Strata Control/ Ground Control:

Strata refers to rock in all the possible forms such as:

1. High strength material.
2. Very low strength material(or extremely weathered).
Explaination:
Strata control refers to the methods applied to manage the risks associated with various forms of strata instability in underground
coal mines. The term "strata control" principally refers to controlling the strata to maintain stability around the mine openings in
underground where operations are or will be taking place. In order to analyze strata reactions, properties such as strength (tensile
and compressive), modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio, etc are required, as well as details of the likely stress fields to which they
will be subjected. If these are unknown or cannot be measured, then its value is assumed with excessive conservative designs
likely to result.
Strata control may be defined as the prediction and control of strata behaviour during development and extraction operations. It
was a widely used term in the mining industry before the development of alternatives, such as geomechanics, rock mechanics and
mining geomechanics.
Strata control is the practical application of the science of rock mechanics, which includes all studies relative to the physical and
mechanical behaviour of rocks and rock masses and the application of this knowledge for the better understanding of geological
processes in the fields of engineering. Rock mechanics is in turn a sub-set of geomechanics, which is concerned with the physical
and mechanical properties and responses of soils and rocks, including their interactions with water. Geotechnical engineering is an
associated term focused more on design and construction
Sir Definition:
It is the study of rock mass behavior in transition from one state of equilibrium to other. Some of the constraints of
ground control are:
i. Mine layout
ii. Number, size, shape of entries
iii. Number, size, shape of pillars
iv. Available support system design
Study of characteristics of coal measure strata is important to:
 Determine the stability of Openings
 Determine Caving Characteristics & proper design of support system
 Design of Mine layout
 Rock/Rock Mass:
 Rock:  Rock Mass:
 Volume < 1m3  Volume > 1m3
 Small scale  Larges scale, field
 Competent rock; free of  With or with discontinuities
discontinuities
 Factor of safety:
For stability F.O.S should be greater than 1.33.
When we face equilibrium state then we have to find the following:
1. External Factors effecting the rock behavior:
a. Strength properties:
a. UCS
b. UTS
b. Stiffness properties:
a. Bulk Modulus Mechanical Properties
b. Shear Modulus
c. Poisson Ratio
d. Young Modulus
c. Geology
d. Hydrology
e. Stress Condition
2. Internal Factors effecting the rock behavior:
a. Composition
b. Texture:
a. Grain size/shape
b. Arrangement/ Orientation
c. Bedding planes
d. Foliation
 c. Properties:
a. Physical properties
b. Mechanical properties
 Characterization:
i. Site Characterization:
ii. Rock Characterization:
 Coal as Sedimentary Rock:
Coal is not a rock but a mineralized fuel found in sedimentary rocks. Coal bed is technically called coal seam.
When multiple seams with different orientation occurs, is called coal measure.

 Deformation:
Change in state.
 Rigid Support:
It is used before deformation.
 Yeildable support:
That support which deforms with stresses and when stresses are removed it again gain the original shape.
Types of deformation;
i. Translational Deformation:
Change in position.
ii. Rotational Deformation:
Change in orientation.

 Longitudinal Strain: ΔL = L2 – L1
 Lateral Strain :
iii. Distortion:
Change in volume.
iv. Dilation:
Change in size.
 Rock Failure Criteria:
Rock by nature is anisotropic, consisting of mineral grains, cracks and pores of random orientation, and hence
should be tested under different orientations and direction of applied load.
Rocks in the earth's crust generally exist in a confined state; i.e., surrounded by other rock, which exerts a stress
from all sides on the element under consideration. Hence, to obtain a more realistic idea of the rock behaviour, it
is tested under various confining stresses. The practical significance of the presence of water in the rock is the
danger that normally stable structure might become unstable under elevated pore pressures. Hence, it is always
advisable to test the rock under the different moisture and pore pressure conditions expected to be encountered in
the field.
 i. Mohr Circle:
The simplest and best-known failure criterion is given where, i is shear strength, c' is cohesion; is internal
friction.
τ = c/ + tan
In terms of effective principal stresses, this leads to a linear relationship:
(45˚ + )
where, is uniaxial compressive strength, and is angle of internal friction. The classical Mohr-
Coulomb theory can't be used to predict the non-linear response of rocks. Keeping mind this limitation, a
number of investigators suggested empirical strength of various forms suitable to predict the non-linear
response of jointed rocks.
 Differential Stress:

If stress is not equal from all directions then we say that the stress is a differential stress. Three kinds of
differential stress occur.
a. Tensional stress (or extensional stress), which stretches rock;
b. Compressional stress, which squeezes rock; and
c. Shear stress, which result in slippage and translation.

 In-situ Stress & induced stress:

Virgin stresses or undisturbed in situ stresses are the natural stresses that exist in the ground prior to any
excavation. Their magnitude and orientation are determined by
– the weight of the overlying strata, and
– the geological history of the rock mass
 Bieniawski Rock Engineering design procedure:
i. Problem recognition
ii. Problem Statement [what is the problem related with lets says roof fall]
iii. Collection of all the relevant information or data related to the roof fall.
iv. Analysis of the information or data and make classes of design input parameter.
v. Synthesis to create detail solution means to combine the relevant solutions to make a solid solution.
vi. Testing & evaluation.
vii. Optimization [ To check for extreme solution & takeout the best possible solution]
viii. Recommendation
ix. Communication
x. Implementation

 Ground Reaction Curve:

In an unsupported tunnel, some distance ahead of the tunnel face, the internal pressure on tunnel walls is equal to
the in-situ stress. It decreases to zero with distance from the face, opposite to the direction of tunnel advance. The
ground reaction curve (GRC) is the relationship between this internal pressure and the deformation of the walls (or
tunnel convergence).
One of the criteria used for “rock support interaction” analysis method is the “ground reaction curve” or
“characteristic line”, which relates internal support pressure to tunnel wall convergence. The general derivation of
the ground reaction curve, is as follows:
Assume that a circular tunnel of radius ro is subjected to hydrostatic in-situ stress po and a uniform internal support
pressure pi, as illustrated in the margin figure. Failure of the rock mass surrounding the tunnel occurs when the
internal pressure provided by the tunnel lining is less than a critical support pressure pcr. If the internal support
pressure pi is greater than the critical support pressure pcr, no failure occurs, and the behaviour of the rock mass
surrounding the tunnel is elastic. The inward radial elastic displacement of the tunnel wall is given by:

Uie = Where ro = circular radius of tunnel

v = Poison ratio
E = Elastic modulus
Po = In-situ pressure (hydraulic pressure)
Pi = Internal support pressure

When the internal support pressure pi is less than the critical support pressure pcr, failure occurs and a plastic zone
of radius rp is formed around the tunnel. The inward radial plastic displacement uip is then defined by the ground
reaction curve between pi = pcr and pi = 0.
 This plot shows:
• zero displacement when the support pressure equals the hydrostatic stress (pi = po)
• elastic displacement uie for po > pi > pcr
• plastic displacement uip for pi < pcr
• maximum displacement when the support pressure equals zero
For a given tunnel radius and in-situ stress, the shape of the ground reaction curve depends on the rock mass
failure criterion which is assumed and the specific rock mass characteristics.
The following are dependent on the rock mass failure criterion and characteristics:
• the critical support pressure pcr
• the radius of the plastic zone rp
• the shape of the ground reaction curve in the plastic region (pi< pcr)
 Support Reaction Curve:

 Prior to excavation, the excavation boundaries are subject to pressure equal to the field stresses (point A).
 After the excavation is created the boundaries converge and the pressure required to prevent further
convergence reduces as arching and the self-supporting capacity of the ground develops (point B).
 A point is reached (point C) where loosening and failure of the rock occurs and the required support
resistance begins to increase as selfsupporting capacity is lost and support of the dead weight of the failed
ground is required (point D).
 The effect of the support system can also be plotted on the chart. Equilibrium is achieved when the
support curve intersects the ground reaction curve (point B).
 Ideally, support should be designed and installed to operate as close as possible to point C, which allows
the available strength of the rock mass to be utilized while minimizing the load carried by the support
system.
 The second support has a higher ultimate capacity (point E) than the first support (point F), but both reach
the ground reaction curve at the same spot. This shows that higher capacity does not necessarily ensure
better ground control.
Support reaction curve (SRC) is the relationship between support pressure and strain of the support. SRC is a
function of three components:
1. The tunnel wall displacement that has occurred before the support is installed.
2. The stiffness of the support system.
3. The capacity of the support system.

Equilibrium / Factor of safety /final Convergence:

The point where both curves intersect determines the mobilized support pressure, and final tunnel convergence. It
also determines the factor of safety for the support. Equilibrium is achieved if the support reaction curve. If the
support is installed too late (i.e. uso is large), the rock mass may have already deformed to the extent that loosening
of the failed material is irreversible.
On the other hand, if the capacity of the support is inadequate (i.e. psm is low), then yield of the support may occur
before the rock mass deformation curve is intersected. In either of these cases the support system will be
ineffective, since the equilibrium condition.
 Simplified design chart for rock engineering:
Rock engineering design consists of;
1. Engineering constraints
2. Objective
3. Input Data
4. Design methods
5. Output specification
6. Feedback
Engineering Constraints

Objective

Input Data

Design Methods

Output Specification

Feedback

i. Engineering constraints:
Constraints means something that limits your freedom to do what you do. Rock engineer usually related to
the rocks, supposse purpose of excavation, shape of the excavation (Circular shape, horse shoe shape etc.)
etc. Basically there are several factor which control the engineer. These factors are;
 Function of the excavation:
 Size of the excavation:
 Shape of the excavation:
 Layout of the mine:
 Method of excavation:
 ii. Objective:
Objective means a thing aimed at or sought; a goal. Rock engineer have basically three objective which is
under:
 Safety
 Stability [ of structure]
 Economics
iii. Design input parameter:
Input data is also called data acquisition. Input data is one of the necessary factor of rock engineering
design. Input data consists of;
 Geology
 Stress condition [pre & post mining stress]
 Hydrology
 Strength & stiffness properties
iv. Design method:
We only apply three type of design methods which as;
i. Analytical method:
Utilizes the analysis of stresses and deformations around openings.
These methods apply equations developed from fundamental mechanistic or engineering
principles to the analysis of rock behavior, so that when controls are applied, design outcomes
can be expressed numerically (e.g. as a Factor of Safety). One of the earliest and simplest
examples of analytical „models‟ relates to the calculation of dead weight load and the
associated design of standing support. Such methodologies tend to rely on input parameters
measured in the laboratory and/or field. They can involve hand calculation, and spreadsheets
so that the outcomes are reasonably transparent. An advantage of analytical methods is that
the sensitivity of the outcome to a particular input parameter is usually easy to compute. A
disadvantage of analytical models is that it is rare for a design problem to involve one mode
of behavior or failure only. Deformation is generally more complex, with multiple potential
failure modes. Also, most geotechnical design problems have input parameters that are not
fully defined, either in terms of the expected value or the degree of variability. Engineering
judgment is required, with some link to actual experience to provide design „calibration‟.
1. Numerical modeling:
a. Finite Element Method:
The problem is divided into numerous small pieces and assigned differential
equation. Then they are solved by derivation. Similarity b/w them is then
found.
b. Finite Difference Method:
Same as finite element method but instead of similarity, difference is found.
c. Hybrid:
Combination of both
2. Physical modeling:
ii. Empirical method:
These methods asses the stability of mines and tunnels by the use of statistical analysis of
underground observations. For example engineering rock mass classifications.
These methods are design approaches and formulations developed from statistical analysis of
controlled, quantified databases of experience. They are well defined and calibrated rules of
thumb. The geographical extent of their validity/applicability can vary from an individual
mine site to global. The use of empirical methods is common across a range of scientific
disciplines and they have become the most widely applied and accepted methodologies in the
field of strata control since the 1960 Coalbrook disaster led to the development of a South
African coal pillar design formula (Salamon and Munro, 1967). The advantage of empirical
methods is that they use full-scale, four-dimensional models (i.e. strata behavior in coal mines
over time). As such, they draw inferences directly from reality, whereas alternative
approaches draw inferences from simplified simulations of reality. Most empirical
methodologies do not rely on pure statistical correlations of conditions and associated support
requirements.
 iii. Observation/ Numerical method:
Rely on actual monitoring of ground movement during excavations to detect measurable
instability and on the analysis of ground-support interaction. The observational method is a
way to check other method.
Observational / Numerical design methods involve the application of computer codes to the
analysis of ground behavior. These can range from relatively simple, two-dimensional (2D)
computer codes incorporating elastic models of ground behavior to very powerful, three-
dimensional (3D) codes capable of modeling complex mining geometries, multiple failure
modes, large strains and discrete block behavior. Numerical modeling applications have
grown rapidly since the 1970s as a result of enormous improvements in computer power and
affordability, and significant funding in related ground control fields (i.e. military and nuclear
waste engineering) resulting in the development of sophisticated codes. The appropriateness
of a numerical methodology depends on the approach adopted and the ability to estimate the
relevant strength characteristics of the rock materials and mass.
v. Output specification:
Output specification tells us about the mines and tunnels. Especially there roof spans, stand-up time and
support guidelines. Also tells us about slope and foundations. Especially rock mass cohesion and frict ion
and deformation modulus.
vi. Feed Back:
Feedback is actually the result of the design. Feedback is actually tells us about the selection of
instrumentation for performance monitoring remedial measure in case of instability.

 Terms related to coal measure rock strata:

i. Cover:
The overburden of any deposit.
ii. Overburden:
Layers of soil and rock covering a coal seam. Overburden is removed prior to surface mining and replaced
after the coal is taken from the seam.
iii. Lithology:
The study of the general physical characteristics of rocks.
The character of a rock described in terms of its structure, color, mineral composition, grain size, and
arrangement of its component parts; all those visible features that in the aggregate impart individuality of
the rock. Lithology is the basis of correlation in coal mines and commonly is reliable over a distance of a
few miles.
iv. Bed:
A stratum of coal or other sedimentary deposit.
v. Roof:
The stratum of rock or other material above a coal seam; the overhead surface of a coal working place.
Same as "back" or "top."
vi. Immediate Roof:
The roof strata that is immediately above the coal seam. This is the strata requires support for the mine
openings to remain competent.
vii. Primary roof:
The main roof above the immediate top. Its thickness may vary from a few to several thousand feet.
viii. Secondary roof:
The roof strata immediately above the coalbed, requiring support during the excavating of coal.
ix. Competent rock:
Rock which, because of its physical and geological characteristics, is capable of sustaining openings
without any structural support except pillars and walls left during mining (stalls, light props, and roof
bolts are not considered structural support).
x. Fissure:
An extensive crack, break, or fracture in the rocks.
xi. Fracture:
A general term to include any kind of discontinuity in a body of rock if produced by mechanical failure,
whether by shear stress or tensile stress. Fractures include faults, shears, joints, and planes of fracture
cleavage.
 xii. Joint:
A discontinuity in the rock strata where there is no sign of relative movement. A divisional plane or
surface that divides a rock and along which there has been no visible movement parallel to the plane or
surface.
xiii. Cleat:
The vertical and Parallel cleavage planes or partings crossing the bedding. The main set of joints along
which the coal breaks more easily than in any other direction.

xiv. Face cleat:

The principal cleavage plane or joint at right angles to the stratification of the coal seam.
xv. Butt cleat:
A short, poorly defined vertical cleavage plane in a coal seam, usually at right angles to the long face
cleat.

xvi. Slickenside:
A smooth, striated, polished surface produced on rock by friction.

xvii. Slip:
A fault. A smooth joint or crack where the strata have moved on each other.
xviii. Fault:
A slip-surface between two portions of the earth's surface that have moved relative to each other. A fault
is a failure surface and is evidence of severe earth stresses.
 xix. Fault zone:
A fault, instead of being a single clean fracture, may be a zone hundreds or thousands of feet wide. The
fault zone consists of numerous interlacing small faults or a confused zone of gouge, breccia, or mylonite.

 Types of ground control failure:

Failures discussed in this chapter are those that hinder the normal flow of production operations. Underground
mine layouts consist mainly of pillars and entries or rooms. Since entries are passageways, their failure will
certainly interfere with production. Furthermore, since pillars are left to protect passageways their failure will
affect the stability of entries. Therefore, any discussion of underground ground control failures will naturally focus
on the stability and interaction of entries and pillars.

i. Pillar:
(Pillars arc solid coal left in situ to support entries or sections and panels. Excessive loading causes pillar
failure. There are three common failure modes that may result from improper design of underground coal
pillars. The first two are shear failure of single or double conjugate planes.. The third one starts with
vertical spalling, especially along deals around the mid height of the pillar. When the cross-sectional area
is reduced to a critical limit, it fails in double cones. The fourth mode involves initial lateral expansion
around mid height or barrelling, which gradually causes coal chip off and ultimately leads to failure (It
must be noted that the elapsed time from initiation of fracture to ultimate failure depends on location and
the manner in which the load is applied. A sudden loading tends to induce violent immediate failure,
whereas a gradual incremental loading promotes visible gradual pillar failure.)

ii. Entry:
Entry failures usually originate in the roof or the floor. Figure shows five types of roof and floor failures
commonly encountered underground.
[A] is the immediate roof sag due to its own weight, and separation occurs as soon as differential sagging
occurs in each succeeding stratum.
[B] The roof will eventually fail in bending at mid-span and form an arched roof/n the horizontal in-situ
stress is high and the roof span is large, the immediate roof may delaminate and fail by buckling.
[C] Similar failures can occur in the floor under certain conditions. Shear failure may originate at the
corners of the entries due to high local shear stress and propagate upward to intersect.This is commonly
known as cutter roof). High shear stress at the corners results from either a large overburden weight and/or
high horizontal stress at the rib. See figure for critical stresses in roof beams.
[D] If separation between strata or a weak bedding plane exists, shear failures that originate at the corners
and propagate upward may stop at the first separation of weak bedding plane.
[E] Tensile horizontal stress generally occurs at midspan of the roof and tails in tension if tensile stress is
larger than the Corresponding tensile strength of the roof rocks (Fig. 2.5.3E).
[F] Finally if the floor is soft and the pillar is not properly designed, the pillar may punch into the floor
and cause floor heave/Fig. 2.5.3F) because the pillar loading may create a stress field exceeding the
hearing capacity of the floor rock. This is detailed in section floor heave is excessive, it will not only
damage the track but also reduce entry size for equipment and crew travel. Furthermore, if there is
differential settling between pillars on both sides of the entry, shear failure (cutter roof) may occur at the
comers. In addition, if local horizontal stress is large and the immediate floor layer is thin, buckling may
occur at the midspan of the floor.
The six types of entry failures shown in Figure result from the combined effects of rock strength and
stress fields induced in the vicinity of the entries. The governing rock strength differs somewhat in each
case. For example, the midspan failures in[A] and [E] result from a high bending stress exceeding the
 rupture strength, whereas cutter roof is caused by the shear stress at the corner being larger than the shear
strength. The rupture strength is determined by the three-point or four- point bending test and the shear
strength by the direct shear or triaxial tests.

iii. Roof:
Another common ground control problem is roof falls. Roof fall is so common that many consider it to be
part of mining operations. Large roof falls cause production losses and increase the maintenance cost or
entries.

 Preventive control measure of roof/coal burst in underground mine:

To ensure the stability of UG (Bord & pillar , Longwall, Highwall ) or OC structures, designer must consider
principles of rock mechanics to determine
a. Overall Mine layout – the relative location & intersection of entries and pillars, sections, or panels
b. Shape size and number of entries
c. Shape size and number of pillars
d. Optimum support systems for structural stability or controlled failure
e. Overall Mine layout, overall pit slope & dump slope , slope of individual benches and spoil dumps
f. Dimension and number of benches, spoil dumps
g. Shape of overall pit, and spoil dumps
The following techniques can be used to manage stress and accomplish control. Some ground control techniques
serve more than one of the above functions. For example, a rock bolt may provide for alteration of, and resistance
to, ground stress.
i. Avoidance
Means change heading location and alignment. Stress is avoided in the first place by aligning entries,
headings, and boreholes to miss treacherous fault zones, dykes, sills, old workings, and zones of
subsidence by a wide margin. When a problem fault must be traversed, the heading is aligned to meet it at
near a right angle, rather than obliquely. Stress concentration is avoided by rounding the corners in a
rectangular heading.
ii. Excavation shape:
Means change stresses from tensile to compressive. Tensile and bending stresses are altered to
compressive stresses when the back of a heading is arched. The same is true of a shaft or raise that is
changed from a rectangular to a circular cross-section.
iii. Reinforcement:
Means provide the rock with additional strength. The ability of the rock mass to resist shear, tensile and
bending stress is reinforced when a cable bolt is tensioned because the friction in joints and fractures is
increased.