Abdominal Approach To Vesicovaginal Fistula
Abdominal Approach To Vesicovaginal Fistula
Abdominal Approach To Vesicovaginal Fistula
KEYWORDS
Vesicovaginal fistula Urinary bladder fistula Vaginal fistula Surgical procedures Operative
Robotics Laparoscopy
KEY POINTS
Vesicovaginal fistula (VVF) is a devastating cause of morbidity and can be identified with physical
examination and/or imaging.
The abdominal approach to VVF repair includes a transvesical or extravesical technique.
The same principles of VVF repair apply when using the robot-assisted laparoscopic approach.
Shorter operative times, decreased blood loss, improved visibility, and similar cure rates with the
minimally invasive approach have led to a rise in its popularity.
DIAGNOSIS
A thorough history and physical examination are
the first components of diagnosing a VVF. Women
usually present with constant urinary leakage or
may describe a thin vaginal discharge that began
after their surgery. A high index of suspicion in
this scenario may serve to decrease incorrect or
delayed diagnosis.
Physical examination should commence with an
external genital examination. A cough stress test
should be done to rule out urinary incontinence
from the urethral meatus, which can be a confounder.
Inspection should also include a speculum ex-
amination. Close evaluation of the vaginal wall tis-
sue is imperative. A pinpoint opening on the
anterior vaginal wall or vaginal cuff may be
observed with obvious leakage. In presentations
closer to the date of surgery, one may instead
see a small area of erythema with granulation tis-
sue, which is concerning for a newer fistula. In
this case, a clear opening may not be visible.
If the previously described physical examination
techniques are not diagnostic, a dye test can be
performed. Retrograde filling of the bladder with in-
digo carmine or Methylene blue mixed with sterile Fig. 2. CT cystogram demonstrating an apical VVF that
water or saline will facilitate diagnosis of a could not be clearly visualized on pelvic examination.
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Abdominal Approach to Vesicovaginal Fistula 137
that abdominopelvic MRI may also be of value and successful closure. Traditionally, waiting 6 to
may have increased sensitivity compared with CT. 12 weeks was thought to allow granulation tissue
MRI may better help to delineate borders of the to dissipate and thus increase success rates.
bladder, urethra, and vagina, thereby helping with Over the last several years however, earlier clo-
surgical planning.7,8 Finally, cystoscopy should sures, within 1 to 2 weeks of injury, have been
also be performed in order to identify potential described with similar success rates.10,11 Surgical
involvement of the trigone and/or proximity to the intervention must be tailored to the individual cir-
ureters. Vaginoscopy can also be performed if cumstances of each case.
speculum examination is inconclusive.
SURGICAL APPROACH
CLASSIFICATION OF FISTULAS Vaginal Versus Abdominal Approach
Fistulas can be further characterized into simple In general, if either approach is acceptable, then the
and complex based on size and tissue quality. vaginal technique is preferred. Vaginal repair has
The term simple fistula is applied to a single fis- demonstrated significantly shorter operative times,
tula that is small (0.5 cm in diameter) and arising decreased blood loss, and shorter duration of hos-
in nonradiated tissue. The term complex fistula de- pitalization.12 However, certain factors limit the
notes a fistula that has failed a prior repair attempt, feasibility of a vaginal approach in favor of an
is at least 2.5 cm in diameter, or which results from abdominal repair. Most notably, a small introitus,
either chronic inflammatory disease or within radi- high or inaccessible fistulas, complex fistulas, a
ated tissues.3 recurrent fistula after a failed prior repair attempt,
fistulas with significant associated scarring, fistulas
SURGICAL INTERVENTION occurring in irradiated tissues, concomitant involve-
If a simple fistula is diagnosed shortly after sur- ment of the uterus or bowel, or when the relative
gery, conservative and expectant management is position of the ureters is seen as problematic or re-
a reasonable initial therapeutic option. A Foley quires the need for ureteral reimplantation.13
catheter should be placed into the bladder at The following section will focus on open and
time of diagnosis and left in place for 2 to 8 weeks laparoscopic abdominal approaches to VVF repair
with concurrent anticholinergic therapy. This has looking at both transvesical and extravesical ap-
been shown to result in closure of the fistulous proaches. In all cases, early placement of a
tract in approximately 10% of cases.5,9 bladder catheter is recommended. Bilateral ure-
If the patient is further out from surgery or if the teral stents (if required) and a small gauge Foley
defect failed to close with initial conservative man- or ureteral catheter for the fistulous tract can be
agement, then surgical intervention is recommen- placed cystoscopically or through the open
ded. The choice of surgical approach must take bladder, if performing a transvesical approach.
multiple factors into consideration, including the eti-
ology of the fistula, desired timing of surgery, vaginal OPEN ABDOMINAL APPROACH
versus abdominal approach, concomitant proced- Abdominal Incision
ures, excision of the fistulous tract, tissue interposi-
tion, sexual function, and adjuvant treatment.4 As in all open pelvic surgeries, one must first
Surgical techniques to repair VVF have pro- consider the risks and benefits of a lower vertical
gressed over the years since Dr. James Marion versus a transverse (Pfannensteil) abdominal inci-
Sims published the first report of a consistently suc- sion. Benefits of a midline vertical infraumbilical
cessful method of repair in 1852.1 Sims’ emphasis incision include easier access to the upper
on the critical importance of good exposure, contin- abdomen, which facilitates later retrieval of the
uous postoperative bladder drainage, and a omentum for use as an interposition graft, and
tension-free closure remain fundamental to a suc- decreased blood loss. Risks include potentially
cessful repair. Surgeon skill and experience, as worse postoperative pain and a less aesthetically
well as an accurate knowledge of the relevant sur- appealing incision.
gical anatomy of the ureters and the anatomic rela- Alternatively, a low transverse incision limits ac-
tionships of the base of the bladder to the vascular cess to higher abdominal structures but is often
pedicles of the uterus and vagina, are also integral.8 less painful and more easily concealed. If a trans-
verse incision is deemed more appropriate, a
TIMING OF SURGICAL INTERVENTION muscle-splitting incision, such as a Cherney inci-
sion, will assist with increased access to upper
Timing of surgery is based upon the health of the abdominal structures (Fig. 3). Upon entry, expo-
surrounding tissue and optimizing chances of a sure can be further facilitated with the use of
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138 McKay et al
Fig. 3. Pfannestiel incision with vertical incision of rectus fascia. (A) Horizontal skin incision (B) Vertical incision of
the rectus fascia (C) illustration of the desired view of the surgical field. (From Mangera A, Chapple C. Case dis-
cussion: vesicovaginal fistula following a total abdominal hysterectomy: the case for abdominal repair. Eur Urol
Focus 2016;2(1):100; with permission.)
self-retaining retractors and packing the bowel up vesicovaginal plane at least 1 to 2 cm beyond
high, out of the pelvis. the fistulous tract. This will decrease tension on
the repair and aid in layered closure for both the
Exposure of the Fistulous Tract vaginal and bladder walls.13
The fistulous tract can be visualized via a transves-
Extravesical Approach
ical or extravesical technique.
The extravesical approach, first described by Von
Transvesical Approach Dittel in 1803,16,17 focuses on targeted dissection,
avoiding cystotomy, and preferentially dissecting
The transvesical approach is based on the tech- to the fistulous tract via the vesicovaginal plane
nique described by O’Conor and Sokol as early (Fig. 6). The superiority of either the transvesical
as the 1950s, which remains a gold standard in or extravesical approach has not been established
the treatment of supratrigonal VVF.14,15 in the literature.17 The authors recommend that
After excellent exposure of the pelvic structures the choice of surgical approach be determined
is obtained, the bladder is mobilized. by surgeon experience and individual fistula
An intentional, 4 to 5 cm high cystotomy is per- characteristics.
formed along the sagittal plane in the extraperito-
neal portion of the bladder near the dome using
Excision of the Fistulous Tract
either cautery or a scalpel13 (Fig. 4).
The bladder incision is then extended down to Classically, excision of the tract was described as an
the level of the fistulous tract. The cystotomy should integral step for a good repair. However, this adage
be long enough to allow a thorough examination, is now debatable.18 Resection of tissue to provide
with visualization of the fistulous tract and identifi- healthy margins was thought to improve success
cation of both ureteral orifices. If excision of the rates.19 However, excision with wide margins may
tract is desired, a separate smaller-gauge Foley or result in a larger defect that ultimately can increase
vessel loop can be used to identify the tract course tension on the repair and risk of recurrence.20 Pres-
and ensure a full-thickness excision (Fig. 5). ently, data suggest excision of the tract is compara-
Regardless of whether tract excision is desired, ble to no excision. Therefore, a decision should be
it is imperative to fully dissect and develop the made on a case-by-case basis.21
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Abdominal Approach to Vesicovaginal Fistula 139
Fig. 4. Transvesical approach for VVF Repair (O’Conor technique). (A) Bladder opened and fistula exposed. (B)
Circumferential incision through the vaginal wall. (C) Bladder closed in layers.Vagina closed. (D) Omentum inter-
posed. (From Badlani GH, De Ridder D, et al. Chapter 89: urinary tract fistulae. In: Campbell-Walsh urology. 11th
edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2016. p. 2103–39.e9; with permission.)
Fig. 5. Foley catheter in VVF to identify tract. (A) Fistulous tract between the bladder and vagina. (B) Foley cath-
eter placed transvaginally into the bladder to visualize fistulous tract. (From Vasavada S. Chapter 65: transperito-
neal vesicovaginal fistula repair. In: Smith JA, Howards SS, Preminger GM, et al, editors. Hinman’s atlas of urologic
surgery. 4th edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2018. p. 484–7; with permission.)
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140 McKay et al
Fig. 7. Omental flap interposition. (A) Repaired vesicovaginal fistula. (B) tissue interposition. (From Vasavada S.
Chapter 65: transperitoneal vesicovaginal fistula repair. In: Smith JA, Howards SS, Preminger GM, et al, editors.
Hinman’s atlas of urologic surgery. 4th edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2018. p. 487; with permission.)
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Abdominal Approach to Vesicovaginal Fistula 141
Fig. 8. (A) Supratrigonal fistula visualized cystoscopically. (B) Ureteral catheter placed through fistulous tract.
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142 McKay et al
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Abdominal Approach to Vesicovaginal Fistula 143
Fig. 12. (A) Extravesical dissection to fistulous tract. (B) Dissection of vesicovaginal space.
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144 McKay et al
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Abdominal Approach to Vesicovaginal Fistula 145
techniques have evolved. The principles of an 9. Stamatakos M, Sargedi C, Stasinou T, et al. Vesico-
effective repair include good exposure of the fistu- vaginal fistula: diagnosis and management. Indian J
lous tract, double-layer bladder closure with inter- Surg 2014;76(2):131–6.
vening tissue, retrograde fill of the bladder to 10. Hadley HR. Vesicovaginal fistula. Curr Urol Rep
ensure a water-tight seal, and a tension-free 2002;3(5):401–7.
closure with continuous postoperative bladder 11. Singh O, Gupta SS, Mathur RK. Urogenital fistulas in
drainage. Minimally invasive approaches, particu- women: 5-year experience at a single center. Urol J
larly robot-assisted laparoscopy, have demon- 2010;7(1):35–9.
strated shorter operative times, decreased blood 12. Alan D, Garely MJM Jr. Urogenital tract fistulas in
loss, improved visibility, and similar cure rates women. 2018.
without increased adverse events. These tech- 13. Michael S, Baggish MMMK. Atlas of pelvic anat-
niques are therefore rising in popularity among omy and gynecologic surgery. Elsevier Saunders;
surgeons. Ultimately, surgical the approach to 2006.
VVF repair depends upon the individual character- 14. O’Conor VJ, Sokol JK. Vesicovaginal fistula from the
istics of the patient and fistula and the preference standpoint of the urologist. J Urol 1951;66(4):
and experience of the surgeon. 579–85.
15. Nesrallah LJ, Srougi M, Gittes RF. The O’Conor tech-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS nique: the gold standard for supratrigonal vesicova-
ginal fistula repair. J Urol 1999;161(2):566–8.
The authors would like to thank the many 16. Dittel LV. Abdominale Blasenscheidenfistel-opera-
women who underwent various forms of this surgi- tion. Wein Klin Wochenschr 1893;6.
cal repair without whom the safe and mostly effica- 17. Miklos JR, Moore RD, Chinthakanan O. Laparo-
cious methods in practice today would not be scopic and robotic-assisted vesicovaginal fistula
available. repair: a systematic review of the literature.
J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2015;22(5):727–36.
SUPPLEMENTARY DATA 18. Neeraj Kohli M, Miklos JR. Meeting the challenge
Supplementary data related to this article can be of vesicovaginal fistula repair: Conservative
found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ucl.2018. and surgical measures. OBG Management 2003;
08.011. 15(8):16–27.
19. McVary KT, MFF. Urinary fistulas. In: Gillenwater JY,
Howards SS, Duckett JW, editors. Adult and pediat-
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Para uso personal exclusivamente. No se permiten otros usos sin autorización. Copyright ©2019. Elsevier Inc. Todos los derechos reservados.