COMPUTER NETWORKS - I

( 12CS52 )

30.08.2016 14:21 1
 Multiplexing
one of the main challenges of computer
communications has been and will be ….
the wise use of available / limited / precious
resource :
i.e. bandwidths of communication links
goal of multiplexing : efficiency
- combining several channels into one
a link can be shared whenever the bandwidth
of the medium is greater than the bandwidth
needs of the devices
30.08.2016 14:21 2
 Multiplexing
Multiplexing : set of techniques that
allows simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link
an efficient method that allows maximization
of utilization of bandwidth

n lines share the

30.08.2016 14:21
bandwidth of one link 3
 Multiplexing
Multiplexing techniques :
• FDM
• WDM
• TDM

30.08.2016 14:21 4
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
analog technique
used when the available bandwidth of a link
is greater than the combined bandwidths of
the signals to be transmitted
method :
• signals generated by each sending device
modulate different carrier frequencies
• modulated signals are combined into a
single composite signal that can be
transported on the link
30.08.2016 14:21 5
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
one link - many channels

30.08.2016 14:21 6
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)

sometimes, channels are separated by

slots of unused bandwidth…..
to ensure carrier frequencies do not
interfere i.e. to prevent signals from
overlapping
these slots are called guard bands

carrier frequencies must also not interfere

with the original data frequencies
30.08.2016 14:21 7
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Example BF4e6.1

Multiplexing of 3 voice channels of 4 KHz bandwidth each onto

a link with bandwidth range 20 - 32 KHz without guard band
30.08.2016 14:21 8
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Example BF4e6.2

Five channels each with 100 KHz

bandwidth are to be multiplexed together.

What is the minimum bandwidth of the

link if there is a need for a guard band of
10 KHz between the channels to prevent
interference ?

30.08.2016 14:21 9
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Example BF4e6.2

30.08.2016 14:21 10
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Example BF4e6.6.13

Ten voice channels of bandwidth 4 KHz

each are required to be multiplexed using
FDM.
Guard bands of width 500 Hz each are
used.
Calculate the required bandwidth.

30.08.2016 14:21 11
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Example BF4e6.6.13

Bandwidth
= (4 x 10 KHz) + (9 x 500 Hz)

= 44.5 KHz

30.08.2016 14:21 12
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Demultiplexing

uses a series of filters to decompose the

multiplexed signal to its constituents
individual signals are demodulated to
separate the carrier
30.08.2016 14:21 13
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
The Analog Carrier System

Telephone companies
multiplex signals from lower-
bandwidth lines onto higher-
bandwidth lines to maximize
the efficiency of their infrastructure
30.08.2016 14:21 Analog hierarchy 14
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
The Analog Carrier System
maximization of efficiency of infrastructure
multiplexing of signals from lower
bandwidth lines onto higher bandwidth lines
Analog hierarchy :
12 voice channels are multiplexed onto a
higher bandwidth line to create a group
5 groups → super group
10 super groups → master group
6 master groups → jumbo group
30.08.2016 14:21 15
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Example BF4e6.6.15
In the analog hierarchy shown, find the
overhead in each hierarchy level.

30.08.2016 14:21 16
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Example BF4e6.6.15

(a) Group level: 0 Hz

(b) Supergroup level: 0 Hz
(c) Master group:
overhead = 2520 KHz − (10 × 240 KHz) =
= 120 KHz
(d) Jumbo Group:
overhead = 16.984 MHz − (6 × 2.52 MHz)
= 1.864 MHz
30.08.2016 14:21 17
 Multiplexing
Frequency - Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Applications of FDM

• analog carrier system

• AM and FM radio broadcasting
• TV broadcasting

30.08.2016 14:21 18
 Multiplexing
Wavelength - Division Multiplexing (WDM)
is designed to use the high - data - rate
capability of fiber-optic (OFC) cable
conceptually same as FDM
uses optical signals (very high frequencies)
transmitted through fibre-optic channels

combination of
optic signals
30.08.2016 14:21 19
 Multiplexing
Wavelength - Division Multiplexing (WDM)
combining of multiple light sources into
one single light at the multiplexer …..
and splitting at the demultiplexer is
accomplished using prisms
bending of light depends on angle of
incidence and wavelength

30.08.2016 14:21 20
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
digital method
allows several connections (low - rate) to
share a high bandwidth (high - rate) of a link
sharing is based on each connection
occupying a portion of time in the link

30.08.2016 14:21 21
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)

two schemes :
• synchronous TDM
• statistical TDM

Synchronous TDM
in synchronous TDM, each input connection
is allotted an output even if it is not sending
data

30.08.2016 14:21 22
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : time slots and frames
unit : can be one bit, one character or one
block of data
data flow of each input connection is
divided into units
each input occupies one input time slot
after multiplexing :
• each input unit becomes one output unit
• one output unit occupies one output time slot
• duration of an output slot is n times shorter
than the duration of an input time slot
30.08.2016 14:21 ( n denotes the number of connections) 23
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : time slots and frames
a round of data units from each input
connection is collected into a frame
for n connections, a frame is divided into
n time slots ...
one slot is allocated for each unit i.e. one
for each input line
if the duration of the input unit is T, the
duration of each slot is (T ÷ n)
duration of each frame is T
30.08.2016 14:21 24
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : time slots and frames
let the input time slot be T seconds
the output time slot will be (T ÷ n) seconds

a combination of data units

from each input connection
30.08.2016 14:21 is called a frame 25
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : Example BF4e6.6

given : unit of data in the above example = 1 bit

input bit duration ? = 1 / 1 Mbps = 1 µsec
output bit duration ? = 1 / 4 x 1 = 0.25 µsec
output bit rate ? = 1 / 0.25 µsec = 4 Mbps
frame rate? = input rate = 106 frames / sec
30.08.2016 14:21 26
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : data rate management
so far, it has been seen that the data rate
of all input lines were same
how to handle the situation if the input
data rates are different on different lines ?

three strategies :
• multilevel multiplexing
• multiple-slot allocation
• pulse stuffing
30.08.2016 14:21 27
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : data rate management
Multilevel multiplexing
used when data rate of an input line is a
fraction of others

30.08.2016 14:21 28
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : data rate management
Multi-slot allocation
used when data rate of an input line is a
multiple of others → allot more than one
slot in a frame to a single input line

serial to parallel
converter

30.08.2016 14:21 29
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : data rate management
Pulse stuffing (or bit padding or bit stuffing)
used when data rate of sources are not
multiple integers of each other
highest rate = dominant data rate (50 Kbps)

30.08.2016 14:21 add dummy bits to the input lines with lower data rates 30
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : data rate management

Five channels with bit rates of 95 Kbps,

95 Kbps, 180 Kbps, 190 Kbps and
380 Kbps are to be multiplexed. Assume
that synchronization bits are not used.

Work out a multiplexing scheme for this

requirement.

30.08.2016 14:21 31
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM
in synchronous TDM, each input
connection is allotted an output even if it
is not sending data

30.08.2016 14:21 32
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : Example
Show the contents of the five output frames
for a Synchronous TDM multiplexer that
combines four sources sending the following
characters :
Source 1 message : HELLO
Source 2 message : HI
Source 3 message :
Source 4 message : BYE
Note that the characters are sent in the same
order as they are typed. Source 3 is silent
30.08.2016 14:21 33
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : Example

30.08.2016 14:21 34
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : Example BF4e6.35
The figure below shows a demultiplexer in
a synchronous TDM
The input slot is 16 bits long (no framing bits)
What is the bit stream in each output ?

arrival direction of bits

hint : each data unit = 4 bits

30.08.2016 14:21 Demux 35
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : Example BF4e6.35

1010000010101010101000010111000001111000
000000011000
101010100111
10100000
10100111

30.08.2016 14:21 36
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : frame synchronization

lack of synchronization between multiplexer

and demultiplexer can result in ……
a bit belonging to one channel being
received by a wrong channel

to overcome this, one or more sync bits,

called framing bits, are added at the
beginning of each frame
30.08.2016 14:21 37
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : frame synchronization

framing bits are added according to a pattern

usually 1 bit per frame, alternating
between 0 and 1
30.08.2016 14:21 38
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : frame synchronization
Example

Each frame is 10 bits long with 3 bits

taken from each input plus 1 framing bit.
Write the output stream.
30.08.2016 14:21 39
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM : frame synchronization
Example

30.08.2016 14:21 40
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Digital Signal (DS) Service / Hierarchy
(96 x 64 Kbps)
+ 168 Kbps O/H
(672 x 64 Kbps)
+ 1368 Kbps O/H

T- 1

T- 2

T- 3

(24 x 64 Kbps) T- 4
+ 8 Kbps O/H (4032 x 64 Kbps)
+ 16.128 Mbps O/H
DS-0 to DS-4 are names of services;
30.08.2016 14:21 T-1 to T- 4 are T lines used for implementation 41
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Digital Signal (DS) Service / Hierarchy

------- 44.376

30.08.2016 14:21 42
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
T Lines used for Analog Transmission
analog signals are first sampled and then
TDM is used

30.08.2016 14:21 43
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
T - 1 frame frame size = (24 slots x 8 bits) + 1 sync bit
T-1 line carries 8000 frames
data rate = 8000 x 193 = 1.544 Mbps

30.08.2016 14:21 44
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
E lines
European version of T lines
conceptually same; capacities differ

30.08.2016 14:21 45
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Synchronous TDM features :

• each input connection is allotted an output

even if it is not sending data
• synchronization and pre - assigned
relationships exist between inputs and
outputs →
• destination addressing is not required

30.08.2016 14:21 46
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Statistical TDM features :
• transmission capacity of the link will be
shared by only those users who have
data to be sent
• a communication channel is divided into
an arbitrary number of variable bit-rate
digital channels or data streams
• link sharing is adapted to the instantaneous
traffic demands of the data streams that are
transferred over each channel
30.08.2016 14:21 47
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Statistical TDM features :

• there are no pre assigned or reserved

slots →
• there is no fixed relationship between
inputs and outputs
• address of the receiver needs to be
included in each slot to indicate where it
has to be delivered
• no need to have synchronization bits
30.08.2016 14:21 48
 Multiplexing
Time - Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Statistical TDM :

a
b
c
d
e

30.08.2016 14:21 49
 Spread Spectrum
designed for use in wireless networks
where all stations share the same medium
viz. free space for communication

issues :
• interception by eavesdropper
• jamming from malicious intruder
(e.g. military applications)

goal : sharing of the medium by

effectively handling the above issues
30.08.2016 14:21 50
 Spread Spectrum
spread spectrum techniques add redundancy
i.e. they spread the original spectrum
needed for each station

required bandwidth expanded bandwidth

by a station for the station

in wireless networks,
the need to overcome the following issues :
eavesdropping, jamming,
outweighs the additional bandwidth requirement
30.08.2016 14:21 51
 Spread Spectrum
the additional / expanded bandwidth
allows the source to wrap its message in
a protective envelope for a more secure
transmission
two principles to achieve the goal:
• bandwidth allocated to a station needs
to be larger than the actual requirement,
thus allowing for redundancy
• expanding the bandwidth from B to BSS
must be done, after the source creates
the signal, by an independent process
30.08.2016 14:21 52
 Spread Spectrum

two techniques for spreading bandwidth :

• frequency hopping spread spectrum

(FHSS)

• direct sequence spread spectrum

(DSSS)

30.08.2016 14:21 53
 Spread Spectrum
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)

frequency
k-bit pattern
for every hopping
Period Th

M different
carrier
frequencies

30.08.2016 14:21 54
 Spread Spectrum
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
at one moment, the signal
modulates one (out of M)
carrier frequency
at the next moment, the signal
modulates another carrier
frequency (out of M)
(for M different frequencies)

(M = 8)

30.08.2016 14:21 Frequency selection in FHSS 55

 Spread Spectrum
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
assumption :
required bandwidth of
original signal is 100 KHz

30.08.2016 14:21 FHSS cycles 56

 Spread Spectrum
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
FHSS - Bandwidth sharing
No. of hopping frequencies is M
M channels can be multiplexed into one
using the same BSS bandwidth
this is possible because 1 station uses
just 1 frequency out of M in each hopping
period Th
M-1 other frequencies are used by other
M-1 stations
30.08.2016 14:21 57
 Spread Spectrum
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
each of the four channels uses each of the four channels uses
1/M of the bandwidth ; 1/M of the bandwidth ;
allocation is fixed allocation changes hop to hop

30.08.2016 14:21 FHSS - Bandwidth sharing 58

 Spread Spectrum
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
Example BF4e6.27

What is the minimum number of bits in a

pseudorandom code generator if FHSS
with the following is used :

B = 4 KHz
BSS = 100 KHz

30.08.2016 14:21 59
 Spread Spectrum
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
Example BF4e6.6.27

Number of hops = 100 KHz ÷ 4 KHz

= 25

To accommodate 25 hops,
log2 (25) = 4.64 , say 5 bits, are required

30.08.2016 14:21 60
 Spread Spectrum
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

each data bit is replaced with n bits using

a spreading code
i.e. each bit is assigned a code of n bits,
called chips
chip rate
30.08.2016 14:21
= n x data rate 61
 Spread Spectrum
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Example : N - bit pattern : 10110111000
(Barker sequence where N = 11)
Polar
NRZ

30.08.2016 14:21 62
 Spread Spectrum
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

original signal rate = N

rate of the spread signal = 11N
bandwidth required is 11 times larger
the spread signal can provide data
confidentiality if the intruder does not
know the chip / code
immunity against interference is also
provided if each station uses a different
chip / code
30.08.2016 14:21 63