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Ramdhan, A.M. and Goulty, N.R. (2010) 'Overpressure generating mechanisms in the Peciko Field, Lower

Kutai Basin, Indonesia.', Petroleum geoscience., 16 (4). pp. 367-376.

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1 Overpressure generating mechanisms in the Peciko Field, Lower Kutai Basin, Indonesia

2 Agus M. Ramdhan1* and Neil R. Goulty1

1
3 Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK

4 *Corresponding author (e-mail: [email protected])

6 Running title: Overpressure generating mechanisms in the Peciko Field

8 ABSTRACT: The Peciko Field contains gas in multiple stacked reservoirs within a Miocene

9 deltaic sequence. In the deeper reservoirs, gas is trapped hydrodynamically by high lateral

10 overpressure gradients. We have analysed overpressure and compaction in this field by using

11 wireline log, pressure, temperature, and vitrinite reflectance data. The top of overpressure is

12 located below 3 km burial depth, below the depth range for transformation of discrete

13 smectite to mixed-layer illite/smectite. Density-sonic and density-resistivity crossplots for

14 mudrocks show reversals within the transition zone into hard overpressure below 3.5 km

15 depth. Vitrinite reflectance measurements indicate that the start of unloading coincides with

16 the onset of gas generation. Moreover, mudrock density continues to increase with depth in

17 the overpressured section to values above 2.6 g cm-3. We conclude that gas generation and

18 chemical compaction are responsible for overpressure generation, contradicting previous

19 interpretations that disequilibrium compaction is the principal mechanism for generating

20 overpressure in the Lower Kutai Basin. The particular circumstances which make our radical

21 interpretation plausible are that it is a warm basin with lateral reservoir drainage, so the

22 overpressured mudrocks are probably overcompacted as a result of diagenesis.

23

24 KEYWORDS: Lower Kutai Basin, overpressure, unloading, gas generation, compaction

25

1
26 Introduction

27 Overpressure in Cenozoic basins is commonly associated with the inability of fluid to escape

28 rapidly enough to remain in hydrostatic equilibrium during ongoing burial. As a consequence,

29 the sediments retain higher porosities than they would do if the pore pressure were

30 hydrostatic. This process is referred to as disequilibrium compaction (Swarbrick et al. 2002).

31 Disequilibrium compaction was recognized as a primary mechanism for generating

32 overpressure in the US Gulf Coast region over 40 years ago (Pennebaker 1968; Reynolds

33 1970). Since then, disequilibrium compaction has been diagnosed as the cause of overpressure

34 in many sedimentary basins worldwide, including the Neogene prodelta mudrocks of the

35 Baram Delta, Brunei (Tingay et al. 2009).

36

37 More recent work in overpressure analysis has shown the importance of other

38 overpressure generating mechanisms apart from disequilibrium compaction, even in Neogene

39 sequences. These overpressure generating mechanisms, such as gas generation, clay

40 diagenesis, aquathermal pressuring and pressure transference, can be classified as unloading

41 mechanisms (Bowers 1995). Some examples of basins where these mechanisms have been

42 shown to be active are Haltenbanken and the Northern North Sea (Hermanrud et al. 1998;

43 Teige et al. 1999, 2007), the Eugene Island area of the Gulf of Mexico (Bowers 2001), and

44 the inner shelf sequence of the Baram Delta (Tingay et al. 2009).

45

46 The Peciko Field is located within Miocene strata in the Lower Kutai Basin,

47 Kalimantan, Indonesia (Fig. 1). A transition zone into hard overpressure is encountered in the

48 field at depths of 11,000–14,000 ft (3350–4250 m). The primary mechanism responsible for

49 overpressure generation in this area has previously been interpreted to be disequilibrium

50 compaction (Bois et al. 1994; Bates 1996; Burrus 1998).

2
51

52 The principal objective of the work reported here was to determine whether

53 disequilibrium compaction really is the mechanism responsible for generating overpressure in

54 the Peciko Field. A secondary aim was to find a method which can be used during drilling

55 mudrock sections to estimate overpressure for wider application in the basin. By analysing

56 wireline log data in the mud-rich intervals, we show that overpressure is generated by

57 unloading mechanisms, probably including both gas generation and clay mineral diagenesis,

58 and not disequilibrium compaction. Our interpretation is radically different from that of

59 previous workers, who have all concluded that the principal mechanism for generating

60 overpressure was disequilibrium compaction.

61

62 In the following sections, we give background on the geology of the basin,

63 overpressure distribution, and wireline log responses to overpressure before presenting our

64 analysis of log, pressure, temperature, and vitrinite reflectance data. We then discuss the

65 implications for overpressure generation mechanisms and, in reaching our conclusions,

66 comment on the particular circumstances in the Lower Kutai Basin which make it a rewarding

67 basin to study for understanding overpressure generation and chemical compaction in mud-

68 rich sedimentary successions.

69

70 Geological background and overpressure distribution

71 Tectonically, the Lower Kutai Basin has experienced several episodes of rift, sag, and

72 inversion resulting from interaction between the Eurasia plate to the north, the Pacific Plate to

73 the east, and the Australian Plate to the south (Moss & Chambers 1999). The main inversion

74 episodes have occurred from the Middle Miocene to the present, and have been responsible

75 for the development of anticlinal structures (Chambers et al. 2004). The major structural

3
76 feature is the Samarinda Anticlinorium, consisting of a series of anticlines and synclines with

77 axes oriented approximately north–south. This anticlinorium is highly folded and faulted on

78 the onshore area, whereas dips are gentle in the shallow water and deep offshore areas. The

79 main north–south anticlinal folds are the Onshore Axis, Internal Axis, Median Axis, External

80 Axis, and Offshore Axis (Fig. 1). The Peciko Field is located on the Median Axis.

81

82 According to Allen & Chambers (1998), the thickness of the Neogene section in the

83 basin, which comprises deltaic sediment sourced by the Mahakam River in eastern

84 Kalimantan, may reach about 14 km in the depocentre. The Mahakam Delta is a fluvial-tidal

85 mud-dominated delta that has been prograding from the Early Miocene to the present day.

86 Stratigraphically, the productive interval in the Middle–Upper Miocene succession is the

87 Tunu Main Zone, and the hydrocarbons present are mainly gas. The Tunu Main Zone is sub-

88 divided into six intermediate stratigraphic units, of which only the uppermost five are present

89 in the Peciko Field. They have an average thickness of 300–400 m, based on the presence of

90 third-order maximum flooding surfaces. The intermediate stratigraphic units are further sub-

91 divided into several smaller stratigraphic units, based on the presence of local flooding

92 surfaces. The reservoirs in this field are dominantly distributary mouth bars (Samson et al.,

93 2005). The dimensions of individual mouth bars are 1–3 m thick and 1500–4000 m wide, and

94 stacked mouth bars attain thicknesses of 10–30 m (Fig. 2a). Figure 2b is a schematic cross-

95 section of the field which illustrates the stacked nature of the gas reservoirs and the tilted gas-

96 water contacts in the deeper overpressured accumulations.

97

98 The burial history of the Tunu Main Zone in this field (Fig. 3) shows that the

99 sedimentation rate during the last 8 My has been fairly constant at around 300 m My-1. This

100 ongoing deposition of fine-grained sediment has previously been interpreted as being

4
101 responsible for the generation of overpressure by disequilibrium compaction in this area (Bois

102 et al. 1994; Bates 1996; Burrus 1998).

103

104 The inversion episodes have caused almost all of the Neogene sedimentary layers to

105 crop out in the onshore and coastal areas. Consequently, overpressure can bleed off laterally

106 on the basin scale, depending on the degree of reservoir connectivity. This process is known

107 as lateral reservoir drainage (O’Connor & Swarbrick 2008). The occurrence of lateral

108 reservoir drainage in the Peciko Field was identified by Grosjean et al. (1994) and Lambert et

109 al. (2003). The lateral overpressure gradients are sufficiently large to create hydrodynamic

110 traps for gas. For example, in stratigraphic unit 3 the lateral overpressure gradient reaches 150

111 psi km-1 (Fig. 4a). Given a gas density of 0.2 g cm-3, the gas-water contact has a tilt of up to

112 7°. There is ample field evidence of tilted accumulations of gas in the deeper reservoir

113 intervals of the Peciko Field. In these reservoirs, the gas accumulations are displaced down-

114 dip on to the northern flank of the structure, as shown schematically in Fig. 2b, and the gas

115 column in crestal wells is either very thin or absent (Fig. 4b). A south–north cross-section

116 (Fig. 5) shows that both top of overpressure and the top of the pressure transition zone deepen

117 to the north, where the strata are more sand-rich.

118

119 Information about source rocks in the Lower Kutai Basin generally, and in the Peciko

120 Field specifically, has been provided by Oudin & Picard (1982), Schoell et al. (1985), Burrus

121 et al. (1992), Paterson et al. (1997), Duval et al. (1998), and Lambert et al. (2003). The main

122 source rocks in the area are organic-rich mudrocks, coal beds, and even sandy facies

123 deposited in fluvial, deltaic top, tidal plain, and delta front settings. They are mostly classified

124 as Type III source rocks. Although the organic-rich mudrocks are gas prone, Lambert et al.

125 (2003) reported that the oil-generative potential of the Type III organic matter is unusually

5
126 high. The contribution to hydrocarbon generation from marine mudrocks, located in the

127 deepwater Makassar Straits and in the deeper part of fields surrounding Mahakam Delta, is

128 thought to be negligible because their organic content is low. Interestingly, isotopic analysis

129 performed by Lambert et al. (2003) showed that the threshold for both gas and oil maturation

130 corresponds to a vitrinite reflectance of 0.6%.

131

132 Wireline log responses to overpressure

133 There are several candidate mechanisms for generating overpressure in the Lower Kutai

134 Basin, including disequilibrium compaction, clay diagenesis, gas generation, and lateral

135 pressure transfer. Wireline log analysis can help to distinguish between these mechanisms

136 (e.g. Bowers 2001; Katahara 2006).

137

138 When a mud-rich sedimentary succession cannot dewater rapidly enough for the pore

139 pressure to remain hydrostatic during burial, its porosity is greater than that it would be if the

140 pore pressure were hydrostatic, and the overpressure is said to be caused by disequilibrium

141 compaction. Where overpressure has been generated by disequilibrium compaction in a

142 uniform mudrock succession, with virtually no loss of pore fluid, the porosity remains

143 constant and the pore pressure-depth profile becomes parallel to the vertical stress-depth

144 profile.

145

146 Where overpressure has been generated by an unloading mechanism such as clay

147 diagenesis, gas generation or lateral transfer, the pore pressure can increase more rapidly with

148 depth than the vertical stress (Fig. 6). In such circumstances, the density usually continues to

149 increase with depth through the overpressured mudrocks, while the sonic log trend reverses,

150 moving towards higher sonic travel time with increasing depth. The resistivity log trend also

6
151 reverses, moving towards lower resistivity with increasing depth. These responses can be

152 explained by the concept of storage pores and connecting pores (Bowers & Katsube 2002).

153 When pore pressure in a mudrock increases due to fluid expansion, the unloading response is

154 essentially elastic and results in only a very small increase in porosity. Because the density

155 log measures the bulk porosity of the mudrock, it is barely affected by the fluid expansion.

156 The increase in porosity that does occur during fluid expansion is predominately due to the

157 opening of flat connecting pores, because they are more compliant than the storage pores. The

158 sonic and resistivity log responses are sensitive to the opening of connecting pores because

159 their opening reduces the bulk modulus and rigidity and increases the conductivity.

160

161 Data analysis

162 The Peciko Field was developed using the concept of hydrodynamic trapping (Grosjean et al.

163 1994; Lambert et al. 2003), and a campaign of reservoir pressure measurements for

164 hydrodynamic analysis purposes has resulted in an excellent pressure database. On average,

165 there are around 70 RFT points in each well. These pressure data are very useful for

166 overpressure analysis because they can be used both to determine overpressure distribution

167 and to calibrate methods of pore pressure estimation.

168

169 We have analysed data from the discovery well, PEC-1, and 16 appraisal wells in the

170 Peciko Field, most of which have terminated at the pressure transition zone into hard

171 overpressure. Here, we present data from three wells, PEC-1, NWP-9, and NWP-16 (Fig. 2a),

172 to illustrate our findings. PEC-1 was chosen as a typical example of a well on the crest of the

173 structure and because source rock maturation data are available from it, although it does

174 contain a relatively small number of RFT points and no density log was run in this early well.

175 NWP-9 was chosen because it encounters the highest overpressure value in the Peciko Field

7
176 and shows a clear unloading response on density-sonic and density-resistivity crossplots.

177 NWP-16 is located downflank in the northern part of the field where the top of overpressure is

178 deeper and the geothermal gradient is slightly lower (Fig. 3). It is the deepest well in the field

179 and was chosen to make a comparison of the wireline log responses with those from well

180 NWP-9.

181

182 Prior to analysing the wireline response to overpressure, it is necessary to discriminate

183 mud-rich intervals from more silty and sandy intervals from the given set of wireline logs.

184 Discrimination was done by cross-plotting density against the difference between neutron

185 porosity and the porosity estimated from the density logs (Fig. 7), as done by Katahara

186 (2006). To infer porosity from the density log, a matrix density of 2.75 g cm-3 and a fluid

187 density of 1.05 g cm-3 were arbitrarily assumed. An arbitrary threshold value of 0.18 was

188 chosen (i.e., NPHI – DPHI > 0.18) to ensure that our pressure analysis was consistently

189 performed in the mud-rich intervals, although tests showed that estimated pore pressures in

190 the mudrocks had low sensitivity to the choice of threshold value.

191

192 The pressure-depth plot for well PEC-1 (Fig. 8a) is typical of wells in this field, except

193 that the top of overpressure is located at slightly greater depths further north (Fig. 3). The

194 overpressure initially increases slowly with depth below the top of overpressure at ~9500 ft

195 (~2900 m) and then more rapidly through a transition zone into hard overpressure. The top of

196 the transition zone is at ~11,300 ft (~3450 m). The top of transition zone is picked at the depth

197 where vertical effective stress starts to decrease as depth increases.

198

199 According to Lambert et al. (2003), the maturity threshold for gas generation

200 corresponds to a vitrinite reflectance value of 0.6%. Well PEC-1 is the only well in the

8
201 Peciko Field from which vitrinite reflectance data are available (Fig. 8b). There is a

202 correlation between the top of the transition zone into hard overpressure and the vitrinite

203 reflectance value of 0.6%. Four data points in the interval 10,000–12,000 ft (3050–3650 m)

204 have vitrinite reflectance values below the general trend. There is no other available

205 information to indicate whether they are reliable, but there is a possibility that these values

206 were obtained from fragments due to caving, and not cuttings from the drill bit.

207

208 The pressure-depth plot for well NWP-9 (Fig. 9) indicates that the top of overpressure

209 is at a depth of ~11,000 ft (~3350 m), although there is a good RFT measurement showing

210 ~300 psi (~2 MPa) of overpressure in an isolated sand body at ~10,000 ft (~3050 m) depth.

211 The top of the transition into hard overpressure is around 12,000 ft (3650 m) depth, where

212 reversals can be seen in the trends of both the sonic and resistivity logs through the mudrocks.

213 The density log, by contrast, shows no obvious reversal, but it shows consistently high values

214 of density, around 2.6 g cm-3, in the depth interval 11,000–13,000 ft (3350–3950 m).

215

216 The pressure-depth plot for well NWP-16 (Fig. 10) appears to converge slightly

217 towards the lithostatic gradient with increasing depth, but it is not clear whether the well has

218 entered the expected transition zone into hard overpressure. The wireline logs appear to

219 display asymptotic trends towards the bottom of the well, without any clear indication of

220 reversals, although it is possible that the trends of both sonic and resistivity logs are on the

221 point of reversing at the bottom of the well.

222

223 Crossplots of density against sonic and resistivity log values for mudrocks in well

224 NWP-9 are shown in Fig. 11, with data points colour-coded at intervals of 1000 ft (305 m).

225 The smectitic and illitic compaction trends, introduced by Dutta (2002) and adopted by

9
226 Katahara (2006), are shown on the density-sonic crossplot for reference. The smectitic

227 compaction trend is followed by mudrocks with a high proportion of discrete smectite. The

228 illitic compaction trend is followed by mudrocks in which all the discrete smectite has been

229 transformed into mixed-layer illite/smectite. Both crossplots show clear unloading responses

230 starting at a depth of ~12,000 ft (~3650 m). The data points coloured red in the deepest

231 interval show changes in trend, with increased sonic transit time and decreased resistivity but

232 no decrease in density. These observations provide clear evidence that the generating

233 mechanism for hard overpressure is an unloading process. Data points in the depth range

234 5000–12,000 ft (1500–3650 m) on the density-sonic crossplot fall on, or close to, the illitic

235 compaction trend. The average geothermal gradient is around 0.0094 °C ft-1 (0.031°C m-1)

236 with a surface temperature of 30°C, giving an estimated temperature of nearly 80°C at 5000 ft

237 (1500 m) depth, sufficient for discrete smectite to have disappeared (Hower et al. 1976; Boles

238 & Franks 1979).

239

240 Clauer et al. (1999) investigated clay mineralogy in the Tunu Field, which is located

241 on the Median Axis north of Peciko (Fig. 1) so the clay mineralogy in the two fields may be

242 expected to be similar. At sampling depths below 7700 ft (2350 m), they found that the clay

243 fraction consists of mixed-layer illite/smectite, kaolinite/dickite, detrital illite and chlorite.

244 This clay mineral composition is consistent with the illitic compaction trend observed below

245 ~5000 ft (~1500 m) (Fig. 11). The fact that the density-sonic crossplot follows an illitic

246 compaction trend over the hydrostatically pressured depth interval of 5000–11,000 ft (1500–

247 3350 m) indicates that excess water which may have been released by the transformation of

248 discrete smectite to mixed-layer illite/smectite has dissipated and does not contribute to

249 present-day overpressures. However, clay diagenetic reactions that continue to be active at

250 higher temperatures, including ongoing illitization of mixed-layer illite/smectite and the

10
251 conversion of kaolinite to illite (Bjørlykke 1998), and also quartz dissolution and precipitation

252 (Bjørkum 1995), probably do contribute to present-day overpressures.

253

254 Composite density plots for mudrocks in all 16 NWP wells (Fig. 4a) are shown in Fig.

255 12, without and with the data points from the overpressured intervals in each well. The

256 density continues to increase smoothly below the top of overpressure, even though the vertical

257 effective stress reaches its maximum value at the top of overpressure in each well. Thus,

258 compaction appears to continue with increasing depth, independent of the vertical effective

259 stress. This plot constitutes strong evidence for ongoing chemical compaction below the top

260 of overpressure, and for discounting disequilibrium compaction as a mechanism that

261 contributes to the generation of overpressure in this field. Given the high average density, in

262 excess of 2.6 g cm-3 below 12,000 ft in all wells (Fig. 12), our preferred interpretation is that

263 the mudrocks in the overpressured intervals have become overcompacted by diagenetic

264 processes, i.e. overcompacted in a mechanical sense due to the chemical compaction

265 processes.

266

267 Implications for overpressure generation

268 Pressure-depth plots show that the top of overpressure is at depths of 9500–12,000 ft (2900–

269 3650 m), corresponding to estimated temperatures of 120–140°C, and that there is a transition

270 zone into hard overpressure at depths of 11,500–14,000 ft (3500–4250 m), corresponding to

271 estimated temperatures of 140–160°C. These depths to the top of overpressure are relatively

272 large in comparison to other Neogene basins worldwide, as summarized by Swarbrick et al.

273 (2002). For example, in the Malay Basin where the sedimentation rate is around 800 ft My-1

274 (240 m My-1), about 20% less than the sedimentation rate over the last 8 My in the Lower

275 Kutai Basin, the top of overpressure is around 3200 ft (975 m) depth. Presumably, the top of

11
276 overpressure in the Lower Kutai Basin is so deep because of lateral reservoir drainage

277 (Grosjean et al. 1994; Lambert et al. 2003). Inversion started in Middle Miocene times and

278 has continued to the present day with uplift centred on the onshore area (Chambers et al.

279 2004). Unpublished net-to-gross (NTG) maps for the Median Axis region of the Lower Kutai

280 Basin show a progressive upward increase in NTG at the Peciko Field from stratigraphic unit

281 5 up to stratigraphic unit 3 (Figs 2b and 5), which is consistent with effective lateral drainage

282 above the overpressured zone.

283

284 Within the transition zone into hard overpressure in well NWP-9, both density-sonic

285 and density-resistivity crossplots show clear unloading responses (Figs 9 and 11). Clay

286 diagenesis may contribute to the present-day overpressure in the Peciko Field. In the

287 hydrostatically pressured succession, data on the density-sonic crossplots lie on the illite-rich

288 compaction trend below ~5000 ft (~1500 m), and remain on this trend in the zone of low

289 overpressure (Fig. 10). Although discrete smectite is likely to have disappeared by 5000 ft

290 (1500 m) burial depth, where the temperature approaches 80°C, illitization of mixed-layer

291 illite/smectite is ongoing at greater depths to much higher temperatures (Hower et al. 1976;

292 Boles & Franks 1979). Kaolinite transforms to illite at temperatures ~130–140°C in basin

293 settings (Bjørlykke 1998) and can contribute to overpressure both through the release of free

294 water by the reaction and by transferring load from the grains to the pore fluid as mineral

295 grains are dissolved (Bjørlykke & Hoeg 1997). This temperature range roughly corresponds

296 to that estimated at the depth of the transition zone into high overpressure. Furthermore, the

297 dissolution of kaolinite and precipitation of illite may reduce porosity and permeability at this

298 depth, and thereby help to maintain high overpressure in the deeper strata.

299

12
300 Gas generation seems likely to be another unloading process responsible for the hard

301 overpressure, generated both directly from kerogen and from oil cracking to gas. According to

302 Lambert et al. (2003), gas generation starts at a vitrinite reflectance of 0.6%. We have one set

303 of vitrinite reflectance data in the Peciko Field, i.e. in PEC-1 where there is a correlation

304 between high overpressure and vitrinite reflectance values above 0.6% (Fig. 7). Oudin &

305 Picard (1982) found that there is a good correlation between the top of hard overpressure and

306 the increase in vitrinite reflectance in the Handil Field (Fig. 13), and Bates (1996) found a

307 similar correlation in the Nilam Field (Fig. 14). However, they did not draw any conclusions

308 about overpressure generation mechanisms from the vitrinite reflectance data. We note that

309 the data in each of those two wells show a strong correlation between the depth of transition

310 into hard overpressure and the onset of gas generation, assuming that the threshold for gas

311 generation corresponds to a vitrinite reflectance of 0.6%.

312

313 To the south and east of the Peciko Field, the sands within the Tunu Main Zone peter

314 out as the depositional environment changes from the shelf break setting to deep marine.

315 Since the organic carbon content of the deep marine sediment is low and its potential for

316 hydrocarbon generation is negligible, there is unlikely to be significant lateral transfer of

317 overpressure generated by gas generation in the synclinal area to the southeast, but there may

318 be lateral transfer of overpressure generated by diagenetic reactions.

319

320 In all wells with density logs, NWP-1 to NWP-16, the logged density values continue

321 gradually to increase downwards through the zone of low overpressure (Fig. 12), which is

322 consistent with ongoing chemical compaction. The top of overpressure is located deep within

323 the chemical compaction zone, where the effective stress appears to have no influence on

324 compaction and the mudrocks are likely to be stiffened by chemical compaction so that they

13
325 are overconsolidated (Bjørlykke & Hoeg 1997; Bjørlykke 1998, 1999). Consequently, we

326 attribute the origin of the low overpressures, above the transition zone into hard overpressure,

327 to passive transmission of pore fluid from the highly overpressured zone below.

328

329 Conclusions

330 Hard overpressure in the Peciko Field is generated by unloading mechanisms. The top of

331 overpressure is much deeper than the depth range where transformation of discrete smectite to

332 mixed-layer smectite/illite occurs, so the disappearance of smectite does not contribute to the

333 observed overpressure. The causes of the hard overpressure in the Peciko Field are likely to

334 be gas generation, illitization of mixed-layer illite/smectite, conversion of kaolinite to illite,

335 and dissolution and precipitation of quartz. We suggest that expulsion of fluid resulting from

336 gas generation and diagenesis in the zone of high overpressure maintains the hydrodynamic

337 flow through the reservoir layers containing gas accumulations.

338

339 Compaction continues below the top of overpressure, independent of vertical effective

340 stress, in all 16 wells where density logs have been run. This observation is clear evidence of

341 ongoing chemical compaction. The origin of the low overpressure above the transition zone

342 into high overpressure is probably due to vertical transfer from below. The transition zone

343 into hard overpressure can be recognized from sonic and resistivity log reversals, whether by

344 direct inspection of the logs or by crossplotting their responses against the density log.

345

346 The high mudrock densities, greater than 2.6 g cm-3, at the top of overpressure indicate

347 that the mudrocks are overcompacted. Therefore, our preferred interpretation is that

348 disequilibrium compaction does not contribute to the overpressure. This conclusion is

349 radically new because all other studies of overpressured Neogene basins have suggested that

14
350 disequilibrium compaction has contributed to the overpressure, either directly or indirectly by

351 pressure transference. The particular circumstances in the Lower Kutai Basin which make our

352 interpretation plausible are that it is a warm basin with lateral reservoir drainage.

353 Consequently, the top of overpressure is unusually deep for a mud-rich sequence that has

354 undergone rapid burial over the last 10 My.

355

356 Acknowledgements

357 We thank Total Indonesie for funding and data and Guillaume Smagghe for ongoing support

358 and a critical review. However, the views expressed are those of the authors and not

359 necessarily those of Total Indonesie. We benefited from discussions with Richard Swarbrick

360 and very constructive reviews by Gunn Teige and Quentin Fisher.

361

362 References

363

364 Allen, G. P. & Chambers, J. L. C. 1998. Sedimentation in the Modern and Miocene Mahakam

365 Delta. Field Trip Guide Book, Indonesian Petroleum Association, Jakarta.

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367 Bates, J. A. 1996. Overpressuring in the Kutai Basin: distribution, origins, and implications

368 for the petroleum system. In: Indonesian Petroleum Association, Proceedings 25th Annual

369 Convention, 93-115.

370

371 Bjørkum, P. A. 1995. How important is pressure in causing dissolution of quartz in

372 sandstones? Journal of sedimentary Research, 66, 147-154.

373

15
374 Bjørlykke, K. 1998. Clay mineral diagenesis in sedimentary basins: a key to the prediction of

375 rock properties: examples from the North Sea Basin. Clay Minerals, 33, 15–34.

376

377 Bjørlykke, K. 1999. Principal aspects of compaction and fluid flow in mudstones. In: Aplin,

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379 Properties. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 158, 73-78.

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381 Bjørlykke, K. & Høeg, K. 1997. Effects of burial diagenesis on stresses, compaction and fluid

382 flow in sedimentary basins. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 14, 267-276.

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384 Bois, M., Grosjean, Y. & de Pazzis, L. 1994. Shale compaction and abnormal pressure

385 evaluation application to the offshore Mahakam. In: Indonesian Petroleum Association,

386 Proceedings 23rd Annual Convention, 245-259.

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388 Boles, J. R. & Franks, S. G. 1979. Clay diagenesis in Wilcox sandstones of southwest Texas:

389 implications of smectite diagenesis on sandstone cementation. Journal of Sedimentary

390 Petrology, 49, 55-70.

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392 Bowers, G. L. 1995. Pore pressure estimation from velocity data: accounting for overpressure

393 other than undercompaction. SPE Drilling & Completion, 10(2), 89-95.

394

395 Bowers, G. L. 2001. Determining an appropriate pore-pressure estimation strategy. Offshore

396 Technology Conference, paper OTC 13042.

397

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398 Bowers, G. L. & Katsube, T. J. 2002. The role of shale pore structure on the sensitivity of

399 wire-line logs to overpressure. In: Huffman, A.R. & Bowers, G.L. (eds), Pressure Regimes in

400 Sedimentary Basins and their Prediction. AAPG, Tulsa, Memoir 76, 43-60.

401

402 Burrus, J. 1998. Overpressure models for clastic rocks, their relation to hydrocarbon

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404 Abnormal Pressures in Hydrocarbon Environments. AAPG, Tulsa, Memoir 70, 35-63.

405

406 Burrus, J., Brosse, E., Choppin de Janvry, G., Grosjean, Y. & Oudin, J. L. 1992. Basin

407 modelling in the Mahakam Delta based on integrated 2D model Temispack. In: Indonesian

408 Petroleum Association, Proceedings 21st Annual Convention, 23-43.

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410 Chambers, J. L. C., Carter, I., Cloke, R., Craig, J., Moss, S. J. & Paterson, D. W. 2004. Thin-

411 skinned and thick-skinned inversion-related thrusting – a structural model for the Kutai Basin,

412 Kalimantan, Indonesia. In: McClay, K.R. (ed.) Thrust Tectonics and Hydrocarbon Systems.

413 AAPG, Tulsa, Memoir 82, 614-634.

414

415 Clauer, N., Rinckenbach, T., Weber, F., Sommer, F., Chaudhuri, S. & O’Neil, J. R. 1999.

416 Diagenetic evolution of clay minerals in oil-bearing Neogene sandstones and associated

417 shales, Mahakam Delta Basin, Indonesia. AAPG Bulletin, 83, 62-87.

418

419 Dutta, N. C. 2002. Deepwater geohazard prediction using prestack inversion of large offset P-

420 wave data and rock model. The Leading Edge, 21, 193-198.

421

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422 Duval, B. C., Cassaigneau, C., Choppin de Janvry, G., Loiret, B., Leo, M., Alibi & Grosjean,

423 Y. 1998. Impact of the petroleum system approach to exploration and appraisal efficiency in

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425 Convention, 277-290.

426

427 Grosjean, Y., Choppin de Janvry, G. & Duval, B. C. 1994. Discovery of a giant in a mature

428 deltaic province: Peciko, Indonesia. Presented at the 14th World Petroleum Congress, May–

429 June 1994, Stavanger, Norway.

430

431 Hermanrud, C., Wensaas, L., Teige, G. M. G., Vik, E., Nordgård Bolås, H. M. & Hansen, S.

432 1998. Shale porosities from well logs on Haltenbanken (Offshore Mid-Norway) show no

433 influence of overpressuring. In: Law, B.E., Ulmishek, G.F. & Slavin, V.I. (eds.) Abnormal

434 Pressures in Hydrocarbon Environments. AAPG, Tulsa, Memoir 70, 65-87.

435

436 Hower, J., Eslinger, E. V., Hower, M. E. & Perry, E. A. 1976. Mechanism of burial and

437 metamorphism of argillaceous sediment : 1. Mineralogical and chemical evidence. Geological

438 Society of America Bulletin, 87, 725-737.

439

440 Katahara, K. 2006. Overpressure and shale properties: stress unloading or smectite-illite

441 transformation? 76th SEG Annual Meeting, Expanded Abstracts, 1520-1524.

442

443 Lambert, B., Duval, B. C., Grosjean, Y., Umar, I. M. & Zaugg, P. 2003. The Peciko case

444 history: impact of an evolving geological model on the dramatic increase of gas reserves in

445 the Mahakam Delta. In: Halbouty, M.T. (ed.) Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade 1990–

446 1999. AAPG, Tulsa, Memoir 78, 297-320.

18
447

448 Moss, S. J. & Chambers, J. L. C. 1999. Depositional modelling and facies architecture of rift

449 and inversion episodes in the Kutai Basin, Kalimantan, Indonesia. In: Indonesian Petroleum

450 Association, Proceedings 27th Annual Convention, 467-486.

451

452 O’Connor, S. A. & Swarbrick, R. E. 2008. Pressure regression, fluid drainage and a

453 hydrodynamically controlled fluid contact in the North Sea, Lower Cretaceous, Britannia

454 Sandstone Formation. Petroleum Geoscience, 14, 115-126.

455

456 Oudin, J. L. & Picard, P. F. 1982. Genesis of hydrocarbons in Mahakam Delta and the

457 relationship between their distribution and the overpressured zone. In: Indonesian Petroleum

458 Association, Proceedings 11th Annual Convention, 181-202.

459

460 Paterson, D. W., Bachtiar, A., Bates, J. A., Moon, J. A. & Surdam, R. C. 1997. Petroleum

461 system of the Kutei Basin, Kalimantan, Indonesia. In: Indonesian Petroleum Association,

462 Proceedings Petroleum Systems of SE Asia and Australasia Conference, 709-726.

463

464 Pennebaker, E. S. 1968. Seismic data indicate depth and magnitude of abnormal pressure.

465 World Oil, 166, 73-82.

466

467 Reynolds, E. B. 1970. Predicting overpressure zones with seismic data. World Oil, 171, 78-

468 82.

469

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470 Samson, P., Dewi-Rochette, T. & Lescoeur, M. 2005. Peciko geological modeling: optimizing

471 fluid distribution and model resolution of a giant gas field in a shale-dominated deltaic

472 environment. Asia Pacific Oil & Gas Conference, SPE paper 93253.

473

474 Schoell, M. B., Durand, B. & Oudin, J. L. 1985. Migration of oil and gas in the Mahakam

475 Delta: evidence and quantitative estimate from isotope and biomarker studies. In: Indonesian

476 Petroleum Association, Proceedings 14th Annual Convention, 49-56.

477

478 Swarbrick, R. E., Osborne, M. J. & Yardley, G. S. 2002. Comparison of overpressure

479 magnitude resulting from the main generating mechanisms. In: Huffman, A.R. & Bowers,

480 G.L. (eds) Pressure Regimes in Sedimentary Basins and their Prediction. AAPG, Tulsa,

481 Memoir 76, 1-12.

482

483 Teige, G. M. G., Hermanrud, C., Wensaas, L. & Nordgård Bolås, H. M. 1999. The lack of

484 relationship between overpressure and porosity in North Sea and Haltenbanken shales.

485 Marine and Petroleum Geology, 16, 321-335.

486

487 Teige, G. M. G., Hermanrud, C., Wensaas, L. & Nordgård Bolås, H. M. 2007. Geological

488 constraints of pore pressure detection in shales from seismic data. Basin Research, 19, 33-50.

489

490 Tingay, M. R. P., Hillis, R. R., Swarbrick, R. E., Morley, C. K. & Damit, A. R. 2009. Origin

491 of overpressure and pore-pressure prediction in the Baram province, Brunei. AAPG Bulletin,

492 83, 51-74.

493

494

20
495 Figure captions

496

497 Figure 1. Major structural features in the Lower Kutai Basin. The main north–south anticlines

498 are indicated by the outlines of known hydrocarbon accumulations.

499

500 Figure 2. Schematic sections through the Peciko Field at different vertical scales: (a) stacked

501 mouth bars in a stratigraphic interval between two local flooding surfaces (after Samson et al.,

502 2005); and (b) gas accumulations (red) with tilted GWCs in the Tunu Main Zone. SU1–SU5

503 are stratigraphic units of the Tunu Main Zone. A simplified lithological column for SU3 is

504 shown on the right: yellow denotes sand-rich intervals and green mudrock intervals.

505

506 Figure 3. Burial history of the Tunu Main Zone in the Peciko Field (modified from Lambert et

507 al. 2003).

508

509 Figure 4. (a) Lateral overpressure distribution in the uppermost reservoir of stratigraphic unit

510 3 in the Peciko Field before production started. Pressure data were taken from the discovery

511 well, PEC-1, and the 16 NWP appraisal wells. Overpressure contours are at intervals of 50

512 psi. The outline of the field indicates the lateral extent of gas accumulations in all units. (b)

513 Pore fluid distribution in the same stratigraphic unit showing that the gas accumulation is

514 located on the north flank of the structure. Red line: limit of the gas accumulation in this

515 stratigraphic unit. Red circles: wells where the reservoir is gas-bearing. Blue circles: wells

516 where this reservoir contains only water. Circle diameter is proportional to reservoir layer

517 thickness in each well. Structural contour interval is 82 ft (25 m).

518

21
519 Figure 5. South–north vertical section through the Peciko Field along the line marked in Fig.

520 4a showing the general trend of overpressure with depth.

521

522 Figure 6. Pressure-depth plot (right) with sonic and density log responses expected for a

523 mudrock succession where overpressure is generated by an unloading process. Below the top

524 of overpressure, the reversal in the trend of sonic transit time does not indicate abnormally

525 high porosity because density continues to increase with depth.

526

527 Figure 7. Crossplot of density against the difference between neutron and density porosities

528 estimated from wireline logs in well NWP-9. NPHI – DHPI = 0.18 was arbitrarily chosen as

529 the mudrock cut-off.

530

531 Figure 8. (a) Pressure-depth plot for well PEC-1. (b) Vitrinite reflectance data showing that

532 the threshold value of 0.6 % for gas generation, as determined by Lambert et al. (2003),

533 coincides with the top of the transition zone into hard overpressure. The encircled data points

534 are outliers from the trend and so may contain errors.

535

536 Figure 9. Pressure-depth plot for well NWP-9 with density, sonic, and resistivity log data for

537 the mudrocks.

538

539 Figure 10. Pressure-depth plot for well NWP-16 with density, sonic, and resistivity log data

540 for the mudrocks.

541

542 Figure 11. Crossplots of density against sonic transit time and resistivity for well NWP-9.

543 Data points on unloading trends are encircled in blue.

22
544

545 Figure 12. Composite density plot for mudrocks, defined by NPHI – DPHI > 0.18, in all the

546 NWP wells, Peciko Field: (a) for the hydrostatically pressured intervals only; and (b) for all

547 the density log data.

548

549 Figure 13. Vitrinite reflectance data and the pressure-depth plot from well H-9-B1 in the

550 Handil Field (location in Fig. 1). After Oudin & Picard (1982).

551

552 Figure 14. Vitrinite reflectance data from well N-109X in the Nilam Field (location in Fig. 1)

553 After Bates (1996).

23
Figure 1. Major structural features in the Kutai Basin. The main north–south anticlines are

indicated by the outlines of known hydrocarbon accumulations.

Figure 2. Schematic sections through the Peciko Field at different vertical scales: (a) stacked

mouth bars in a stratigraphic interval between two local flooding surfaces (after Samson et al.,

2005); and (b) gas accumulations (red) with tilted GWCs in the Tunu Main Zone. SU1–SU5

are stratigraphic units of the Tunu Main Zone. A simplified lithological column for SU3 is

shown on the right: yellow denotes sand-rich intervals and green mudrock intervals.
Figure 3. Burial history of Tunu Main Zone in the Peciko Field (modified from Lambert et al.

2003).
Figure 4. (a) Lateral overpressure distribution in the uppermost reservoir of stratigraphic unit

3 in the Peciko Field before production started. Pressure data were taken from the discovery

well, PEC-1, and the 16 NWP appraisal wells. Overpressure contours are at intervals of 50

psi. The outline of the field indicates the lateral extent of gas accumulations in all units. (b)

Pore fluid distribution in the same stratigraphic unit showing that the gas accumulation is

located on the north flank of the structure. Red line: limit of the gas accumulation in this

stratigraphic unit. Red circles: wells where the reservoir is gas-bearing. Blue circles: wells

where this reservoir contains only water. Circle diameter is proportional to reservoir layer

thickness in each well. Structural contour interval is 82 ft (25 m).

Figure 5. South–north vertical section through the Peciko Field along the line marked in Fig.

4a showing the general trend of overpressure with depth.

Figure 6. Pressure-depth plot (right) with sonic and density log responses expected for a

mudrock succession where overpressure is generated by an unloading process. Below the top

of overpressure, the reversal in the trend of sonic transit time does not indicate abnormally

high porosity because density continues to increase with depth.

Figure 7. Crossplot of density against the difference between neutron and density porosities

estimated from wireline logs in well NWP-9. NPHI – DHPI = 0.18 was arbitrarily chosen as

the mudrock cut-off.

Figure 8. (a) Pressure-depth plot for well PEC-1. (b) Vitrinite reflectance data showing that

the threshold value of 0.6 % for gas generation, as determined by Lambert et al. (2003),

coincides with the top of the transition zone into hard overpressure. The encircled data points

are outliers from the trend and so may contain errors.

Figure 9. Pressure-depth plot for well NWP-9 with density, sonic, and resistivity log data for

the mudrocks.
Figure 10. Pressure-depth plot for well NWP-16 with density, sonic, and resistivity log data

for the mudrocks.

Figure 11. Crossplots of density against sonic transit time and resistivity for well NWP-9.

Data points on unloading trends are encircled in blue.

Figure 12. Composite density plot for mudrocks, defined by NPHI – DPHI > 0.18, in all the

NWP wells, Peciko Field: (a) for the hydrostatically pressured intervals only; and (b) for all

the density log data.

Figure 13. Vitrinite reflectance data and the pressure-depth plot from well H-9-B1 in the

Handil Field (location in Fig. 1). After Oudin & Picard (1982).
Figure 14. Vitrinite reflectance data from well N-109X in the Nilam Field (location in Fig. 1)

After Bates (1996).