted at a
1.023 megahertz chip rate while P-Code
is transmitted at a 10.23 megahertz chip
rate. The other major difference is that
while C/A-Code is transmitted on a single
frequency (L 1), P-Code
Reference___________________________________________________________________
https://www.ion.org/publications/abstract.cfm?articleID=5018

Page
22
is transmitted on two frequencies (Ll & L2). The difference in chip rate contributes little to the
fundamental increased accuracy of P-Code because the difference in power levels (C/A-code power is 3
dB higher than P-Code power) partially compensates for the chip rate difference. As the major error in
GPS is caused by the ionospheric delay error from the satellite to the user, P-Code is much more
accurate than C/A-Code because ionospheric corrections can be made by measuring the difference in
transmission delay between the two frequencies (Ll & L2). For this reason, when a single GPS receiver is
used as in navigation applications, P-Code outperforms C/A-Code by a large margin. However, in a
confined test area such as a test and training range, where precision tracking is required, differential
GPS can be applied. With differential GPS, the ionospheric delay uncer- tainties can be removed from a
C/A-Code system, thus enabling it to achieve position accuracies almost as good as P-Code. Therefore,
there tends to be a propensity to plan for the use of differential C/A- Code GPS on the test and training
ranges of the future. This trend is caused because of the comparable accuracy of the two systems and
the perception that C/A-Code GPS receivers are much less expensive than P-Code GPS receivers.

Dilution of precision (DOP), or geometric dilution of precision (GDOP), is a term used in satellite
navigation and geomatics engineering to specify the additional multiplicative effect of navigation
satellite geometry on positional measurement precision.

Various DOPs that are used

The concept of dilution of precision (DOP) originated with users of the Loran-C navigation system. The
idea of Geometric DOP is to state how errors in the measurement will affect the final state estimation.
This can be defined as:

Conceptually you can imagine errors on a measurement resulting in the term

changing. Ideally small changes in the measured data will not result in large changes in output location,
as such a result would indicate the solution is very sensitive to errors. The interpretation of this formula
is shown in the figure to the right, showing two possible scenarios with acceptable and poor GDOP.
More recently, the term has come into much wider usage with the development and adoption of GPS.
Neglecting ionospheric and tropospheric effects, the signal from navigation satellites has a fixed
precision. Therefore, the relative satellite-receiver geometry plays a major role in determining the
precision of estimated positions and times. Due to the relative geometry of any given satellite to a
receiver, the precision in the pseudorange of the satellite translates to a corresponding component in
each of the four dimensions of position measured by the receiver (i.e., , , , and ). The precision of
multiple satellites in view of a receiver combine according to the relative position of the satellites to
determine the level of precision in each dimension of the receiver measurement. When visible
navigation satellites are close together in the sky, the geometry is said to be weak and the DOP value is
high; when far apart, the geometry is strong and the DOP value is low. Consider two overlapping rings,
or annuli, of different centres. If they overlap at right angles, the greatest extent of the overlap is much
smaller than if they overlap in near parallel. Thus a low DOP value represents a better positional
precision due to the wider angular separation between the satellites used to calculate a unit's position.
Other factors that can increase the effective DOP are obstructions such as nearby mountains or

Page
23
buildings. DOP can
be expressed as a
number of
separate
measurements.
HDOP, VDOP,
PDOP, and TDOP
are respectively
Horizontal,
Vertical, Position
(3D), and Time
Dilution of
Precision. They
follow
mathematically
from the positions
of the usable
satellites. Signal
receivers allow the
display of these positions (skyplot) as well as the DOP values.
The term can also be applied to other location systems that employ several geographical spaced sites. It
can occur in electronic-counter-counter-measures (electronic warfare) when computing the location of
enemy emitters (radar jammers and radio communications devices). Using such
an interferometry technique can provide certain geometric layout where there are degrees of freedom
that cannot be accounted for due to inadequate configurations.
The effect of geometry of the satellites on position error is called geometric dilution of precision and it is
roughly interpreted as ratio of position error to the range error. Imagine that a square pyramid is
formed by lines joining four satellites with the receiver at the tip of the pyramid. The larger the volume
of the pyramid, the better (lower) the value of GDOP; the smaller its volume, the worse (higher) the
value of GDOP will be. Similarly, the greater the number of satellites, the better the value of GDOP.

Reference_________________________________________________________________________________
Dudek, Gregory; Jenkin, Michael (2000). Computational Principles of Mobile Robotics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-
56876-5.

Page
24
GPS accuracy and error sources
The Global Positioning
System (GPS) can provide
your location, altitude, and
speed with near-pinpoint
accuracy, but the system has
intrinsic error sources that
have to be taken into
account when a receiver
reads the GPS signals from
the constellation of satellites
in orbit.
The main GPS error source is
due to inaccurate time-
keeping by the receiver's
clock. Microwave radio
signals travelling at the
speed of light from at least
three satellites are used by
the receiver's built-in
computer to calculate its
position, altitude and
velocity.
Tiny discrepancies between the GPS receiver's onboard clock and GPS time, which synchronizes the
whole global positioning system, mean distances calculated can drift. There are two solutions to this
problem. The first would be to use an atomic clock in each receiver costing $100,000. The second is to
use some clever mathematical trickery to account for the time-keeping error based on how the signals
from three or more satellite signals are detected by the receiver, which essentially allows the receiver to
reset its clock. The latter is the less expensive solution used by Navigation device manufacturers.
There is also an intrinsic error source in GPS associated with the way the system works. GPS receivers
analyze three signals from satellites in the system and work out how long it has taken each signal to
reach them. This allows them to carry out a trilateration calculation to pinpoint the exact location of the
receiver. T he signals are transmitted by the satellites at a specific rate.
Unfortunately, the electronic detector in standard GPS devices is accurate to just 1 percent of a bit time.
This is approximately 10 billionths of a second (10 nanoseconds). Given that the GPS microwave signals
travel at the speed of light, this equates to an error of about 3 meters. So standard GPS cannot
determine position to greater than 3-metre accuracy. More sophisticated GPS receivers used by the
military are ten times more accurate to 300 millimeters.
Other errors arise because of atmospheric disturbances that distort the signals before they reach a
receiver. Reflections from buildings and other large, solid objects can lead to GPS accuracy problems
too. There may also be problems with the time-keeping accuracy and the data onboard a particular
satellite. These accuracy problems are circumvented by GPS receivers which endeavor to lock on to
more than three satellites to get consistent data.

Reference___________________________________________________________________
http://www.mio.com/technology-gps-accuracy.htm

Page
25
Selective availability
GPS included a (currently disabled) feature called Selective Availability (SA) that adds intentional, time
varying errors of up to 100 meters (328 ft) to the publicly available navigation signals. This was intended
to deny an enemy the use of civilian GPS receivers for precision weapon guidance.
SA errors are
actually
pseudorandom,
generated by a
cryptographic
algorithm from
a
classified seed k
ey available
only to
authorized
users (the U.S.
military, its
allies and a few
other users,
mostly
government)
with a special
military GPS receiver. Mere possession of the receiver is insufficient; it still needs the tightly controlled
daily key.
Before it was turned off on May 2, 2000, typical SA errors were about 50 m (164 ft) horizontally and
about 100 m (328 ft) vertically.[10] Because SA affects every GPS receiver in a given area almost equally, a
fixed station with an accurately known position can measure the SA error values and transmit them to
the local GPS receivers so they may correct their position fixes. This is called Differential GPS
or DGPS. DGPS also corrects for several other important sources of GPS errors, particularly ionospheric
delay, so it continues to be widely used even though SA has been turned off. The ineffectiveness of SA in
the face of widely available DGPS was a common argument for turning off SA, and this was finally done
by order of President Clinton in 2000.
DGPS services are widely available from both commercial and government sources. The latter include
WAAS and the U.S. Coast Guard's network of LF marine navigation beacons. The accuracy of the
corrections depends on the distance between the user and the DGPS receiver. As the distance increases,
the errors at the two sites will not correlate as well, resulting in less precise differential corrections.
During the 1990–91 Gulf War, the shortage of military GPS units caused many troops and their families
to buy readily available civilian units. Selective Availability significantly impeded the U.S. military's own
battlefield use of these GPS, so the military made the decision to turn it off for the duration of the war.
In the 1990s, the FAA started pressuring the military to turn off SA permanently. This would save the
FAA millions of dollars every year in maintenance of their own radio navigation systems. The amount of
error added was "set to zero" at midnight on May 1, 2000 following an announcement by U.S.
President Bill Clinton, allowing users access to the error-
Reference____________________________________________________________________________
Grewal, Mohinder S.; Weill, Lawrence Randolph; Andrews, Angus P. (2001). Global positioning systems, inertial navigation, and
integration. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-47135-032-3.

Page
26
free L1 signal. Per the directive, the induced error of SA was changed to add no error to the
public signals (C/A code). Clinton's executive order required SA to be set to zero by 2006; it happened in
2000 once the U.S. military developed a new system that provides the ability to deny GPS (and other
navigation services) to hostile forces in a specific area of crisis without affecting the rest of the world or
its own military systems.
On 19 September 2007, the United States Department
of Defense announced that future GPS III satellites will
not be capable of implementing SA, eventually making
the policy permanent.

Differential GPS (DGPS)

Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) is an
enhancement to Global Positioning System that
provides improved location accuracy, from the 15-
meter nominal GPS accuracy to about 10 cm in case of
the best implementations.
DGPS uses a network of fixed, ground-based reference
stations to broadcast the difference between the
positions indicated by the GPS satellite systems and
the known fixed positions. These stations broadcast
the difference between the measured
satellite pseudoranges and actual (internally computed) pseudoranges, and receiver stations may
correct their pseudoranges by the same amount. The digital correction signal is typically broadcast
locally over ground-based transmitters of shorter
range.
WGS 84
WGS 84 is an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed terrestrial
reference system and geodetic datum. WGS 84 is
based on a consistent set of constants and model
parameters that describe the Earth's size, shape, and
gravity and geomagnetic fields. WGS 84 is the
standard U.S. Department of Defense definition of a
global reference system for geospatial information
and is the reference system for the Global Positioning
System (GPS). It is compatible with the International
Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS).
WGS 84 identifies four defining parameters. These are the semi-major axis of the WGS 84 ellipsoid, the
flattening factor of the Earth, the nominal mean angular velocity of the Earth, and the geocentric
gravitational constant as specified below.
Reference__________________________________________________________________
Kee, C., Parkinson, B. W., and Axelrad, P. (1991), "Wide area differential GPS", Navigation, Journal of the Institute of Navigation,
38, 2 (Summer, 1991),
http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/icg/2012/template/WGS_84.pdf

Page
27
Datum Shift
The difference in co-ordinates between datums
is commonly referred to as datum shift. The
datum shift between two particular datums can
vary from one place to another within one
country or region, and can be anything from
zero to hundreds of meters (or several
kilometers for some remote islands). The North
Pole, South Pole and Equator will be in different
positions on different datums, so True
North will be slightly different. Different
datums use different interpolations for the
precise shape and size of the Earth (reference
ellipsoids).
Because the Earth is an imperfect ellipsoid,
localised datums can give a more accur ate
representation of the area of coverage than WGS 84. OSGB36, for example, is a better approximation to
the geoid covering the British Isles than the global WGS 84 ellipsoid. However, as the benefits of a global
system outweigh the greater accuracy, the global WGS 84 datum is becoming increasingly adopted.

Reference__________________________________________________________________________________
WGS 84 on the site of National Geodetic Survey

Page
28
 UPDATING MAPS USING GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS (GPS) - ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

 Quick way of accurately updating maps.

 Ease with which locations for features in maps can be determined with a high degree of accuracy.
 Existing maps can be quickly updated to add new features such as road networks, schools, water
supply systems, etc.
 GPS surveys can be undertaken in areas that are vulnerable to regular cloud cover, a fact that often
limits the use of satellite images.

 For GPS to be useful it requires a high degree of accuracy (including the post-processing of GPS
data).
 High-resolution GPS surveys require sophisticated and expensive technologies as well as highly
trained staff. Geodetic surveys require a high degree of accuracy if they are to prove useful.
 Distortion of satellite signals can also reduce the area that can be surveyed (e.g. forests, dense
urban areas, and tunnels, hill formations)
 The collection of map data is time-consuming, especially if the survey is to cover a wide area or if
the level of detail of the survey objects is very high.
 Additional information (attribute data) has to be collected during the survey
 Classification procedures have to be similar for all surveys (e.g. density of trees determined to
classify a forest area)

Reference____________________________________________________________________
http://www.methodfinder.net/prosncons9.html

(Note to instructor: Show the students additional preference a video, you can obtain that in youtube just
type the subject matter in the website)
Questions:
1. Explain the basic principles of the Global Positioning System (GPS)
2. The system has two main elements: a fixed and a mobile stations, Explain those two elements
3. Explain the microwave and Ranging signals used by the GPS
4. Explain the C/A & P codes
5. Explain how the basic line measurement is obtained
6. Explain the Dilution of Precision (DOP)
7. Explain the various DOPs that are used
8. Explain the various errors of GPS
9. Explain the reasons for selective availability and the effect it may have on the accuracy of a fix
10. Explain differential GPS
11. Explain s the accuracy obtainable with GPS and how the accuracy can be downgraded
12. Explain WGS 84
13. Explain why a fix obtained from the GPS receiver cannot be plotted direct onto a navigational chart
14. Explain datum shifts
15. Explain the advantages and limitations of GPS

Page
29
Topic 6: Augmented Satellite Systems

Introduction: Augmentation of a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is a method of improving the
navigation system's attributes, such as accuracy, reliability, and availability, through the integration of
external information into the calculation process. There are many such systems in place and they are
generally named or described based on how the GNSS sensor receives the external information. Some
systems transmit additional information about sources of error (such as clock drift, ephemeris,
or ionospheric delay), others provide direct measurements of how much the signal was off in the past,
while a third group provide additional vehicle information to be integrated in the calculation process.

LO: At the end of the lesson the learner/student were be able to:
 Learn the basic principle of Differential GPS
 Learn how DGPS stations can transmit the corrections
 Describes the Regional Satellite Navigation Systems such as China's BeiDou (COMPASS) Navigation
Satellite System, India's Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS), Japan's Quasi-Zenith
Satellite System (QZSS) and France's Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by
Satellite (DORIS).
 Describes the limitation of the DGPS receiver

Basic Principle of DGPS

DGPS uses a network of fixed, ground-
based reference stations to broadcast
the difference between the positions
indicated by the GPS satellite systems
and the known fixed positions. These
stations broadcast the difference
between the measured
satellite pseudoranges and actual
(internally computed) pseudoranges,
and receiver stations may correct their
pseudoranges by the same amount.
The digital correction signal is typically
broadcast locally over ground-based
transmitters of shorter range. This advanced version or the enhancement to Global positioning System
or the GPS is DGPS i.e. Differential Global positioning System or DGPS. DGPS provides a better and
improved location accuracy than GPS from a nominal GPS accuracy of 15 meters to that in the best
implementation of about 10 cm. It increases the accuracy of the locations or the coordinates derived
from the GPS receivers.

Describes how DGPS stations can transmit the corrections

As we know about the working of GPS that how it calculates the position on earth by
receiving the signals sent from the four satellites. This system works but somehow some
Reference_________________________________________________________________________________
Monteiro, Luís Sardinha; Moore, Terry and Hill, Chris. 'What is the accuracy of DGPS?', The Journal of Navigation (2005) 58, 207-
225.

Page
30
errors might be there which reduces its accuracy. As locating the location GPS uses radio
signals which travel through the atmosphere at the speed of light but somehow the earth
atmosphere slows down the electromagnetic energy while piercing through the
ionosphere and troposphere. So different location have different atmosphere which
means the delay caused by above factor varies with
locations.
These above errors are corrected by nothing else but
the Differential GPS. In Differential
GPS mechanism we are having a stationary DGPS
hardware at the location which is
known. This stationary station is known as the
reference station. This station calculates
the differential error and makes the differential
corrections for the location and time.
This station after making corrections broadcasts these
radio signals to all the DGPS.

Regional Satellite Navigation Systems

BeiDou Navigation Satellite System

The BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS, simplified Chinese: Běidǒu wèixīng dǎoháng xìtǒng) is
a Chinese satellite navigation system. It consists of two separate satellite constellations – a limited test
system that has been operating since 2000, and a full-scale global navigation system that is currently
under construction.
The first BeiDou system,
officially called the BeiDou
Satellite Navigation
Experimental System
(simplified
Chinese; traditional
Chinese; pinyin: Běidǒu
wèixīng dǎoháng shìyàn
xìtǒng) and also known as
BeiDou-1, consists of three
satellites and offers limited
coverage and applications. It
has been offering navigation
services, mainly for
customers in China and
neighboring regions, since 2000.
The second generation of the system, officially called the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System

Reference______________________________________________________________________________
http://www.spacesafetymagazine.com/space-on-earth/international-relations/department-defense-reports-chinas-space-
capabilities/

Page
31
(BDS) and also known as COMPASS or BeiDou-2, will be a global satellite navigation system consisting of
35 satellites, and is under construction as of January 2015. It became operational
in China in December 2011, with 10 satellites in use, and began offering services to customers in
the Asia-Pacific region in December 2012. It is planned to begin serving global customers upon its
completion in 2020.
In-mid 2015, China started the build-up of the third generation BeiDou system (BDS-3) in the global
coverage constellation. The first BDS-3 satellite was launched 30 September 2015. As of March 2016, 4
BDS-3 in-orbit validation satellites have been launched.
According to China daily. Fifteen years after the satellite system was launched, it is now generating
$31.5 billion for major companies such as China Aerospace Science and Industry Corp, AutoNavi
Holdings Ltd, and China North Industries Group Corp.

Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System

The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System or IRNSS with an operational name of NAVIC (Sailor or
Navigator in Hindi) stands for Navigation with Indian Constellation is an Indian developed Navigation
Satellite System that is used to provide accurate
real-time positioning and timing services over
India and region extending to 1500 km around
India. The fully deployed NAVIC system consists
of 3 satellites in GEO orbit and 4 satellites
in GSO orbit, approximately 36,000 km altitude
above earth surface. However, the full system
comprises nine satellites, including two on the
ground as stand-by. The requirement of such a
navigation system is driven because access to
foreign government-controlled global
navigation satellite systems is not guaranteed in
hostile situations, as happened to the Indian
military depending on American GPS during
the Kargil War. The NAVIC would provide two
services, with the Standard Positioning Service
open for civilian use, and the Restricted Service
(an encrypted one) for authorized users
(including the military). Once the NAVIC is
declared operational after checking the systems
– space (satellites), ground (ground stations)
and the user-end signal receivers, India will
formally join a select group of nations owning
their own Navigational Satellite system
The NAVIC constellation of seven satellites are in orbit and is expected to operate from June 2016
onwards.

Reference__________________________________________________________________________________
S. Anandan (10 April 2010). "Launch of first satellite for Indian Regional Navigation Satellite system next year".
Beta.thehindu.com. Retrieved2010-12-30.

Page
32
Quasi-Zenith Satellite System
The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), is a proposed three-satellite regional time
transfer system and Satellite Based Augmentation System for the Global Positioning System,
that would be receivable within Japan. The first satellite 'Michibiki' was launched on 11
September 2010. Full operational status was expected by 2013. In March 2013, Japan's
Cabinet Office announced the expansion of the Quasi-Zenith Satellite System from three
satellites to four. The $526 million contract with
Mitsubishi Electric for the construction of three
satellites is slated for launch before the end of
2017. The basic four-satellite system is planned to be
operational in 2018.
Authorized by the Japanese government in 2002, work
on a concept for a Quasi-Zenith Satellite System
(QZSS), orJuntencho (準天頂?) in Japanese, began
development by the Advanced Space Business
Corporation (ASBC) team, including Mitsubishi
Electric, Hitachi, and GNSS Technologies Inc.
However, ASBC collapsed in 2007. The work was
taken over by the Satellite Positioning Research and
Application Center. SPAC is owned by four
departments of the Japanese government: the Ministry
of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and
Communications, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and
Industry, and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and
Transport.
QZSS is targeted at mobile applications, to provide
communications-based services (video, audio, and
data) and positioning information. With regards to its positioning service, QZSS can only provide
limited accuracy on its own and is not currently required in its specifications to work in a stand-
alone mode. As such, it is viewed as a GNSS Augmentation service. Its positioning service
could also collaborate with the geostationary satellites in Japan's Multi-Functional Transport
Satellite (MTSAT), currently under development, which itself is a Satellite Based Augmentation
Systemsimilar to the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration's Wide Area Augmentation
System (WAAS).

Reference__________________________________________________________________________
"Service Status of QZSS" (PDF). 2008-12-12. Retrieved 2009-05-07.

Page
33
DORIS (geodesy)
Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite or, in French, Détermination
d'Orbite et Radiopositionnement Intégré par Satellite (in both case yielding the acronym DORIS) is
a French satellite system used for the determination of satellite orbits (e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon) and
for positioning.
Ground-based radio beacons emit a signal which is picked up by receiving satellites. This is in reverse
configuration to other GNSS, in which the transmitters are space-borne and receivers are in majority
near the surface of the Earth. A frequency shift of the signal occurs that is caused by the movement of
the satellite (Doppler effect). From this observation satellite orbits, ground positions, as well as other
parameters can be derived.
The ground segment includes about 50-60 ground stations, equally distributed over the earth and
ensure a good coverage for orbit determination. For the installation of a beacon only electricity is
required because the station only emits a signal but does not receive any information. DORIS beacons
transmit to the satellites on two UHF frequencies, 401.25 MHz and 2036.25 MHz

The best known satellites equipped with DORIS receivers are the altimetry
satellites TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason 1 and Jason 2. They are used to observe the ocean surface as well as
currents or wave heights. DORIS contributes to their orbit accuracy of about 2 cm.Other DORIS satellites
are the Envisat, SPOT, HY-2A and CryoSat-2 satellites.Apart from orbit determination, the DORIS
observations are used for positioning of ground stations. The accuracy is a bit lower than with GPS, but it
still contributes to the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF).

Reference____________________________________________________________________
G. Seeber: Satellite Geodesy. De Gruyter-Verlag, 2. Auflage (590p.), Berlin 2003
"Doris-equiped satellites"

Page
34
Limitations in DGPS positioning accuracies at low latitudes during solar maximum
1. While it is possible to mitigate the impact of ionospheric effects on Global Positioning System (GPS)
positioning applications through differential techniques, residual errors may persist in regions of steep
TEC gradients. An enhancement of absolute TEC and large-scale gradients is observed at low latitudes
near the equatorial anomaly. This effect is significant in the equinoctial months during periods of solar
maximum. In this paper, differential GPS (DGPS) positioning accuracies in the anomaly region are
investigated during the period of solar maximum 1999–2000, using as data the L1 pseudoranges. TEC
gradients of 30 TECU per 100 km are observed during March 2000, with corresponding horizontal and
vertical position errors of approximately 25–30 m (95% confidence level) for single baseline processing.
Positioning accuracies are improved by a factor of 5 for a wide area DGPS approach.
2. The ionosphere is a dispersive medium, in which RF signals are refracted by an amount dependent on
the given signal frequency and the electron density, resulting in a range error:

I = ± 40.3 TEC (in Mtrs.).

f²
where TEC denotes the total
electron content integrated along
the signal path (in el/m2), f is the
signal frequency (in Hz), and + (−)
denotes the group delay (phase
advance). GPS signals are
transmitted on two frequencies,
1575.42 MHz (herein referred to
as L1) and 1227.60 MHz (herein
referred to as L2), and the
dispersive nature of the
ionosphere allows direct
calculation of the absolute TEC
using a dual frequency GPS
receiver. The TEC is generally
expressed in units of TECU, where
1 TECU translates to a 0.16 m
propagation delay in the L1 observable. Regional or wide area TEC models can be derived using
observations from multiple dual frequency GPS reference stations. A common technique is to estimate
parameters describing the vertical TEC (or electron density distribution) and hardware biases
simultaneously, in a solar-geomagnetic reference frame using a Kalman filter formulation [Mannucci et
al., 1998; Juan et al., 1997; Skone, 2000a].
[3] Single frequency GPS users must employ differential GPS techniques to reduce spatially correlated
ranging errors. The ionospheric range error can dominate the DGPS error budget under high levels of
ionospheric activity. The largest global TEC values are observed at low latitudes in the equatorial
anomaly. This region is also characterized by strong north-south gradients in TEC. Irregularities in
electron density cause scintillation of the RF signals and degraded receiver tracking performance,
particularly for the L2 signal [Knight et al., 1999]. Ionospheric effects in the anomaly region are a
function of local time, season and solar cycle. In this paper we focus on DGPS positioning accuracies in
the anomaly region.

Reference___________________________________________________________________
Appleton, E.V., The anomalous equatorial belt in the F2- layer, Journal of Atmopheric and Terrestrial Physics, 5, 349, 1954.

Page
35
DGPS horizontal positioning accuracies were also investigated in the sub-auroral region, where large-
scale gradients in TEC can exist during periods of enhanced ionospheric activity. Such gradients are not
strongly dependent on season or sunspot number, although larger gradients do tend to be observed
during periods of solar maximum. It was determined that DGPS horizontal positioning accuracies may be
degraded by a factor of 2-4 for the higher levels of ionospheric activity. This is an issue for marine DGPS
users who require metre-level accuracy for surveying applications. Medium-scale irregularities in TEC
exist at auroral latitudes during substorm events. Such features have wavelengths in the range 20-200
km and amp litudes of 35 cm (L1). While these irregularities have minimal impact on single point
positioning accuracies, precise differential positioning applications may be affected and ambiguity
resolution limited. It is important to consider the temporal and spatial properties of these disturbances
when designing regional networks for RTK applications. Degradations in receiver tracking performance
for the L2 signal were observed in both the high and low latitude regions. The high latitude tracking
performance was degraded during auroral substorm events in the nightside local time sector. Such
events have occurred relatively frequently during the period 1998-2001. For the more intense events,
20-40% of L2 phase observations were corrupt. Larger percentages of tracking errors were observed at
the low latitudes, where scintillation effects were found to have a strong seasonal dependence.
Percentages as large as 60-80% were commonly observed in the local time sector 2000-2400 during the
winter months. High percentages of corrupt L2 phase observations were observed only rarely at the
midlatitudes during severe storm events. Significant degradations in L1 phase tracking performance
were observed only for the low latitudes, with 5-10% corrupt observations during the winter months.

(Note to instructor: Show videos on students to guide and help them to understand about the subject
matter.)

Questions:
1. Explain the basic principle of Differential GPS
2. How DGPS stations can transmit the corrections
3. Explain the Regional Satellite Navigation Systems such as:
a) China's BeiDou (COMPASS) Navigation Satellite System, India's Indian Regional Navigational
Satellite System
b) (IRNSS), Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) and
c) France's Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS).
4. Explain the limitation of the DGPS receiver.

Page
36
Topic 7: GLONASS

Introduction: GLONASS (Russian: ГЛОНАСС, IPA: *ɡlɐˈnas+; Глобальная навигационная спутниковая

система; transliteration Globalnaya navigatsionnaya sputnikovaya sistema), or "GLObal NAvigation
Satellite System", is a space-based satellite navigation system operating in the radionavigation-satellite
service and used by the Russian Aerospace Defense Forces. It provides an alternative to GPS and is the
second alternative navigational system in operation with global coverage and of comparable precision.
Manufacturers of GPS devices say that adding GLONASS made more satellites available to them,
meaning positions can be fixed more quickly and accurately, especially in built-up areas where the view
to some GPS satellites is obscured by buildings. Smartphones generally tend to use the same chipsets
and since the versions used since 2015 receive GLONASS signals, smartphones using such chips receive
GLONASS positioning information along with GPS. Since 2012, GLONASS was the second most used
positioning system in mobile phones after GPS. The system has the advantage that smartphone users
receive a more accurate reception of up to 2 meters.
L.O.: At the end of the lesson the students/learner were be able to:
 Describes the principle on which the GLONASS works
 Explains the different satellite constellation configurations under GLONASS and GPS respectively
 Describe the advantage of the receiver capable of operating both GLONASSand GPS "combined
GPS/GLONASS receiver equipment"
 Describes the limitation of the GLONASS system receiver

GLONASS System structure and principle

Global navigation system (GLObal NAvigation Satellite System), called GLONASS, which is a summary of
the former Soviet Union in the first generation of satellite navigation systems on the basis of CICADA,
absorbing part of the U.S. GPS system, the experience, since 12 October 1982 launched the beginning of
the second generation navigation satellite systems. On January 18, 1996 to complete the design of
satellite data (24), and start the whole operation. GLONASS's primary role is to achieve global, all-
weather navigation and positioning, real-time, the other, but also for global time transfer. Currently,
GLONASS by Russia responsible.
GLONASS system and the composition and working principle is very similar to GPS, but also into space
satellites, ground control and user equipment :
1, the space satellite parts. Space satellites in part by the 24 GLONASS satellites, including the work of
the satellite 21, three spare satellites in orbit, evenly distributed in three orbital planes. Three orbital
planes cross into the 120 degree angle, uniformly distributed on each track 8 satellites, orbit altitude of
about 19100km, orbital eccentricity was 0.01, orbital inclination of 64.8 degrees. This ensures that the
distribution of any place on Earth at any one time can be received at least four satellite navigation
information for the user's navigation and positioning to provide protection. GLONASS satellites are each
equipped with satellite stability of cesium atomic clock, and receives the ground control station and
control the navigation information and instructions, on-board computer on which the navigation
information for processing to generate the navigation message broadcast to the user, control
information is used to control the operation of the satellite in space.

Page
37
2, the ground monitoring part. Ground monitoring part of the GLONASS satellites to achieve the overall
maintenance and control. It includes the system control center (located in Moscow Golitsyn Novo) and
sca

Reference_____________________________________________________________________________
http://www.55vi.com/technology/GLONASS-de-system-gouchengjiyuanli.html

Page
38
GPS and GLONASS Constellation
Both GPS and GLONASS constellations were considered fully operational by 1995, and the first
developed works to combine both systems focused mainly in how the GLONASS could be combined with
GPS to improve its performance since GPS was affected by the selective availability (an intentional
degradation of the its public radio-navigation signals). However in 2000 the GPS selective availability
was turned off and since the collapse of the Russian economy the GLONASS system was suspended and
quickly losing satellites making the combination of both systems less and less attractive. During the time
in which the GLONASS constellation was undergoing through its modernization process, many
positioning techniques were developed for the GPS only. Precise Point Positioning techniques along with
the receiver technology evolved and reached a point where it is possible to achieve estimations within
decimetre to centimetre using International GNSS Service (IGS) products. Now twelve years later and
following the GLONASS modernization program the GLONASS constellation is once again fully
operational and the quest for more precise and robust positioning solutions led to the reconsideration
of combining both systems again. Currently state of the art GNSS receivers are capable of tracking
multiple GNSS constellations and their respective dual-frequency signals. This thesis will focus on the
combination of GPS with the modernized GLONASS solving their different implementations and using
the latest Precise Point Positioning techniques applied to single-receiver real-time applications to obtain
one’s position, velocity and time.

Coordinate
Systems In order to formulate and solve the satellite navigation problem, it is necessary to choose a
coordinate system in which both the states of the satellites positions/velocities and the receiver
position/velocity can be represented. Both GPS
and GLONASS use its own coordinate system to
define its satellite orbits and its own geodetic
datum that maps the coordinates into the
Earth’s surface; GPS uses the World Geodetic
System 1984 (WGS-84) and GLONASS uses the
Parameters of the Earth 1990 (PZ-90.02) which
are defined in a very similar way. Figure 3.1:
Coordinate system and ellipsoid

Reference_______________________________________________________
https://fenix.tecnico.ulisboa.pt/downloadFile/395145496449/thesis.pdf

Page
39
The main advantages of GLONASS / GPS equipment:

 higher accuracy of combined navigation solutions

 higher availability of navigation signal in urban canyons and other areas with limited satellites
visibility
 increased noise immunity from industrial or intentional interference
 free choice between GLONASS and GPS in case of limited availability of either system signals

Civil/Commercial use

Comparing to GPS system, GLONASS use in civil/commercial applications is rare. One of the main
differences between GPS and GLONASS is that the former uses CDMA technique to separate the
satellites while the later uses FDMA technique. The main impact at receiver level is that GLONASS
receivers are in general more expensive since they require higher IF bandwidths and hence they need
more complex hardware. The migration of GLONASS system towards CDMA techniques may reduce the
cost at receiver level.
To improve this situation, the Russian government has been actively promoting GLONASS for civilian
use. In 2011, the government announced that all passenger cars, large transport vehicles and vehicles
transporting dangerous materials would be required to use GLONASS-equipped navigators. The tracking
of this road traffic will be tied to road tax collection as well as to a roadside assistance in the event of an
accident. In addition, the government has been pushing for all car manufacturers in Russia to make cars
with GLONASS since 2011. This affects all car makers, including foreign brands like Ford and Toyota,
which have car assembling facilities in Russia.
Commercial response to GLONASS improved accuracy is gaining momentum, and many GNSS Receivers
manufacturers already have in their product offer GPS+GLONASS receivers:
 Qualcomm has announced the first GLONASS capable phone (MTS 945 from ZTE): "ZTE is first to
market with a smartphone that supports both the GPS and GLONASS satellite systems, taking full
advantage of the functionality which has been integrated into our Snapdragon MSM7x30 chipset
and software”.
 In February 2011, ST-Ericsson launched “the world’s smallest receiver” to connect to both GPS and
GLONASS satellites.
 Broadcom Corporation, a global leader in semiconductors for wired and wireless communications,
announced two new GPS system-on-a-chip solutions that include support for the GLONASS Russian
Navigation Satellite System.
 In April 2011, Sweden’s Swepos became the first foreign company to use Russia’s GLONASS
positioning technology, due to Swepos’ conviction that it is better than GPS at northern latitudes.

Reference___________________________________________________________________
http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/icg/2009/icg-4/11.pdf

Page
40
GLONASS Receivers

A GLONASS Receiver is a device capable of determining the user position, velocity and precise time (PVT)
by processing the signal broadcasted by satellites. Any navigation solution provided by a GNSS
Receiver is based on the computation of its distance to a set of satellites, by means of extracting the
propagation time of the incoming signals traveling through space at the speed of light, according to the
satellite and receiver local clocks.
Notice that satellites are always in motion, so previous to obtaining the navigation message, the
satellite’s signal is detected and tracked. The receiver’s functional blocks that perform these tasks are
the antenna, the front-end and the baseband signal processing (in charge of acquiring and tracking the
signal).
Once the signal is acquired and tracked, the receiver application decodes the navigation message and
estimates the user
position. The Navigation
Message includes:
 Ephemeris parameters,
needed to compute
the satellite’s
coordinates
 Time parameters and
Clock Corrections, to
compute satellite clock
offsets and time
conversions
 Service Parameters
with satellite health
information
 Almanacs, needed for
the acquisition of the
signal by the receiver. It allows computing the position of all satellites but with a lower accuracy
than the ephemeris
The ephemeris and clocks parameters are usually updated every half-an-hour, whereas the almanac is
updated at least every six days.

Reference___________________________________________________________________________________
J. Sanz Subirana, JM. Juan Zornoza and M. Hernández-Pajares, Global Navigation Satellite Systems: Volume I: Fundamentals and
Algorithms

Page
41
(Note to instructor: Show videos on students to guide and help them to understand about the
subject matter.)

Questions:
1. Explain the GLONASS system and structure principle.
2. Explains the GPS and GLONASS constellation.
3. Explain the main advantage of GPS / GLONASS equipment
4. Explain the GLONASS system receiver.

Page
42
 Topic 8: Galileo

Introduction to the Topic:

The Galileo program is Europe's initiative for a state-of-the-art global satellite navigation system,
providing a highly accurate, guaranteed global positioning service under civilian control. While providing
autonomous navigation and positioning services, Galileo will be interoperable with other GNSS systems
such as GPS and GLONASS. The system will consist of 30 satellites, to be deployed in a staggered
approach, and the associated ground infrastructure.
A user will be able to take a position with the same receiver from any of the satellites in any
combination. By offering dual frequencies as standard, Galileo will deliver real-time positioning accuracy
down to the meter range. It will guarantee availability of the service under the most extreme
circumstances and will inform users of a failure of any satellite.

L.O.: At the end of the lesson students/learners were be able to:

 Explains the principle of Galileo as the European satellite navigation system.
 Describes that Galileo comprises 30 medium earth orbit (MEO) satellites in 3 circular orbits.
 Explains the satellite geometry and dual atomic clocks in the Galileo system.
 Explains that atomic clock signal information is used to calculate the position of the receiver by
triangulating the difference in received signals from multiple satellites.
 Describes the limitations of the Galileo system receiver.
Basic principle of Galileo as the European satellite navigation system.
Galileo is Europe’s own global navigation satellite
system, providing a highly accurate, guaranteed
global positioning service under civilian control. It is
inter-operable with GPS and GLONASS. Galileo
receivers compute their position in the Galileo
Reference System using satellite technology and
based on triangulation principles.
The basic observable in a GNSS system is the time
required for a signal to travel from the satellite
(transmitter) to the receiver. This travelling time,
multiplied by the speed of light, provides a measure
of the apparent distance (pseudorange) between
them.
The following example summarises, for a two-
dimensional case, the basic ideas involved in the GNSS positioning:
Let's suppose that a lighthouse is emitting acoustic signals at regular intervals of 10 minutes and intense
enough to be heard some kilometres away. Let's also assume a ship with a clock perfectly synchronised
with the one in the lighthouse, receiving these signals at a time not being an exact multiple of 10
minutes, for example, 20 seconds later .
These 20 seconds will correspond to the propagation time of sound from the lighthouse (transmitter) to
the ship (receiver). The distance ρ between them can be obtained multiplying this value by the speed of
sound . That is, ρ = 20 s × 340 m/s = 6.8 km.

Reference___________________________________________________________________________
a b The European Satellite Radio Navigation Programmes Galileo and EGNOS: Questions and Answers, European Union Press

Release 23/05/2011^ ESA Galileo web page

Page
43
GALILEO SATELLITES

Galileo satellite system

The Galileo Space Segment will comprise a
constellation of a total of 30 Medium Earth Orbit
(MEO) satellites, of which 3 are spares, in a so-called
Walker 27/3/1 constellation.

Each satellite will broadcast precise time signals,

ephemeris and other data. The Galileo satellite
constellation has been optimized to the following
nominal constellation specifications:

 circular orbits (satellite altitude of 23 222 km)

 orbital inclination of 56°
 three equally spaced orbital planes
 nine operational satellites, equally spaced in each plane
 one spare satellite (also transmitting) in each plane

The Galileo satellite is a 700 kg/1600 W class satellite.

Galileo
The image shows an artist's impression of a Galileo spacecraft in orbit
with solar arrays deployed. The spacecraft rotates about its Earth-
pointing axis so that the flat surface of the solar arrays always faces
the Sun to collect maximum solar energy. The antennas, shown on the
underside of the body in the picture, always point towards the Earth.
The spacecraft body will measure 2.7 m x 1.1 m x 1.2 m and the
deployed solar arrays span 13 m.

Satellite components
The L-band antenna transmits the navigation signals in the 1200-1600 MHz frequency range.

The SAR (Search and Rescue) antenna picks up distress signals from beacons on Earth and transmits
them to a ground station for forwarding to local rescue services.

The C-band antenna receives signals containing mission data from Galileo Uplink Stations. This includes
data to synchronise the on-board clocks with a ground-based reference clock and integrity data which
contains information about how well each satellite is functioning. The integrity information is
incorporated into the navigation signal for transmission to users.
Two S-band antennas are part of the telemetry, tracking and command subsystem. They transmit
housekeeping data about the payload and spacecraft to ground control and, in turn,

Reference______________________________________________________________
http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Navigation/The_future_-_Galileo/Galileo_satellites

Page
44
receive commands to control the spacecraft and operate the payload. The S-band antennas
also receive, process and transmit ranging signals that measure the satellite's altitude to within a few
metres.

The infrared Earth sensors and the Sun sensors both help to keep the spacecraft pointing at the Earth.
The infrared Earth sensors do this by detecting the contrast between the cold of deep space and the
heat of the Earth's atmosphere. The Sun sensors are visible light detectors which measure angles
between their mounting base and incident sunlight.

The laser retro-reflector allows the measurement of the satellite's altitude to within a few centimetres
by reflecting a laser beam transmitted by a ground station. The laser retro-reflector is used only about
once a year, as altitude measurements via S-band antenna ranging signals are otherwise accurate
enough.

The space radiators are heat exchangers that radiate waste heat, produced by the units inside the
spacecraft, to deep space and thus help to keep the units within their operational temperature range.

Satellite geometry and dual atomic clocks in the Galileo system.

For a satellite navigation system to work correctly, it is necessary that the signals broadcast by the
satellites are transmitted synchronously. In order to achieve this, the satellites carry very stable clocks.
The Galileo satellites carry two types of clocks: rubidium atomic frequency standards and passive
hydrogen masers. The stability of the rubidium clock is so good that it would lose only three seconds in
one million years, while the passive hydrogen maser is even more stable and it would lose only one
second in three million years. However this kind of stability is really needed, since an error of only a few
nanoseconds (billionths of a second) on the Galileo measurements would produce a positioning error of
metres which would not be acceptable.

An atomic clock works like a

conventional clock but the time-base
of the clock, instead of being an
oscillating mass as in a pendulum
clock, is based on the properties of
atoms when transitioning between
different energy states.

An atom, when excited by an external

energy source, goes to a higher
energy state. Then, from this state, it
goes to a lower energy state. In this
transition, the atom releases energy
at a very precise frequency which is characteristic of the type of atom. This is like a signature for the
type of material used. All that is needed for making a good clock is a way of detecting this frequency and
using it as an input to a counter. This is the principle behind an atomic clock.

Reference______________________________________________________________
http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Navigation/The_future_-_Galileo/Galileo_satellites

Page
45
The transitions between energy states can take place by releasing or absorbing energy at optical or
microwave frequencies. An atomic second corresponds to 9 192 631 700 counts of the frequency of the
energy detected in the transition of the Cesium 133 isotope when exposed to suitable excitation.

Atomic Clocks and Timing Systems in Galileo Systems

Accurate and ultra-stable space qualified atomic
clocks have been recognized as the critical
equipment for the precision Global Navigation
Satellite Systems (GNSS) – two current GPS and
GLONASS, and upcoming systems as China’s
BEIDOU/COMPASS Navigation Satellite System,
European GNSS (GALILEO), Indian Regional
Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) and Japan’s
Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS). Space
qualified atomic clock has t o meet stringent
requirements from launching to unattended
operation for many years. It must assure
satisfactory and reliable performances
over overall mission life, meet
constraints on mass, volume, and power
consumption, survive launch
environment (shock, acceleration and
vibration) and survive operational
environment (vacuum, thermal cycling,
EMI/EMC, radiation, magnetic field and
other space hazards). The selection of
the type of the space atomic clock for
various missions is the trade-off
between reliability, mass, performance
and cost. Table 1 lists different types of
onboard atomic clocks on different
navigation systems. The adoption of a
‘dual-technology’ for Galileo onboard clocks is dictated by the need to insure a sufficient degree of
reliability by flying 2 different technologies and to comply with the Galileo lifetime requirement of 12
years as well as superior navigation accuracy. GPS GLONASS GALILEO BEIDOU IRNSS QZSS Rb Cs H Rb Rb
Rb Cs Rb (n ot GPS IIR) Table 1. Onboard atomic clocks on different navigation systems SpectraTime
(SpT, formerly Temex Neuchâtel Time) is a space clock manufacturer of Rubidium Atomic Frequency
Standard (RAFS) and Passive Hydrogen Maser (PHM) for various navigation systems (Galileo, Beidou and
IRNSS) and other space programs [1]. In addition, it provides high-performance synchronization modules
and solutions for GNSS ground precise timing system and future onboard frequency system. This paper
will describe for space RAFS and PHM the on-ground and onboard achieved performances. Based on
these results a short overview of the ground GNSS timing segment with key equipments and algorithms,
and a novel robust onboard timing technique based on the onboard ONe CLock Ensemble (ONCLE) is
presented.

Reference________________________________________________________________
http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Navigation/How_the_Galileo_atomic_clocks_work

Page
46
Limitations of the Galileo system receiver
Although Galileo operates wholly under civil control, it does include encrypted signals, including those of
the Public Regulated Service or PRS, which are broadcast near the new GPS military M-code signals at
the L1 frequency. Galileo’s design calls for PRS use by public safety organizations such as police and fire
departments and customs agencies. Because of its design, PRS could also be used for military
applications; however, the European Union (EU) has not approved such use and several EU members
have gone on record opposing it. Nonetheless, in light of a continuing interest in combined use of M-
code and PRS, this article examines some of the technical issues surrounding the subject.
An agreement signed in June 2004 between the European Union and the United States regarding the
promotion, provision, and common use of GPS and Galileo has opened a new world of possibilities in
satellite navigation.

Simulation studies of the combined use of Galileo and GPS civil signals have demonstrated that users
may expect a clear enhancement of performance in terms of positioning accuracy and navigation
solution (See the Additional Resources section at the end of this article for further details about these
studies). The compatibility and interoperability that the Galileo signal structure will offer with respect to
GPS is especially relevant in the E2-L1-E1 band.

After lengthy negotiations, the United States and the EU agreed on the design of the Open Service (OS)
signals to be transmitted by Galileo and the future GPS on L1. If we take a more detailed look into the
different waveforms, however, we see that not only the Galileo Open Service and the GPS C/A code
have a common center frequency on L1 but also the Galileo Public Regulated Service (PRS) and the GPS
military M-code.

Because common center frequencies are certainly the main prerequisite for interoperability, the
combined processing of PRS and military signals from Galileo and GPS raises the possibility of offering a
better positioning and navigation solution. Thus, in this article we want to go one step further to the
analysis made in our previous work — cited as [1] and [2] in the Additional Resources section at the end
of this article — and assess the performance of a combined Galileo PRS and GPS M-code receiver.

From a political and military point of view, the question of a combined Galileo PRS and GPS M-code
service has clearly not been addressed yet and probably it will require time-consuming and lengthy
discussions in the future, if the negotiations ever take place. Nonetheless, from a purely technical point
of view it makes sense to evaluate the pros and cons as well as the performance that such a service
could offer some day, and the time is certainly right for doing that now.

Therefore, this article first evaluates the performance of the two single services separately using
identical assumptions. In order to do so, a refined methodology is proposed to estimate the different
sources of error that contribute to the User Equivalent Range Error (UERE), particularly the ranging error
caused by reflected signals or multipath. Afterwards the same analysis is carried out for a combined
processing of Galileo PRS and GPS M-Code signals for a joint position, velocity, and time solution.

Reference_________________________________________________________
http://www.insidegnss.com/node/878

Page
47
(Note to instructor: Show videos on students to guide and help them to understand about the subject
matter.)
Questions:
1. Explain the principle of Galileo as the European satellite navigation system:
a) How did Galileo receivers compute their position.
b) Galileo is inter-operable with which GNSS satellite.

2. Explains Galileo satellite system.

3. Explain the satellite geometry and dual atomic clocks in the Galileo system.

4. Explain that atomic clock signal information is used to calculate the position of the receiver by
triangulating the difference in received signals from multiple satellites.

5. Describes the limitations of the Galileo system receiver

Page
48
 Topic 9: ECHO-SOUNDERS

Introduction: Echo sounding is a type of SONAR used to determine the depth of water by
transmitting sound pulses into water. The time interval between emission and return of a pulse is
recorded, which is used to determine the depth of water along with the speed of sound in water at the
time. This information is then typically used for navigation purposes or in order to obtain depths for
charting purposes. Echo sounding can also refer to hydroacoustic "echo sounders" defined as active
sound in water (sonar) used to study fish. Hydroacoustic assessments have traditionally employed
mobile surveys from boats to evaluate fish biomass and spatial distributions. Conversely, fixed-location
techniques use stationary transducers to monitor passing fish.
The word sounding is used for all types of depth measurements, including those that don't use sound,
and is unrelated in origin to the word sound in the sense of noise or tones. Echo sounding is a more
rapid method of measuring depth than the previous technique of lowering a sounding line until it
touched bottom.

L.O.: At the end of the lesson the students/learners were be able to:
 Describes the basic principles of marine echo-sounding equipment
 Identifies the main components on a simple block diagram of an echo-sounder, and states the
function of each
 Describes the accepted value of the velocity of sound in seawater and the limits within which the
true value may lie
 Describes the physical factors which affect the velocity sound in seawater
 Operates a typical echo-sounder and demonstrates an ability to carry out basic user maintenance,
e.g. clean platen, change paper, change and adjust stylus
 Identify the SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE ESTIMATES Such as:
1. Systematic/Random Errors
2. Equipment Operational Errors
3. Noise
4. Coverage Errors
5. Vessel Avoidance (variability with depth of fish)
6. Other Errors

Basic principles of marine echo-sounding equipment.

Echo-sounders, or sonars, on research ships have two
main uses:
 looking for objects such as fish or bubbles from deep
sea vents in the water column; and
 finding where the sea bed is.
Knowing how deep the water is important for several
different reasons. Most importantly is so that the ship
does not run aground. There are accurate charts for all of
the world’s major ports but our research ships sometimes
visit poorly charted regions such as Antarctica and so they
need to be able to measure how deep the water is so that
they don’t hit the sea bed.
Reference_________________________________
NERC Science of Invironment

Page
49
In the middle of the oceans where our ships often work the depths on the chart are very infrequent and
so we use echo-sounders to measure exactly how deep the sea is. We often deploy remotely operated
vehicles and sensors in the water and so we need to know how deep the water under the ship is. We
also need to know the depth so that we can characterise the area of ocean that we are working in, or so
that we can hunt for features such as hydrothermal vents or wrecks.

Main components on a simple block diagram of an echo-sounder, and the function of each:

Basic Principle
—Short pulses of sound vibrations are
transmitted from the bottom of the ship to
the seabed. These sound waves are reflected
back by the seabed and the time taken from
transmission to reception of the reflected
sound waves is measured. Since the speed of
sound in water is 1500 m/sec, the depth of the
sea bed is calculated which will be half the
distance travelled by the sound waves.
—The received echoes are converted
into electrictal signal by the receiving
transducer and after passing through the
different stages of the receiver, the current is
supplied to stylus which burns out the coating of the thin layer of aluminium powder and produces the
black mark on the paper indicating the depth of seabed.
—COMPONENTS
—Basically an echo sounder has following components:
—Transducer – to generate the sound vibrations and also
receive the reflected sound vibration.
—Pulse generator – to produce electrical oscillations for the
transmitting transducer.
—Amplifier – to amplify the weak electrical oscillations that has
been generated by the receiving transducer on reception of the
reflected sound vibration.
—Recorder - for measuring and indicating depth.
—CONTROLS
—An echo sounder will normally have the following controls:
—Range Switch – to select the range between which the depth is be checked e.g. 0- 50 m, 1 – 100 m,
100 – 200 m etc. Always check the lowest
range first before shifting to a higher
range.
—Unit selector switch – to select the unit
feet, fathoms or meter as required.
—Gain switch – to be adjusted such that
the clearest echo line is recorded on the
paper.
—Paper speed control – to select the
speed of the paper – usually two speeds
available.

Page
50
—Zero Adjustment or Draught setting control – the echo sounder will normally display the depth below
the keel. This switch can be used to feed the ship’s draught such that the echo sounder will display the
total sea depth. This switch is also used to adjust the start of the transmission of the sound pulse to be
in line with the zero of the scale in use.
—Fix or event marker - this button is used to draw a line on the paper as a mark to indicate certain time
e.g. passing a navigational mark, when a position is plotted on the chart etc.
—Transducer changeover switch – in case vessel has more than one switch e.g. forward and aft
transducer.
—Dimmer – to illuminate the display as required.
—Pulse Length
—The pulse length is the duration between the leading edge and the trailing edge.The pulse length
determine the minimum distance that can be measured by the echosounder.The minimum measurable
distance will be equal to the half of the pulse length.for the shallow water short pulse is used while for
the deeper water long pulse is used.
—Pulse repetition frequency
—This is the nos of pulse transmitted per second.This determines the maximum range that can be
measured by the echo sounder.ThePRF is normally automatically selected and changes as the range
scale is changed.for lowerrange,High PRF is used whereas for the higher range ,low PRF is used.
—TRANSDUCER
—Electrostrictive transducer
—This type makes use of the special properties of crystals (e.g. crystals of barium-titanate and
lead zirconate). If an alternating voltage is applied to the opposite faces of a flat piece of one of the
above materials, the crystal will expand and contract, and hence vibrate creating sound waves for as
long as the vibrations continue. The process is reversible, i.e. when varying pressure from a
returning echo, is applied to the opposite faces, an alternating voltage is generated across the faces and
the same can be further amplified and used to activate an indicator.
—Magnetostrictive transducer
—In this type, the use is made of the magneto-striction effect which is a phenomenon whereby
magnetization of ferromagnetic materials produce a small change in their dimensions, and conversely
the application of mechanical stresses such as weak pressure vibrations, as from an echo to them,
produce magnetic changes in them; e.g. a nickel bar when placed in the direction of or strength of the
magnetic field. If the nickel bar is placed in a coil with an alternating current flowing through it (a
solenoid), the varying current and magnetic field will cause the ends of the bar to vibrate and hence
create a sound wave. This is what happens when the transducer is transmitting.
—Echo sounder
—SITING OF TRANSDUCER
—Factors affecting the siting of transducer:
AIR BUBBLE & CROSS NOISE: The transducer should be installed in a position where there is very less
chance of formation of the airbubbles.Air bubbles will act as large reflectors of transmitted energy if lot
of air bubbles are formed close the transducer.This will also create the cross noise.
There are various locations on the ship where formation of air bubble is less e.g.
a) On large ,fast,deep draft ships-1/8 to ¼ L of the ship from forward
—On medium speed ships- forward most portion of the ship.
—On slow cargo ships-1/4 L from aft
—On oil tanker –normally forward end of the E/Room bulkhead.
—Ranging

Page
51
—In echo sounder the stylus is moving with certain constant speed and transmission takes place when
the stylus passes the zero marks.When the higher range is selected the speed of the stylus is reduced as
stylus has to paper for the longer duration.This system is called the ranging.
—PHASING
—In phasing the speed of the stylus motor remains constant.In stead of changing the speed of
the stylus,the transmission point is advanced.
—The sensors are positioned around the stylus belt.The magnet generates the pulse when it passes the
sensors which in turns activate the transmitter.
—PHASING

—
ERRORS
OF ECHO SOUNDER
—1.Velocity of propagation in water:
The velocity taken for the calculation of the is 15oom/sec.The velocity of the sound wave is changing
due to the change of the salinity and temperature of the sea water. As velocity is varying hence depth
recorded will be erroneous.
2. STYLUS SPEED ERROR:The speed of the stylus is such that the time taken by the stylus to travel from
top to bottom on chart is same as the time taken by sound wave to travel twice the range selected.
but due to fluctuation in voltage supplied to stylus motor ,will cause error in the recorded depth.
3. PYTHAGORAS ERROR:
This error is found when two transducer are used one for transmission and one
For reception.This error is calculated using the Pythagoras principle.
4. Multiple ECHO:The echo may be reflected no of times from the bottom of the

Page
52
 sea bed,hence providing the multiple depth marks on paper.
5.The thermal and density layers:
The density of the water varies with temperature and salinity ,which all tends to form
differentlayers.The sound wave may be reflected from these layers .
6. Zero line adjustment error:
If the zero is not adjustedproperly,it will give error in reading.
—CROSS NOISE:
If sensitivity of the amplifier is high, just after zero marking a narrow line along with the several
irregular dots and dashes appear and this is called cross noise.The main reasons for the cross noise are
aeration and picking up the transmitted pulse.If intensity of cross noise is high,it will completely mask
the shallow waterdepths.This is controlled by swept gain control circuit.
—AERATION:
When the sound wave is reflected from the reflected from the air bubbles,it will appear as dots,this is
known as aeration.

Velocity of sound in seawater

For normal applications on merchant vessels, the indication of the depth value based on the average
speed of sound (1500 m/sec.) causes a minor error when changing from Salt Water (SW) to Fresh Water
(FW). Assuming there is a small correction
adjustment for SW, the true depth in FW is found to
be about 3% less than the indicated depth. As can be
seen, this deviation is very small and thus
insignificant for practical considerations.
When sound wave passes through an interface of two
mediums, besides suffering loss of energy, they
refract as well as reflect (critical refraction) at the
boundary where the two media meet.
An echo-sounder transmits a pulse of sound directly
downwards from the bottom of the ship. The pulse of
sound travels down through the water, bounces off the sea bed and then travels upwards until the
reflection is heard by the echo-sounder. The echo-sounder times how long the pulse of sound takes to
travel to the sea bed and back up to the ship. The depth of the water can be calculated using the
formula:
distance = time/2 x speed of sound in water
The speed of sound in water is sometimes assumed to be 1500 ms -1, or a more accurate
value is obtained from the Hydrographic Office’s Carter Tables or it can be measured using a sound
velocity probe or from CTD data. Multi-beam echo-sounders allow us to map large areas of the sea bed
from the ship. Multi-beam systems use an array of echo-sounder transducers and signal processing
electronics to steer the echo-sounder beam across the sea bed, covering a large area of sea bed in each
sweep.

Reference__________________________________________________________________
basicprinciple-short-pulses-of.html
http://noc.ac.uk/research-at-sea/ships/onboard-equipment/echo-sounders

Page
53
Factors which affect the velocity sound in seawater
Speed of sound as a function of depth at a position north of
Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean derived from the 2005 World
Ocean Atlas. The SOFAR channel is centered on the minimum
in the speed of sound at ca. 750-m depth.
In salt water that is free of air bubbles or suspended
sediment, sound travels at about 1500 m/s.[clarification needed] The
speed of sound in seawater depends on pressure (hence
depth), temperature (a change of 1 °C ~ 4 m/s), and salinity (a
change of 1‰ ~ 1 m/s), and empirical equations have been
derived to accurately calculate the speed of sound from these
variables. Other factors affecting the speed of sound are
minor. Since temperature decreases with depth while
pressure and generally salinity increase, the profile of the
speed of sound with depth generally shows a characteristic
curve which decreases to a minimum at a depth of several
hundred meters, then increases again with increasing depth
(right). For more information see Dushaw et al.
A simple empirical equation for the speed of sound in sea
water with reasonable accuracy for the world's oceans is due
to Mackenzie:

where

 T is the temperature in degrees Celsius;

 S is the salinity in parts per thousand;
 z is the depth in meters.
The constants a1, a2, …, a9 are

with check value 1550.744 m/s for T = 25 °C, S = 35 parts per thousand, z = 1,000 m.
This equation has a standard error of0.070 m/s for salinity between 25 and 40 ppt.
See Technical Guides. Speed of Sound in Sea-Water for an online calculator.
Other equations for the speed of sound in sea water are accurate over a wide range of
conditions, but are far more complicated, e.g., that by V. A. Del Grosso [26]and the Chen-Millero-
Li Equation.

Reference__________________________________________________________________
"The Speed of Sound". mathpages.com. Retrieved 3 May 2015.

Page
54
Depth Sounder Troubleshooting & Maintenance
Depth sounders come in
a wide variety these
days. From the very
basic digital depth
indicator to an integrated
module that is just one
part of a complete
network. Depending
upon the type of boating
you do, your depth
sounder may be a handy
confirmation of what you
already know or a critical
part of your reason for
going out. Either way,
knowing what’s below
the keel is never a bad
idea.
Routine Checks:
Occasionally make a
visual inspection of the
display unit and it’s associated wiring for signs of moisture and to confirm proper seating of cable
connections. Know where your transducer is mounted and regularly check for leakage and the condition
of the transducer cable. Always turn your equipment off prior to starting your engines or changing
generators to avoid exposing your electronics to voltage surges.
Loss of Echoes:
Check the DC input voltage and verify proper connection of the transducer cable to the unit. Confirm
proper settings and adjustments of the range and gain controls. Depending upon your particular unit
you may have to change from the “auto” mode to “manual” in order to change the control settings.
Most units have some form of “TVG” (time variable gain) control but may be referred to by another
name depending upon the manufacturer. For tests purposes, this setting should be at minimum.
Depending upon the access to your particular transducer, you may be able to run a simple test that will
confirm that the signal is being send to the transducer and being transmitted. A transducer will make a
small “ticking” sound when it is operating normally. Unfortunately, you usually have to put your ear up
to the transducer to hear it. In some instances, a section of PVC pipe pressed against the inside of the
transducer will pick up enough of the transmit “tick” to be heard.

Reference_______________________________________________________________
https://navshack.wordpress.com/2010/01/19/depth-sounder-troubleshooting-maintenance/

Page
55
Listening to your transducer before you have a problem will establish a reference for future tests.
Transducer Care:
Fortunately, transducers are not a high failure item. Physical impacts to the element face and water
intrusion are the main reasons for failure. The part of the transducer that contacts the water should be
kept clean. Use water and detergent or if necessary, lightly sand to remove marine growth. Inspect the
transducer cable for cuts that may allow water to get inside. Make sure there is a clean flow of water
across the transducer face. Anything that produces air bubbles ahead of the transducer may inhibit
proper operation.

SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE ESTIMATES

1.Systematic/Random Errors
2. Equipment Operational Errors
3. Noise
4. Coverage Errors
5. Vessel Avoidance (variability with depth of fish)
6. Other Errors

1. Systematic/Random Errors

Statistical considerations play a role in connection with physical measurements since the latter involve
an error, or inaccuracy caused by small systematic and/or random disturbances which cannot be
completely eliminated. Thus, measurements of quantities such as length, pressure, voltage and
temperature (factors of great concern to the acoustician), involve errors caused by the nature of the
physical measurement. This is because the person who performs the measurement, the instrument
used, and the system to be measured, are all affected by small unpredictable disturbances. It is to be
expected that a process involving an acoustic system as the 'measuring instrument' has potential
sources and causes of errors because the actual quantification of fish echoes is achieved through
remote-sensing, and the physical quantity to be measured is related to a mobile, living thing.
As a result, the error of measurement, or error of observation, associated with acoustic measurement
and the subsequent estimates of biomass are factors of prime interest to the research worker.

A) Acoustic samples taken during measurement of fish stock density, and consequently, statistics
derived from these samples, are subject to the two kinds of errors implied above, ie systematic
errors (biases) and random errors. Both kinds of error may enter into the selection of the
observations and into the values (eg integrator readings) of the observations.

B) Systematic errors are those that cause a bias. Acoustic measurements are often affected by a
number of biases that can be either additive, or may combine so as to cancel one another. In
this connection it is important to note that statistical formulae for standard error and test of
significance, cannot be applied to provide an estimate of the direction or magnitude of
systematic errors in the selection of acoustic samples. Systematic errors associated with
acoustic surveys can often be detected and corrected by an overall logical examination of the
measurement/estimation process, a fact underlining the great importance of training and the
field experience necessary to attain the desired level of proficiency in this field.

Page
56
2. Equipment Operational Errors
A) Bottom Pulse Failure
When the echo-sounder fails to produce a bottom pulse for each sounding (ping), there will be no
integrator bottom stop function; thus the bottom echo will be integrated as a false fish echo. This only
happens if the lower depth limit of a selected integration interval is set below the actual sounding
depth, and when the 'Bottom Stop' control is in the 'ON' position.
This kind of error is commonly observed under the following conditions:
1. very uneven (rugged) rocky or coral bottom
2. extremely steep sloping bottom
3. bad sea conditions (vessel rolling and pitching)
4. exceptionally 'soft' bottom sediment.
A typical situation is illustrated in Figure 78 alongside, which is largely self-explanatory.
Figure 78.

Page
57
 B) Layer Selector Spike
This particular error is caused by an undesirable side-effect in the thumb-wheel selector of the QM
echo-integrator, which, when rotated, generates an electrical spike and this is picked up by the
integration circuits. A false fish echo integration results which appears on the integram in much the
same way as the bottom echo shown in Figure 78. Apparently the only way for the integrator operator
to avoid this problem when using the standard QM, is to manually time the actual rotation, so as to let it
occur when the rotating EK recorder stylus is not in contact with the recording paper. This effectively
ensures that the integrator is 'OFF'. The problem can be cured and other improvements made to the QM
integrator which increase the dynamic range and reduce drift.
C) School Generated Bottom Stop Pulse
While the two errors explained above (9.2.1 and 2) result in apparent false fish echo integration, and
hence positive bias, the School Generated Bottom Pulse Error (hereafter SGBPE) always brings about
negative bias due to blocking of the fish echo integration. In principle, this kind of error occurs because
the EK echo-sounder is sometimes unable to make a physical distinction between a fish school and a
seabed; it can only distinguish between low and high echo levels. Consequently, when the sounder is
operated in a white-line mode and detects a very dense fish school exhibiting similar target strength to
that of a seabed (say, TS = 20 dB), the 'sharp', strong echo returned from that school will be
indistinguishable from a seabed echo. A 'bottom pulse' will be generated, resulting in complete blocking
of integration until the next transmission takes place. For a better illustration of the problem, consider
Figure 79, which shows (a) the theoretical recording of a very dense pelagic school on the echo-sounder
recorder, (b) the corresponding graphic integrator output (integram), and (c) the geometric cross-
section of the school that has been effectively blocked from echo-integration during the survey vessel's
traverse time.
Figure 79.

Page
58
From Figure 79 we can define l0 as the observed length in millimetres of the school cross-section which
is not integrated, indicated by the length of the white band at the top of the school trace. M p = the
maximum observed deflection (mm) for the individual pings prior to (or after) blocking. From the above,
the total number of non-integrated 'lost' pings (Np) can be calculated from the relationship
Np = (Nt lo/lp)
Assuming that lo = 4.7 mm, Np = 576 x (4.7/150) = 18 pings.
Knowing Np and assuming that Mp is representative of the 'lost' mean ping integrals from the school
cross-section, the total correction, or lost integrator school reading M c, can be calculated from
Mc = Mp x Np
Hence, for Mp = 4.5 mm the correction, Mc = 4.5 x 18 = 81 mm.

D) Secondary Echo Interference

This form of echo interference is a special problem. For the present purpose it is defined as echoes
received in one transmit/receive period which were initiated by the previous transmission. It occurs,
both in marine surveys conducted in shelf seas, and in those carried out on large lakes. The magnitude
of the positive bias error introduced by this effect depends on the relative depths of the fish
distribution, the bottom and its reflecting strength, plus the overall performance of the echo-sounder as
well as the depth range on which it is operated.
For an example of this problem, assume that an echo-sounder is being operated on a range of 0 - 125 m,
ie a pulse rate Pr of 96 pings/minute. This means that the time between the start of each transmission is
Tt = 60/Pr = 60/96 = 0.625 seconds.
During this time interval a transmitted pulse can travel a total distance in the water of
d = speed x time
Hence, for this time interval and using 1500 m/s as the approximate speed of acoustic waves one
obtains
d = 1500 x 0.63 = 937 metres
ie an indicated (true) depth of 937/2 = 468 metres.
Taking this distance as the actual depth and considering the echo-sounder pulse train P1, P2, P3, P4,........
Pn (96 pulses per minute), it will be realized that the penultimate pulse, say P 3, will return its detected
bottom echo at the same time P4 is being transmitted. More generally, if the bottom depth varies in
range from d1 = 468 m to d2 = 468 + 125 = 593 m, the second bottom echo can theoretically interfere
with any other echo occurring in the basic range interval 0 - 125 m. The echogram (a), corresponds to a
situation where the bottom depth has theoretically varied from 593 (point 1) to approximately 470 m
(2). As indicated, the bottom trace appears strongly at the end of the 125 m scale and then gradually
weakens until it usually fades out at, say 20 m range. This is due to the effects of the Time Varied Gain
(TVG) function of the receiver. If the bottom depth had been a constant 520 m, the penultimate bottom
echo trace would have been recorded as a relatively faint bottom at a constant depth of 50 m on the
125 m scale. Figure 80(b) illustrates the theoretical contribution to the integrator output of the nwanted
bottom echo, resulting in an error reading of D M = M2 - M1.

Page
59
 Figure 80

depicts the problem and shows the principal error introduced into the integrator observation (M).

The only measures the equipment operator can take to minimize such problems is to change the
sounding rate, (depth range), and possibly the integration interval(s) according to the distribution of the
fish surveyed. Further ways of dealing with the problem may be learned at sea.

E) Instrument Drift
One of the problems associated with the operation of the QM echo-integrator quickly encountered by
the user, is the so-called 'drift problem'. This is caused by inherent limitations of the analogue circuits
involved. Its symptoms are observed as variations in the integrator output (mm deflections) when no
echo-signal is present, ie when there should be no deviation of the QM recorder stylus from its zero
position over a given time interval or distance, eg one nautical mile. The level of drift is generally
affected by ambient conditions (temperature and humidity) and it may appear as a negative, or a
positively sloped graph on the recorder. The slope coefficient may remain fairly constant over long
periods of time, but it sometimes has a tendency to cyclic variation with time, eg diurnal variations.
A pictorial presentation of the drift problem is presented in Figure 81(a-e). Whilst illustrations (a-d) are
self-explanatory of the drift characteristic, illustration (e) is intended to show the relationship between
an observed integrator reading M0, the mm deviation caused by the drift Md and the mm component of
the fish echo Mc which contributed to the observed reading. Given these, we can define the relative drift
error Ed as the ratio (Md/Mo) or, in more general terms, the error in percentage can be expressed as
follows:

Page
60
 Figure 81.

From this formula it can be inferred that, when large, dense, fish concentrations are being measured
(Mo......Md), the drift error is likely to be insignificant, where in low-density situations (Mo~Md), the error
caused by the drift can be of major magnitude.
Knowing the nature of, and what generally governs the level of the drift error, the reader may ask what
can be done to exercise control over it. The answer to that question is two-sided; firstly, the service, or
acoustic engineer responsible for the survey equipment must make due effort to ensure that all relevant
circuits of the system are adjusted for optimum performance. Secondly, it is the role of the operator
(and the data analyst) to carefully monitor the drift 'behaviour' during a survey exercise, and thus be
able to separate the Md component from the observed integrator values, to permit a reasonable post
correction of these data. For digital integrators this is not necessary.

F) Attentuation by Bubbles
Attenuation of acoustic waves, due to wind induced bubbles in the upper layers of the sea, is a problem
which can affect both hull-mounted and towed transducers. Recently, investigations have been made by
Novarini and Bruno (1982) into the influence that such attenuation may have on echo-integration
surveys. Their study covered frequencies of 8-60 kHz and wind speeds up to 30 knots, providing
evidence that attenuation due to this effect starts at a lower wind force and is of greater magnitude
than hitherto reported for shallow transducers.
Many surveys are carried out in weather conditions up to wind force 7 on the Beaufort Scale (35 knots).
In order to maximise the efficiency of a survey, the ship must be run at the fastest speed possible for the
prevailing conditions. It is also important to maintain the accuracy of the results to the greatest possible
extent, thus any legitimate correction available should be applied.

Page
61
Figure 82 is drawn from Novarini and Bruno's equation 9. It shows a rapidly rising attenuation, 6 dB per
7 knot increase in wind speed at 38 and 120 kHz when the transducer is only 1 m deep.
The rate of change of attenuation is 9 dB per 7 knot when the transducer is at 5 m depth but there is
less than 0.3 dB loss until the wind reaches 23 knots. It should be pointed out that the authors only
claim validity for their formula in the frequency range 8 kHz £ f £ 60 kHz and over the wind speeds of 6
to 30 knots. Nevertheless the results at 120 kHz are not dissimilar to those published by Dalen and Lovik
(1981) although the latter authors include bubbles other than those from wind generated sources.
The authors of these papers point out that users of high-frequency echo-sounders should especially be
aware of this possible source of serious error.
This is another case where the use of a towed transducer could be beneficial.

3. Noise

A simple definition of noise states that it is the cause of any unwanted power output from the receiver
amplifier, regardless of the source. Note the emphasis on the word unwanted. Noise can arise from
electrical sources, or from the sea state, but by definition any target, or targets, not being sought give
rise to noise. Naval forces seeking submarines may regard schools of fish as noise, scientists surveying
for schools of fish might consider the signals from plankton as noise. What we want to avoid is the
recording of any form of signal which might give a false estimate of the particular type of biomass we
are seeking.
With experience a paper record can be used to interpret signals sufficiently well to differentiate
between electrical, or acoustic noise which is not synchronised to the display and, sometimes, the
signals from small organisms. It is evident from section 9.7.7 that for some sizes of organism at certain
depths, the acoustic echoes are magnified considerably.
To function correctly, acoustic systems must have high sensitivity, ie the receiving transducer and the
amplifier must respond to very small echoes. This makes them prone to interference from quite low
levels of acoustic and electrical noise generated on or near the ship. Noise is rarely confined to one
frequency, or even to a narrow band of frequencies, it tends to be spread widely, but its effect on
system performance is limited to the amount of noise power occurring within the operating bandwidth
of the echo-sounder transducer and receiver amplifier. The effect of a high level of noise on a pulse is
shown in Figure 83 below.
Figure 83.

Page
62
 A) Biological Noise
Biological noise as a subject forms a part of a wider study of marine organisms which covers both their
acoustic production and detection abilities. A brief review of the subject (by Tavolga) is presented in
Underwater Acoustics, Albers (1967), Volume 2, but a more detailed review can be found in Tavolga
(1965). In the context of the present manual, which deals with the practical application of acoustics to
the estimation of aquatic biomass, we are concerned with the implications of two noise categories;
these are:
a. intense noise; for example that emitted by a school of porpoises which produce a strong noise
trace on the echo-sounder recorder and causes biased readings on the integrator.
b. the stridulatory noise (rubbing and rasping) such as that produced by crabs, shrimps or lobsters
which, in special circumstances, may give rise to an error in integrator observations and/or introduce
confusion in the interpretation of echograms.
The latter category (b) may not be of immediate concern in acoustic survey work, but it is sufficiently
significant to make the reader aware of possible implications. According to Tavolga (1965), the individual
clicks of snapping shrimps are quite powerful and at a distance of one metre may attain an intensity of
over 150 dB//1 m Pa.
The ambient noise level produced by a concentration of shrimps can reach levels of up to 140
dB//1 m Pa. In the case of the warm-blooded mammals (toothed whales) such as porpoises, dolphins,
pilot whales, etc, they emit high-pitched whistles, or squeals, whose pitch varies from about 1,000 to
10,000 Hz, (some dolphins go higher than 200 kHz). The large baleen whales that feed upon plankton by
filtering water through their mouths are known to produce a variety of sounds of a harmonic type, most
of which have fundamental frequencies below 400 Hz.
From these few examples it will be clear that an aquatic survey environment is not acoustically quiet and
that noises of biological origin can sometimes play a role in acoustic measurement errors.

B) Electrical Noise
This may be generated by electrical machines, in which case it could be conducted to the echo-sounder
directly through the wiring, or, it may be reradiated as electromagnetic waves and be picked up on the
transducer/amplifier wiring at the most sensitive parts of the system. Cables carrying power, or, control
signals, which are routed close to the transducer wiring may easily induce voltages of a few microvolts
into the latter. It is essential therefore, to separate the transducer cable from any others as far as
possible, and, to ensure that the screening and earthing arrangements specified by the echo-sounder
manufacturer are scrupulously observed.
Noise entering via the power line may be related to the mains frequency. To check this, connect one of
the vertical channels of the oscilloscope to the calibrated output of the echo-sounder. Set the
oscilloscope trigger selector to 'mains' and select a sweep speed of 10 ms/cm. Turn up the vertical
sensitivity so that the noise is clearly displayed. If it is related to the mains frequency the noise will stay
in position on the oscilloscope screen. However, many frequencies may be present, so that the trace
shows random movements and an estimate of the peak amplitude of these should be made.
To prevent excessive noise affecting the sounder it is necessary to locate the source and eliminate it.
Identification of noise sources can be time consuming and requires much patience. The usual method of
working is to first switch off as much of the machinery as possible, then reconnect one after another,
the different motors, compressors, inverters, etc until the source, or sources are found. Each of these
noise sources will have to be repaired, if faulty, or electrically suppressed. If the noise is from the

Page
63
vessel's generator it might be identified by changing over if there are two or more auxiliary engines or, if
shore power is available, this might be used for a comparison.
Installation of noise suppressors on generators or their regulators is a job for a qualified electrician and
should never be attempted by a non-specialised person. Voltage regulators are easily damaged if noise
suppressors are not properly installed. If in doubt, contact the manufacturer of the actual generator for
advice.
Some of the noise on the power line may be suppressed at the input to the sounder or within the unit
itself. It is the high frequency noise, from rotating machinery, or solid-state switches such as thyristors,
which interferes with echo-sounding. Often a filter at the mains input will suppress this noise. Such
filters can be purchased but it is important to be certain that they have an adequate current carrying
capacity before having them installed.
C) Receiver Amplifier Self-noise
The total noise measured at the calibrated output of the receiver, is due to all noise at the input, plus
the actual noise generated within the amplifier itself. For practical operating purposes the total noise is
significant, but it is important to be able to separate the noise of the amplifier from electrical noise
picked up on wiring, and from acoustic noise arriving via the transducer.
Measurement of the EK series receiver self noise can be made as follows
Step 1 Connect a high impedance voltmeter (vacuum tube, or transistor voltmeter) to the calibrated
output of the echo-sounder.
Step 2 Set the echo-sounder controls as follows:
TVG and Gain : one of the two 0dB positions
Bandwidth : narrow
Test/operate : test (no signal to test input)
Output power : 1/1
Step 3 Stop transmitting trigger
: for EK and EK-R set phased range selector to ext.
: for EK-S set basic range selector to 0.
disconnect transmitter trigger. (cable No. 6 at 11000 recorder main terminal).
Step 4 Switch echo-sounder on, the voltmeter indicates the self-noise. Note result.
Step 5 Change to wide bandwidth, note voltmeter deflection. Normal values below:
Frequency Typical Noise Levels, Calibrated output
Narrow Bandwidth Wide Bandwidth
12 kHz -61 dB/V 0.9 mV -55 dB/V 1.8 mV
18 -59 1.12 -53 2.2
38 -59 1.12 -50 3.2
50 -59 1.12 -49 3.5
120 -54 2.0 -48 4.0
There is no point in trying to make other measurements unless the receiver amplifier noise level is
normal. If it is too high, try to find out if the noise is produced by the echo-sounder, or if it enters from
outside. The following measurements may help to indicate the source.
Whilst observing the voltmeter, change the power output selector from 1/1 to 1/10 and then to ext.
transmitter. If the noise level drops immediately the power selector is changed from 1/1 to 1/10, then to
ext. transmitter, the noise is probably electrical, originating outside the echo-sounder, perhaps entering
via the mains cable, or, induced into the transducer leads. If the noise level drops slowly after changing
from 1/1 to 1/10 power, the transmitter itself is probably the source. Noise is most commonly

Page
64
generated in this unit by the output stage, where one or more transistors may have developed a
leakage.

D) Acoustic Noise
Sources of noise arise from natural causes within the sea itself, or at its boundaries. They may also arise
through the movement of the ship through the water, or, from the means of propulsion. Noise due to
natural causes alone is not under the control of man so it must be measured and then tolerated. It is
due to rain on the surface of the sea, from waves, from the interaction of water currents with seabed
material and also from thermal molecular activity at the higher frequencies. Noise from natural causes is
usually regarded as ambient noise ie (all encompassing) but it is by no means constant.
The noise output from an echo-sounder may be measured at any instant of time, but many sources of
noise are dynamic and the resultant levels may change quickly. Probably the most important example of
this is the increasing sea-state noise as the wind force gets higher; the effect of this is to produce bursts
of noise as the interaction of ship and waves becomes more violent. An associated effect is loss of signal
because of aeration at the face of a hull mounted transducer. Clearly, the direction in which the ship is
travelling and its speed relative to the wind and swell can make a significant difference to the level of
noise and loss of signals. However, it is the high transient level of noise resulting from weather and
related sea conditions which initially causes a reduction in ships survey speed, often delaying the
progress of the survey until the noise level drops (if a more favourable course is not feasible).
An effect which is not well known is that found in coastal zones where there is a high rate of tidal flow.
Wideband noise (certainly up to 300 kHz) is generated by the action of fast-flowing water over sand
ridges, evidently causing sand particles to go into suspension where their frequent collisions generate
noise. This is often evident as a 'plume' trace above the seabed echo, extending almost to the surface,
but not always appearing to connect to the seabed. The noise disappears completely when the tidal flow
rate drops as the direction is about to change, so for a period of nearly two hours it may not be in
evidence. Minimumspectrum levels at the seabed, measured at 30 kHz and 100 kHz off the east coast of
Britain were 93 dB/1m Pa/1 Hz and 85 dB/1m Pa/1 Hz respectively (Harden Jones and Mitson, 1982).
At the lowest level is thermal noise which can be detected in very quiet conditions down to about 20
kHz, but it is normally only of importance above 100 kHz, see Figure 35. Knowing the temperature of the
water, the bandwidth of the receiver and the radiation resistance of the transducer, it is possible to
calculate the voltage VRT at the transducer terminals which is due to thermal noise.
VRT = (4ktB RR)1/2 (79)
where
VRT = Vrms due to thermal noise
k = Boltzmanns constant 1.37x 10-23
t = temperature, 271 + °C
B = bandwidth in Hz
RR = radiation resistance (ohms)
Example: A transducer with a bandwith of 10 kHz, operating at a temperature of 10°C and having a
radiation resistance of 800 ohms, will have a thermal noise voltage of 0.35 m V produced across its
terminals, that is -129 dB/V. If the amplifier increases this by say, 60 dB, the output noise will equal 60-
129, or -69 dB/V ie Antilog -69/20 = 350 m V, or 0.35 mV. The same answer is obtained if we say that 60
dB voltage gain is 103 times, for 0.35 x 10-6 x 103 = 0.35 mV, or 350 mV.

E) Ship Noise
When wideband measurements are made of ship radiated noise, they normally show a high intensity at
frequencies of a few hundred Hz, dropping steadily as frequency increases. The measurements are

Page
65
rarely extended above 10 kHz, so for acoustic survey purposes it is necessary to take the noise level at
the output of each echo-sounder. The main sources of ship noise are machinery, propeller and flow.
Machinery noise may arise from high levels of vibration transferred through the hull into the water. The
amount of acoustic energy at echo-sounder frequencies is generally low, but up to 50 kHz it may form a
measurable background noise. In calm weather conditions it can set the effective threshold of the
survey equipment although in most vessels this is due to the propeller noise.
When noise measurements are made at the output of the echo-sounder at various ship speeds and the
results are plotted on a graph, with noise voltage on the vertical scale and speed on the horizontal, the
voltage against speed is usually an almost horizontal line for slow speeds. This is probably due to
machinery with perhaps a small amount from the echo-sounder amplifier. Then suddenly an almost
vertical line appears; this is due to the onset of propeller cavitation. As a physical phenomenon,
cavitation evidently causes the formation of bubbles by negative pressure, literally a tearing apart of the
water, and the sudden collapse of the bubbles causes noise over a wide band of frequencies. Cavitation
occurs at the tips, or on the edges of the propeller blades.
Damage to the blades in the form of quite small cuts can cause a considerable increase in noise at echo-
sounder frequencies. It is therefore important to ensure that any rough or jagged surfaces, or edges are
removed from the propeller and that all surfaces are smooth and polished after dry-docking. A well-
designed propeller should not cavitate at the lower speeds, but if it does it is often possible for experts
to treat the leading edges of the blades, or the tips, to prevent cavitation noise from unduly restricting
survey speeds.
By the nature of their operation, controllable pitch (CP) propellers are a source of variable noise level
and when measurements are made on vessels so equipped, it is necessary to repeat them for several
pitch settings.
When towing a trawl the noise level is greatly increased and allowance must be made for this in a
systematic way, by using the results taken with particular nets and at known towing speeds to set the
increase in threshold at which the equipment is integrating. Because we are used to looking at pictures
of sections through a transducer beam it is easy to forget that it is actually three-dimensional and that
there are sidelobe responses which may look directly at the propeller.
Example: The seventh sidelobe of a 30 kHz transducer had its line-of-sight through the position of the
propeller, with a range between the transducer and the propellor of 66 m. The response of the sidelobe
was -24 dB relative to the main beam which had a sensitivity of -184 dB/V/1 m Pa. Thus the sidelobe
sensitivity was -208 dB/V/1 m Pa with a directivity index of 15 dB. Noise level at 30 kHz referred to a
position 1 m from the propeller = 125 dB/1 m Pa/m in a 2 kHz band at a ship speed of 9 knots.
Propagation loss = 20 log66 = 36.4 dB and
VRT(noise) = 125 + (-208) - 36.4 + 15 = -104.4 dB/V which is antilog -104.4/20 = 6 m V
Because the noise level due to the propeller may change suddenly during operational service it should
be checked, recorded and graphed at regular intervals.
Flow noise is largely a matter of the transducer siting and the manner in which the installation is
completed. If there are projections or cavities along the hull in front of the transducer they will often
generate speed dependent noise. Rough edges near the transducer face due to welding, or the sides of a
housing not faired sufficiently carefully to the hull can also be responsible for high noise levels.
F) Miscellaneous Sources
Acoustic interference occurs when different instruments operate on the same frequency but it is rare for
this to cause any problems when the beams are directed vertically downwards as for echo-sounding.
Two equipments on the same vessel, operating at the same time are likely to interfere seriously with
one another and even if they are synchronised no quantitative measurements will be possible. Despite
considerable frequency separation of the systems, mutual interference results because of the wide
range of frequencies present in a pulse.

Page
66
Acoustic noise measurements at sea need to be recorded in detail because there are so many variables
such as weather and depth. For these measurements the depth of water should be no less than 20 m,
but if possible it should be deeper and the sea calm. Depth is important because noise is reflected from
the seabed, and this causes problems the extent of which depends on the level of ship noise radiated
towards the seabed. Noise levels in shallow water and under bad sea conditions are also important, so
the opportunity should be taken to measure these when conditions are suitable.
Normal measurement procedure begins with the engines stopped, except for auxiliaries supplying
power. After initial measurements with the ship in this state, the main engine/s is started and the
measurements repeated but without the propeller turning. Results of these static measurements should
be recorded in a suitable table which will also be sufficient to take those following. Next the propeller/s
is engaged and the ship taken through its speed range at intervals of 2 knots, the noise level being
recorded at each interval once the ship has actually reached the called-for speed. Finally the vessel is
run up to full speed and the propeller is stopped. Whilst still at full forward speed the flow noise,
sometimes called 'speed noise', is measured at various intervals as the speed drops.
Graphs of noise measurement against ships speed are best illustrated on log/log paper as in Figure 84. If
the sensitivity of the transducer is known, plus its bandwidth, or that of the receiver amplifier, it is
possible to calculate the acoustic spectrum level SPL at the transducer face from measurements of noise
voltage. SPL is the noise power for one cycle (Hz) of energy and is expressed in dB/1 m Pa/1 Hz. This
information is a useful reference against the SPL of ambient noise likely to be encountered at various
sea-states. An oscilloscope or sensitive voltmeter can be used, but readings must be converted to rms
and an allowance made for any gain in the system between the transducer terminals and the point from
where the measurements are taken.
Figure 84.

4. Coverage Errors

Acoustic surveys are based on the premise that if a ship makes a track across a given area of sea surface,
the acoustic signals received from its scientific echo-sounder represent a true proportion of the biomass
in that area.
There are times and situations when the spatial coverage of a given area is adequate, but for various
other reasons the depth coverage of the water column is restricted. The next section discusses the
inherent limitation of echo-sounders in the detection and estimation of fish close to the boundaries of
sea surface, bottom and shore.

A) Near Surface Layer

Excepting when both are perfectly flat, the surface and bottom act differently as reflectors of acoustic
waves. Often the water surface is moving in a random manner, thus reflecting significant amounts of

Page
67
acoustic energy in different directions with respect to the transducer. Therefore it is difficult to use the
water surface as a reliable reference, either in terms of its distance from the transducer, or in the
stability of the signal amplitude obtained from its echo. This means that in addition to the 'dead-zone'
(section C) there is a volume of water where uncertainty exists due to wave motion and this is difficult to
define.
For practical purposes of fish detection it seems likely that the greater the agitation of the water near
the surface, the less chance there is of significant quantities of fish being within the volume of
uncertainty. As a rough guide it might be reasonable to assume that no fish will be detected within a
distance from the surface of twice the wave-height, plus half the pulse length. Another factor,
associated with wave action, is the production of bubbles which may persist for long periods in the
surface region. Bubbles have the effect of introducing extra attenuation in the acoustic path, so reducing
the efficiency of detection, see Section 9.2.6. When surveying for fish close to the surface a towed
transducer must be used to look upwards. It is then the ventral surface of fish which is insonified by the
acoustic beam instead of the dorsal surface; in some species this may mean a lower target strength.

B) Near Bottom Zone

The first factor to be established when considering errors due to the lack of coverage near the bottom is
the closest point to the bottom at which detection/estimation of fish is possible. The distance of this
point above the bottom is half the physical length of the transmitted pulse ct, where c is the speed of
acoustic waves in the water medium and t is the time duration of the pulse. A graph of detection height
on the axis of the beam above the sea bottom, in relation to pulse duration is shown in Figure 85.
Figure 85.

A half pulse length is

the theoretical distance for the discrimination between objects/targets, but in practice it may be greater
because pulses are rarely perfect, taking a finite time to rise and decay. Instead of simply assuming a
value of ct /2 from nominal figures for the speed of acoustic waves and the manufacturer's pulse
duration it is instructive and sometimes important to measure these factors.
The speed of acoustic waves can be obtained from Figure 8, if the water temperature and salinity are
known. This speed should then be multiplied by themeasured time duration of the transmitter pulse,
from the point where it first reaches 10% of maximum pulse amplitude to where it has decayed to the
10% level. Speed is in metres/second and time in seconds, eg c = 1495 m/s and if t = 0.5 x 10-3 seconds,
so ct /2 = 1495 x 0.5 x 10-3/2 = 0.374 metres.

Page
68
If the speed and time measurements cannot be made, c should be assumed to be 1500 m/s, t taken
from the manufacturer's data and the product of the two divided by 1.5 instead of 2 to allow for an
imperfect shape.
Of course these figures for minimum distance refer only to the axis of the beam and, because of the
spherically shaped wavefront of the pulse, the distances off axis are much greater, see Figure 86.
Figure 86.

The minimum
distance (height), at which fish can be detected, for beam angles relative to the axis and for given
transmitter pulse lengths, can be calculated from
h = d(1 - cosq /2) + ct /2
where
h = height in metres
d = total depth of water from transducer face to sea bottom
q = full beam angle of transducer at half power points
ct /2 = half pulse length.

Page
69
Because detection ceases at ct /2 on the axis, all other detection along the wavefront ceases at the same
time, thus the total volume where fish cannot be detected, the dead zone, may be considerable, Mitson
(1982).
The volume of the 'dead-zone' when related to a conical beam, comprises the frustrum of a cone minus
the cap of a sphere. In terms of the depth of water from transducer to bottom (d), beam angle q and the
pulse length ct it can be expressed as
Volume of dead zone = Volume of frustrum - Volume of cap
Vfrustrum = 0.268 (d - ct /2)((1 - sinq /2)/tanq /2) + ct /2 (2d tan q /2)2 + 2((d - ct /2) sinq /2)2 + (2d
tanq /2)(2[d - ct /2]sinq /2) (83)
Vcap = p /3[(d - ct /2)((1-sinq /2)/tanq /2)]2 [3(d - ct /2)-(d-ct /2)((1-sinq /2)/tanq /2)] (84)
The volume given above for the dead zone relates to one transmission only, whereas in normal survey
operation a succession of transmissions occur as the vessel moves along its course. Depending on the
beam angle, the speed of the vessel and the depth of water, these transmissions may overlap, especially
near the sea bed. These factors therefore, cause some variability in the effective sampled volume of the
region where the pulse approaches the height ct /2 above sea bed. But, whatever the beam angle, the
depth of water, or the rate of transmission, the distance of ct /2 above the sea bed marks a definite
boundary under which no sampling is possible at all.
Figure 87.

For each km2 of survey area, the total volume of water near the sea bed which cannot be sampled is
106ct /2 (m3) shown in Figure 87 for pulse durations of 0 to 1.2 ms. This clearly emphasises the need for
the shortest possible pulse duration in order to minimise this zone which could be designated the
definite dead zone (DDZ).
In certain circumstances it may be important to consider the volume of the beam as the pulse
approaches the bottom, especially if the near bottom sample is important. The acoustic pulse increases

Page
70
in volume as it progresses in depth, but it reduces sharply as the half pulse length height above the
seabed is approached. Whilst the transmitted pulse contained in a conical beam is travelling through the
sea, clear of any boundaries, its volume is contained within a spherical shell of common solid angle
between the ranges d2 to d1 where d1 - d2 is equal to the pulse length ct.
This volume can be calculated from
V1 = (2p /3)(1 - cosq /2)(d13 - d23) (85)
where
V1 = the volume of the range shell in m3
d1 = depth from transducer to the pulse wavefront (m)
d2 = depth from transducer to the rear of the pulse (m)
q /2 = half angle of the beam in degrees, to the half power level
At the point where the wavefront is one pulse length above the seabed, the volume in which detection
can be made is reduced to
V2 = (p /3)(1 - cosq /2)(d13 - d23) (86)
where the units have the same dimensions as above.
As the wavefront travels through the last half pulse length to reach the distance ct /2 above the seabed,
the volume diminishes to the cap of a sphere, which finally reduces to zero at the height of ct /2. For this
situation the 'cap' is on the axis of the beam and the minimum useful volume for sampling purposes
might be considered as that occurring when the height of arc of the cap is slightly greater than the
dorsivental height of a single fish on the beam axis.
Volume of the cap of a sphere, V3 (m3).
V3 = ((p h12)/3) [3 d1 - h1] (87)
where
h1 = height of the arc (m)
d1 = depth of water from transducer to the bottom of the arc (m).
The simple treatment given above when studied in conjunction with the Figures should be sufficient for
the organiser of an acoustic survey to make an analysis of the volumes of water he is able to sample and
those which he is not.

C) Inaccessible Fish Distribution

Section 4.1/2 discussed the situations when the coverage is limited by the pulse length of the echo-
sounder and the roughness of sea surface or bottom. A more difficult situation to assess and make
allowance for, is when a proportion of the fish population moves into water so shallow, that the
combination of draught of the vessel, the minimum distance from the transducer, and the depth
restriction of ct /2 leave little, or no water to be surveyed.
In such circumstances a little inshore vessel is needed, preferably with a quiet engine, to carry a suitably
small calibrated echo-sounder and tow a transducer as close to the surface as possible. The Simrad EY-
M, plus a tape recorder, is suitable for this purpose although it works at 70 kHz and care must be taken
in relating the results to higher or lower frequencies. Results can be processed through a QM integrator
by means of the interface described by Larsen (1983).

5. Vessel Avoidance (variability with depth of fish)

It is necessary for the survey operator to be aware of fish behavior in relation to the survey vessel for
this may cause an incorrect estimate of the stock to be made. Fish react to both acoustic and visual
stimuli, but the degree of reaction varies with species, season, time of day (probably related to feeding),

Page
71
intensity of the disturbing source and the acoustic frequency band. Some pelagic fish are known to
move from areas where the large number of vessels must be producing considerable amounts of low
frequency noise.

There are two effects to be considered. Fish moving out of the path of the vessel completely and fish
swimming downwards, but remaining in the path of the acoustic beam. If fish move out of the path, the
situation is serious, so what can be done? It is rarely possible to modify the vessel so as to reduce the
noise level significantly. The measures necessary to decouple the low frequency noise produced by
diesel engines are very costly, even if introduced during the building of the vessel. It may be possible to
find periods when the particular species is less sensitive to noise, for there is evidence to show
considerable variability with time of day and season.

Recordings have been made showing that it is not only fish concentrations very close to the surface
which are affected by a ships presence or the noise it generates. Concentrations of adult herring, under
the path of the vessel, extending from about 10 m below the surface down to 40 m, have completely
disappeared, but quickly returned again after its passage, Olsen (1979). The fact that fish were densely
packed from top to bottom of the school may have led to the 'scare' reaction passing quickly through it.
It is possible that the noise intensity from the particular vessel was very high, thus causing such an
extreme reaction through the water column, but noise level data on this vessel are not available.

Sometimes it is possible to observe the rapid descent of fish under a vessel if a wide beam transducer is
in use. Normally a fish at constant depth relative to the transducer will produce an inverted 'V' shaped
trace if the axis of the beam crosses it, but, a quick descent will appear as a sloping line on the paper
record. This type of movement produces a change in the orientation of the fish with respect to the
acoustic beam, hence its effective target strength changes, almost certainly becoming lower. If such
behaviour is widespread amongst the fish population being investigated, then the overall stock estimate
will be biassed low. Avoidance behaviour is likely to be more prevalent in shallow waters because the
vessel noise does not die away quickly, but reverberates between surface and bottom.

6. Other Errors

There are other possible sources of error to be considered. The first two relate to operational matters
and the last two to the biomass being surveyed.

A) Motion Induced Errors

Conditions for acoustic survey are most satisfactory when the transducer beam axis remains
approximately perpendicular (at an angle of 90°) to the sea bottom, or oscillates slightly around this
position.

It is difficult to quantify the exact effects of roll and pitch motions of a vessel in relation to the schools of
fish it is surveying - the greater the amplitude of motion and the narrower the beam, the more
significant the error becomes. Stanton (1982) has studied the problem and his paper is recommended to
those using hull-mounted transducers.

When the rate and amplitude of motion is high and the fish are fairly deep a transmission made at one
instant of time may occur at the extreme roll of the vessel and by the time that echoes start to return,
the transducer may be 'looking' in another direction. This effect is significant when narrow beam

Page
72
transducers are used in a vessel which has a high rate of movement in pitch or roll. Consider a maximum
roll amplitude of ±15°, at a rate of 5°/s for a vessel fitted with a transducer having a full beam angle of
15°. It is clear that at either extreme of the roll, the transducer beam will be 'looking' away from the
vertical, and near bottom detection will be affected because of the rapid changes in range as the beam
swings. There will be a reduction in echo amplitude due to the outer edges of the beam (low
intensity/sensitivity) being at the shortest range to the bottom. Both of these effects give rise to a
'ragged' bottom echo, making it difficult for any automatic 'bottom stop' or 'bottom lock' to function
efficiently, or for fish to be discriminated from the bottom echoes. There would not be a complete loss
of signal for the angle of beam and the rate and angle of motion, given above at practical ranges for fish
detection, due to the effect of motion alone. Acoustic waves travel at about 1500 m/s, so if we assume a
maximum range/depth of 375 m, the time for a pulse to travel to that range and an echo to travel back,
would be 0.5 s. During this time the beam would have moved 2.5°, not sufficient to cause a serious loss
of signal.
Because many species of fish have directional scattering characteristics, where the main 'lobe' of the
response is not necessarily perpendicular to the length axis of the fish's body there may be an effect
when the transducer is 'viewing' these responses as its angle changes due to motion. Directional effects
of fish target strength response greatly increase at higher frequencies and a fish of 40 cm length at 38
kHz might have a response 5° wide, which at 120 kHz would be reduced to about 1.5°. Possibly the
random angles of maximum fish response and transducer motion tend to give insignificant errors.
B) Acoustic Beam Overlap
The amount of overlap will vary according to the beamwidth in the fore-aft plane, the rate at which
transmissions are being made, the speed of the vessel and the depth interval at which integration is
taking place. Each of these parameters has to be taken into account in the calculations.
C) Shadowing Effects
A problem which is difficult to quantify arises when the density of fish in schools is such that those in the
lower levels of the school are in the 'shadow' of the top layers. As a result the acoustic echo signals may
not be proportional to fish density, the normal premise for echo-integration. This effect has been
studied theoretically and using practical data by Ertugrul and Smith (1982). Other useful references are
Røttingen (1976), Foote (1978, 1978a, 1978b), and Lytle and Maxwell (1982).
D) Resonance of Organisms
Air bubbles appear within biological organisms over a wide size range, from fish larvae to the
swimbladders of adult fish, and they have been studied in relation to resonance. When an acoustic wave
strikes a bubble, the latter responds to the compressions and rarefactions of the wave. At resonance the
frequency of the wave and size of the bubble interact in such a way that the bubble compressions and
rarefactions are a maximum, ie its oscillations are at their greatest. Thus a maximum of energy is
extracted from the acoustic wave. Some of the energy is scattered in all directions by the pulsating
bubble, the remainder being changed to other forms of energy such as heat.
Various effects prevent swimbladders from acting as ideal resonators, the most important being the
viscous damping due to the surrounding flesh and tissue. A detailed description of the physical process
is beyond the scope of this manual but it must be realised that the phenomenon of resonance can be of
considerable importance in fisheries acoustics, for it can give rise to an enhanced target strength.

Reference_____________________________________________________________________________
FAO Corporate Document http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5818e/x5818e0a.htm#9.2.3 school generated bottom stop pulse

Page
73
(Note to instructor: Show videos on students to guide and help them to understand about the subject
matter.)
Questions:
1. Explain the basic principles of marine echo-sounding equipment
2. Identify the main components on a simple block diagram of an echo-sounder, and states the
function of each
3. Explain the accepted value of the velocity of sound in seawater and the limits within which the true
value may lie
4. Explain the physical factors which affect the velocity sound in seawater
5. Explain typical echo-sounder and demonstrates an ability to carry out basic user maintenance, e.g.
clean platen, change paper, change and adjust stylus
6. Explain the SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE ESTIMATES Such as:
a. Systematic/Random Errors
b. Equipment Operational Errors
c. Noise
d. Coverage Errors
e. Vessel Avoidance (variability with depth of fish)
f. Other Errors

Page
74
Topic 10 - The Magnetism of the Earth and the Ship's Deviation

Introduction: Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields. Electric
currents and the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, which acts on
other currents and magnetic moments. Every material is influenced to some extent by a magnetic field.
In navigation manuals, magnetic deviation often refers specifically to compass error caused by
magnetized iron within a ship or aircraft. This iron has a mixture of permanent magnetization and
an induced (temporary) magnetization that is induced by the Earth's magnetic field. Because the latter
depends on the orientation of the craft relative to the Earth's field, it can be difficult to analyze and
correct for it.
The deviation errors caused by magnetism in the ship's structure are minimized by precisely positioning
small magnets and iron compensators close to the compass. To compensate for the induced
magnetization, two magnetically soft iron spheres are placed on side arms. However, because the
magnetic "signature" of every ship changes slowly with location, and with time, it is necessary to adjust
the compensating magnets, periodically, to keep the deviation errors to a practical minimum. Magnetic
compass adjustment and correction is one of the subjects in the examination curriculum for a
shipmaster's certificate of competency.
The sources of magnetic deviation vary from compass to compass or vehicle to vehicle. However, they
are independent of location, and thus the compass can be calibrated to accommodate them.

L.O.: At the end of the lesson, the learners were being able to know the effect of the magnetism in
magnetic compass.

Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields. Electric currents and
the magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field,
which acts on other currents and magnetic moments. Every material is
influenced to some extent by a magnetic field. The most familiar effect is
on permanent magnets, which have persistent magnetic moments caused
by ferromagnetism. Most materials do not have permanent moments.
Some are attracted to a magnetic field (para magnetism); others are
repulsed by a magnetic field (diamagnetism); others have a more complex
relationship with an applied magnetic field (spin glass behavior and anti
ferromagnetism). Substances that are negligibly affected by magnetic fields
are known as non-magnetic substances. These
include copper, aluminium, gases, and plastic. Pure oxygen exhibits
magnetic properties when cooled to a liquid state.

Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such

as iron) form permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets. In physics, several different types
of magnetism are distinguished. Ferromagnetism (including ferrimagnetism) is the strongest type: it is
the only one that typically creates forces strong enough to be felt, and is responsible for the common
phenomena of magnetism in magnets encountered in everyday life.
References________________________________________________________________________
Fowler, Michael (1997). "Historical Beginnings of Theories of Electricity and Magnetism". Retrieved 2008-04-02.
Vowles, Hugh P. (1932). "Early Evolution of Power Engineering". Isis (University of Chicago Press) 17 (2): 412–420 [419–
20]. doi:10.1086/346662

Page
75
 Substances respond weakly to magnetic fields with three other types of
magnetism, paramagnetism, diamagnetism, and antiferromagnetism, but the forces
are usually so weak that they can only be detected by sensitive instruments in a
laboratory. An everyday example of ferromagnetism is a refrigerator magnet used
to hold notes on a refrigerator door. The attraction between a magnet and
ferromagnetic material is "the quality of magnetism first apparent to the ancient
world, and to us today".
Magnetic fields can be produced by moving electric charges and the intrinsic
magnetic moments of elementary particles associated with a fundamental quantum
property, their spin. In special relativity, electric and magnetic fields are two
interrelated aspects of a single object, called the electromagnetic tensor; the split of
this tensor into electric and magnetic fields depends on the relative velocity of the
observer and charge. In quantum physics, the electromagnetic field is quantized and
electromagnetic interactions result from the exchange of photons.
In everyday life, magnetic fields are most often encountered as a force created by permanent magnets, which pull
on ferromagnetic materials such as iron, cobalt, or nickel, and attract or repel other
magnets. Magnetic fields are widely used throughout modern technology, particularly
in electrical engineering and electro mechanics. The Earth produces its own magnetic field,
which is important in navigation, and it shields the Earth's atmosphere from solar wind.
Rotating magnetic fields are used in both electric motors and generators. Magnetic forces
give information about the charge carriers in a material through the Hall effect. The
interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such as transformers is studied in the
discipline of magnetic circuits.

Magnetic Flux - The first step to understanding the complex nature of electromagnetic induction is to understand
the idea of magnetic flux. Flux is a general term associated with a
FIELD that is bound by a certain AREA. So MAGNETIC FLUX is any
AREA that has a MAGNETIC FIELD passing through it. We generally
define an AREA vector as one that is perpendicular to the surface
of the material. Therefore, you can see in the figure that the AREA
vector and the Magnetic Field vector are PARALLEL. This then
produces a DOT PRODUCT between the 2 variables that then
define flux.

References
Jiles, David C. (1998). Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials (2 ed.). CRC. p. 3. ISBN 0412798603

Page
76
Soft iron is iron which becomes instantly
magnetized by induction when exposed to any
magnetic force, but has no power of retaining its
magnetism.

Hard iron is less susceptible of being magnetized,

but when once magnetized it retains its
magnetism permanently. The term "iron" used in
these pages includes the "steel" now commonly
employed in ship building. If an iron ship be
swung when upright for deviation, and the mean
horizontal and vertical magnetic forces at the
compass positions be also observed in different parts of the world, mathematical analysis shows that
the deviations are caused partly by the permanent magnetism of hard iron.

Geomagnetic Pole
For a broader coverage related to this topic, see Earth's magnetic poles.
Illustration of the difference between geomagnetic poles (N m and Sm) and
geographical poles (Ng and Sg)

The geomagnetic poles are antipodal points where the axis of a best-
fitting dipole intersects the Earth's surface. This dipole is equivalent to a
powerful bar magnet at the center of the Earth, and it is this theoretical
dipole that comes closer than any other to accounting for the magnetic field
observed at the Earth's surface. In contrast, the actual Earth's magnetic
poles are not antipodal—that is, they do not lie on a line passing through the
center of the Earth.
Owing to motion of fluid in the Earth's outer core, the actual magnetic poles
are constantly moving. However, over thousands of years their direction averages to the Earth's rotation
axis. On the order of once every half a million years, the poles reverse (North changes with south).

Magnetic dip, dip angle, or magnetic inclination is the angle made with the horizontal by the Earth's
magnetic field lines. This angle varies at different points on the Earth's surface. Positive values of
inclination indicate that the magnetic field of the Earth is pointing downward, into the Earth, at the
point of measurement, and negative values indicate that it is pointing upward. The dip angle is in
principle the angle made by the needle of a vertically held compass, though in practice ordinary
compass needles may be weighted against dip or may be unable to move freely in the correct plane. The
value can be measured more reliably with a special instrument typically known as a dip circle.

References____________________________________________________________
Jiles, David C. (1998). Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials (2 ed.). CRC. p. 3. ISBN 0412798603.
McElhinny, Michael W.; McFadden, Phillip L. (2000).Paleomagnetism: Continents and Oceans. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-
83355-1.
Charles Murray (2003). Human Accomplishment (First ed.). p. 176.

Page
77
Magnetic Variation
In the fin-de-siècle of the sixteenth century mariners believed that the
magnetic north pole coincided with the geographic north pole. Any
suggestion otherwise had been denied by Pedro de Medina.
Magnetic observations made by explorers in subsequent decades showed
however that these suggestions were true. But it took until the early
nineteenth century, to pinpoint the magnetic north pole somewhere in Arctic
Canada (78° N , 104° W). From then on the angle between the true North and
the Magnetic North could be precisely corrected for. This correction angle is
called magnetic variation or declination. It is believed that the Earth's
magnetic field is produced by electrical currents that originate in the hot,
liquid, outer core of the rotating Earth. The flow of electric currents in this
core is continually changing, so the magnetic field produced by those currents
also changes. This means that at the surface of the Earth, both the strength and direction of the
magnetic field will vary over the years. This gradual change is called the secular variation of the
magnetic field. Therefore, variation changes not only with the location of a vessel on the earth but also
varies in time.
The correction for magnetic variation for your location is
shown on the nearest! nautical chart's compass rose. In this
example we find a variation of 4° 15' W in 2009, with an
indicated annual correction of 0° 08' E. Hence, in 2011 this
variation is estimated to be 3° 59', almost 4° West. This means
that if we sail 90° on the chart (the true course), the compass
would read 94°.
Another example: let's say the compass rose gives a variation
of 2° 50' E in 2007, with a correction of 0° 04' E per year. In
2009 this variation is estimated to be 2° 58', almost 3° East.
Now, if we sail 90° on the chart, the compass would read 87°.

Correcting for variation

These overlaid compass roses show the difference between
true north and magnetic north when the magnetic variation is
10° West.
From the image we find: tc = cc + var
in which “cc” and “tc” stand for “compass course” and “true
course”, respectively.To convert a true course into a compass
course we need first assign a “-” to a Western and a “+” to a
Eastern variation. Note that this makes sense! because of the
clockwise direction of the compass rose. Here, the inner circle is
turned 10° anticlockwise, hence -10°.
Now, use the same but re-written equation:
cc = tc - var
235° = 225° - (-10°)
So, to sail a true course of 225°, the helmsman has to steer a
compass course of 235°.

Page
78
To convert a compass course into a true course we can use the original equation. If we have steered a
compass course of 200°, we have to plot a true course of 203° in the chart if the variation is 3° East or a
true course of 190° if the variation is 10° West.
Ship’s Magnetism
A ship under construction or repair will acquire permanent magnetism due to hammering and vibration
while sitting stationary in the Earth’s magnetic field. After launching, the ship will lose some of this
original magnetism as a result of vibration and pounding in varying magnetic fields, and will eventually
reach a more or less stable magnetic condition. The magnetism which remains is the permanent
magnetism of the ship. In addition to its permanent
magnetism, a ship acquires induced magnetism when
placed in the Earth’s magnetic field. The magnetism
induced in any given piece of soft iron is a function of the
field intensity, the alignment of the soft iron in that field,
and the physical properties and dimensions of the iron.
This induced magnetism may add to, or subtract from, the
permanent magnetism already present in the ship,
depending on how the ship is aligned in the magnetic field.
The softer the iron, the more readily it will be magnetized
by the Earth’s magnetic field, and the more readily it will
give up its magnetism when removed from that field. The
magnetism in the various structures of a ship, which tends
to change as a result of cruising, vibration, or aging, but
which does not alter immediately so as to be properly
termed induced magnetism, is called subpermanent
magnetism. This magnetism, at any instant, is part of the
ship’s permanent magnetism, and consequently must be
corrected by permanent magnet correctors. It is the principal cause of deviation changes on a magnetic
compass. Subsequent reference to permanent magnetism will refer to the apparent permanent
magnetism which includes the existing permanent and subpermanent magnetism.
Compasses work because the earth acts like a giant bar magnet. Motions in the liquid nickel-iron core
of the earth induce a magnetic field with a north and south pole. Magnetic lines of force connect the
earth's north and south magnetic poles as show below:
Compasses work because a magnetized compass needle will align itself with the earth's magnetic
lines of force and point approximately north. I said approximately because you'll note in the figure
above that the north and south magnetic poles don't exactly align with the earth's axis of rotation
which defines the north and south geographic poles. Many people don't realize that a compass
needle does not usually point due north, but at some angle east or west of north. This is because the
earth's geographic pole (the axis about which it rotates) is not in the same place as its magnetic pole
(the place where the magnetic lines of force emerge from the earth). The direction to the earth's
geographic pole is called true north and the direction to the earth's magnetic pole is called magnetic
north. An expedition by the Geological Survey of Canada in 1994 determined that the average
position of the north magnetic pole for that year was 78.3° N, 104.0° W (near Ellef Ringnes
Island in the Canadian Arctic). They also determined that the magnetic pole was moving
approximately 15 km per year.
References_____________________________________________
The American Practical Navigator by Nathaniel Bowditch Ch.602
Backus, G. P., Parker, R. L., & Constable, C. 1996. Foundations of Geomagnetism . Cambridge University Press.
Compton, R. R. 1985. Geology in the Field . John Wiley. Geary, D. 1995. Using a Map and Compass . Stackpole Books.
Jacobs, J. A. 1987. Geomagnetism . Academic Press.

Page
79
Questions:
1. Explain the theory of magnetism as applied to ferromagnetic materials
2. Explain a simple magnet, its poles and the law of attraction and repulsion
3. Explain the magnetic field around a magnet
4. Explain qualitatively flux density and field strength
5. Explain magnetic induction and differentiates between 'hard' and 'soft' iron
6. What are the meaning of the terms of the following:
a. Intensity of magnetization
b. Permeability
c. Magnetic susceptibility (no mathematical formula required)
7. Find the variation on the fallowing data:
a.) You observe the lighthouse on your magnetic compass 098deg PSC you have a
deviation of 8deg.E and you observe the same lighthouse on your gyro compass
100deg.PGC. What is the variation of your magnetic compass?
b.) You observe the Punta light on your magnetic compass 208deg PSC you have a
deviation of 10deg.E and you observe the same light on your gyro compass
200deg.PGC. What is the Variation of your magnetic compass?

Page
80
Topic 11 : The Magnetic Compass
Introduction: The magnetic compass an instrument containing a magnetized pointer that shows the
direction of magnetic north and bearings from it.

LO: At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to identify the parts and proper maintenance of a
magnetic compass.

IMAGES OF SHIPS MAGNETIC COMPASS

Magnetic compass card liquid

The liquid compass is available in two distinct types, namely the alcohol-water based type and the oil
based model. The alcohol-water based compass, in addition to having a faster action, is also able to
withstand extreme cold. The oil based compass has a tendency to become sluggish in cold weather, and
where the drop in temperatures are extreme the compass may become inactive due to the thickening of
the oil.
Many liquid compasses have been ruined by refilling them with the wrong type fluid. Water, when used
in an oil based compass, will rust the magnets and discolor the card. Same goes to the
alcohol-water based compass, and in addition to ruining the card, may cause the card to float up off the
pivot. There is also danger of adding too much water to the mixture in a alcohol-water based compass,
causing it to freeze in cold weather.

References
MRS Marine Services (M) Sdn. Bhd. | Phones:+603-33422204 , +6016-2225793 E-mail:[email protected]

Page
81
Sketches a section through the compass to show the float chamber, the pivot support and the
arrangement of magnets.

The mariner's compass, with which this article is concerned, is an instrument by means of which the
directive force of that great magnet, the Earth, upon a freely-suspended needle, is utilized for a purpose

Page
82
essential to navigation. The needle is so mounted that it only moves freely in the horizontal plane, and
therefore the horizontal component of the earth's force alone directs it. The direction assumed by the
needle is not generally towards the geographical north, but diverges towards the east or west of it,
making a horizontal angle with the true.
The card nearly floats in a bowl filled with distilled water, to which 35% of alcohol is added to prevent
freezing; the bowl is hermetically sealed with pure india-rubber, and a corrugated expansion chamber is
attached to the bottom to allow for the expansion and contraction of the liquid. The card is a mica disk,
either painted or covered with linen upon which the degrees and points are printed, the needles being
enclosed in brass.
Great steadiness of card under severe shocks and vibrations, combined with a minimum of friction in the
cap and pivot, is obtained with this compass. All compasses are fitted with a gimbal ring to keep the
bowl and card level under every circumstance of a ship's motion in a seaway, the ring being connected
with the binnacle or pedestal by means of journals or knife edges. On the inside of every compass bowl
a vertical black line is drawn, called the "lubber's point," and it is imperative.

How to remove Air Bubbles from Compass Bowl.

If there is an air bubble in the magnetic compass this indicates a leak. This can be a gasket, broken
diaphragm or leaking float. If your magnetic compass is leaking it should be serviced, as the air bubble
allows the liquid inside to slosh/move and this will damage the pivot and sapphire stone which causing
the magnetic compass to show a false heading. In case of emergency you can remove the air bubble
trough the filler screw. The correct liquid must be used. Some magnetic compasses have oil instead of
Alcohol inside and mixing these liquids can cause the magnetic compass to become inoperative or even
damaged beyond repair. Except for: C.Plath 2060 , Saracom MC180 , Lilley&Gillie SR4/Ocean which have
oil inside , all other compasses have alcohol based liquid.

PARTS OF MAGNETIC COMPASS

Construction of non-magnetic
materials

Gimbal system to keep card

level when ship heels and
pitches

References
Britannica encyclopedia
Kelven Hughes compass adjustment service pub.

Page
83
PARTS OF MAGNETIC COMPASS

Lubber line pins to align

compass with boat

Indexed card to read

direction

Fluid filled damping

system to impede
rapid card movement

Spherical bowl with

expansion diaphragm

Compensation system to
reduce deviation error

Page
84
 MAGNETIC DEVIATION - Magnetic deviation is the error induced in a compass by
local magnetic fields, which must be allowed for, along with magnetic declination, if accurate bearings
are to be calculated. (More loosely, "magnetic deviation" is used by some to mean the same as
"magnetic declination".
 Causes:
– Deviation is caused by the interaction of the ship’s
metallic structure and electrical systems.
 Deviation can be compensated for but never eliminated.
 A compass table is used, which provides the value of deviation
for every 15 degrees of ship’s head.

Reasons for Correcting Compass - There are several reasons for

correcting the errors of a magnetic compass, even if it is not the
primary directional reference:
1. It is easier to use a magnetic compass if the deviations are small.
2. Even known and fully compensated deviation introduces error
because the compass operates sluggishly and unsteadily when
deviation is present.
3. Even though the deviations are compensated for, they will be
subject to appreciable change as a function of heel and magnetic
latitude. Theoretically, it doesn’t matter what the compass error is
as long as it is known. But a properly adjusted magnetic compass
is more accurate in all sea conditions, easier to steer by, and less
subject to transient deviations which could result in deviations
from the ship’s chosen course. Therefore, if a magnetic compass is
installed and meant to be relied upon, it behooves the navigator
to attend carefully to its adjustment. Doing so is known as
“swinging ship.”

The need for regular checking of the compass error

To the extent that one depends on the magnetic compass for
navigation, it should be checked regularly and adjusted when observed errors exceed certain minimal
limits, usually a few degrees for most vessels. Compensation of a magnetic compass aboard vessels
expected to rely on it offshore during long voyages is best left to professionals.
Whatever type of compass is used, it is advisable to check it periodically against an error free
reference to determine its error. This may be done when steering along any range during harbor and
approach navigation, or by aligning any two charted objects and finding the difference between their
observed and charted bearings. When navigating offshore, the use of azimuths and amplitudes of
celestial bodies will also suffice

References
Annex 13 Magnetic Compasses Survey and inspection of magnetic Compass
http://www.explainthatstuff.com/how-compasses-work.html

Page
85
Monitoring Compass Performance
Compass performance should be monitored by frequently recording deviations in the compass
deviation book. Compass errors should be determined after every large alteration of course, and at least
once every watch when there have been no major course alterations. Checking the compass deviation
regularly may show the need for repair, testing or adjustment. In addition, compasses should be
inspected occasionally by a competent officer or compass adjuster.
Approximate error of the standard compass can be obtained by comparison with the gyro-compass if
no other means is available.

Example: If the bearing of a light is 161°PGC on your gyro compass and the compass bearing is
157° psc, what is the magnetic compass error?
T = 161° T
V
M 4°E
D Compass Best Error West Error is 4°E of the magnetic compass
C = 157° 157°
161°
You are steering 087° psc. The variation in your area is 4° W and the deviation on this heading is
3° E. What is your true heading?
C = 087ºpsc C
U
D = 3ºE O E (+) E (-) N
R
M = 090º R W (-) W (+) C
O
V = 4ºW E
R
C
T = ? 086ºT ans. T
R
E
Add I
C
N
East G
T
I
N
G

Instruments use in taking bearings of celestial bodies and

landmarks.
Pelorus
In marine navigation, a pelorus is a reference tool for
maintaining bearing of a vessel at sea. It is a "dumb compass"
without a directive element, suitably mounted and provided with
vanes to permit observation of relative bearings. In appearance
and use, a pelorus resembles a compass or compass repeater, with
sighting vanes or a sighting telescope attached, but it has no
directive properties. That is, it remains at any relative direction to
which it is set. It is generally used by setting 000° at the lubber's
line. Relative bearings are then observed. They can be converted to
bearings true, magnetic, grid, etc., by adding the appropriate
heading. The direct use of relative bearings is sometimes of value.
References
American Practical Navigator
Integrated Publishing Parts Hangar

Page
86
A pelorus is useful, for instance, in determining the moment at which an aid to navigation is broad on
the beam. It is also useful in measuring pairs of relative bearings which can be used to determine
distance off and distance abeam of a navigational aid.

Azimuth Circle
Strictly speaking, azimuth and bearing are the same in
meaning: the horizontal angle that a linedrawn from
your position to the object sighted makes with a line drawn
from your position to true north. The word azimuth, however,
applies only to bearings of
heavenly bodies. For example, it is not the bearing, but the
azimuth of the Sun; and not the azimuth, but the bearing of
Brenton Reef Tower. A bearing circle is a non magnetic metal
ring equipped with sighting devices that is fitted over a gyro
repeater or magnetic compass. The bearing circle is used to
take bearings of objects on Earth's surface.

References
American Practical Navigator
Integrated Publishing Parts Hangar

Questions:
1. Explain how the card is kept practically horizontal in all latitudes
2. Explain the composition of the liquid and explains how allowance is made for changes in volume
of the liquid
3. Explain how to remove an air bubble from the compass bowl
4. Define 'deviation' and states how it is named
5. Explain why compass error should be checked after a major alteration of course
6. Explain that the approximate error of the standard compass can be obtained by comparison
with the gyro-compass if no other means is available
Problem Solving:
a) The bearing of a light is 118°PGC on your gyro compass and the compass bearing is 122° psc,
what is the magnetic compass error?
b) You are steering 080° psc. The variation in your area is 5° E and the deviation on this heading is
3° W. What is your true heading?
c) You observe the lighthouse on your magnetic compass 103 deg PSC you have a variation of
6deg.W and you observe the same lighthouse on your gyro compass 098deg.PGC. What is the
deviation of your magnetic compass?

Page
87
 Topic 12 : The Gyro-Compass

Introduction: A gyrocompass is a type of non-magnetic compass which is based on a fast-spinning disc

and rotation of the Earth (or another planetary body if used elsewhere in the universe) to automatically
find geographical direction. Although one important component of a gyrocompass is a gyroscope, these
are not the same devices; a gyrocompass is built to use the effect of gyroscopic precession, which is a
distinctive aspect of the general gyroscopic effect. Gyrocompasses are widely used
for navigation on ships, because they have two significant advantages over magnetic compasses:

L.O.: At the end of the lesson, the learners were being able to know the parts, principles and function of
a Gyro Compass.

A gyroscope (from Greek γῦροσ gûros, "circle" and ςκοπέω skopéō, "to look") is a spinning
wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume any orientation by itself. When rotating, the
orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation
of angular momentum. Because of this, gyroscopes are useful for measuring or maintaining orientation
Applications of gyroscopes include inertial navigation systems where magnetic
compasses would not work (as in the Hubble telescope) or would not
be precise enough (as in intercontinental ballistic missiles), or for the
stabilization of flying vehicles like radio-controlled helicopters
or unmanned aerial vehicles, and recreational boats and commercial ships.
Due to their precision, gyroscopes are also used in gyrotheodolites to maintain
direction in tunnel mining. Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses,
which complement or replace magnetic compasses (in ships, aircraft and
spacecraft, vehicles in general), to assist in stability (Hubble Space
Telescope, bicycles, motorcycles, and ships) or be used as part of an
inertial guidance system.
Within mechanical systems or devices, a conventional gyroscope is a mechanism
comprising a rotor journaled to spin about one axis, the journals of the rotor being mounted in an inner
gimbal or ring; the inner gimbal is journaled for oscillation in an outer gimbal for a total of two gimbals.
The outer gimbal or ring, which is the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis
in its own plane determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses one degree of rotational
freedom and its axis possesses none. The next inner gimbal is mounted in the gyroscope frame (outer
gimbal) so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of
the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal). This inner gimbal has two degrees
of rotational freedom.
The axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor
is journaled to spin about an axis, which is always perpendicular to the
axis of the inner gimbal. So the rotor possesses three degrees of
rotational freedom and its axis possesses two. The wheel responds to
a force applied about the input axis by a reaction force about the
output axis.
The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated
by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned
away from the vertical so that the top of the wheel moves to the left,
the forward rim of the wheel also turns to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning
wheel produces rotation of the third axis.

Page
88
 A gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon whether the
output gimbals are of a free- or fixed- configuration. Examples of some free-output-gimbal devices
would be the attitude reference gyroscopes used to sense or measure the pitch, roll and yaw attitude
angles in a spacecraft or aircraft.

FREE GYRO

A free gyro consists of a heavy balanced wheel which can spin at high speed about its axis of symmetry
and having following 3 degrees of freedom :
a) freedom to spin about spin axis
b) freedom to drift about vertical axis
c) freedom to tilt about horizontal axis
notes
heavy means having a large gyroscopic inertia
balanced means mass uniformly distributed
uniform body means centre of mass / gravity
coinciding with the geometric centre
Drifting
The motion of the spin axis in the horizontal plane is
known as drift
Or
The movement of spin axis in the direction of Azimuth
is known as drift The rate of change of drift is known as
drifting.
Tilting
The motion of spin axis in the vertical plane is known
as tilt
Or
The angle of elevation or depression of the spin axis above
or below the horizontal is known as tilt
The rate of change of tilt is known as tilting
EXAMPLES OF FREE GYRO
a) any heavenly body like EARTH
b) lattu (Top)(“Trumpo”)
c) front wheel of a bicycle as the rear wheel does not have
the freedom to drift
PROPERTIES OF A FREE GYRO
A free gyro demonstrates the following two properties :
1) Gyroscopic inertia or Rigidity in Space : It is the
property of a free gyro to maintain the direction of
spin axis towards a fixed point in space.
2) Precession : Precession is the movement of spin
axis which takes place due to the external torque

Page
89
 applied on it. The direction of precession depends upon the direction of spin of the wheel and
the direction of applied torque.
The direction of precession is always perpendicular to the direction of applied torque.
Effect of Earth’s rotation on a free gyro
The spin axis of a free gyro kept on the earth’s surface keeps pointing towards a fixed point in
space ( any imaginary star )
As a star, which is assumed to be a fixed point in space, follows an apparent path due to earth’s
spinning motion, the spin axis of a free gyro also follows a similar path.It is obvious from the
above figure that a free gyro on the earth’s surface will always follow a circular path around the
celestial pole and will have the drifting as well as tilting motion. And, therefore it cannot be used
as a compass on ship.
Conversion of a free gyro into gyro compass
Principally, a free gyro can be converted into a gyro compass in following two steps –
1) Conversion of free gyro into gravity controlled gyro ( undamped gyro )
2) Conversion of gravity controlled gyro into gyro compass ( damped gyro )
To convert a free
gyro into gravity
controlled gyro, a
small weight is
attached to the rotor
casing in such a way
that this weight
passes through the
vertical axis of the
gyro when the gyro
axle is horizontal.
Whenever, the gyro
axle is tilted due to
earth’s spinning
motion, the attached
weight comes out of
the vertical axis and
applies an external
torque on the spin
axis. This torque
being vertical leads to the precession of spin axis in the horizontal plane.
A suitable direction of spin of the rotor is selected by the manufacturer so that the N-End of the

References
http://ed-thelen.org/Gyro-hcmut.html
http://ed-thelen.org/SperryManual-05.pdf

Page
90
spin axis precesses to West whenever it is above the horizon, and vice-versa.
As a result, the spin axis of gyro follows a much smaller elliptical path symmetrical to the meridian.
When the weight is attached to the top, it is called Top Heavy Gravity Controlled Gyro.
When the weight is attached to bottom, it is called Bottom Heavy Gravity Controlled Gyro.
This elliptical path is much smaller in size, in comparison to the circle traced by the free gyro. And, takes
roughly 85 minutes to complete the ellipse. Still this gyro cannot be used as compass onboard the ship
and therefore, we need to make necessary changes in gravity controlled gyro.
2) Conversion of gravity controlled gyro into gyro compass ( damped gyro )
To convert gravity controlled gyro into gyro compass / damped gyro, we need to dampen the elliptical
path followed by the spin axis.
This damping can be achieved in two ways –
a) By damping the horizontal axis of the ellipse ( known as Damping in Azimuth )
b) By damping the vertical axis of the ellipse ( known as Damping in Tilt).

Page
91
 Starting of the gyro-compass - From start-up a gyrocompass needs time to settle on the
meridian. The time taken depends upon the make, model and the geographic location of the compass,
but in general it is between one and several hours. The duration also depends upon whether the gyro
wheel is already rotating or not. If the compass has been switched off, it will take much longer to bring
the compass into use.
At power-up and prior to entering the settle mode, the system performs the automatic 'bite'
procedure to determine if the equipment is operating within specified parameters. The CPU also
initializes the system hardware and communication channels. During this procedure the gyro wheel is
checked for movement. If it is stationary, the system ops for a cold start, if it is rotating a hot start is
programmed. During a cold start, if no heading data is input to the system when requested, the
gyrocompass selects Automatic.

Cold starting the compass

After an initial period, during which the bite is active, the following sequence is initiated and the settle
indicator lamp will be lit.
• Two bleeps prompt the operator for a heading input. If heading data is not entered within 5 min, the
gyro switches to an 'auto level' process.
• Assuming heading data has been input, the yoke will be offset based on this data. It will be slewed
from the meridian, either clockwise or anticlockwise.
• The gyrowheel is brought up to speed within 14 min.
• The yoke is slewed back and forth to level the ballistic. This action takes about 4 min.
• Again assuming heading data has been input, the gyrocompass will settle within 1 h and the settle
indicator lamp goes out. If no heading data was entered, the compass will automatically settle within 5
h.
Other inputs to the gyrocompass are as follows.
• Heading: in the range 0 to 359°. If the entered heading is in error by more than 20° from the true
heading, the compass takes 5 h to settle.
• Initialize and Synchronize Step Repeaters. An operator selects a repeater and when requested uses the
keypad's left or right arrow switches to scroll the display to the repeater's current position. After 10 s
the system steps the repeater to the compass heading. It is essential to repeat and double check this
procedure because there must be no alignment errors in a repeater system.
• Speed Input. Using the left or right arrow keys, an operator inputs a speed in the range 0-70 knots.
• Latitude Input. Using the arrow keys, an operator inputs latitude in degrees north or south of the
equator.
ALARM SIGNALLING FACILITIES
A course monitor shall be provided which actuates an adequate "off course" audible alarm signal after a
course deviation of a preset amount.
The information required to actuate the course monitor shall be provided from an independent source.
Alarm signals, both audible and visual, shall be provided in order to indicate failure or a reduction in the
power supply to the automatic pilot or course monitor, which would affect the safe operation of the
equipment. The alarm signalling facilities shall be fitted near the steering position.
An automatic alarm shall be provided to indicate a major fault in the compass system.
Means shall be provided for correcting the errors induced by speed and latitude.

Page
92
 The Simrad Gyro Compasses are the most reliable Gyro
Compasses on the market and with no liquids to change every
other year like most other gyro compasses, they are virtually
maintenance free. A wide range of control units provide
complete flexibility of system configuration for new installation
and easy retrofit into existing repeater systems. The standard
range of interfaces can easily be expanded to provide signals for
all vessel applications like RADAR, ECDIS & etc. The distribution
of power and heading signals from the control units enables
practical installation and easy retrofit. The unique technology in
the GC85 and GC80 gyrocompasses eliminates “practically” the
need for annual service. The GC85 and GC80 are fully IMO
approved for standard and High Speed Craft (GC85) and can be
configured in a dual gyrocompass system. The highest possible
accuracy and stability is provided from new technology, by
sophisticated and fully sealed sensitive element.

References
http://ed-thelen.org/Gyro-hcmut.html
http://ed-thelen.org/SperryManual-05.pdf

Questions:
1. Explain how a free gyroscope and its gimbal mountings.
2. Explain what is meant by gyroscopic inertia and precession.
3. Explain how the precession resulting from a torque about axes perpendicular to the spin axis.
4. Explain that friction at gimbal pivots produces torques which give rise to precession.
5. Explain that the rate of precession is proportional to the applied torque.
6. Explain the starting of the gyro-compass and explains how to minimize settling time by slewing
and leveling it to the correct heading.
7. Explain the necessary time for the compass to settle after switching on prior to sailing.
8. Explain how the alarms fitted to a gyro-compass.

Page
93
 Topic 13 : Compass Course and Bearing Corrections

Introduction: The courses and bearings laid on a chart are true, but we steer courses and take bearings
using a compass.
The compass used in small vessels is more commonly a magnetic compass, although some may be fitted
with a gyro compass.
It is suggested that this section be read in conjunction with Learning Outcome on magnetic compass
and azimuth circle.
Firstly, we will deal with the magnetic compass and the errors involved.
The difference between direction as measured by the compass and the true direction as measured on
the chart is termed compass error, stated differently: - It is the angular difference between true north
and compass north. It is named east or west to indicate the side of true north on which the compass
north lies.

L.O.: At the end of the lesson, the learners were being able to know the true, magnetic and compass
north; Calculates the true, magnetic and compass north; Applies compass error to the ship’s head and
compass bearings to convert to true; Finds deviation and variation from tables and charts.

True, magnetic and compass north NEXT

On aircraft or vessels there are three types of bearing: true, magnetic, and compass bearing. Compass
error is divided into two parts, namely magnetic variation and magnetic deviation, the latter originating
from magnetic properties of the vessel or aircraft. Variation and deviation are signed quantities. As
discussed above, positive (easterly) variation indicates that magnetic north is east of geographic north.
Compass, magnetic and true bearings are related by:

The general equation relating compass and true bearings is

Where
is Compass bearing
is Magnetic bearing
is True bearing
is Variation
is compass Deviation

for Westerly Variation and Deviation

for Easterly Variation and Deviation

To calculate true bearing from compass bearing (and known deviation and variation):
 Compass bearing + deviation = magnetic bearing
 Magnetic bearing + variation = true bearing.
References____________________________________________
Bowditch, Nathaniel (2002). American Practical Navigator. Paradise Cay Publications. p. 849. ISBN 9780939837540.

Page
94
To calculate compass bearing from true bearing (and known deviation and variation):
 True bearing − variation = Magnetic bearing
 Magnetic bearing − deviation = Compass bearing.
These rules are often combined with the mnemonic "West is Best, East is least"; that is to say, add W
declinations when going True headings to Magnetic Compass, and subtract E ones.
Another simple way to remember which way to apply the correction for Continental USA is:
 For locations east of the agonic line (zero declination), roughly east of the Mississippi: The magnetic
bearing is always bigger.
 For locations west of the agonic line (zero declination), roughly west of the Mississippi: The
magnetic bearing is always smaller.
Common abbreviations are:
 TC = true course;
 V = variation (of the Earth's magnetic field);
 MC = magnetic course (what the course would be in the absence of local declination);
 D = deviation caused by magnetic material (mostly iron and steel) on the vessel;
 CC = compass course.
The Compass Error is a combination of two separate and distinct components, namely variation and
deviation.
Variation
When influenced only by the earth’s magnetic field, a
compass needle will point towards the earth’s north
magnetic pole.This pole is located somewhere to the north
of Canada and is slowly moving.
Examination of a globe will show that from a position on
the East Coast of Australia the compass will point in a
direction to the east of true north. This is magnetic north,
and the angle between it and true north is called
variation. In our case variation is east.
To find the value of variation for any position simply
consult the nearest compass rose on a marine chart. The
variation will be given for a specified year, together with
the rate of change, allowing calculation of variation for any subsequent year. See appendix for variation
chart of the world.

References
http://www.splashmaritime.com.au/Marops/data/text/Navtex/Naverror.htm
Bowditch, Nathaniel (2002). American Practical Navigator. Paradise Cay Publications. p. 849. ISBN 9780939837540.

Page
95
Recent Magnetic pole location:
Year Latitude (ºN) Longitude (ºW)
2001 81.3 110.8
2002 81.6 111.6
2003 82.0 112.4
2004 82.4 113.4
2005 82.7 114.4

Magnetic deviation is the error induced in a compass by local magnetic fields, which must be allowed
for, along with magnetic declination, if accurate bearings are to be calculated. (More loosely, "magnetic
deviation" is used by some to mean the same as "magnetic declination". This article is about the former
meaning.)
Ships have their own magnetic properties.
Causes: Remaining in one location for long periods of time. (Drydock) Electrical/magnetic equipment
onboard.
Deviation is labeled East (E) if the North axis of the compass card points to the east or right of the
magnetic meridian. Labeled West (W) if the compass card points to the west or left of the magnetic
meridian.
Variation changes with your location.
Deviation changes with your heading.
True Directions – referenced from geographical meridians
Magnetic Directions – referenced from magnetic meridians
Compass Directions – referenced from lubber’s line
Difference between True Direction and Magnetic Direction? – VARIATION
Difference between Magnetic Direction and Compass Direction? - DEVIATION
Difference between True Direction and Compass Direction? – COMPASS ERROR - The algebraic sum of
variation and deviation.
As it was explain on topic 11: Converting between compass and true directions.
Can C Compass True U True
N
Dead O Deviation Virgins Variation
C
R O
Man R Magnetic Make R Magnetic
Vote E Variation Dull R Deviation
C E
Twice T True Companions C Compass
T
At I Add At I Add
N
Election G East Wedding N West
G

Example: The course between two points is 221° T. The variation is 9° E and the deviation on this
heading is 2° W. What should you steer PSC?
T = 221° T
V = 9° E (-)
M = 212° M
D = 2° W (+)
C = 214º PSC (Ans.)

Page
96
Three principle references of direction
Ships longitudinal axis RELATIVE BEARING (R)
Local magnetic meridian MAGNETIC BEARING (M)
True meridian TRUE BEARING (T)

Methods of determining gyrocompass error: Although the gyrocompass is a very accurate instrument
and normally has a very small error associated with its readings (less than .1 0 to .20), the navigator is
required to determine gyro error at least once a day. Gyrocompass error like magnetic compass error, is
measured in degrees east or west:.
If the gyrocompass bearing is lower than the actual bearing, the the error is east:

Hobbs has “Compass best, error west”--- same same talking about the Gyro-Compass
If the gyrocompass bearing is higher than the actual bearing, the error is west:.

Example: You are dead center on a Range Bearing 173 Degrees True and your Gyro reads 175 Degrees
PGC what is your Error?
GYRO = 175 True = 173
GYRO is BEST ERROR is WEST
175 – 173 = 2 degrees West

References
http://www.slideshare.net/azvdo/lesson-10-gyro-and-magnetic-compass

Page
97
(Note to instructor: Show videos on students to guide and help them to understand about the subject
matter, bring charts on the classroom to show them the variation.)

Questions:
1. Define true, magnetic and compass north
2. Find the variation from charts
(Bring chart on the classroom)
3. Calculate true course from compass course:
a) You are heading 080º PSC on your magnetic compass, variation is 5ºE, deviation 3ºW.
What is your True course?
b) You are heading 185º PSC on your magnetic compass, variation is 3ºW, deviation 3ºW.
What is your True course?
c) You are heading 093º PSC on your magnetic compass, variation is 10ºE, deviation 13ºE.
What is your True course?
4. Calculate compass course from true course
a) Your true heading is 053ºT, and you have 0 deviation, and 3ºW variation. What is your
magnetic compass course?
b) Your heading is 053ºT, and you have 10ºW deviation, and 5ºE variation. What is your
magnetic compass course?
c) Your heading is 103ºT, and you have 5ºW deviation, and 3ºW variation. What is your
magnetic compass course?
5. Calculate gyro compass bearings of the following:
a) You are dead center on a Range Bearing 043.3º T and your Gyro error is 0.5ºE what
would be your Gyro bearing?
b) On your chart the bearing of a lighthouse is 102ºT and you have 0.3ºW gyro error, what
will be your gyro bearing on that lighthouse.
c) You are dead center on a Range Bearing 235.8º T and your Gyro error is 0.2ºE what
would be your Gyro bearing?

Page
98
 Topic 14 : Errors of the Compass and Azimuths

Introduction: The navigator must constantly be concerned about the accuracy of the ship’s primary and
backup compasses, and should check them regularly. A regularly annotated compass log book will allow
the navigator to notice a developing error before it becomes a serious problem. As long as at least two
different types of compass (e.g. mechanical gyro and flux gate, or magnetic and ring laser gyro) are
consistent with each other, one can be reasonably sure that there is no appreciable error in either
system. Since different types of compasses depend on different scientific principles and are not subject
to the same error sources, their agreement indicates almost certainly that no error is present.

L.O. - At the end of the lesson, the learners were being able to know how to determine the compass
error and to compute this error by azimuths and amplitude of heavenly bodies.

Determining the error of Gyro Compass:

• Visual Range
• Triangulation
– Adjusting three or more lines of position to find location and bearing.
• Compare course with a known true course
– Entering and exiting port or in a channel
• Celestial Azimuths and Amplitudes
• Comparison with a gyro of known error

Now we will concentrate on computing gyro error by amplitude and azimuths methods.
Example: By azimuth (Star Sirius)
At around 17 June 2011 1210 UTC a vessel in position Lat. 20º 32'N, Long. 120º 20'E observe the
star Sirius bearing 259ºPGC. Find the Gyro Error By ABC method.
GHA of Aries 17 June 2016 12Z = 85º 24.0' as per nautical almanac
Increments of Aries 10mins 00sec.= 2º 30.4' as per nautical almanac (add always)
Total GHA of Aries 87º 54.4'
Long. (+ if E; - if W) (+) 120º 20.0'E
LHA of Aries 208º 14.4'
SHA of Sirius (always +) + 258º 35.3' Declination 16º 44.0' S (as per nautical almanac)
LHA of star Sirius 466º 49.7'
-360º
LHA of star Sirius 106º 49.7'
Solution: by ABC
A = TAN LAT. / TAN LHA
= TAN 20º 32' / TAN 106º 49.7'
A = -0.113284817 N (A is named opposite to Lat.except when LHA is between 90 and 270)
B = TAN.DECL / SIN LHA
= TAN 16º 44.0' / SIN 106º 49.7'
B = 0.314099484 S ( B is always named the same as the declination )
C = A (+ or -) B (if same name (+) and affix their common name; if opposite name (-) & affix
the name of the bigger value

References
http://www.collisionregs.com/Gyro.pdf

Page
99
C = 0.113284817N - 0.314099484S C.E. = Az - Bearing
C = -0.200815314 S C.E. = 259.35º - 259ºPGC
COT Az = C x COS LAT C.E. = 0.35º E ( Compass best
= -0.200815314 X COS 20º 32' error West; compass least
= -0.188056567 (1 / Ans. shift TAN) error East)
Az = S 79.35º W(if LHA less than 180 AZ=W, if more than180 AZ=E)

= 79.35º + 180º = 259.35ºT

COMPASS DEVIATION BY AMPLITUDE

In practical navigation, a bearing (psc or pgc) of a body can be observed when it is on either the
celestial or the visible horizon. To determine compass error, simply convert the computed amplitude
angle to true degrees and compare it with the observed compass bearing. The angle is computed by the
formula: sin A = sin Dec / cos Lat. This formula gives the angle at the instant the body is on the celestial
horizon. It does not contain an altitude term because the body’s computed altitude is zero at this
instant. The angle is prefixed E if the body is rising and W if it is setting. This is the only angle in celestial
navigation referenced FROM East or West, i.e. from the prime vertical. A body with northerly declination
will rise and set North of the prime vertical. Likewise, a body with southerly declination will rise and set
South of the prime vertical. Therefore, the angle is suffixed N or S to agree with the name of the body’s
declination. A body whose declination is zero rises and sets exactly on the prime vertical. The Sun is on
the celestial horizon when its lower limb is approximately two thirds of a diameter above the visible
horizon. The Moon is on the celestial horizon when its upper limb is on the visible horizon. Stars and
planets are on the celestial horizon when they are approximately one Sun diameter above the visible
horizon.
Example: A vessel on DR position 36º 10'N and 028º 20'W observed the sun’s bearing on sunrise
to be 192º PSC. Declination of the sun is 3º17.1' S and the variation of the locality is 18ºW. Find the
deviation of the standard compass.
Solution:
SIN AMPL = SIN DEC / COS LAT T 175.92º
= SIN 3º17.1' / COS 36º 10' V 18ºW(+)
= 0.070980294 Shift SIN M 193.92º
= S 4.07º E -180°= 175.92 ºT D 1.92Eº ans.
C 192.0º
By Transit Bearings
When two well charted objects are in transit a compass bearing is taken.
The true bearing is taken from the chart using parallel rulers.
Comparison of the compass bearing and the true bearing gives the compass error.

References
http://msi.nga.mil/MSISiteContent/StaticFiles/NAV_PUBS/APN/Chapt-17.pdf
http://www.splashmaritime.com.au/Marops/data/text/Navtex/Naverror.htm

Page
100
A transit bearing when two or more objects lie on the same line, as in

Example: In this case a bearing has been taken of “Leading Lts 045°“
True Bearing 045°
Compass Bearing 048°
Compass Error 3° W
Variation 11° E
therefore Deviation 8° E

In the second method you require to know your exact position, this can be obtained by :-
A. Corrected G.P.S.
B. Ranges from radar
C. Ranges from Vertical Sextant Angles
The object should be on the chart and well distanced from the vessel.

By Bearing from a Known Position

When the vessel’s position is accurately fixed, a compass bearing may be taken of a well charted and
distant object, say a tower (as in Figure 2.18).
The true bearing can again be taken from the chart using parallel rulers. Calculation made as above.
Any small change in the vessel’s position whilst swinging will have a negligible effect on the true bearing
if the chosen object is sufficiently distant.

References
http://www.splashmaritime.com.au/Marops/data/text/Navtex/Naverror.htm

Page
101
 Example:

True bearing 050°

Compass bearing 033°
Compass error 17° E
Variation 11° E
Deviation 6° E

References
http://www.splashmaritime.com.au/Marops/data/text/Navtex/Naverror.htm

Page
102
Questions:
Deviation by Azimuth (ABC method)
1. A vessel in position 37º36' N and 047º50'W observed star Alpheratz bearing 289.5ºPSC.
Declination is 28º59.1'N and LHA 41º10.4'. If the Variation of the locality is 22.5ºW,
what would be the deviation of the magnetic compass?
Solution: (for instructor) By ABC
A = Tan Lat / Tan LHA
= Tan 37º36' /Tan 41º10.4'
A = 0.88050888S (A is named opposite to the Lat. Except when LHA is
between 90º and 270º)
B = Tan Decl. / Sin LHA
= Tan 28º59.1' / Sin 41º10.4'
B = 0.841461153N (B is always named the same as the declination)
C = A (+ or -) B (if same name (+) and affix their common name; if opposite
name (-) & affix the name of the bigger value
= 0.88050888S – 0.841461153N
C = 0.039047726S
Cot ZN= C x Cos Lat.
= 0.039047726 x Cos 37º36'
= 0.030937109 (1/ANS=SHIFT TAN=)
= S 88.2º W or 268.2ºT

T = 268.2º
V = 22.5º W
M = 290.7º
D = ? 1.2º E
C = 289.5º

Deviation by Amplitude:

2. A vessel on DR position 36º10' N and 028º20' W observe the sun’s bearing on sunrise to
be 112ºPSC. Decl. of the sun is 3º17.1' S and the variation of the locality is 18ºW. Find
the deviation of the standard compass?

Solution: (for instructor)

Sin Ampl = Sin Decl / Cos Lat.
= Sin 3º17.1' / Cos 36º10'
= 0.0708
= E 4º S or 094ºT
T = 094º
V = 18º
M = 112º
D = ? 0
C = 112º

Page
103
 Topic 15 : Fluxgate Compass

Introduction: The basic fluxgate compass is a simple electromagnetic device that employs two or more
small coils of wire around a core of highly permeable magnetic material, to directly sense the direction
of the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field. The advantages of this mechanism over
a magnetic compass are that the reading is in electronic form and can be digitised and transmitted
easily, displayed remotely, and used by an electronic autopilot for course correction. Fluxgate
compasses and gyrocompasses complement one another nicely. The fluxgate provides a directional
reference that is stable over the long term, apart from changing magnetic disturbances, and the
gyrocompass is accurate over the short-term, even against acceleration and heeling effects. At
high latitudes, where the Earth's magnetic field dips downward toward the magnetic poles, the gyro
data can be used to correct for roll-induced heading errors in the fluxgate output. It can also be used to
correct for the roll and heel-induced errors that often plague fluxgate compasses installed on steel
vessels.

L.O.: At the end of the lesson, the learners were being able to know the basic operation of the fluxgate
compass as well as the Transmitting Magnetic Compass (TMC)

SINGLE AXIS FLUXGATE

The fluxgate is one kind of magnetic field sensor which combines good sensitivity with relative ease of
construction. The basic principle is to compare the drive-coil current needed to saturate the core in one
direction as opposed to the opposite direction. The difference is due to the external field. Full saturation
is not necessary; any nonlinearity will do. As the core approaches saturation, the signal picked up in the
sense coil will show the nonlinearity. For instance, if you put a sine-wave into the drive coil, the sense
coil would detect harmonics of the fundamental frequency;
increasing in strength relative to the fundamental as the
core becomes more fully saturated. You can also drive with
a square wave (easier to generate) and look at asymmetries
in the sense coil output. If you are interested in building a
fluxgate yourself, I recommend the 1991 article in EW+WW
I have drawn above a quick sketch of the windings of a
toroidal-core, single-axis fluxgate: that is, it responds to the
magnetic field vector along the indicated axis of sensitivity.
Note that the red wire (drive coil) is wound closely around
the core, passing through the central hole on each turn. The
blue wire (sense coil) is wound around the outside and does
NOT pass through the central hole at all. I have drawn a few
windings for clarity but in practice, for best sensitivity, both
drive and sense windings might have 100 turns or more.
With this type of core you can get two orthogonal axes of
sensitivity for almost the price of one, just by winding
another sense coil over the first but at right angles (the wires would run horizontal in the picture above,
and the axis of sensitivity would be up-and-down.)
You can also make a single-axis with a simple rod core: in this case you wind the sense and drive coils
over each other (or side by side) and you can get only one sensing axis (along the core) per fluxgate.

References
http://www.bealecorner.org/best/measure/fluxgate/

Page
104
DOUBLE AXIS FLUXGATE
With the same technology and design procedure was also developed a double-axis Fluxgate sensor. In
literature the two most promising structures for implementing a double axis planar Fluxgate magnetic
sensor. The two solutions were developed using the PCB technology and compared. As a first
consideration, the best choice, in term of power dissipation and response
time, appears to be the structure with ferromagnetic material core in cross shape. In fact, in this case
the two components of the external magnetic field can be evaluated with a single measurement (like
explained and demonstrated in the next paragraph). For this reason this structure was analyzed in
deeper detail. The compass module (Mounted on the Center or the White Breadboard) is a dual-axis
magnetic field sensor. The sensing device on the Compass Module is a Hitachi HM55B chip. An onboard
regulator and resistor protection make the 3 volt HM55B chip compatible with 5 volt BASIC Stamp
microcontroller supply and signal levels. The fluxgate provides a directional reference that's stable over
the long term, and the gyro adds accurate short-term corrections for acceleration and heeling effects.
To avoid inaccuracies created by the vertical component of the earths magnetic field, the compass must
be kept as flat as possible.

Basic Operation of Fluxgate Compass

A compass is a device that helps to correctly pinpoint the
geographical direction while on a sea going vessel. A fluxgate
compass is a very important and unique tool in marine navigation as
it does not operate automatically like other magnetic compasses.
Technically a fluxgate compass is an electromagnetic compass
which solves the purpose of a conventional compass.
The fluxgate compass is used in ships mainly for the
purpose of steering. Since the compass is an electronic one, the
scope of errors is greatly reduced. In addition to manual
References
http://www.bealecorner.org/best/measure/fluxgate/
http://www.marineinsight.com/marine-navigation/an-introduction-to-fluxgate-
compass/

Page
105
steering, such a compass can also be utilised when the ship is on autopilot. Even chartplotters and
radars use this system to provide them with accurate geographic indications. The difference between a
magnetic compass and an electronic compass is that in the former variety there is a pointer that
constantly moves indicating the direction.
The difference between a magnetic compass and an electronic compass is that in the former
variety there is a pointer that constantly moves indicating the direction. However, in an electronic
compass there are no pointers that specify the direction. Electric currents that pass through coils of wire
that are kept inside the compass indicate the geographic direction through signals that are displayed
digitally.

Transmitting Magnetic Compass (TMC)TMC SYSTEM

A transmitting magnetic compass (TMC) is used to take the magnetic heading and convert it into a
digital signal. This can be used for a variety of reasons including:
 Replacing the periscope
 A back up heading to the auto pilot
 An independent off course alarm
 Showing the magnetic heading in more than one place
Advantages of the TMC repeater system
 Extra repeaters can be installed simply to provide information at other stations (Chart table,
Masters cabin etc)
 Cost effective (lower price than By-pass tube)
 Steering and Digital display in one repeater
 (NMEA ) National Marine Electronics Association data output to feed other navigation
equipment
 Can enable more flexible Wheelhouse Design by using a Repeater at the Helmsman's Position
instead of a By Pass tube.
 Reduced Shipyard Installation time saving on costs.
 Fewer warranty claims due to possibilities of leaks via by pass tube into the bridge area
 No complex cleaning of by-pass tube required by crew
 Not affected by vibration and image distortion.

Page
106
The solid-state compass
Go aboard any tall ship - such as the Coast Guard cutter Eagle - and near the wheel is an impressive
magnetic compass. With its floating card marked off in degrees and the traditional fleur-de-lis to
indicate magnetic north, many magnetic compasses are functional works of art.
Unlike the showy magnetic compass, electronic compasses are little more than black boxes, often placed
in out-of-the-way compartments - all but invisible. For a long time, electronic compasses on voyaging
boats were a version of something called a fluxgate compass. Now, the steady advance of technology
has produced a new type of solid-state, electronic heading sensor. With no moving parts, these
electronic compasses are not only more reliable, they are also free of the errors that can hamper the
traditional fluxgate.
Fluxgate technology, which has been in use since the World War II era, uses a sensing core composed of
an iron doughnut wrapped with coils of wire. A current is sent flowing down the wire coils. If the sensing
core is stationary, then current flowing through the wire remains steady. Should the assembly move,
however, an additional current will be induced in the wire as the core moves through the earth's
magnetic field (recall that when a conductor is mo ved through a magnetic field, a current flow is
induced in the conductor - this is how, for example, alternators generate electricity). So the added
electricity coming out of the core is caused by the movement of the fluxgate through the earth's
magnetic field. By measuring the amount of this added electricity and its phase, a fluxgate compass
senses direction.
To measure the field properly, the fluxgate core needs to sense the field in the horizontal plane. As we
know, boats are rarely level. To combat the motion of the boat, fluxgate compass designers will put the
sensing core on a pendulum-like gimbal. Another technique is to place the core in damping oil. This
slows down the motion of the fluxgate core, making it less likely to jump around with every motion of
the boat. Fluxgate engineers can't use too viscous an oil, however, because then the core can't react to
the pitch and roll of the boat.
One solution to the problem of keeping the
core measuring accurately when on a moving
platform like a boat was first worked on in
airplane avionics. Instead of using a single
fluxgate sensor, this approach involves a suite
of solid-state sensors, small devices built onto
silicon chips. These sensors belong to a class of
tiny devices called microelectromechanical
systems (MEMs). Aiding the MEMs sensors in
an electronic compass are
microprocessors and the software to integrate
the MEMs output.
A marine electronics company that offers such a "silicon compass�VbCrLf is Maretron. The company's
SSC200 Solid state Compass has no mechanical or electromechanical moving parts - it uses a
combination of three sensors to measure the earth's magnetic field and the motions of the boat.

References
http://www.marine-data.co.uk/systems/transmitting-magnetic-compass-system
http://www.sperrymarine.com/products/gyrocompasses-and-magnetic-compass-systems/navigat-x-mk-2/transmitting-version

Page
107
"Several things have come together to make these types of
compasses possible,�VbCrLf Rich Gauer, president of Maretron,
said. "They have been used in aerospace for a few years
now.�VbCrLf
For gauging the earth's magnetic field the SSC200 has a solid-state,
three-axis magnetometer. This unit can detect the geomagnetic field
and determine the orientation of the compass in relation to
magnetic north. Just like the gimbaled fluxgate, however, the
magnetometer needs to measure the horizontal component of the
geomagnetic field. But instead of compensating for the tilt and roll
of the boat mechanically like a fluxgate, Maretron electronically
compensates for vessel motion.
The second component of the SSC200 is tiny devices called accelerometers. These units measure the
motion of the boat in its pitch and roll axes. They can sense, for example, that the boat has rolled 10�
to starboard and also pitched forward 8�. Using this information, the SSC200 processor can
electronically factor out the boat's motion as if the magnetometer unit
were level.
The third MEMs sensing element is a solid-state rate gyro. Unlike a
gyrocompass that will show a user his heading related to true north, a
rate gyro doesn't know direction, but only senses change in direction.
This unit detects when the SSC200 is turning and can determine the
rate of turn. When this data is combined with data from the
magnetometer and the accelerometers, the result is heading, pitch, roll
and rate of turn data that are put out over a boat's network in ether
NMEA 0183 or NMEA 2000 format.
The quiet revolution in electronics continues inside the closed world of
the black boxes. The solid-state silicon chip approach to an electronic
compass embodied by the Mareton SSC200 is no doubt the future for electronic compasses on voyaging
boats. The result is a better compass for providing heading information to the boat's systems.
And while the technical advancement of electronic compasses is a great development for voyagers, let's
hope the magnetic card compass, that age-old symbol of marine navigation, is still carried aboard
voyaging boats for many years to come.

References
http://www.oceannavigator.com/

Page
108
(Note to instructor: Show videos on students to guide and help them to understand about the subject
matter.)

Questions:
1. Explain singles axis Fluxgate
2. Explain double axis Fluxgate
3. Explain its basic operation
4. Explain (TMC) Transmitting Compass System
A) What are the advantages of TMC repeater System.
5. What is solid state type compass

Page
109
 Topic 16 : (MLC) The errors of the magnetic compass and their correction

Introduction: Regulation 19, paragraphs 2.1.1, 2.1.2, 2.1.3 and 2.2.1 lay down the requirements for all
ships (excluding fishing vessels and pleasure craft under 150 gt) to be fitted with a magnetic compass or
other means to determine and display the vessel’s heading independent of any power supply. They must
also be fitted with a pelorus, or other means, to take bearings over an arc of 360° of the horizon and a
means for correcting heading and bearings to true at all times.

L.O.: At the end of the lesson, the students/learners were being able to know about SOLAS
REGULATIONS chapter V - Regulation 19; parts and functions of Magnetic Compass as well as (TMC)
Transmitting Magnetic Compass. Students were be able to:
1. Explains the requirements of SOLAS chapter V - Regulation 19, in regard to the requirements for
the carriage of magnetic compasses.
2. Explains that the ships must also be fitted with a pelorus, or other means, to take bearings over
an arc of 360° of the horizon and a means for correcting heading and bearings to true at all
times
3. Students will be able to know the parts of the magnetic compass and their function
4. Students will be able to know the operating principle of Transmitting Magnetic Compass (TMC)

SOLAS chapter V - Regulation 19

OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF MAGNETIC COMPASSES
1.) Regulation 19, paragraphs 2.1.1, 2.1.2, 2.1.3 and 2.2.1 lay
down the requirements for all ships (excluding fishing vessels and
pleasure craft under 150 gt) to be fitted with a magnetic compass
or other means to determine and display the vessel’s heading
independent of any power supply. They must also be fitted with a
pelorus, or other means, to take bearings over an arc of 360° of
the horizon and a means for correcting heading and bearings to
true at all times.

2.) Fishing vessels and pleasure craft under 150gt should comply
with the requirements of the relevant MCA Code.

Performance standards
3.) Equipment must comply with the IMO Performance Standards
as follows:
Magnetic compasses - Resolution A.382(X) and
Transmitting magnetic heading devices – Resolution MSC.86(70),
annex 2

4.) Regulation 19 requires all ships of 150 GT and over, and all
passenger ships to carry a spare magnetic compass (or equivalent.)

References
mcanet.mcga.gov.uk/public/c4/solasv/Annexes/Annex13.htm

Page
110
Responsibility for Maintenance
5.) The Owner and the Master are responsible for ensuring that compasses on their ships are
maintained in good working order.

Adjustment of Compasses
6.) Each magnetic compass required to be carried by the Regulations shall be properly adjusted and its
table or curve of residual deviations available at all times. Magnetic compasses should be adjusted
when:
a) they are first installed;
b) they become unreliable;
c) the ship undergoes structural repairs or alterations that could affect its permanent and induced
magnetism;
d) electrical or magnetic equipment close to the compass is ad ded, removed or altered; or,
e) a period of two years has elapsed since the last adjustment and a record of compass deviations
has not been maintained, or the recorded deviations are excessive or when the compass shows
physical defects. Effects of Changes in Magnetism During the Life of a Ship
f)
7.) Because the magnetism of a new ship can be particularly
unstable, the performance of magnetic compasses should be
monitored carefully during the early life of a ship, and
adjustments made if necessary.

8.) Masters are advised that it is essential to check the

performance of magnetic compasses particularly after:
a) carrying cargoes which have magnetic properties;
b) using electromagnetic lifting appliances to load or
discharge;
c) a casualty in which the ship has been subject to
severe contact or electrical charges; or,
d) the ship has been laid up or has been lying idle - even a short period of idleness can lead to
serious deviations, especially for small vessels.

9.) Further to 8(b), the retentive magnetism can alter a ship’s magnetism, making compasses unreliable.
However, a large amount of the magnetism induced by an electromagnet may subsequently decay so
immediate readjustment is not advised. Every effort should be made to determine the compass
deviation.

Monitoring Compass Performance

10.) Compass performance should be monitored by frequently recording deviations in the compass
deviation book. Compass errors should be determined after every large alteration of course, and at least
once every watch when there have been no major course alterations. Checking the compass deviation
regularly may show the need for repair, testing or adjustment. In addition, compasses should be
inspected occasionally by a competent officer or compass adjuster.

References
mcanet.mcga.gov.uk/public/c4/solasv/Annexes/Annex13.htm

Page
111
Adjustments and Repairs
11.) In the UK, all adjustments should be made by a compass adjuster who holds a Certificate of
Competency as Compass Adjuster issued by the UK Government.

12.) If a qualified compass adjuster is unavailable and the Master considers it necessary then
adjustments may be made by a person holding a Certificate of Competency (Deck Officer) Class 1
(Master Mariner). The compass must be re-adjusted by a qualified compass adjuster at the next
available opportunity.

13.) The date of any adjustment and other details should be noted in the compass deviation book. The
position of correctors should be recorded in the compass book and on deviation cards. Because the
distances from the coefficients B and C correctors to the standard compass card and to the transmitting
element are different, a transmitting magnetic compass will be overcompensated resulting in an error,
which can be as much as 2½° and cannot be corrected. Separate deviation cards should be prepared for
the standard compass and the transmitting magnetic compass repeater by comparing headings.

14.) Repairs should only be made by a compass manufacturer or other competent person using the
proper test facilities. When the work is finished the repairer should supply the owner or Master with a
certificate, specifying that the work has been carried out in accordance with the
necessary requirements ISO 2269 for Class A Compass and ISO 10316 for Class B Compass which are the
International Standards for the Magnetic Compass.

Portable Equipment that may interfere with Compasses

15.) Masters and Officers are advised that portable electrical equipment (e.g. radios and tape recorders)
or items made of steel can affect the performance
of a compass. Care should be taken to ensure that
such items are kept away from the compass
position. See Regulation 17, para.3

Spare Bowl
16.) When a spare magnetic compass bowl is
required, it should be carefully stowed, together
with its gimbal units, away from the bridge
structure so that they are unaffected by any
casualty disabling the bridge.

Transmitting Magnetic Compasses (TMC)

17.) If a new or existing standard magnetic
compass is modified to provide a transmission
output then each device must be individually
certified or re-certified with the transmitting
element in place. Re-certification of modified
existing compasses should be made, with the
transmitting element attached to the compass
bowl.

Page
112
18.) Modifications should be made by an experienced compass technician, who should ensure that the
transmitting element is compatible with the binnacle. The performance of the equipment cannot be
relied upon until the compass has been re-certified (as described above) and adjustments have been
made by a certified compass adjuster.

19.) Ancillary equipment included in the modifications (e.g. electronic units, displays and power
supplies) should be type tested to establish safe distances from the compass. In particular, care should
be taken to avoid the effect on the compass of spurious radio frequency transmissions. Guidance can be
found in IEC 60945. See Regulation 17, paras. 1 & 2

20.) If a transmitting magnetic compass provides heading information, i.e. it is read by the helmsman at
the main steering position, then the spare bowl must be fitted with a transmitting element, and
individual testing is required. Alternatively, if heading information is provided by the reflected image of
a standard compass or a separate steering compass, and a transmitting compass is fitted voluntarily to
provide a repeater
facility to navigation equipment, then the spare bowl does not require a separate transmitting element.

Emergency Steering position

21.) Regulation 19, para. 2.1.9, requires a
telephone or other means to
communicate heading information to
the emergency steering position, if
provided. On ships over 500GT a visual
reading of the ship’s heading must be
supplied to the emergency steering
position if provided. (See Regulation 19,
para. 2.5.2).

ANNEX 2 RECOMMENDATION ON
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR MARINE
TRANSMITTING MAGNETIC HEADING
DEVICES (TMHDs)
1 SCOPE
1.1 A TMHD is an electronic device which uses the
geomagnetic field to obtain and
transmit information about the ship’s heading.
1.2 In addition to the general requirements contained in resolution A.694(17) all marine
TMHD * equipment should comply with the following minimum requirements.
2 APPLICATION
2.1 A TMHD complying with the requirements contained in this recommendation,
can be used to meet the carriage requirements for a suitable device providing
heading information contained in Chapter V of the SOLAS Convention.
2.2 In addition such THMD can meet the dynamic requirements contained in the
HSC Code chapter 13 for the carriage of a suitable device providing heading
Information

References
mcanet.mcga.gov.uk/public/c4/solasv/Annexes/Annex13.htm

Page
113
3 COMPOSITION
3.1 Transmitting magnetic heading devices (TMHDs) may comprise of:
.1 a standard magnetic compass equipped with a magnetic sensor and
electronics for generating a suitable output signal for other devices. The
compass used should be the standard magnetic compass provided under
SOLAS chapter V; or
.2 an electromagnetic compass consisting of the sensor part and electronics for
generating a suitable output signal for other devices; or
.3 any type as defined under .1 and .2 additionally equipped with a rate gyro to
improve dynamic performance.

4 CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Fore-and-aft mark
4.1.1 A fore-and-aft mark should be inscribed on the magnetic sensor housing,
which should be installed in parallel to the ship’s fore-and-aft line.
4.1.2 The accuracy of the fore-and-aft mark should be within + 0.5° to the fore-
and-aft direction of the housing.
4.1.3 If a rate gyro is installed it should be marked in the same way and
additionally be marked with top or bottom.
4.2 Fitting
4.2.1 Provision should be made, in the mounting arrangements of the magnetic
sensor, for correction of any misalignment, up to + 5°, with respect to the
fore-and-aft line.
4.2.2 The fitting of the sensor arrangement to the compass in paragraph 3.1
Above should still enable the compass to comply with resolution A.382(X)
with particular reference to accuracy, gimbling and use of the azimuth
reading device.
4.3 Compensation of deviation and heeling error Provision should be made to
correct the deviation and heeling error and it should be possible to correct the
following values:*
.1 vertical component of the ship's magnetic field (producing the heeling
error): up to +75 µT;
.2 coefficient A: up to +3°;
.3 coefficient B: up to +(720/H)°;
.4 coefficient C: up to +(720/H)°;
.5 coefficient D: up to +7°; and
.6 coefficient E: up to + 3°, where H is the
horizontal component of the geomagnetic flux density in microteslas (µT).
4.3.1 Indication of compensation The values used for electronic compensation
should be indicated by adequate means and should be stored such that
values are automatically recovered on switch-on.
4.3.2 Protection of compensation The compensating devices should be protected
Against inadvertent operation.

References
RESOLUTION MSC.86(70) (adopted on 8 December 1998)

Page
114
(Note to Instructor: Please review SOLAS chapter V - Regulation 19, paragraphs 2.1.1, 2.1.2, 2.1.3 and
2.2.1, acquire video on youtube with regards to the subject matter for more detailed explainations.)

Questions:

1. What are the requirements of SOLAS chapter V - Regulation 19, in regard to the requirements for
the carriage of magnetic compasses.
2. Why that the ships must also be fitted with a pelorus, or other means, to take bearings over an
arc of 360° of the horizon and a means for correcting heading and bearings to true at all times
3. Explain the parts of the magnetic compass and their function
4. Explain the operating principle of Transmitting Magnetic Compass (TMC)

Page
115
 Topic 17 : The errors of the magnetic compass and their correction

Introduction: This document has been prepared in order to present all pertinent information regarding
the practical procedures of magnetic compass adjustment in one text. As such, it treats of the basic
principles of compass deviations and their correction, and not of the details of particular compass
equipment. Although this text is presented as a systematic treatise on compass adjustment, ship's
personnel who are inexperienced with compass correction will find sufficient information to eliminate
compass errors satisfactorily without intensive study of the entire text. In this handbook, the term
compass adjustment refers to any changes of permanent magnet of soft iron correctors whereby normal
compass errors are reduced. The term compass compensation refers to any change in the current
supplied to compass compensating coils whereby the errors due to degaussing are reduced.

L.O.: At the end of the lesson, the students/learners were being able to:
1. Defines the approximate coefficients A, B, C, D and E
2. Explain the equation for the deviation on a given heading in terms of the coefficients
3. Explains the use of the approximate coefficients A, B,C, D and E
4. Describes why coefficients A and E may exist at a badly sited compass
5. Explains the non-magnetic causes of an apparent coefficient A
6. Explains that coefficient B results partly from the ship's permanent magnetism and partly from
induced
7. Explains that induced magnetism may also contribute to coefficient C in a badly sited compass
8. Describe on how the deviation associated with the coefficient permanent B varies with magnetic
latitude
9. Describe on how the deviation associated with the coefficient induced B varies with magnetic
latitude
10. Explains why the deviation due to permanent magnetism should be compensated by permanent
magnets and that due to induced magnetism by spherical soft iron correctors, where
possible
11. Defines the constants lambda 1 and lambda 2
12. Defines the constant mu
13. Describes the vertical force instrument and its use in correcting heeling error
14. Describes methods of obtaining a table of deviations
15. Analyses a table of deviations to obtain approximate coefficients
16. Explains the adjustment of the compass by the analysis and/or tentative methods and obtains a
table of residual deviations
17. Explains the order in which corrections should be made and explains why they are made in that
order
18. Explains why a large coefficient B may appear after a large change of magnetic latitude and how
to correct it
19. Describes how sub-permanent magnetism gives rise to retentive error
20. Explains that deviations may be affected by cargo of a magnetic nature, the use of electro-
magnets for cargo handling, or repairs involving hammering or welding of steelwork in
the vicinity of the compass
21. Defines the magnetic moment of a bar magnet as the product of the pole strength and the
length of the magnet
22. Explains that, for a suspended magnet vibrating in a magnetic field, T 2 is proportional to 1/H,
where T is the period of vibration and H is the field strength
23. Explains how the relative strengths of two fields may be found

Page
116
 When speaking of the magnetic properties of iron it is usual to adopt the terms "soft" and
"hard." Soft iron is iron which becomes instantly magnetized by induction when exposed to any
magnetic force, but has no power of retaining its magnetism. Hard iron is less susceptible of being
magnetized, but when once magnetized it retains its magnetism permanently. The term "iron" used in
these pages includes the "steel" now commonly employed in ship building. If an iron ship be swung
when upright for deviation, and the mean horizontal and vertical magnetic forces at the compass
positions be also observed in different parts of the world, mathematical analysis shows that the
deviations are caused partly by the permanent magnetism of hard iron
Instead of observing the deviation solely for the purposes of correcting the indications of the compass
when disturbed by the iron of the ship, the practice is to subject all deviations to mathematical analysis
with a view to their mechanical correction. The whole of the deviations when the ship is upright may be
expressed nearly by five coefficients, A, B, C, D, E.
Of these A is a deviation constant in amount for every direction of the ship's head.
B has reference to horizontal forces acting in a longitudinal direction in the ship, and caused partly by
the permanent magnetism of hard iron, partly by vertical induction in vertical soft iron either before or
abaft the compass.
C has reference to forces acting in a transverse direction, and caused by hard iron.
D is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron, the direction of which passes continuously under
or over the compass.
E is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron unsymmetrically placed with regard to the
compass.
When data of this character have been obtained the compass deviations may be mechanically corrected
to within 0—always adhering to the principle that "like cures like."
Thus the part of B caused by the permanent magnetism of hard iron must be corrected by permanent
magnets horizontally placed in a fore and aft direction, the other part caused by vertical soft iron by
means of bars of vertical soft iron, called Flinders bars, before or abaft the compass.
C is compensated by permanent magnets athwart-ships and horizontal;
D by masses of soft iron on both sides of the compass, and generally in the form of cast-iron spheres,
with their centres in the same horizontal plane as the needles;
E is usually too small to require correction;
A is fortunately rarely of any value, it is constant and can be adjusted by moving the lubber line in
steering compasses. The deviation observed when the ship inclines to either side is due (I) to hard iron
acting vertically upwards or downwards; (2) to vertical soft iron immediately below the compass; (3) to
vertical induction in horizontal soft iron when inclined. To compensate (I), vertical magnets are used; (3)
is partly corrected by the soft iron correctors of D ; (2) and the
remaining part of (3) cannot be conveniently corrected for more than one geographical position at a
time.

References
NATIONAL GEOSPATIAL-INTELLIGENCE AGENCY BETHESDA, MD 2004

Page
117
Magnetic compass Deviation Adjustments at sea.
These adjustments are made with the ship on an even keel and after steadying on each heading. When
using the gyro, swing from heading to heading slowly and check gyro error by sun's azimuth or ranges on
each heading if desired to ensure a greater degree of accuracy (article 706). Be sure gyro is set for the
mean speed and latitude of the vessel. Note "OSCAR
QUEBEC" international code signal should be flown to
indicate such work is in progress. Chapter VII discusses
methods for placing the ship on desired headings.
1. Adjust the heeling magnet, while the ship is
rolling, on north and south magnetic heading
until the oscillations of the compass card have
been reduced to an average minimum. (This step
is not required if prior adjustment has been made
using a dip needle to indicate proper placement
of the heeling magnet.)
2. Come to an east (090°) cardinal magnetic
heading. Insert fore-and-aft B magnets, or move
the existing B magnets, in such a manner as to
remove all deviation.
3. Come to a south (180°) magnetic heading. Insert
athwartship C magnets, or move the existing C
magnets, in such a manner as to remove all
deviation.
4. Come to a west (270°) magnetic heading. Correct
half of any observed deviation by moving the B
magnets.
5. Come to a north (000°) magnetic heading.
Correct half of any observed deviation by moving the C magnets. (The cardinal heading
adjustments should now be complete.)
6. Come to any intercardinal magnetic heading, e.g. northeast (045°). Correct any observed deviation
by moving the spheres in or out.
7. Come to the next intercardinal magnetic heading, e.g. southeast (135°). Correct half of any
observed deviation by moving the spheres. (The intercardinal heading adjustments should now be
complete, although more accurate results might be obtained by correcting the D error determined
from the deviations on all four intercardinal heading, as discussed in article 501.)
8. Secure all correctors before swinging for residual deviations.
9. Swing for residual undegaussed deviations on as many headings as desired, although the eight
cardinal and intercardinal headings should be sufficient.
10. Should there still be any large deviations, analyze the deviation curve to determine the necessary
corrections and repeat as necessary steps 1 through 9 above (Chapter V).
11. Record deviations and the details of corrector positions on standard Navy Form NAVSEA 3120/4
and in the Magnetic Compass Record NAVSEA 3120/3 (article 901).
12. Swing for residual degaussed deviations with the degaussing circuits properly energized (Chapter
XIV).
13. Record deviations for degaussed conditions on standard Navy Form NAVSEA 3120/4. 103. The
above check-off list describes a simplified method of adjusting compasses, designed to serve as a
simple workable outline for the novice who chooses to follow a step-by-step

Page
118
 procedure. The "Dockside Tests and Adjustments" are
essential as a foundation for the "Adjustments at Sea", and
if neglected may lead to spurious results or needless
repetition of the procedure at sea. Hence, it is strongly
recommended that careful considerations be given these
dockside checks prior to making the final adjustment so as
to allow time to repair or replace faulty compasses, anneal
or replace magnetized spheres or Flinders bar, realign
binnacle, move gyro repeater if it is affecting the compass,
or to make any other necessary preliminary repairs. It is
further stressed that expeditious compass adjustment is
dependent upon the application of the various correctors in
a logical sequence so as to achieve the final adjustment
with a minimum number of steps. This sequence is
incorporated in
the above check-off list and better results will be obtained
if it is adhered to closely. Figure 318 presents the various
compass errors and their correction in condensed form.
The table in figure 103 will further clarify the mechanics of
placing the corrector magnets, spheres, and Flinders bar.
Chapter IV discusses the more efficient and scientific
methods of adjusting compasses, in addition to a more
elaborate treatment of the items mentioned in the check-
off list. Frequent, careful observations should be made to
determine the constancy of deviations and results should be systematically recorded. Significant
changes in deviation will indicate the need for readjustment.
Example:
A magnetic compass which has not been adjusted has deviation on cardinal and intercardinal compass
headings as follows:
Compass Deviation Compass Deviation
heading heading
000º 1.5ºW 180º 8.0ºE
045º 34.0ºE 225º 1.5ºW
090º 31.0ºE 270º 29.0ºW
135º 13.5ºE 315º 36.0ºW
On heading compass north the deviation is 1.5ºW when the vessel heels 45º to starboard. Find the
approximate value of each coefficient. (For purpose of analysis, easterly deviation is considered positive
(+), and westerly deviation negative (-).

A = -1.5º+34.0º+31.0º+13.5º+8.0º-1.5º-2.9º-36.0º = +2.3º
8
B = 31.0º+29.0º = +3.0º
2
C = 1.5º - 8.0º = -4.8º
2
References
NATIONAL GEOSPATIAL-INTELLIGENCE AGENCY BETHESDA, MD 2004
http://www.capecompass.com/analysis_explained.htm
Review Notes for deck officers by Arsenio Padilla

Page
119
D = 34.0º - 13.5º -1.5º + 36.0º = +13.8º
4
E = 1.5º - 31.0º + 8.0º +29.0º = +1.1º
4
J = -13.5º + 1.5º = 1.2º
2

Constant mu
The symbol µ is sometimes used to represent permeability, an expression of the extent to which a
substance concentrates magnetic lines of flux. In some texts, the symbol µ is an abbreviation
of micrometer(s) or micron(s). These two terms both refer to a unit of displacement equal to 0.000001
meter or 0.001 millimeter.

CORRECTION OF HEELING ERROR

The vertical force instrument is
first leveled ashore in a position
free from disturbing magnetic
fields and the scale reading
noted. The V.F.I is then taken
back on board the vessel and
placed in the compass binnacle
preferably with the vessel heading
East or West. If the weight was
left at the same graduation
position as was noted ashore, the
needle will be found to lie inclined
at an angle to the horizontal since
the effect Z will be increased or
decreased by the vertical
permanent or induced
magnetism of the ship's
structure. The scale reading which was noted ashore (say N) is multiplied by the ships multiplier µ2 = 0.9
for average ship. The weight is set at the graduation on the instrument equal to the product of the scale
reading ashore and the ships multiplier (N x µ2). With this setting and the vertical force instrument in
the compass position the heeling error magnets are put in position to bring the needle horizontal again.
The value of
µ2 is determined by the ships horizontal soft iron as modified by the spheres and this also causes the
horizontal direction force at the compass position to be reduced by a factor λ2
Numerically (µ2 = λ2 (In practice it is λ2 that is calculated).

LAMBDA (λ)This is the ratio of the mean directive force to magnetic North at the compass position to
the directive force ashore. The same ratio after the spheres have been placed is called λ2 . The mean
directive force is always less than λ2 which is less the directive force ashore because:
1) a ship usually has continuous horizontal soft iron causing a red pole to the North of the
compass.
2) 2) the ship's structure has a screening effect on the compass.
References
https://www.scribd.com/doc/89337371/1/CORRECTION-OF-COEFFICIENT-D

Page
120
Reasons for find λ and λ2 are:
1) to determine the best place for the compass.
2) to determine the value of the ship's multiplier.
λ is found by using a horizontal vibrating needle ashore and then on board and comparing the periods of
oscillation. To carry ou t the experiment the horizontal vibrating needle would be setup ashore about 3
feet above ground level at a place free from unwanted magnetic effects. The needle should be deflected
15º and the total time observed for a selected number of oscillations, e.g. 10. The needle should then
be taken on board and vibrated in the compass position with the ship's head on each of the cardinal
courses in turn and again observing the time interval for the selected number of oscillations on each
course.
From the above data λ1 or if the spheres are in position λ2 may be found.

UNCORRECTED HEELING ERROR AND AN UNSTEADY COMPASS

Uncorrected or overcorrected heeling error is a cause of unsteadiness in a magnetic compass
when the vessel is rolling. It is not the only cause, but should be suspected if there has been a large
change of latitude since heeling error was last adjusted.

HEELING ERROR IS A MAXIMUM ON NORTH AND SOUTH COURSES

Unsteadiness of the magnetic compass card is likely to be a maximum on northerly and
southerly courses. When the unsteadiness is serious, it is necessary to adjust the vertical magnets at sea
to produce a compass card steady enough to steer by. The north end of the compass is pulled to the
high side when there is a downward force at the compass (+R) and to the low side when there is an
upward force at the compass (-R).The corrector bucket should now be raised or lowered as required
very slowly until the compass card is steady. It is possible that moving the corrector bucket by itself is
insufficient to steady the compass, in which case a magnet the correct way up should be added or taken
away. The heeling error is then properly corrected. When the HE corrector magnets are altered
appreciably the correction of the permanent part of the coefficient B is upset. The two parts of
coefficient B must be corrected separately, otherwise deviations on E and W courses will appear with a
change of latitude and HE will appear on east and westerly courses. Acceleration errors are produced in
the magnetic compass of high speed craft particularly when altering course. For this reason their use on
such vessels is not recommended.

RETENTIVE ERROR
When a vessel steers a steady course for some considerable time, the vibration of the ship and
the influence of the earth's magnetic field combine to cause a gradual magnetic change in parts of a
vessel's structure. If the vessel then changes course, this change in the magnetism will initially be
retained but will gradually decay. Magnetism of this type is known as sub-permanent magnetism and
the error it gives 'rise' to is known as retentive error. If as in the figure a vessel steers a steady northerly
course for an extended period, the vessel's sub-permanent magnetism will acquire a red pole forward. If
the vessel then alters course to starboard the red and blue poles will be
temporarily retained and will cause westerly deviation. The deviation caused in this way is similar to that
due to Gaussin error for alterations of course less than 180º. The difference is that Gaussin error is due
to an unsettling of the ship's induced magnetism

References
https://www.scribd.com/doc/89337371/1/CORRECTION-OF-COEFFICIENT-D
American Practical Navigator By: N.Bowditch

Page
121
due to the actual swerving of the ship in azimuth whilst retentive error is due to subpermanent
magnetism developed while the ship is steering a steady course. The effect of Gaussin error is quickly
lost when a vessel steadies on a new course but the effect of retentive error is only lost over a much
longer period of time.

Determining The Horizontal Shielding Factor

Occasionally, the navigator must determine the mag-netic field strength at some compass location
for one of the following reasons:

1. To determine the horizontal shielding factor, lamb-

a. A complete mathematical analysis.
b. Accurate Flinders bar adjustment.
c. Accurate heeling adjustment.
d. Calculations on a dockside magnetic adjustment.
e. Determining the best compass location on board ship.
2. To make a dockside magnetic adjustment for deter-mining the magnitude and direction of the
existing directive force at the magnetic compass.

Determining The Horizontal Shielding Factor

Occasionally, the navigator must determine the magnetic field strength at some compass location for
one of the following reasons:
1. To determine the horizontal shielding factor, lambda (λ), for:
a) A complete mathematical analysis.
b) Accurate Flinders bar adjustment.
c) Accurate heeling adjustment.
d) Calculations on a dockside magnetic adjustment.
e) Determining the best compass location on board ship.
2. To make a dockside magnetic adjustment for determining the magnitude and direction of the existing
directive force at the magnetic compass.

The horizontal shielding factor is the ratio of the reduced earth’s directive force, H', on the compass to
the horizontal earth’s field, H.
λ = H'
H

The navigator can determine λ for a compass location by making a measurement of the reduced earth’s
directive force, H'.
On a corrected compass, this value H' may be measured with the ship on any heading, since this
reduced earth’s directive force is the only force acting on the com-pass. If the compass is not corrected
for the ship’s magnetism and the deviations are large, H' is determined from the several resultant
directive forces observed with equally spaced headings of the ship. The Horizontal Shield-ing Factor
should be determined for every compass location on every ship.

References
https://www.scribd.com/doc/89337371/1/CORRECTION-OF-COEFFICIENT-D
American Practical Navigator By: N.Bowditch

Page
122
Measurement Of Magnetic Fields
Use a suitable magnetometer or a horizontal force instrument to measure magnetic fields. The
magnetometer method is a direct reading method requiring no calculation. However, the force
instrument method requires much less complicated test equipment so this method is discussed below.
The horizontal force instrument is simply a magnetized needle pivoted in a horizontal plane, much
the same as a compass. It will settle in some position which will indicate the direction of the resultant
magnetic field. Determine the resulting field’s strength by comparing it with a known field. If the force
needle is started swinging, it will be damped down with a certain period of oscillation dependent upon
the strength of the surrounding magnetic field. The stronger the magnetic field, the shorter the period
of time for each cycle of swing. The ratio is such that the squares of the period of vibration are inversely
proportional to the strengths of the magnetic fields. This relationship is expressed as follows:
H' ꞊ T2
H T'2
In the above formula, let H represent the strength of the earth’s horizontal field in gauss and T
represent the time in seconds for 10 cycles of needle vibration in that earth’s field. A comparative
measurement of time in seconds, T', for 10 cycles of vibration of the same needle in the un-known field
will enable the navigator to calculate H'.
Since λ is the ratio of two magnetic field strengths, it may be found directly by the inverse ratio of
the squares of the periods of vibration for the same horizontal force instru-ment in the two different
magnetic fields by the same formula, without bothering about the values of H and H'.
The above may be used on one heading of the ship if the compass deviations are less than 4º.
Use the following equation to obtain a more precise
λ ꞊ H’ ꞊ T
H T’
value of λ, and where compass deviations exceed 4º:
2
T cos dn cos de cos ds cos dw
----- -------------- + -------------- + ---------------- + ----------------

4 2 2 2 2
T n T e T s T w

Where:
T is the time period for the field H.
Tn is the time period for the resultant field on a north heading, etc.
cos dn is the cos of the deviation on the north heading, etc.

References
American Practical Navigator By: N.Bowditch

Page
123
( Note to instructor: Please review Handbook for magnetic compass adjustment visit the
website: http://msi.nga.mil/MSISiteContent/StaticFiles/HoMCA.pdf; and also at website:
http://fer3.com/arc/imgx/bowditch1995/chapt06.pdf )

Questions:
1. Explain the “soft” and “hard” iron.
2. The whole of the deviations when the ship is upright may be expressed nearly by five
coefficients, what are those coefficient and explain each.
3. How to correct those coefficients.
4. Explain the procedures how the magnetic compass Deviation Adjustments at sea.
5. Explain the constant mu.
6. How to correct the heeling error.
7. What is retentive error?
8. How to measure the magnetic field?

Page
124
Topic 18 : (MLC) The Principles of Gyro-Compass

Introduction: A gyrocompass is a type of non-magnetic compass which is based on a fast-spinning disc

and rotation of the Earth (or another planetary body if used elsewhere in the universe) to automatically
find geographical direction. Although one important component of a gyrocompass is a gyroscope, these
are not the same devices; a gyrocompass is built to use the effect of gyroscopic precession, which is a
distinctive aspect of the general gyroscopic effect. Gyrocompasses are widely used
for navigation on ships, because they have two significant advantages over magnetic compasses.

L.O.: At the end of the lesson, the learners were being able to know the operating principles of the
mechanical/ballistic gyro compass; operating principle of other types of gyro compasses such as Fibre
Optic gyro-compass and ring laser gyro-compass and their advantages over the mechanical / ballistic
gyro-compass.

Principles of the Gyroscope

A gyroscope consists of a spinning wheel or rotor contained within gimbals which permit
movement about three mutually perpendicular axes, known as the horizontal axis, the vertical axis, and
the spin axis. When spun rapidly, assuming that friction is not considered, the gyroscope develops
gyroscopic inertia, tending to remain spinning in the same plane indefinitely. The amount of gyroscopic
inertia depends on the angular velocity, mass, and radius of the wheel or rotor. When a force is applied
to change alignment of the spin axis of a gyroscope, the resultant motion is perpendicular to the
direction of the force. This tendency is known as precession. A force applied to the center of gravity of
the gyroscope will move the entire system in the direction of the force. Only a force that tends to
change the axis of rotation produces precession. If a gyroscope is placed at the equator with its spin axis
pointing east-west, as the earth turns on its axis, gyroscopic inertia will tend to keep the plane of
rotation constant. To the observer, it is the gyroscope which is seen to rotate, not the earth. This effect
is called the horizontal earth rate, and is maximum at the equator and
zero at the poles. At points between, it is equal to the cosine of the
latitude. If the gyro is placed at a geographic pole with its spin axis
horizontal, it will appear to rotate about its vertical axis. This is the
vertical earth rate. At all points between the equator and the poles, the
gyro appears to turn partly about its horizontal and partly about its
vertical axis, being affected by both horizontal and vertical earth rates.
In order to visualize these effects, remember that the gyro, at whatever
latitude it is placed, is remaining aligned in space while the earth moves
beneath it.

Gyrocompass Operation
The gyrocompass depends upon four natural phenomena: gyroscopic
inertia, precession, earth’s rotation, and gravity. To make a gyroscope
into a gyrocompass, the wheel or rotor is mounted in a sphere, called
the gyrosphere, and the sphere is then supported in a vertical ring.

References
American Practical Navigator By: N.Bowditch
http://msi.nga.mil/MSISiteContent/StaticFiles/NAV_PUBS/APN/Chapt-06.pdf

Page
125
The whole is mounted on a base called the phantom. The gyroscope in a gyrocompass can be pendulous
or non-pendulous, according to design. The rotor may weigh as little as half a kilogram to over 25 kg.
To make it seek and maintain true north, three things are necessary.
First, the gyro must be made to stay on the plane of the meridian. Second, it
must be made to remain horizontal. Third, it must stay in this position once it
reaches it regardless of what the vessel on which it is mounted does or where
it goes on the earth. To make it seek the meridian, a weight is added to the
bottom of the vertical ring, causing it to swing on its vertical axis, and thus
seek to align itself horizontally. It will tend to oscillate, so a second weight is
added to the side of the sphere in which the rotor is contained, which
dampens the oscillations until the gyro stays on the meridian. With these two
weights, the only possible position of equilibrium is on the meridian with its
spin axis horizontal.
To make the gyro seek north, a system of reservoirs filled with mercury, known as mercury
ballistics, is used to apply a force against the spin axis. The ballistics, usually four in number, are placed
so that their centers of gravity exactly coincide with the CG of the gyroscope. Precession then causes the
spin axis to trace an ellipse, one ellipse taking about 84 minutes to complete. (This is the period of
oscillation of a pendulum with an arm equal to the radius of the earth.) To dampen this oscillation, the
force is applied, not in the vertical plane, but slightly to the east of the vertical plane. This causes the
spin axis to trace a spiral instead of an ellipse and eventually settle on the meridian pointing north.
Using the Gyrocompass Since a gyrocompass is not influenced by magnetism, it is not subject to
variation or deviation. Any error is constant and equal around the horizon, and can often be reduced to
less than one degree, thus effectively eliminating it altogether. Unlike a magnetic compass, it can output
a signal to repeaters spaced around the vessel at critical positions.
But it also requires a constant source of stable electrical power, and if power is lost, it requires
several hours to settle on the meridian again before it can be used. This period can be reduced by
aligning the compass with the meridian before turning on the power.
The directive force of a gyrocompass depends on the amount of precession to which it is
subject, which in turn is dependent on latitude. Thus the directive force is maximum at the equator and
decreases to zero at the poles. Vessels operating in high latitudes must construct error curves based on
latitudes because the errors at high latitudes eventually overcome the ability of the compass to correct
them.
The gyrocompass is typically located below decks as close as possible to the center of roll, pitch
and yaw of the ship, thus minimizing errors caused by the ship’s motion. Repeaters are located at
convenient places throughout the ship, such as at the helm for steering, on the bridge wings for taking
bearings, in after steering for emergency steering, and other places. The output can also be used to
drive course recorders, autopilot systems, plotters, fire control systems, and stabilized radars. The
repeaters should be checked regularly against the master to ensure they are all in alignment. The
repeaters on the bridge wing used for taking bearings will likely be equipped with removable bearing
circles, azimuth circles, and telescopic alidades, which allow one to sight a distant object and see its
exact gyrocompass bearing.

References
http://msi.nga.mil/MSISiteContent/StaticFiles/NAV_PUBS/APN/Chapt-06.pdf
The Anschutz Gyro-Compass and Gyroscope Engineering. pp. 7–24

Page
126
A Fibre Optic Gyrocompass
Is a compass and instrument of navigation. It is sometimes part of a ships set of compasses,
which also include a conventional gyrocompass and a magnetic compass.
The fibre optic gyrocompass is a complete unit, which unlike a conventional compass, has no rotating or
other moving parts. It uses a series of fibre optic gyroscope sensors and computers to locate north. It
has very high reliability and requires little maintenance during its service life. The entire system usually
includes a sensor unit, a control and display unit, and an interface and power supply unit. It is often
linked with the ship's other navigational devices including GPS.

OPERATION
Two beams from a laser are injected into the
same fiber but in opposite directions. Due to the Sagnac
effect, the beam travelling against the rotation
experiences a slightly shorter path delay than the other
beam. The resulting differential phase shift is measured
through interferometry, thus translating one component
of the angular velocity into a shift of the interference
pattern which is measured photometrically.
Beam splitting optics launches light from a laser diode
into two waves propagating in the clockwise and
anticlockwise directions through a coil consisting of
many turns of optical fibre. The strength of the Sagnac
effect is dependent on the effective area of the closed The interference on a Sagnac
optical path: this is not simply the geometric area of the interferometer is proportional to the enclosed
loop but is enhanced by the number of turns in the coil. area. A looped fibre-optic coil multiplies the
The FOG was first proposed by Vali and Shorthill in 1976. effective area by the number of loops.
Development of both the passive interferometer type of
FOG, or IFOG, and a newer concept, the passive ring resonator FOG, or RFOG, is proceeding in many
companies and establishments worldwide.
APPLICATIONS
1. FOGs are used in the inertial navigation systems of many guided missiles.
2. FOGs can be a navigation aid in remotely operated
vehicles and autonomous underwater vehicles.
3. FOGs are used in surveying.

References
Hervé Lefèvre, "The Fiber-Optic Gyroscope", 1993, ARTECH HOUSE, INC. ISBN 0-89006-537-3

Page
127
ADVANTAGES
A FOG provides extremely precise rotational rate information, in part because of its lack of
cross-axis sensitivity to vibration, acceleration, and shock. Unlike the classic spinning-mass gyroscope,
the FOG has no moving parts and doesn't rely on inertial resistance to movement. Hence, this is perhaps
the most reliable alternative to the mechanical gyroscope. Because of their intrinsic reliability, FOGs are
used for high performance space applications.
The FOG typically shows a higher resolution than a ring laser gyroscope, but suffered from greater drift
and worse scale factor performance until the end of the 1990s.
FOGs are implemented in both open-loop and closed-loop configurations.

DISADVANTAGES
FOGs requires calibration (determining which indication corresponds to zero angular velocity)
while ring laser gyroscopes do not (zero beat frequency always means zero angular velocity).

RING LASER GYRO COMPASS

A ring laser gyroscope (RLG) consists of a ring laser having two
independent counter-propagating resonant modes over the same path; the
difference in the frequencies is used to detect rotation. It operates on the
principle of the Sagnac effect which shifts the nulls of the internal standing
wave pattern in response to angular rotation. Interference between the
counter-propagating beams, observed externally, results in motion of the
standing wave pattern, and thus indicates rotation.

Principle of operation
A certain rate of rotation induces a small difference between the
Schematic representation of a
time it takes light to traverse the ring in the two directions according to ring laser setup. At the beam
the Sagnac effect. This introduces a tiny separation between the frequencies of sampling location, a fraction of
each of the counterpropagating
the counter-propagating beams, a motion of the standing wave pattern within
beams exits the laser cavity.
the ring, and thus a beat pattern when those two beams are interfered outside
the ring. Therefore the net shift of that interference pattern follows the rotation
of the unit in the plane of the ring.
RLGs, while more accurate than mechanical gyroscopes,
suffer from an effect known as "lock-in" at very slow rotation
rates. When the ring laser is hardly rotating, the frequencies of
the counter-propagating laser modes become almost identical. In
this case, crosstalk between the counter-propagating beams can
allow for injection locking so that the standing wave "gets stuck"
in a preferred phase, thus locking the frequency of each beam to
each other rather than responding to gradual rotation.
Forced dithering can largely overcome this problem.
The ring laser cavity is rotated clockwise and anti-clockwise about
its axis using a mechanical spring driven at its resonance
frequency. This ensures that the angular velocity

References
Warren M. Macek and D. T. M. Davis, Jr. (1963) "Rotation rate sensing with traveling-wave ring lasers," Applied Physics Letters,
vol. 2, pages 67–68.

Page
128
of the system is usually far from the lock-in threshold. Typical rates are 400 Hz, with a peak dither
velocity of 1 arc-second per second. Dither does not fix the lock-in problem completely, as each time the
direction of rotation is reversed, a short time interval exists in which the rotation rate is near zero and
lock-in can briefly occur. If a pure frequency oscillation is maintained, these small lock-in intervals can
accumulate. This was remedied by introducing noise to the 400 Hz vibration

Limitations of Ring Laser Gyros

The ring laser gyroscope today is well established in the medium and
high performance markets. It offers many advantages over
mechanical gyros; digital output linear with angular rotation, high
sensitivity and stability, quick reaction
times, insensitivity to acceleration and immunity to most
environmental effects . In spite of these advantages, the RLG remains
a specialized instrument whose utility varies with the application and
several factors limit its selection over modern mechanical system. The
exacting cavity geometries and precision mirrors required for RLG
construction and the necessity of assembly under stringent clean
room conditions drive its cost beyond economic application to low
performance system.

References
Warren M. Macek and D. T. M. Davis, Jr. (1963) "Rotation rate sensing with traveling-wave ring lasers," Applied Physics Letters,
vol. 2, pages 67–68.

(Note to instructor: Show videos on students to guide and help them to understand about the
subject matter.)
Questions:
1. What are the principles of Gyro scope.
2. How the Gyro Compass operates.
3. What is optic GyroCompass
4. How it operates
5. What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of F.O.G.
6. What is Ring Laser Gyro Compass
7. What is the basic Operation of R.L.G.C.
8. What are the limitation of the Ring Laser Gyro Compass.

Page
129
Topic 19 : (MLC) Gyro-Compass Errors and Corrections

Introduction: The total of the all the combined errors of the gyrocompass is called gyro error and is
expressed in degrees E or W, just like variation and deviation. But gyro error, unlike magnetic compass
error, and being independent of Earth’s magnetic field, will be constant in one direction; that is, an error
of one degree east will apply to all bearings all around the compass. The errors to which a gyrocompass
is subject are speed error, latitude error, ballistic deflection error, ballistic damping error, quadrantal
error, and gimballing error. Additional errors may be introduced by a malfunction or incorrect alignment
with the centerline of the vessel.

L.O.: At the end of the lesson, the learners were being able to know the errors to which a gyrocompass
is subject such as speed error, latitude error, ballistic deflection error, ballistic damping error,
quadrantal error, and gimballing error.

The errors to which a gyrocompass is subject are speed error, latitude error, ballistic deflection
error, ballistic damping error, quadrantal error, and gimballing error. Additional errors may be
introduced by a malfunction or incorrect alignment with the centerline of the vessel.

Speed error is caused by the fact that a gyrocompass only moves directly east or west when it is
stationary (on the rotating earth) or placed on a
vessel moving exactly east or west. Any
movement to the north or south will cause the
compass to trace a path which is actually a
function of the speed of advance and the amount
of northerly or southerly heading. This causes the
compass to tend to settle a bit off true north. This
error is westerly if the vessel’s course is northerly,
and easterly if the course is southerly. Its
magnitude depends on the vessel’s speed, course,
and latitude. This error can be corrected internally
by means of a cosine cam mounted on the
underside of the azimuth gear, which removes
most of the error. Any remaining error is minor in
amount and can be disregarded.

Tangent latitude error is a property only of gyros

with mercury ballistics, and is easterly in north latitudes
and westerly in south latitudes. This error is also
corrected internally, by offsetting the lubber’s line or
with a small movable weight attached to the casing.
The angle between the local meridian and the set
tling position or spin axis in a
Non pendulous gyrocompass where
damping is accomplished by off setting the point of
application of the force of a mercury ballistic.

References___________________________________________________________
http://msi.nga.mil/MSISiteContent/StaticFiles/NAV_PUBS/APN/Chapt-06.pdf

Page
130
 Ballistic deflection error occurs when
there is a marked change in the north-south
component of the speed. East-west
accelerations have no effect. A change of
course or speed also results in speed error in
the opposite direction, and the two tend to
cancel each other if the compass is properly
designed. This aspect of design involves slightly
offsetting the ballistics according to the
operating latitude, upon which the correction is
dependent. As latitude changes, the error
becomes apparent, but can be minimized by
adjusting the offset.

Ballistic damping error is a

temporary oscillation introduced by
changes in course or speed. During
a change in course or speed, the
mercury in the ballistic is subjected
to centrifugal and
acceleration/deceleration forces.
This causes a torquing of the spin
axis and subsequent error in the
compass reading. Slow changes do
not introduce enough error to be a
problem, but rapid changes will.
This error is counteracted by cha
nging the position of the ballistics so that the true vertical axis is centered, thus not subject to error, but
only when certain rates of turn or acceleration are exceeded.
Quadrantal error has two
causes. The first occurs if the center of
gravity of the gyro is not exactly
centered in the phantom. This causes
the gyro to tend to swing along its heavy
axis as the vessel rolls in the sea. It is
minimized by adding weight so that the
mass is the same in all directions from
the center. Without a long axis of
weight, there is no tendency to swing in
one particular direction. The second
source of quadrantal error is more
difficult to eliminate. As a vessel rolls in
the sea, the apparent vertical axis is
displaced, first to one side and then the
other. The vertical axis of the gyro tends
to align itself with the apparent vertical.
On northerly or southerly courses, and on easterly or westerly courses, the compass precesses equally
to both sides and the resulting error is zero. On intercardinal courses, the N-S and E-W precessions are

Page
131
additive, and a persistent error is introduced, which changes direction in different quadrants. This error
is corrected by use of a second gyroscope called a floating ballistic, which stabilizes the mercury ballistic
as the vessel rolls, eliminating the error. Another method is to use two gyros for the directive element,
which tend to precess in opposite directions,
neutralizing the error.

Gimballing error is caused by taking readings

from the compass card when it is tilted from the
horizontal plane. It applies to the compass itself and
to all repeaters . To minimize this error, the outer ring
of the gimbal of each repeater should be installed in
alignment with the fore-and aft line of the vessel. Of
course, the lubber’s line must be exactly centered as
well.

Using the Gyrocompass

Since a gyrocompass is not influenced by
magnetism, it is not subject to variation or deviation.
Any error is constant and equal around the horizon,
and can often be reduced to less than one degree,
thus effectively eliminating it altogether. Unlike a
magnetic compass, it can output a signal to repeaters
spaced around the vessel at critical positions.
But it also requires a constant source of stable electrical power, and if power is lost, it requires
several hours to settle on the meridian again before it can be used. This period can be reduced by
aligning the compass with the meridian before turning on the power.
The directive force of a gyrocompass depends on the amount of precession to which it is
subject, which in turn is dependent on latitude. Thus the directive force is maximum at the equator and
decreases to zero at the poles. Vessels operating in high latitudes must construct error curves based on
latitudes because the errors at high latitudes eventually overcome the ability of the compass to correct
them.
The gyrocompass is typically located below decks as close as possible to the center of roll, pitch
and yaw of the ship, thus minimizing errors caused by the ship’s motion. Repeaters are located at
convenient places throughout the ship, such as at the helm for steering, on the bridge wings for taking
bearings, in after steering for emergency steering, and other places. The output can also be used to
drive course recorders, autopilot systems, plotters, fire control systems, and stabilized radars. The
repeaters should be checked regularly against the master to ensure they are all in alignment.
The repeaters on the bridge wing used for taking bearings will likely be equipped with removable
bearing circles, azimuth circles, and telescopic alidades, which allow one to sight a distant object and see
its exact gyrocompass bearing. COMPASSES

References
http://msi.nga.mil/MSISiteContent/StaticFiles/NAV_PUBS/APN/Chapt-06.pdf

Page
132
(Note to instructor: Show videos on students to guide and help them to understand about the subject
matter.)

Questions:
1. The total of the all the combined errors of the gyrocompass is called gyro error Explain those
errors:
a) Speed error
b) Tangent Latitude error
c) Ballistic deflection error
d) Ballistic damping error
e) Quadrantal error
f) Gimballing Error
2. How to correct those errors?

Page
133
Topic 20 : (MLC) Systems under the control of the master gyro and the operation and
care of the main types of gyro-compasses in use at Sea.

Introduction: GYROCOMPASS SYSTEMS The gyrocompass provides a means of determining own ship’s
heading, and roll of the ship. Gyrocompass systems transmits information to weapons control,
sonar, radar, depth control, AIS, ECDIS, GMDSS Equipment, GPS, dead reckoning and other
equipment or systems as required.

LO: At the end of the lesson, the Students/learners were being able to defines the main systems under
the control of the master gyro; defines the main types of gyro-compass in use at sea

GYROCOMPASS SYSTEMS The gyrocompass

provides a means of determining own ship’s
heading, and roll of the ship. Gyrocompass
systems transmits information to weapons
control, sonar, radar, depth control, AIS,
ECDIS, GMDSS Equipment, GPS, dead
reckoning and other equipment or systems as
required.
Components of the gyrocompass system
include: gyro compass control Cabinets, power
supply, indicators for ship’s heading, roll, and
pitch (analog and digital), synchro signal
amplifiers, and synchro signal converters.
Normally the Interior Communications
Technician (IC) and Electrician’s Mate (EM) will
maintain this equipment. Gyro compasses are
identified by the mark (Mk) modification (Mod)
system. The Mk number designates a major
development of a compass. The Mod number
indicates a change to the major development. Two new gyrocompass systems are currently
being installed on Navy ships. These are the stabilized Gyrocompass Set AN/WSN-2 and the Inertial
Navigation Set AN/WSN-5.
The Mk 19 gyrocompass seeks and continuously indicates the degree of the ship’s roll, pitch, and
heading. The Mk 19 gyrocompass furnishes precise synchro roll, pitch, and heading data for use in
navigation equipments. It also is used in stabilizing surveillance, sub-surface search (sonar), surface
search, air search, navigation, and fire control radar systems. The Mk 19 gyrocompass consists of
four major components: master compass, control cabinet, failure annunciator, and power supply
as shown in figure 4-1. The Mk 19 gyrocompass system is installed aboard warships(submarines, DD
types, and larger), amphibious warships (LSDs and larger), auxiliary ships (longer than91 meters
(300 feet), patrol ships (FF types and larger),and mine warfare ships.

References
http://electronicstechnician.tpub.com/14093/css/14093_65.htm

Page
134
Main types of gyro-compass in use at sea
A compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to Earth’s magnetic poles. It
consists of magnetized pointer that is free to be aligned to magnetic North or true north or sometimes
to an arbitrary direction based on the location of the celestial bodies. Magnetic North refers to the pole
of Earth's magnetic field. It is the direction of the north tip of the Earth’s magnetic field and true north
refers to the geographic north pole. The compass has been used extensive since ancient times for
direction setting and for navigating across the oceans.
Based on latest gyro compass technology the Anschütz Standard 22 Gyro Compass ensures highest
accuracy and maximum reliability under all environmental conditions. Operational safety of the gyro
compass was dramatically increased due to a unique technical design which uses a patented data
transmission technology instead of using slip rings. Providing proven gyro compass technology and long
maintenance periods, the Anschütz Standard 22 Gyro Compass is a long time secure investment with
lowest operation costs.
Since the Anschütz Standard 22 Gyro Compass was designed as a modular system, our customers can
expect outstanding features in order to meet their individual requirements best. Up to three gyro
sensors can be connected to one system and other sensors may be integrated additionally. As the first
gyro compass system it integrates gyro, satellite and magnetic heading sensors.
The basic system consists of the gyro compass, an operator unit and a distribution unit. We also offer a
fully redundant gyro compass system which complies with DNV NAUT-AW, NAUT-OC and NAUT-OSV.
This system is equipped with a double gyro compass, double distribution unit and double operator unit
and one change-over unit which means redundancy in compass and distribution. No single failure will
cause loss of heading information to the connected equipment.

The military version is the Anschütz Standard 22M Gyro Compass. In this configuration, Standard 22
also offers a special shock resistance to provide most precise navigation data in every situation.

Facts & Features

 Low lifecycle costs due to maximum reliability and long maintenance intervals
 Quick settling function
 Individual, manual and automatic speed / latitude error correction
 Compass monitor and selector with automatic switch-over (configurable)
 Central alarm reset Independent transmitting magnetic compass (TMC)
 Integration of magnetic compass, GPS compass, HRG, FOG and external rate-of-turn gyro
 High precision ROT output accuracy acc. to IMO
 IMO approved including high-speed craft (HSC)
 Modular product range to meet individual requirements
 Integrates seamlessly into your system environment due to a multitude of interfaces and
formats
 Short installation time

References
raytheon-anschuetz.com/products

Page
135
Maintenance of Master Gyro Compass

Reference_______________________________________________________________
http://ed-thelen.org/SperryManual-46.pdf

Page
136
Reference_______________________________________________________________
http://ed-thelen.org/SperryManual-46.pdf

Page
137
(Note to instructor: Show videos on students to guide and help them to understand about the subject
matter.)

Questions:
1. What is the main system under the control of the master gyro
2. What are the main types of gyro-compass in use at sea
3. What are the facts and features of Anschütz Standard 22M Gyro Compass
4. How the Master gyro compass be inspected:
a) Every watch
b) Weekly
c) Monthly

Page
138