CHAPTER 1: LOGIC (MANTIC)

L1

OBJECTIVES:
DEFINE THE SIMPLE AND COMPOSITE STATEMENTS.
DEFINE THE NEGATION, CONJUCTION, DISJUNCTION.
CONSTRUCT THE TRUTH TABLE.

Logic is a study of the principles and methods used in distinguishing valid arguments
from those that are not valid.

a.1 Statements and their connectives

Definition 1
A statement is a declarative sentence that is
either true or false, but not both concurrently.

Example 1

a. Today is Wednesday. (This is a statement since one can definitely say this is true
or not depending on when we declare this sentence. In the given case it is false.)

b. 1 +1 is equal to 4. (This statement is false)

c. He is a doctor. This is not a statement depending on who is ‘He’.

d. Ali is a doctor. This is a statement, may be true or false.

e. 𝑎 + 𝑏 < 4. This is not a statement unless we assume that for example 𝑎 = 2 and
𝑏 = 1.
f. Do you do this assignment by yourself? This is not a statement but question.

g. I fill ill ? This is not a statement but expression of feellings.

h. All right! This is not a statement but exclaimation.

i. Let us go to the zoo. This is not a statement but proposal

j. A complex number 2+3i is more than 3+3i. This is not a statement since they are
not comparable.
k. This proposition is true. This is not a statement but paradox.

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 Definition 2
A statement that is made of only one sentence is called a
simple statement.
There are no connective words such as ‘and’, ‘or’,
‘if…then…’, ‘…if and only if…’, ‘When ….’,
‘…before..’, ‘Since….’

Example 2

a. All the statements in Example 1 were simple statements.

b. ‘Ali is a doctor and he is a man’ is not a simple statement because …...

Definition 3
A compound statement is a combination of two or more
simple statement.
(Istilah Bahasa Melayu: Pernyataan majmuk)

A truth table is a pictorial representation of all of the possible outcomes of the

truth value of a compound sentence. Letters such as p and q are used to
represent the facts (or sentences) within the compound sentence.

Mathematicians often use variables and truth tables to represent concepts in

logic. The use of these variables and tables involving some connectives
symbols creates a shorthand method for discussing logical sentences. There are
five connectives that are commonly used:
(Istilah Bahasa Melayu: Penghubung Bermantik)

1) Connective ~

Definition 4 Table 1: The Truth Table for negation

Let p be any statement.
The statement ~p read “not p ~p
p” or “the negation of p” T F
is true whenever the F T
statement p is false and is
false whenever p is true. The number of combination : 21
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Example 3:

a. p: MTH3200 is an easy subject to score.

~p: MTH3200 is NOT an easy subject to score.

b. q : 2+2 = 4
~𝑞: 2 + 2 ≠ 4

c. r :2+2<5
~𝑟 ∶ 2 + 2 ≥ 5

d. t: Today is not Monday.

~t: Today is Monday

2. Connective 

Definition 5
Let p and q be statement Table 2: The Truth Table for conjunction
variables. The conjunction
of p and q is p and q, p q p q
denoted 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞. It is true T T T
when, and only when, both T F F
p and q are true. If either p F T F
or q is false, or if both are F F F
false, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is false.
The number of combinations : 22

 In a compound statement p  q, the individual p and q are called components.

 A component could be a simple statement or a compound statement

Example 4:
p: Today is raining.
q: I can’t attend the class.

p  q: Today is raining and I can’t attend the class.

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3. Connective 

Definition 6 Table 3: The Truth Table for

Let p and q be statement disjunction
variables. The disjunction of p
and q is ``p or q'', denoted 2 p q p q
he𝑝number
∨ 𝑞. It isoftrue
combinations:2
when either p or T T T
q is true, or both p and q are T F T
Example
true. It is6:false only when both p F T T
and q are false. F F F
p: The clock is slow.

q: The time is correct.

p  q: The clock is slow or the time is correct.

The only way for a disjunction to be a false statement is if BOTH halves are false. A
disjunction is true if either statement is true or if both statements are true! In other words,
the statement 'The clock is slow or the time is correct' is a false statement only if both
parts are false! Likewise, the statement 'Mr. G teaches Math or Mr. G teaches Science' is
true if Mr. G is teaches science classes as well as math classes!

The following example is an application of the Table 1,2 and 3.

Example 5:
Construct the truth table for the following compound statements.
a.  p q   ~ p
b. ~  ~ p ~ q 

c. ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟

Solution
a.

(p  q)  ~p

T T T F F
T F F F F
F F T F T
F F F F T
Steps 1 22 1 4 3

Conclusion

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b.
~ (~ p ˄ ~ q)

T F T F F T
T F T F T F
T T F F F T
F T F T T F
Steps 4 2 1 3 2 1

Conclusion

c.

5
L2

OBJECTIVES:
DEFINE THE CONDITIONAL AND BICONDITIONAL
CONSTRUCT THE TRUTH TABLE.

4. Connective 

Definition 8 Table 4: The Truth Table for conditional

Let p and q be statement variables.
The conditional of p and q is a P q 𝑝→ 𝑞
statement denoted 𝑝 → 𝑞 that is false
when p is true and q is false, T T T
otherwise it is true.
The symbol p  q is read “if p then T F F
q”. F T T
F F T

Example 6:

a. p: You are absent

q: You have a make up assignment to complete.
𝑝 → 𝑞: If you are absent, then you have a make up assignment to complete.

Note: The word 'then' is optional, and a conditional will often not include 'then'.
The example above could have been expressed: If you are absent, you have a
make up assignment to complete.

b. Example of a false conditional

Truth values of Conditionals
The only time that a conditional is a false statement is when a true "if" clause
leads to a false "then" clause. For example, the conditional "If you are late, then
you are on time." is false because when the "if" clause is true, the 'then' clause is
false. THEREFORE, the entire statement is false.

p q p →q
you are late you are on time If you are late, then you are on time.
True False The entire statment is false

The opposite situation does not lead to a false statement. A false 'if' clause and a
true 'then' clause creates a true statement. (Seems counterintuitive at first!) See the
table below for an example.

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c. Example of a true conditional
p q p →q
If a human is a cat, then squares have
a human is a cat squares have corners
corners.
False True The entire statement is true.

Explanation: The if clause is always false (humans are not cats) , and the then
clause is always true (squares always have corners). And the entire statement is
true

Terminology:

For 𝑝 → 𝑞, we have the following terminology:

p is called the premise, hypothesis or the antecedent.

q is called the conclusion or consequent.

The converse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is 𝑞 → 𝑝.

The inverse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 ~𝑝 → ~ 𝑞.

The contrapositive of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is ~𝑞 → ~𝑝 .

Example 7
The contrapositive for ‘If a human is a cat then squares have corners.’ is ‘If the squares
doesn’t have corners then a human is not a cat.’.

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5. Connective 
The compound statement (p q)⋀(q p) is a conjunction of two conditional
statements. In the first conditional, p is the hypothesis and q is the conclusion; in the
second conditional, q is the hypothesis and p is the conclusion. Let's look at a truth table
for this compound statement.

p q p q q p (p q) ⋀ (q p)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

In the truth table above, when p and q have the same truth values, the compound
statement (p q) ⋀ (q p) is true. When we combine two conditional statements this
way, we have a biconditional.

Definition 9: Table 5: The Truth Table for biconditional

Let p and q be statement p q p q
variables. The biconditional of T T T
p and q is a statement denoted
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 that is false if and only T F F
if one of the variables p or q is F T F
false, another is F F T
true. Otherwise it is true.

Example 8:

a. A triangle is isosceles if and only if the triangle has two congruent (equal) sides.

The "if and only if" portion of the definition tells you that the statement is true when
either sentence (or fact) is the hypothesis. This means that both of the statements below
are true:

If a triangle is isosceles, then the triangle has two

congruent (equal) sides. (true)

If a triangle has two congruent (equal) sides,

then the triangle is isosceles. (true)

isosceles 等腰 berkaki sama

Děng yāo

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b. r: x + 2 = 7
s: x = 5
The biconditonal r s represents the sentence: "x + 2 = 7 if and only if x = 5."
When x = 5, both r and s are true. When x 5, both r and s are false. A biconditional
statement is defined to be true whenever both parts have the same truth value.
Accordingly, the truth values of r s are listed in the table below.

r s r s
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

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L3
OBJECTIVES:
DEFINE THE LOGICALLY EQUIVALENT.
CONSTRUCT THE TRUTH TABLE.

Definition 10
When two statements P and Q, simple or compound, have the same truth values in each
of all possibilities, then P is said to be logically equivalent or simply equivalent to Q
and denoted 𝑃 ≡ 𝑄.

(Apabila kedua-dua kenyataan P dan Q, mudah atau majmuk, mempunyai nilai-

nilai kebenaran yang sama dalam setiap semua kemungkinan, maka P dikatakan
setara mantik atau setara dengan Q dan ditandakan dengan 𝑃 ≡ 𝑄)

For example, let P and Q have the same truth values as given as follows:
P Q
T T
T T
F F
F F
T T
F F
F F
T T
≡
then 𝑃 ≡ 𝑄.

Example 9
Prove the following statements by using truth tables.
a. p  q  ~  ~ p ~ q 
b. p  q ~  p  ~ q 

c. pq  p  q  q  p
d. “It is not the case that Muhammad is rich or famous." is equivalent to
“Muhammad is not rich and he is not famous."

Solutions:
a.

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 p ∨ q ~ (~ p ˄ ~ q
T T T T F F F
T T F T F F T
F T T T T F F
F F F F T T T
1 2 1 5 3 4 3


Conclusion: p  q ~ ~ p ~q 
b.

~ (p ˄ ~ q) 𝑝→ 𝑞

T T F F T T
F T T T F F
T F F F T T
T F F T F T
4 1 3 2 1 5
≡

Conclusion:
p  q ~  p  ~ q 

c.

p ↔ q (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 → 𝒑)
T T T T T T
T F F F F T
F F T T F F
F T F T T T
1 2 1 2 3 2

Conclusion: pq  p  q  q  p
d. Let i: Muhammad is rich.

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 j: Muhammad is famous.
Now, prove that ~(𝑖 ∨ 𝑗) ≡ ~𝑖 ∧ ~𝑗 using truth table.

~ (i ∨ j) ~ i ∧ ~ j
F T T T F F F
F T T F F F T
F F T T T F F
T F F F T T T
3 1 2 1 4 5 4
≡

Theorem 1:

Let p,q ,r and s are statements. Then

1. 𝒑 ≡ 𝒑⋀𝒑; Law of idempotent

𝒑≡𝒑∨𝒑

2. ~ ~ p  p Law of Double Negation (DN)

3. pq  q p;
pq  q p Commutative Law (Com)

4. p p  p; p p  p Law of Idempotency (Idemp)

5. 𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 Implication law

6. p  q ~ q ~ p Contrapositive (ContraPos)

7. ~  p  q  ~ p ~ q ;
~  p  q  ~ p ~ q De Morgan’s Laws (DeM)

8.  p  q  r  p  q  r  ;
 p  q  r  p  q  r  Associative Law

9. p  q  r    p  q   p  r  ;

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 p  q  r    p  q   p  r  Distributive Law

Prove
6.

 p  q  ~ q ~ p 
T T T F T F
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F T F T T T
Step 1 2 1 3 4 3
≡
Conclusion: p  q ~ q ~ p

Remarks:

Because of the Associative Laws, the brackets in

 p  q   r  p   q  r  and  p  q   r  p   q  r 
becomes unnecessary, and the expression
p  q  r and p  q  r
now have definite meanings, and hence similarly for
p1  p2  p3   pn and p1  p2  p3   pn .

Examples from Theorem 1

1. 𝒑 ≡ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒑 ----- idempotence of
What this says is, for example, that "Abdullah is happy." is equivalent to " Abdullah is
happy or Abdullah is happy".
 
2. ~ ~ p  p ----- double negation
What this says is, for example, that "It is not the case that Tom is not 6 foot tall." is
equivalent to "Tom is 6 foot tall."

5. 𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ----- implication
For example, the statement "If you help me, I will give you a reward." is not true, that is,
I am lying, if you help me and I don't give you a reward. It is true in all the other cases.
Similarly, the statement "You are not help me or I give you a reward." is false, if you
help me and I don't give you a reward. It is true in all the other cases. Thus these two

13
statements are logically equivalent.

 
7. ~ p  q  ~ p  ~ q ----- DeMorgan's Law
For example, "It is not the case that Abdullah is rich and famous." is true if and only if "
Abdullah is not rich or he is not famous."

8.  
pq r  p qr   ----- associativity of
" Abdullah is rich or famous, or he is also happy." is equivalent to " Abdullah is rich, or
he is also famous or happy".

9.      
p  q  r  p  q  p  r ----- distributivity of over
What this says is, for example, that " Abdullah is rich, and he is famous or happy." is
equivalent to " Abdullah is rich and famous, or Abdullah is rich and happy".

Exercises

14
L4
OBJECTIVES:
DEFINE THE TAUTOLOGY, IMPLICATION, EQUIVALENCE.
CONSTRUCT THE TRUTH TABLE.

1.2 Tautology, Implication and Equivalence

Example 10:

Consider the truth values for the statement  p ~ p  :

p ∨ ~p

T T F
F T T

conclusion
 
Observe that the statement p  ~ p is TRUE in every case, that is TRUE in all
logical possibilities. Such type of statement is called a tautology.

Definition 11: A statement is said to be a tautology if the truth value is TRUE

for all logical possibilities

Definition 12: If the conditional statement p  q with p and q any

statements, simply or compound, is a tautology, then it is called an implication
and symbolized by p  q (read as p implies q ).

For example the following table is the truth table for 𝑟 ˄ 𝑠 → 𝑠.

𝑟 ˄ 𝑠 → 𝑠
T T T T
T F F T
F F T T
F F F T

Conclusion: 𝑟 ˄ 𝑠 → 𝑠 is a tautology and it can be written as 𝑟 ˄𝑠 ⇒ 𝑠

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Example 11:
The following conditional statements are examples of the implication:
1. 𝑝→𝑝
2. pq q p
3. pq  p
4. pq q
5. pq q p

1.
𝑝 → 𝑝
T T
F T
Hence 𝑝 → 𝑝 is a tautology. We can write 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑝
5.
p ⋀ q → q p
T T T T T
T F F T F
F F T T T
F F F T F
1 2 1 4 3

Hence, pq q p is a tautology or we can write pq  q p.

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NOTICE THAT:

P Q 𝑷⟹𝑸
F F T
F T T
T F F
T T T

If you start out with a false premise, then, as far as implication is concerned, you are free
to conclude anything. (This corresponds to the fact that, when P is false, the implication
P→Q is true no matter what Q is.)

If you start out with a true premise, then the implication should be true only when the
conclusion is also true. (This corresponds to the fact that, when P is true, the truth of the
implication is the same as the truth of Q .)

In your truth table, look only at the lines where P⟹Q holds (is T ), i.e., drop the third
line. In the remaining lines, for each line where P holds (i.e., the last T) Q holds as well.

Source:
http://math.stackexchange.com/questions/100286/the-meaning-of-implication-in-
logic

Notice that requiring that Q be true whenever P is true is the same thing as saying
that it will never happen that P is true but Q is false. Thus, the compound statement
form will have no entries of false in its truth table. This makes 𝑃 → 𝑄 a tautology.

Source: Schwartz. 1997. Conjecture and proof: An introduction to Mathematical

Thinking . Saunders College Publishing. US. Page 45.

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Theorem 2.

Let p,q ,r and s are statements. Then

1. p  pq Law of Addition (Add)

2. 𝒑∧𝒒 ⇒𝒑 ;
𝒑∧𝒒 ⇒𝒒 Law of Simplification(Simp)

3.  p  q  ~ p  q Disjunctive Syllogism (DS)

4.  p  q  q  r   p  r ; Transitive Law

5. (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒓 → 𝒔) ⟹ (𝒑 ∨ 𝒓) → (𝒒 ∨ 𝒔); Constructive Dilemmas (CD)

(𝒑 → 𝒒) ∨ (𝒓 → 𝒔) ⟹ (𝒑 ∧ 𝒓) → (𝒒 ∨ 𝒔)

6. (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒓 → 𝒔) ⟹ (~𝒒 ∨ ~𝒔) → (~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒓);

(𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒓 → 𝒔) ⟹ (~𝒒 ∨ ~𝒔) → (~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒓)Destructive Dilemmas (DD)

7. (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ 𝒑 ⟹ 𝒒; Modus Ponens (MP)

8. (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ ~𝒒 ⟹ ~𝒑; ModusTollens (MT)

9. (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ 𝒑 ⟹ (𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒) → (𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒); Reductio ad Absurdum.

Proof: We shall prove the above theorem by constructing the truth table.

Theorem 2(1)

p  p ∨ q
T T T T
T T T F
F T T T
F T F F
Step 1 3 2 1

p  pq
Conclusion:

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 Definition 13: If the biconditional statement pq is a tautology then
it is called an equivalence and is denoted by p  q.

 pq and pq have the same meaning and hence is used
interchangeably.

Example 12

 p  q  ~ q ~ p 
T T T F T F
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F T F T T T
Step 1 2 1 3 4 3
≡
Conclusion: p  q ~ q ~ p
OR

 p  q   ~ q ~ p 
T T T T F T F
T F F T T F F
F T T T F T T
F T F T T T T
Step 1 2 1 5 3 4 3

 p  q    ~ q ~ p  is tautology. It can be written as

Conclusion:

 p  q  ⟺  ~ q ~ p  or  p  q  ≡  ~ q ~ p  .

19
L5
OBJECTIVE:
FIND THE CONTRADICTION.
PROOF THE COMPOUND STATEMENTS BY USING DEDUCTIVE
REASONING.

1.3 Contradiction

Definition 14
A contradiction is a statement form that is always FALSE for each logical possibility.
Such statements are called contradictions and denoted as a symbol c .

If t is a tautology then ~t is a contradiction; conversely, if c is a contradiction then ~c

is a tautology.
~𝒕 ≡ 𝒄 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ~𝒄 ≡ 𝒕

Theorem 3
Let t, c and p, respectively be a tautology, a contradiction, and an arbitrary statement.

(a) 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝 ≡ 𝑐 and 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 ≡ 𝑡 (Negation law)

(b) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑡⇔𝑝; 𝑝 ∨ 𝑐 ⇔ 𝑝 (Identity law)

(c) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑡 ⇔ 𝑡; 𝑝∧𝑐 ⇔𝑐 (Universal Bound)

(d) c⟹𝑝 and 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑡.

Proof.
(a)
𝒑 ∧ ~𝒑 c
T F F F
F F T F
≡

𝒑 ∨ ~𝒑 t
T T F T
F T T T

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(c)
𝑝∨𝑡 ↔ 𝑡
T T T T T
F TT T T
Conclusion: 𝑝 ∨ 𝑡 ⇔ 𝑡

pc  c

Conclusion: 𝑝 ∧ 𝑐 ⇔ 𝑐

(d)
c  p
F T T
F T F

Conclusion: c⟹𝑝

1.4 Deductive Reasoning

 The laws summarized in Theorems 1,2 and 3 are very useful tools for
justifying/proving the logical equivalences and implications. We shall call these
laws the rules of inference. Many logical equivalences and implications can be
established deductively by using other laws and relevant definitions and theorems
that we had proved. The method of proving used in the following Example is
called deductive reasoning or deductive method.

Example 13:

Prove

(a) ~(~𝑞) ∨ ~𝑝 ≡ 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑝
(b) ~𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑞 ≡ ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
(c) (𝑝 → 𝑟) ∨ (𝑞 → 𝑠) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑟 ∨ 𝑠)
(d) (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒓 → 𝒔) ⟹ (~𝒒 ∨ ~𝒔) → (~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒓)
(e) (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ 𝒑 ⟹ 𝒒
by deductive reasoning.

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Solution:

(c)
(𝑝 → 𝑟) ∨ (𝑞 → 𝑠) ≡ (~𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) ∨ (~𝑞 ∨ 𝑠) by Implication law
≡ (~𝑝 ∨ 𝑟 ∨ ~𝑞) ∨ 𝑠 ass law
≡ (~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∨ 𝒔 com
≡ (~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) ∨ (𝑟 ∨ 𝑠) ass
≡ ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑟 ∨ 𝑠) DM
≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑟 ∨ 𝑠) Implication law

d)
(𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒓 → 𝒔) ≡ (~𝒒 → ~𝒑)⋀(~𝒔 → ~𝒓) contrapositive
⟹ (~𝒒 ∨ ~𝒔) → (~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒓) contructive dilemmas

(𝒆) (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ 𝒑 ⟹ 𝒒

(𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ 𝒑 ≡ (~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ∧ 𝒑 Implication law

≡ 𝒑 ∧ (~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) commutative
≡ (𝒑 ∧ ~𝒑) ∨ (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) associative law
≡ 𝒄 ∨ (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) negation law
≡ (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) identity law
⇒𝒒 simplification law

Remark:
The reasons for using deductive reasoning as opposed to truth tables may be seen from
the following comparison:
To verify the equivalence in the Example 13© and d) by the method of constructing truth
table, we need to build a huge truth table with 16 = 24 logical possibilities, on the other
hand we can established that equivalence in a few steps using deductive reasoning.

Example 14:
Without construct a truth table, simplify the following statement:
~(~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞).

Solution:

~(~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ (~(~𝑝) ∨ ~𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)DM

≡ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) Double negation

≡ 𝑝 ∨ (~𝑞 ∧ 𝑞) dist
≡𝑝∨𝑐
≡𝑝

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L6
OBJECTIVES:
FIND THE QUANTIFIER LAWS.
PROOF THE MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

1.5 Quantification Rules

In general, suppose that we have a domain of discourse U and a general statement

px  , whose “variable” x ranges over U . Then

1. x  px  means that for all x in U , such that the statement px  about
x is true. This is a universal statement involving p(x).

2. x  px  means that there exists at least one x in U , such that the

statement p  x about x is true.

In mathematics, “for every x ” and “for all x ” mean the same and both are symbolized
byx ; and “for some x ” and “there exists at least one x ” is both symbolized by
x .

The negation of the statement “ p  x is true for all x” (in U ),

~  x   p  x   , is considered to be the same as the assertion “there exists at

least one x (in U ), for which px  is false, or “  x   ~ p  x   .

Similarly, ~  x   p  x   , is considered to be the same as “there is no x (in

U ), such that p  x is true, or “ p  x is false for all x” or “

 x   ~ p  x   .
Rule of Quantifier Negation (QN):

Let p  x be a statement about an unspecified object x in a given universe. Then

~  x   p  x     x   ~ p  x  

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 ~  x   p  x     x   ~ p  x   .

Example 15:

x : Snakes; p  x  : Snakes are poisonous.

Let

x  px  means “All snakes are poisonous” . This is a universal statement
involving p(x).

 x   p  x   means “Some snakes are poisonous”

~  x   p  x   means Not “All snakes are poisonous” or,

 x   ~ p  x   --- “Some snakes are NOT poisonous”

~  x   p  x   means “There is NO snake, which is poisonous” or,

 x   ~ p  x   “All snakes are NOT poisonous”

Example 16:

The solution for 𝑝(𝑥): 𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 is 𝑥 = −1, 1.

(i) A universal statement involving 𝑝(𝑥)𝑖𝑠

x  px  means for all 𝒙 ∈ 𝑹 , 𝑥 2
− 1 = 0.

(ii) ~𝑝(𝑥): 𝑥 2 − 1 ≠ 0 where 𝑥 ≠ −1, 1

x  px  is
The negation of

~ [x  px ] ≡ (∃𝒙)(~𝒑(𝒙))

There exist at least one 𝒙 ∈ 𝑹 where
𝑥 2 − 1 ≠ 0.

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1.6. Mathematical Induction.
Another method of proof that is very useful in proving the validity of a mathematical
statement P (n ) involving the natural number n is the following principle of
mathematical induction.

Mathematical Induction.

Let 𝑃𝑛 be a statement involving the natural number 𝑛. To prove that 𝑃𝑛 is true for all
natural numbers, the following steps are required.
Step 1: Show that 𝑃1 is true.
Step 2: Assume it is true for 𝑃𝑘 , 𝑘 is a natural numbers.
Step 3: Show that 𝑃𝑘+1 is also true.
Then the statement 𝑃𝑛 is true for all natural numbers.

After the first step, we can proceed the proof that 𝑃𝑛 is true for all natural numbers by
showing in detail that 𝑃2 is true, after that 𝑃3 is true and so on until 𝑃𝑛 is true. But such
method is not practical. It is sufficient to prove that 𝑃𝑘+1 is true as mentioned in the Step
3.

Example 17.
Prove by mathematical induction the following statements for every natural number n .
1
1.2  2.3  . . .  r (r  1)  . . .  n(n  1)  n(n  1)(n  2).
a. 3
n(n  1)
1 2  3  . . .  n  .
b. 2
1
13  2 3  33  . . .  n 3  n 2 (n  1) 2 .
c. 4
2
d. 1  3  5  . . .  (2n  1)  n .
1 1 1 1 n
  . . .   .
e. 1.2 2.3 3.4 n(n  1) n  1

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f. Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove the statement
𝑃𝑛 : 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ⋯ + 2𝑛 = 𝑛 + 𝑛2
for all natural numbers, 𝑛.

Proof.

Step 1: Let 𝑛 = 1. Then 𝑃1 : 2 = 1 + 12 . Thus, the statement 𝑃1 is true.

Step 2: Assume that the statement 𝑃𝑘 is true. That is

𝑃𝑘 : 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ⋯ + 2𝑘 = 𝑘 + 𝑘 2 ….. (i)

Step 3:Now, show that the statement 𝑃𝑘+1 is true. That is, we must show

𝑃𝑘+1 : 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ⋯ + 2𝑘 + 2(𝑘 + 1) = (𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)2 .

Now, adding 2(k+1) to both sides of the equality, we have

2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ⋯ + 2𝑘 + 2(𝑘 + 1) = (𝑘 + 𝑘 2 ) + 2(𝑘 + 1)

= 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + 2(𝑘 + 1)

= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)

= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1) + 1)

= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)(1)

= (𝑘 + 1)2 + (𝑘 + 1)

= (𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)2 .

The statement 𝑃𝑘+1 is true.

This completes the proof. Hence the statement

𝑃𝑛 : 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ⋯ + 2𝑛 = 𝑛 + 𝑛2
for all natural numbers, 𝑛.

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