Solutions

Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e

U n i t 4: Complex Functions of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.1(L)
C l e a r l y each element of S i s a complex number s i n c e b o t h cos t
and s i n t a r e r e a l f o r a l l 0 5 t I T . Thus, S e x i s t s w i t h o u t any
r e f e r e n c e t o a p i c t u r e . The p o i n t i s , however, t h a t i f we use
t h e Argand diagram, w e view x + i y a s t h e p o i n t z [ = ( x , y ) 1 i n
t h e xy-plane.

I n o t h e r words i f we i d e n t i f y t h e p o s i t i o n v e c t o r R w i t h t h e
complex number z , we s e e t h a t t h e ."graph" o f S (by which w e
mean t h e s e t of p o i n t s i n t h e Argand diagram which r e p r e s e n t s
S ) i s t h e curve whose v e c t o r e q u a t i o n i s

R ( t ) = cos t i + sin t j, 0 -
< t -
< IT.

T h i s , a s we a l r e a d y know from o u r s t u d y o f v e c t o r s , i s t h e curve

whose p a r a m e t r i c form i s

x = cos t O < t < I T

- -
y = sin t

which w e r e c o g n i z e a s t h e upper h a l f of t h e u n i t c i r c l e c e n t e r e d
a t the origin.

Pictorially,

,
.t -t- -4 / y,
A \
.\ II
> ,& P (cos t, s i n t ) = cos t f i s i n t
,L* 2.

There i s a 1-1 correspondence between complex numbers i n S and

p o i n t s on t h e above s e m i - c i r c l e . The correspondence i s d e f i n e d
by ( c o s t , s i n t ) ++ cos t + i s i n t.
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex F u n c t i o n s o f a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.1(L) continued

More g e n e r a l l y , e v e r y c u r v e i n t h e z-plane has t h e e q u a t i o n of

t h e form

( w e s a y more a b o u t t h i s i n E x e r c i s e 1.4.9) and because t h e

Argand diagram h a s t h e s t r u c t u r e of a 2-dimensional v e c t o r s p a c e ,
w e see t h a t e q u a t i o n ( 2 ) i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e v e c t o r f u n c t i o n
of a s c a l a r v a r i a b l e , d e f i n e d by

Summarized p i c t o r i a l l y

1. I n v e c t o r form, C i s g i v e n by $ ( t )= x ( t ) f f (t)j.
+ +
2. I n t h e Argand diagram R r e p r e s e n t s z , and C i s t h e n t h e

s e t o f complex numbers, {z: z = x ( t ) + i y ( t ) .

b. L e t w d e n o t e t h e image of z w i t h r e s p e c t t o f . I n t h i s case w = z
2
.
S i n c e b o t h z and w a r e complex, f i s a c t u a l l y a mapping of a
2-dimensional v e c t o r s p a c e ( t h e z-plane) i n t o a 2-dimensional
v e c t o r s p a c e ( t h e w-plane) .
I f w e now i d e n t i f y t h e z - p l a n e w i t h t h e xy-plane and t h e w-plane
w i t h t h e uv-plane, w e see t h a t w = z a c t u a l l y i s e q u i v a l e n t
t o mapping t h e xy-plane i n t o t h e uv-plane ( a t o p i c w e have a l -
ready s t u d i e d f a i r l y thoroughly).
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s o f a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex Functions of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.1 ( L ) c o n t i n u e d

Pictorially

w-plane

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , i f z = x + i y t h e n z 2 = (x2 - y2 + i 2xy;

so t h a t

u = x2 - y 2
w = u + i v , with
v = 2xy

N o t i c e t h a t w e have a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d t h e mapping g i v e n by (3)

i n Blocks 3 and 4 of P a r t 2.

Of c o u r s e , we have something "going f o r u s " now t h a t w e d i d n ' t

have t h e n . Namely, we a r e now a b l e t o view mappings o f t h e
xy-plane i n t o t h e uv-plane ( a c o n c e p t which c e r t a i n l y e x i s t s
i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e i n v e n t i o n of complex numbers) a s complex
v a l u e d f u n c t i o n s of a complex v a r i a b l e which map t h e z-plane
i n t o t h e w-plane.

With t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w e a r e now a b l e t o d i s c u s s a v e c t o r
p r o d u c t t h a t was undefined b e f o r e ( a l t h o u g h w i t h h i n d s i g h t we
c o u l d have gone back t o Blocks 2 , 3 , and 4 o f P a r t 2 and i n v e n t e d
t h e v e c t o r p r o d u c t which c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e p r o d u c t of two com-
p l e x numbers) and we may conclude t h a t z2 i s t h e complex number
whose magnitude i s t h e s q u a r e of t h e magnitude of z and whose
argument Is t w i c e t h e argument of z .

I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e n , s i n c e each p o i n t i n S h a s u n i t magnitude,
i t s image under t h e s q u a r i n g f u n c t i o n a l s o h a s u n i t magnitude.
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4 : Complex F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.1(L) continued

Moreover, s i n c e t h e argument of t h e image i s t w i c e t h e argument

o f t h e p o i n t , we see t h a t s i n c e t h e arguments o f t h e p o i n t s i n
S v a r y from 0 t o 1 8 0 ° , t h e arguments of t h e images r a n g e from
O 0 t o 360 O . I n summary, t h e n , t h e mapping w = z2 c a r r i e s t h e
s e t S i n t o t h e whole u n i t c i r c l e c e n t e r e d a t t h e o r i g i n . I n
p a r t i c u l a r , t h e p o i n t ( r , B ) maps o n t o ( r , 2 8 ) .

H e r e w e s e e , a s an i m p o r t a n t a s i d e , how t h e t h e o r y of mapping
t h e complex p l a n e i n t o t h e complex p l a n e g i v e s us new i n s i g h t t o
r e a l mappings. I n p a r t i c u l a r , with r e s p e c t t o equation ( 3 )
w e now have t h a t t h i s mapping, i n terms of what i t means t o
m u l t i p l y complex numbers, i s e a s y t o e x p l a i n p i c t o r i a l l y ,
S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e image of a g i v e n p o i n t i n t h e xy-plane i s
found by d o u b l i n g t h e argument o f t h e p o i n t ( v e c t o r ) and
s q u a r i n g i t s magnitude.

Again w e h a s t e n t o p o i n t o u t t h a t we could have i n v e n t e d t h e

p r o d u c t o f two v e c t o r s t o be t h e v e c t o r i n t h e same p l a n e
e q u i v a l e n t , t o t h e p r o d u c t of t h e two given v e c t o r s a s complex
numbers. That i s ,

(a 1+ b 5) ( c + d 3) = (ac - bd) f + (bc + ad) 5.

But n o t i c e how much more n a t u r a l t h i s d e f i n i t i o n becomes i n
terms o f t h e language of complex numbers.

I n o t h e r words, one major r e a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e t h e o r y of

complex f u n c t i o n s o f a complex v a r i a b l e i s t o t h e r e a l problem
o f mapping t h e xy-plane i n t o t h e uv-plane. These problems c a n
be t a c k l e d w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e complex numbers, b u t a
knowledge of t h e complex numbers g i v e s us a c o n s i d e r a b l e qnount
o f " n e a t " n o t a t i o n which i s h e l p f u l i n o b t a i n i n g r e s u l t s
f a i r l y quickly.

As a f i n a l o b s e r v a t i o n , l e t u s observe t h a t a s a f u n c t i o n f
h a s t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r e ( b u t a d i f f e r e n t domain) w h e t h e r w e
w r i t e f ( x ) = x2 o r f ( z ) = z 2 . I n e i t h e r c a s e w e have a f u n c t i o n
machine i n which t h e o u t p u t i s t h e s q u a r e o f t h e i n p u t . The
b i g d i f f e r e n c e i s from t h e g e o m e t r i c a l p o i n t of view. In the
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4 : Complex Functions of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1 . 4 . 1 (L) continued

e x p r e s s i o n f ( x ) = x2 s e may view b o t h t h e domain and t h e image of

f a s b e i n g 1-dimensional ( s i n c e x i s assumed t o be r e a l ) .
A c c o r d i n g l y , w e may graph t h e f u n c t i o n i n t h e 2-dimensional xy-
p l a n e i n t e r m s of t h e curve y = x 2 .
On t h e o t h e r hand, i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n w = f ( z ) = z 2 , t h e domain
2
and t h e image of f must be 2-dimensional s i n c e n e i t h e r z n o r z
i s r e q u i r e d t o be r e a l . Thus, w e would r e q u i r e a $-dimensional
s p a c e t o graph t h i s f u n c t i o n i f w e wanted a graph which was t h e
a n a l o g of t h e graph y = f ( x ) , S i n c e we c a n n o t , i n t h e usual.
g e o m e t r i c s e n s e , draw a 4-dimensional s p a c e , o u r g e o m e t r i c
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n must i n v o l v e viewing t h e z-plane ( t h e domain of
f ) a s b e i n g mapped i n t o t h e w-plane ( t h e r a n g e of f 1 .

a. I f w e look a t z a s b e i n g t h e p o i n t ( r , 8 ) i n t h e z - p l a n e , t h e n
3
z = ( r , 0 ) = ( r 3,38) .
Thus, under f e a c h p o i n t i n t h e z-plane
i s mapped i n t o t h e p o i n t ( p , r $ ) i n t h e w-plane where p=r3and
$I= 38 [ i . e . , t h e mapping cubes t h e magnitude and t r i p l e s t h e
argument] .
-
I n p a r t i c u l a r t h e p o i n t ( 1 , 8 ) where 0 -
(I', 30) = ( 1 , 3 8 ) and s i n c e O 0 - < 8 -
< 90° i s mapped o n t o
< 8 -
< 90°, O 0 -
< 8 -
< 270'. Thus,
t h e f i r s t q u a d r a n t S of t h e u n i t c i r c l e i s mapped o n t o t h e
f i r s t t h r e e q u a d r a n t s of t h e u n i t c i r c l e .

Again p i c t o r i a l l y ,

z-plane w-plane
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
-- -

1.4.2 continued

By t h e same t o k e n , e a c h p o i n t i n T I w r i t t e n i n p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s ,
h a s t h e form ( r, 45O ) . [ I f t h e l i n e extended i n t o t h e t h i r d
q u a d r a n t , t h e p o i n t s on t h i s p a r t would be r e p r e s e n t e d a s (r,225O).]
Hence "cubing" such a p o i n t y i e l d s ( r 3, 135O) . I n o t h e r words,
t h e mapping d e f i n e d by f ( z ) = z3 maps t h e r a y 0 = 45' onto the
r a y 0 = 135O i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e image of each p o i n t h a s t h e
cube of t h e magnitude of t h e p o i n t .

Pictorially,

w-plane

= (x iy)3
+
2 3

= x3 + 3x ( i y ) + 3 x ( i Y l 2 + ( i y )
2

= x3 + 3x y i - 3xy2 -
i y3

2 2
= (x3 - 3 x y ) + i ( 3 x y - y 1.
3

Hence,

Again, by way of r e v i e w , e q u a t i o n (1) d e f i n e s a r e a l mapping o f

2-space i n t o 2-space, b u t from o u r knowledge of complex v a r i a b l e s ,
w e know t h a t t h e r a t h e r cumbersome system (1) i s e q u i v a l e n t t o
mapping e a c h p o i n t ( v e c t o r ) i n t h e xy-plane i n t o t h e p o i n t whose
magnitude i s t h e cube of t h e given magnitude and whose argument
i s t r i p l e t h a t of t h e g i v e n argument.
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s o f a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex F u n c t i o n s o f a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.3

a. z = x + iy + 22 = 2x + i2y. T h e r e f o r e , w = 22 = 2x + i2y. Letting

u d e n o t e t h e r e a l p a r t o f w and v t h e i m a g i n a r y p a r t w e h a v e

-
b w = f (2) = z + w = x - iy. Hence,

Hence,
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4 : Complex F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.3 continued

Hence,

2
x -Fy2#0
( s i n c e z # 0)

Again, a s a r e m i n d e r , t h i s problem shows us t h a t w e may view t h e

mapping

a s f ( 2 ) = z2 + 22 + i; and

1.4.4 (L)

Our main a i m i n t h i s e x e r c i s e i s t o g e t a b e t t e r f e e l i n g f o r t h e
" r e a l i t y " o f complex f u n c t i o n s of a complex v a r i a b l e . P a r t s ( b )
and ( c ) a r e concerned w i t h e x t e n d i n g t h e a n a l o g s of f ( x ) = x + c
and f ( x ) = cx where c and x a r e r e a l numbers t o f ( z ) = z + c
and f ( z ) = c z where c and z a r e now complex numbers. A s w e s h a l l
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s o f a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex Functions of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1 . 4 . 4 (L) continued

see, t h e a l g e b r a of t h e s e f u n c t i o n s i s t h e same a s t h a t of t h e i r
r e a l a n a l o g s , b u t t h e g e o m e t r i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a b i t more
s o p h i s t i c a t e d ( t h e r e s u l t o f b o t h o u r domain and image s p a c e
b e i n g 2-dimensional r a t h e r t h a n 1 - d i m e n s i o n a l ) . In p a r t (a)
w e want t o emphasize t h e f a c t t h a t what l o o k s l i k e a new f u n c t i o n
t o u s i s r e a l l y an o l d f u n c t i o n t h a t we h a n d l e d i n a v e r y r e a l
situation, In particular,

a . R e c a l l i n o u r t r e a t m e n t of t h e double i n t e g r a l t h a t when we
wanted t o r e v e r s e t h e o r d e r of i n t e g r a t i o n , t h e t e c h n i q u e was
g e o m e t r i c a l l y expressed by t h e mapping o f t h e xy-plane i n t o
t h e uv-plane given by

I t s h o u l d be c l e a r t h a t we do n o t have t o know a n y t h i n g about

complex numbers t o t a l k a b o u t t h e mapping d e f i n e d by e q u a t i o n
(1). I f , however, we want t o view t h e mapping a s b e i n g from
t h e z - p l a n e i n t o t h e w-plane, o u r procedure i s t o w r i t e (1) i n
t h e form u + i v , which i n t h i s c a s e means t h a t we s t u d y t h e
complex f u n c t i o n of a complex v a r i a b l e d e f i n e d by

f ( z ) = x + i(-y)

= x - iy.

I f w e now r e c a l l t h a t z i s x + i y , we s e e t h a t x - i y i s by
definition z. Thus, ( 2 ) becomes

Of c o u r s e we a r r i v e d a t ( 3 ) r a t h e r i n v e r s e l y t o t h e wording
o f t h e e x e r c i s e i n which w e w e r e t o b e g i n w i t h ( 3 ) and d e r i v e ,

(1). Our purpose f o r doing t h i s was simply t o s t a r t t h e

e x e r c i s e emphasizing t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between complex f u n c t i o n s
of a complex v a r i a b l e and r e a l mappings. Had we begun w i t h
( 3 ) , w e would have merely r e v e r s e d o u r s t e p s t o o b t a i n :
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4 : Complex F u n c t i o n s o f a Complex V a r i a b l e

1 . 4 . 4 (L) c o n t i n u e d

and from t h e r e a l and imaginary p a r t s of f ( z ) , w e would have

concluded t h a t t h e graph of f was e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e mapping de-
f i n e d by

T h i s mapping i s e q u i v a l e n t t o r e f l e c t i n g t h e xy-plane a b o u t t h e
x-axis (i.e. , we l e a v e x a l o n e and change t h e s i g n o f y.

Pictorially,

z-plane w-plane f(z) = F=(x,-y)

( F i g u r e 1)

But s i n c e the w-plane i s a r e p l i c a of t h e z-plane w e may s u p e r -

impose t h e two p l a n e s i n F i g u r e 1 t o o b t a i n
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1 . 4 . 4 (L) continued

Thus, t h e e f f e c t o f f on s e t S i n t h e Argand diagram i s t o pro-

duce t h e m i r r o r image of S w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e x - a x i s . In
%
p a r t i c u l a r i f S i s any c l o s e d r e g i o n , f ( S ) = S ( i . e . , S and i t s
image have t h e same s i z e and s h a p e ) .
. I n t h e r e a l c a s e , we saw t h a t t h e graph of f ( x ) + c j u s t "raised"
e a c h p o i n t of t h e curve y = f ( x ) by an amount c. In particular
t h e g r a p h of f ( x ) = x t c , was o b t a i n e d by l i f t i n g each p o i n t on
t h e l i n e y = x by c u n i t s . Pictorially,

Now, g i v e n f ( z ) = z t c , w e s e e t h a t i n t h e Arqand diagram t h i s

sum must be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a v e c t o r sum. A s a v e c t o r t h e complex
t
number c i s w r i t t e n a s c l i + c 2 1 (where w e a r e assuming t h a t
-t

c = c1 + c 2 i ) . L e t t i n g c d e n o t e c l i + c 2 j r w e s e e t h a t adding
c t o z i s e q u i v a l e n t t o d i s p l a c i n g z by an amount e q u a l t o t h e
magnitude of c i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of c .

F o r example, t h e mapping d e f i n e d by f ( z ) = z + 3 + 4 i maps t h e

p o i n t z i n t o t h e p o i n t 5 u n i t s from z i n t h e d i r e c t i o n
4 t

Solutions
Block 1: A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i b
U n i t 4 : Complex F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1 . 4 . 4 (L) c o n t i n u e d

G e o m e t r i c a l l y , adding 3 + 4 i o n t o z s h i f t s ( t r a n s l a t e s ) P t o Q.
That i s , P i s t r a n s l a t e d 5 u n i t s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n 3 1 + 43.

c. Here w e invoke t h e f a c t t h a t we have a very c o n v e n i e n t way of

m u l t i p l y i n g complex numbers u s i n g p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s . In parti-
cular i f c = (r 8 ) t h e n c z has a s i t s magnitude ro t i m e s t h e
0' 0
magnitude of z and a s i t s argument Q0 p l u s t h e argument of z.
I n o t h e r words w e o b t a i n t h e image of z by r o t a t i n g t h e v e c t o r
z through Q0 d e g r e e s and i n c r e a s i n g i t s magnitude by a f a c t o r o f
r0 '

By way of a n example, i f f (2) = (3 + 4 i ) z , t h e n t h e image of a

g i v e n number z i s o b t a i n e d by r o t a t i n g z through an a n g l e e q u a l
4
t o arc tan and r e p l a c i n g t h e magnitude of z by 5 t i m e s i t s
value. P i c t o r i a l l y ,

1. W e p i c k any p o i n t on OP.
2 . W e e r e c t a p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o OA and l o c a t e B on OA such t h a t
- 4
AB = -5 OA.
+
T h e r e f o r e , t a n # AOB =
4
.
3 . We mark o f f t h e l e n g t h OP ( i . e . , 121) 5 t i m e s a l o n g OB.
4 . 0% t h e n d e n o t e s ( 3 + 4 i ) $P = (3 + 4i)z.
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex Functions o f a Complex V a r i a b l e

1 . 4 . 4 (L) continued

A s a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g s p e c i a l c a s e , n o t i c e t h a t i f t h e magnitude
o f c i s 1 t h e n t h e mapping f ( z ) = c z simply r o t a t e s z through an
a n g l e e q u a l t o t h e argument of c ( i . e . , t h e magnitude i s p r e -
s e r v e d because c has u n i t magnitude).

I f w e l e t 8 denote t h e argument o f c , t h e f a c t t h a t c i s o f u n i t
magnitude means t h a t c = cos 8 + i s i n 8.

Hence,

c z = (COS 8 + i s i n 8 ) (x + iy)

= x c o s 8-y s i n 8 t i (x s i n 8 + y cos 8) ,

and a s d i s c u s s e d i n our e a r l i e r e x e r c i s e s , t h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t
t o t h e r e a l mapping

u = x cos 8 - y sin 8
v = x s i n 8 + y cos8.

Thus, comparing t h i s r e s u l t w i t h o u r p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e i n t e r p r e -
t a t i o n , w e s e e t h a t t h e mapping d e f i n e d by e q u a t i o n (1) i s e q u i -
v a l e n t t o r o t a t i n g t h e xy-plane through e O .

H o p e f u l l y , t h i s shows us s t i l l a n o t h e r way i n which complex

numbers have a r e a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . By t h e way, i n t h e s p e c i a l
c a s e t h a t c i s r e a l , t h e argument of c i s e i t h e r O 0 o r 180°,
depending upon whether c i s p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e . N o t i c e t h e n
t h a t i n t h i s c a s e t h e r e s u l t checks w i t h t h e u s u a l r e s u l t i n
t h e r e a l c a s e ; i . e . , m u l t i p l y i n g by ( r e a l ) c l e a v e s t h e
d i r e c t i o n a l o n e , changes t h e magnitude by a f a c t o r of Icl and
p r e s e r v e s t h e s e n s e i f c > 0 , r e v e r s e s t h e s e n s e if c < 0.

A s a f i n a l n o t e on t h i s e x e r c i s e n o t i c e t h a t t h e l i n e a r mapping
d e f i n e d by f ( z ) = clz + c 2 where b o t h cl and c 2 a r e complex-
v a l u e d c o n s t a n t s maps l i n e s through t h e o r i g i n i n t o l i n e s
t h r o u g h t h e o r i g i n ; and c i r c l e s c e n t e r e d a t t h e o r i g i n i n t o
c i r c l e s centered a t the origin. Namely, t h e mappping f ( z ) i s
a r o t a t i o n (accompanied by a uniform m a g n i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r e q u a l
t o c l ) followed by a t r a n s l a t i o n . Under a r o t a t i o n , l i n e s
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4 : Complex F u n c t i o n s o f a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.4 (L) c o n t i n u e d

through t h e o r i g i n remain l i n e s through t h e o r i g i n , and c i r c l e s

c e n t e r e d a t t h e o r i g i n remain c i r c l e s c e n t e r e d a t t h e o r i g i n .

Notice a l s o t h a t t h e algebra of i n v e r t i n g t h i s type of f u n c t i o n

i s word-for-word t h e same a s i n t h e r e a l c a s e s i n c e t h e s t r u c t u r a l
r u l e s a r e t h e same. Namely, i f w = c 1z + c 2 ( c l # 0) t h e n

etc.

I n o t h e r words, t h e a l g e b r a remains t h e same, b u t t h e g e o m e t r i c

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s e l e v a t e d by a dimension o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n
(so t o speak) .

a. Here w e have f ( z ) = clz + c 2 where cl = - andc2=i.

Jz

By t h e r e s u l t of t h e p r e v i o u s e x e r c i s e clz r o t a t e s z t h r o u g h
a n a n g l e e q u a l t o t h e argument of cl and m u l t i p l e s t h e magnitude
of by Icll . I n o u r c a s e , lcll = 1 [ i . e . ,

w h i l e t h e a r g u e n t o f c1 i s 45O.

- I

Jz
Hence, clz i s a 45" r o t a t i o n of t h e z - p l a n e . Then s i n c e
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
Unit 4: Complex Functions of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.5 continued

t
c 1z + i " t r a n s l a t e s " clz an amount e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e v e c t o r J

(i.e., adding i r a i s e d t h e p o i n t by 1 u n i t ; we s e e t h a t

i s e q u i v a l e n t t o r o t a t i n g each p o i n t i n t h e p l a n e through 45'

and t h e n r a i s i n g i t 1 u n i t ) .
Pictorially,

R o t a t e P through 45' and t h e n l i f t i t ( i . e . , move it p a r a l l e l t o

t h e y - a x i s ) one u n i t .
Solutions
Block P: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex F u n c t i o n s o f a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.5 continued

Hence i n C a r t e s i a n form, t h e mapping i s given by

1.4.6

z 4 h a s magnitude 16 i f z h a s magnitude 2 , and t h e argument of z 4

i s f o u r t i m e s t h e argument of z. Hence a s z t r a c e s t h e p o r t i o n
of t h e c i r c l e r = 2 between 8 = O 0 and 0 = 60°, f ( z ) t r a c e s t h e
p o r t i o n of t h e c i r c l e r = 16 between 8 = O 0 and 8 = 240°.

Pictorially 4
g ( s ) where g ( z ) = z

F i n a l l y , adding 3 + 4 i t r a n s l a t e s each p o i n t 5 u n i t s i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n 3 + 4 i.
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4 : Complex unctions of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.6 continued

Adding 3 + 4 i t o each p o i n t on t h e c i r c l e r = 16 t r a n s l a t e s t h e
c i r c l e from c e n t e r a t 0 t o c e n t e r a t 0 ' .

{r = 1 6 , 0 -
< 8 - < 240')
l a t e d by 3: + 4 5 , i . e . ,
$A' =&3' = 3; + 43.
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.7(L)

Here a g a i n w e s e e how o u r knowledge of v e c t o r c a l c u l u s h e l p s u s

here. Namely, it i s n a t u r a l , i f only by mimicking, t o d e f i n e

lim f (z) = L
z+c

which means t h a t , g i v e n E > 0 , t h e r e e x i s t s 6 > 0 such t h a t

o <Iz- cI<
a -+ If ( 2 ) - LI < €.

The above d e f i n i t i o n makes s e n s e even though z , c , and L need

n o t be r e a l s i n c e we a r e d e a l i n g only w i t h a b s o l u t e v a l u e s -
which a r e (non-negative) r e a l numbers.

Moreover, from a p i c t o r i a l p o i n t of view ( i . e . , i n terms of t h e

Argand diagram) t h e above d e f i n i t i o n i s p r e c i s e l y t h e same a s
o u r l i m i t d e f i n i t i o n when w e d e a l t w i t h v e c t o r f u n c t i o n s of a
vector variable.

R e c a l l i n t h a t c a s e we showsd t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n was e q u i v a l e n t
* t + *
t o s a y i n g t h a t i f f (6) = u ( x , y : ~t v ( x . y ) ] and i f L = L1l + L 2 ) ,
t
*
c = c1I + c Z j : t h e n
-b

was e q u i v a l e n t t o

lim u ( x , y ) = L1
~x,y~+(c1,c2)

lim v(x,y) = L 2 .
(x,y)+(c,,c,)
T r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h e Argand diagram t h i s s a y s t h a t i f c = c L f c 2 i
then
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4 : Complex Functions of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1 . 4 . 7 ( L ) continued

means

lirn Re[f(z)l = R ~ ( L )

( x , y ) + (c1,c2)

and

lirn Im[f(z)l = Im(L).

( ~ I Y ) + ( ~ ~ , C ~ )

For example, i n t h e given e x e r c i s e

f (2) = z3

= (X + iy)3

Hence,

The key p o i n t i s t h a t u s i n g t h e Argand diagram model f o r t h e

complex numbers w e need n o t i n v e n t any new i d e a s t o h a n d l e
l i m f ( z ) i f c i s complex and f i s complex-valued.
Z+C

I n p a r t i c u l a r , e v e r y l i m i t theorem t h a t was t r u e i n o u r s t u d y of
v e c t o r f u n c t i o n s of a v e c t o r v a r i a b l e remains t r u e i n o u r s t u d y
of complex f u n c t i o n s of a complex v a r i a b l e . More s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
w e may c o n t i n u e t o use such r e s u l t s a s t h e l i m i t of a sum i s
t h e sum of t h e l i m i t s , t h e l i m i t of a p r o d u c t i s t h e p r o d u c t of
the l i m i t s , etc. Again, t h e main i d e a i s t h a t once w e view
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.7 (L) c o n t i n u e d

complex numbers i n t h e Argand diagram we cannot d i s t i n g u i s h

between complex numbers and p l a n a r v e c t o r s s t r u c t u r a l l y . Thus,
theorems f o r one model remain theorems f o r t h e o t h e r .

1.4.8

( z + h I 2 = z2 t 2zh f h2 ( j u s t as i n t h e reaL c a s e ) .

Hence, (z + h12 - z2 = 2zh + h2. Hence,

= 22 + h , provided h # 0.

Hence,

z2
l i m [ (z +
h12 - 1 = lim [2z + h1

h+O h+O

= l i m 22+ lim h
h+O h+O

N o t i c e t h a t t h i s e x e r c i s e seems t o be t h e complex e q u i v a l e n t
of f i n d i n g f ' ( x ) when f ( x ) = x 2 .
This i d e a i s t h e t o p i c of t h e
next unit.

1.4.9

Our main aim i n t h i s e x e r c i s e i s t o show t h a t t h e s t u d y o f complex-

v a l u e d f u n c t i o n s o f a s i n g l e r e a l v a r i a b l e was made when we
s t u d i e d t h e p l a n a r problem of v e c t o r f u n c t i o n s of a s c a l a r
variable.

Namely, i f we view z a s x f i y , then t h e f a c t t h a t z i s a f u n c t i o n

of t h e s c a l a r ( r e a l ) v a r i a b l e t means t h a t we may w r i t e
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4 : Complex Functions of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.9 continued

The c r i t i c a l p o i n t i s t h a t i f we e l e c t t o u s e t h e Argand diagram

a s a g e o m e t r i c model, w e see a t once t h a t e q u a t i o n (1) i s
s t r u c t u r a l l y equivalent t o the vector equation:

I n summary, t h e curve i n t h e xy-plane d e f i n e d by e q u a t i o n ( 2 ) i s

t h e "graph" of t h e complex numbers d e f i n e d by e q u a t i o n (1). I n
o t h e r words, one way of v i s u a l i z i n g a ( c o n t i n u o u s ) complex
f u n c t i o n of a r e a l v a r i a b l e i s a s a c u r v e i n t h e z-plane.

The main p o i n t i s t h a t s i n c e w e may i d e n t i f y a complex f u n c t i o n

of a r e a l v a r i a b l e w i t h a v e c t o r f u n c t i o n of a s c a l a r v a r i a b l e ,
w e may a l s o assume t h a t t h e c a l c u l u s s t r u c t u r e of v e c t o r f u n c t i o n s
o f s c a l a r v a r i a b l e s i s i n h e r i t e d by complex f u n c t i o n s o f r e a l
v a r i a b l e s ; and both p a r t s ( a ) and ( b ) of t h i s e x e r c i s e a r e
designed t o i l l u s t r a t e t h i s .

a . W e assume h e r e t h a t f ' ( t ) h a s t h e u s u a l meaning, e x c e p t t h a t f

i s now a v e c t o r f u n c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a s c a l a r f u n c t i o n . The
p o i n t i s t h a t had we been g i v e n t h e problem

we would have been a b l e t o conclude t h a t

-+
3' ( t )= 1 + 2t3.

S i n c e e q u a t i o n ( 3 ) t r a n s l a t e s , i n t h e Argand diagram, i n t o

i t f o l l o w s t h a t f l ( t ) must be t h e a n a l o g of e q u a t i o n ( 4 ) , namely,
 Solutions

Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e

U n i t 4: Complex F u n c t i o n s o f a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.9 c o n t i n u e d

More g e n e r a l l y , t h e n , i n terms o f t h e Argand diagram i f z = f ( t )

where f i s a d i f f e r e n t i a b l e complex f u n c t i o n of a r e a l v a r i a b l e ,
w e may view z = f ( t ) a s t h e curve z = g ( t ) + h ( t ) i where g i s
t h e r e a l p a r t of f and h i s t h e imaginary p a r t of f . I n t h i s
e v e n t , f l ( t ) i s a v e c t o r t a n g e n t t o t h i s curve w i t h magnitude e q u a l
to

The key p o i n t i s t h a t t h e c a l c u l u s h e r e i s a "carbon copy" of t h e

c a l c u l u s o f v e c t o r f u n c t i o n s of a s c a l a r f u n c t i o n .

b. 1 ( t )= t 2i
If R + e3tj, t h e n we a l r e a d y know t h a t

T r a n s l a t i n g t h e r e s u l t ( 6 ) i n t o t h e language of complex numbers

w e have t h a t , i f f ' ( t ) = t
2
+ e3ti, then

f ( t ) = 1 t 3 + e3ti + c , where c i s an a r b i t r a r y complex c o n s t a n t .

(7)
I f w e now u s e t h e f a c t t h a t f (0) = 1 + i, e q u a t i o n ( 7 ) becomes
1+ i = - 1 i + c s o t h a t c = 1 + 2 i. P u t t i n g t h i s r e s u l t i n t o (71,
3
w e have t h a t f ( t ) = t3 + +
e3ti 2

+
1 T i ,o r
+

I n summary, w e a l r e a d y know how t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e and i n t e g r a t e

complex f u n c t i o n s o f a r e a l v a r i a b l e because o u r p r e v i o u s knowledge
o f v e c t o r f u n c t i o n s of s c a l a r v a r i a b l e s . In particular

1. I f z = x ( t ) + y ( t ) i , t h e n
dZ

= dX + 8 i ; and

2. I f z = x l ( t ) + y ' ( t ) i, t h e n / z d t = x ( t ) + y ( t ) i c; where +
x' (t)= d t ) and y ' ( t ) = dy
d x (t dt and c i s an a r b i t r a r y complex
constant.

Thus, w h i l e complex f u n c t i o n s of a r e a l v a r i a b l e a r e i m p o r t a n t i n
o u r s t u d y o f complex v a r i a b l e s ( e . g . , a s mentioned i n E x e r c i s e
1.4.1, t h e "graph" of a s e t of complex numbers i n t h e Argand
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex Functions o f a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.9 continued

diagram has t h i s f o r m ) , we do n o t d e v o t e much t i m e t o such a

s t u d y s i n c e t h e main r e s u l t s a r e a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e t o us from o u r
s t u d y of p l a n a r v e c t o r s .

The r e s u l t of t h i s e x e r c i s e j u s t i f i e s why t h e s t u d y of r e a l -
v a l u e d f u n c t i o n s of a complex v a r i a b l e i s u s u a l l y i g n o r e d from a
c a l c u l u s p o i n t of view*. Namely, assuming t h a t t h e r e s u l t of
t h i s e x e r c i s e h o l d s , w e have t h a t i f y = f ( z ) and i f dy e x i s t s ,
then - dy = 0 . This, i n t u r n , implies t h a t f (z) is constant.
dz
Thus, i f f : c+R such t h a t f 1 e x i s t s , t h e n f ( z ) must be c o n s t a n t .
df
I n o t h e r words, u n l e s s f (z 1 = c o n s t a n t , ( = 1 fails to
exist. Thus, t h e s t u d y of d i f f e r e n t i a b l e r e a l f u n c t i o n s of a
complex v a r i a b l e i s " s h o r t and sweet".

Now, t u r n i n g t o t h e s p e c i f i c s of t h i s e x e r c i s e , we must f i r s t
d e f i n e what w e mean by f i n t h e c a s e t h a t f i s a r e a l - v a l u e d
f u n c t i o n of a complex v a r i a b l e . I n terms of o u r u s u a l approach
i n t e r m s of s t r u c t u r e , w e d e f i n e $= f 'u (2) by
f (zo + Az) - f (zo)

f' ( z o ) = l i m [ 1

Z
az+o

p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e l i m i t e x i s t s . S i n c e z , a n d hence Az, i s complex,

i t means t h a t t h e r e a r e many p a t h s by which Az may apprcaeh 0.
One such p a t h i s t h e one d e f i n e d by t h e change i n t h e imaginary
p a r t of Az b e i n g 0; and a n o t h e r , by t h e change of t h e r e a l p a r t
o f A Z b e i n g 0.

*We h a s t e n t o s t r e s s " c a l c u l u s " l e s t y o u e r r o n e o u s l y b e l e d t o

b e l i e v e t h a t such functions a r e unimportant i n a l l r e s p e c t s .
F o r example, t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e of a complex v a r i a b l e i s
e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t and t h i s i s a n e x a m p l e o f a r e a l - v a l u e d f u n c t i o n
o f a complex v a r i a b l e . T h a t i s , i f z i s c o m p l e x a n d f(z) = l z l
t h e n t h e r a n g e of f i s t h e n o n - n e g a t i v e r e a l numbers.
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex F u n c t i o n s of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.10 continued

I n t e r m s o f t h e Argand diagram we have,

p,Re[Az]+ 0 a l o n g l i n e R e ( z ) = Re(z0)

1,
Zo = (x0,yo)
Im(Az)+O a l o n g l i n e Im(z) = lm(zo)

A l g e b r a i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , W e &re saying t h a t I f z = x + fy t h e n
Az = Ax + iAy; and w e a r e l o o k i n g a t Az i n one c a s e w i t h Ay = 0
and i n t h e o t h e r w i t h Ax = 0.

The key p o i n t i s t h a t numerator i n t h e b r a c k e t e d e x p r e s s i o n i n

e q u a t i o n (1) must b e r e a l s i n c e f i s g i v e n t o be r e a l v a l u e d .

Thus, w i t h Ay = 0 ,

i s equal. t o

i n which case, f ' , i f it e x i s t s must be given by

f'(zo) = l i m [
f (xo+ AX, yo)
Ax
- f ( X ~ , Y ~ )
] = a-f

-ax
I
(x0,yo)

Ax+O
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s o f a Complex V a r i a b l e
U n i t 4: Complex Functions of a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.10 c o n t i n u e d

S i m i l a r l y w i t h Ax = 0, e q u a t i o n (1) becomes
f ( z o + iAy) - f (zo)

f t ( z 1 = lirn [ I

0
iAy
Ay+O

f (xo'~, + Ay) - f (x0,yo)

= lim [ I
iAy
Ay+O

- -
1lim
f (xory0 + Ay) - f (xo,y0)
[ I

S i n c e t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e l i m i t i n (1) means t h a t t h e v a l u e of
f l ( z o ) must b e independent of t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which z+0, w e may
e q u a t e t h e v a l u e s of f 1 (zo) found i n ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) t o conclude
Solutions
Block 1: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o F u n c t i o n s of a Complex v a r i a b l e
U n i t 4 : Complex F u n c t i o n s o f a Complex V a r i a b l e

1.4.10 continued

E q u a t i n g t h e r e a l and imaginary p a r t s i n t h e e q u a l i t y g i v e n by ( 4 1 ,
we conclude t h a t

f x (xoty0 ) = 0 and f Y (xoly0) = 0.

F i n a l l y , s i n c e ( x0 ,yo) = zo was an a r b i t r a r y p o i n t (number) i n

t h e domain of f we may conclude from e q u a t i o n (5) t h a t

and from o u r knowledge o f r e a l - v a l u e d f u n c t i o n s of s e v e r a l ( t w o )

r e a l v a r i a b l e s * , w e may conclude t h a t

f (x,y) = constant.

Then s i n c e f ( x , y ) i s simply t h e geometric e q u i v a l e n t o f f ( z ) ,

w e conclude t h a t f (2) = ( r e a l ) constant.

* N o t i c e t h a t we h a v e i d e n t i f i e d f ( z ) w i t h f ( x , y ) b y v i e w i n g z
a s t h e p o i n t ( x , y ) i n t h e Argand d i a g r a m . Since f is real-valued
i t f o l l o w s t h a t f ( x , y ) i s a r e a l f u n c t i o n of t h e r e a l v a r i a b l e s
x and y. Consequently t h e statement given i n (6) is independent
of o u r knowing a n y t h i n g a b o u t complex numbers ( a l t h o u g h t h e

A c c o r d i n g l y ( 7 ) is m e r e l y a r e a f f i r m a t i o n t h a t i f df
then f(x,y) i s constant.
-
d e r i v a t i o n o f ( 6 ) came f r o m o u r t r e a t m e n t o f t h e c o m p l e x n u m b e r s ) .
Odx + Ody
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Resource: Calculus Revisited: Complex Variables, Differential Equations, and Linear Algebra
Prof. Herbert Gross

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