Chapter 2 Composting

Chapter II
Chapter Two
Composting & Vermicomposting

1. Introduction Terms introduced in this chapter include:
Composting can be described as the ultimate in Organic
recycling. It mimics the natural cycle of fallen Grasscycling
leaves and branches decomposing into humus. Mulching
To compost, the organic material that has been Composting
Holding units
generated is gathered and treated in a way which Turning bins
hastens its biological decomposition. Anaerobic
Vermicompost
What is “Organic?” Eisenia fetida
Top dressing
Bacteria
Anything that is alive or once was alive is Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio
“organic.” All plants and animals, anything
made from plants or animals, and any wastes
generated by plants and animals are organic. management priorities are applied to organic ma-
terials, the following hierarchy of options results:
Organic products are an important part of the
economy and of everyone’s life. Some of the  Source Reduction - Reducing the amount of
common organic materials that are used and dis- yard debris through landscaping strategies
posed of daily include food, paper products like and practices.
tissues, and yard waste.  Reuse - Composting of materials for reuse on
site.
As Figure I-4 in Chapter 1 illustrates, organic
 Recycling - Collection of organic materials
materials account for much of what is consumed
for processing and marketing by centralized
and thrown away every day. Paper products
composting facilities.
alone make up over 19% of human waste. In
total, organics make up 52% of the waste
stream! What are ways to manage the sheer vol- 2. Source Reduction
ume of organic wastes produced? Source reduction principles can be used to re-
duce the amount of yard debris generated. But
Manage Organic Materials at Home what options are there for the wastes that come
out of yards and gardens? When autumn comes,
People have a variety of options and must make
one cannot decide that the leaves won’t fall.
decisions about what is most appropriate for their
unique situation. The decision depends on what
materials are available, how much time and ef- However, it can be a choice to reduce organic
fort a person is willing to spend, the space avail- materials generated at home. The choices are
able, costs, aesthetic considerations, and what fewer than the multitude of choices made at the
options are available. To make these decisions, supermarket, but the process is the same and the
one must be familiar with the entire range of results can be just as impressive.
home composting methods and the types of ma-
terials and maintenance styles best suited to each Determine Needs
of these systems.
There are three main questions to ask about how
yard debris is generated to determine if one
Step one in selecting a management strategy for
“needs” to be producing so much waste.
organic materials generated at home is to under-
stand the available options. When solid waste
Master Recycler Program 2019 Page 17

Chapter II
How is the yard used? The use affects the tion! A gasoline lawn mower running for one
amount of space devoted to high-maintenance/ hour emits the same amount of pollution as 40
high waste-producing components, such as lawn new automobiles running for one hour. New reel
and annual flower beds, as opposed to low- mowers are light, quiet, relatively maintenance-
maintenance plantings or paved areas. free, and they don’t blow exhaust. More infor-
Is the level of maintenance provided essential mation about reel mowers is available at
for plant health and a reasonable appearance of www.reelmowerguide.com.
the yard? The amount of yard debris created
can be reduced by mowing, watering, and ferti- During periods of fast growth and wet weather,
lizing less. grasscycling may require more frequent cuttings
What materials can be put to use at home that to avoid heavy deposits of clippings. When not
bagging the clippings, each mowing can take
are currently being disposed?
half the time.
Identify Alternatives
Mulching
A number of steps can be taken to reduce the
amount of organic wastes generated in home Mulching conserves water and protects soil from
landscapes. The alternatives range from simple erosion and compaction. Many common yard
changes in maintenance procedures to complete clippings make excellent mulches or soft
re-landscaping of yards to create self-sustaining “paving” for paths and play areas. Grass clip-
composting systems. pings, leaves, and pine needles are all suitable
for mulching landscapes. Wood chips from
Landscape Waste Reduction Strategies pruning and removing trees are a natural substi-
tute for “Beauty Bark.” This material can often
Grasscycling be obtained at no cost by calling a tree service.
Grass clippings are the largest single component Yard debris mulches can be applied following
of landscape waste in most yards. Yet it is actu- the same methods described for using compost as
ally healthier for the lawn to leave the clippings mulch (See Figure II-7). Annual flower and veg-
on the lawn than to remove them. It makes etable gardens can be mulched with non-woody
mowing quicker and easier. When grasscycling, materials that break down quickly and tilled un-
it is best to mow every 5 to 7 days in warm sea- der without competing with plants for nitrogen.
sons. However, in wet weather, it is inefficient If woody materials, such as sawdust or wood
to leave the clippings on the lawn. chips, are used in an annual garden, they must be
pulled aside before tilling, or they must be bal-
Letting clippings remain on the ground returns anced by adding a high-nitrogen fertilizer such as
nutrients to the lawn, adds organic matter to reju- blood meal when tilled in.
venate the soil, conserves moisture, and saves
time and money on bagging. Grasscycling does Trees and shrubs can be mulched with one-half
not contribute to build-up of “thatch,” which is to one-inch layers of grass clippings, or with
an accumulation of dead roots and stems. two- to four-inch layers of wood chips, twigs or
pine needles. If layers of fine green materials
It helps to have a lawn mower that is designed to are too thick they can mat down, becoming an-
“mulch” grass clippings back into the turf. aerobic and acting as impenetrable barriers to
Mulching mowers, now widely available, recir- both air and water.
culate the clippings through the blades, chopping
them into tiny pieces and blowing them down Selective Fertilization and Watering
into the grass. Other mowers may be adapted by
modifying the outlet spout to direct clippings Selective use of fertilizers and water, applied at
down rather than out. Reel-type mowers are also the correct time in proper amounts, actually
effective at cutting the clippings small enough so makes lawns healthier and more tolerant of stress
that they are not conspicuous when left on the and produces less waste. Lawns should be ferti-
lawn. They are also a great way to reduce pollu- lized in autumn and winter to encourage strong
Page 18 Master Recycler Program 2019

Chapter II
root development. These strong rooted plants

will grow evenly through the summer with less Eco-lawns are another option. Many species of
water. Healthy lawns in the Puget Sound region grasses are appealing for lawns but some are
need only one inch of water per week during dry more environmentally friendly than others.
summer months. Measuring irrigation rates al- Some require less water, fertilizer, and mowing.
lows watering only as much as necessary. Other eco-lawns have a mix of plants including
grasses, clover, and strawberry so they still pro-
Turn in Crop Wastes vide an appealing, green ground cover but are
more healthy because of the diversity. Re-
At harvest time, crop wastes from annual vegeta- sources are available online.
ble and flower gardens can be chopped or tilled
into the soil. This returns nutrients and organic Natural Landscapes
material to soil.
Many people replace high-maintenance lawns
Spring crops will decompose quickly if cut when and shrubs with more natural-looking wooded
they are still succulent, or nitrogen fertilizer can areas or wildflower meadows. An initial thick
be added to speed decomposition. Fall crop layer of wood chip or other yard debris helps to
wastes can be turned in or left roughly cut on the create the woodland look and reduce watering,
surface to protect soil from erosion and compac- weeding, and other maintenance. These wood-
tion, then tilled in with fertilizers a few weeks lands areas also provide a place to use grass clip-
before spring planting. Diseased or insect- pings, leaves, needles, and other trimmings as
infested plants should not be turned in. mulches. Meadow areas (probably away from
the street or borders with neighbors) can be seed-
Lawn Size Reduction ed with wildflowers and pasture grasses with at-
Reducing lawn size produces less debris and tractive seed heads. These meadows are attrac-
conserves fertilizer, water, labor, and other re- tive when left unwatered and unmowed, or only
sources. Lawns produce more waste and require mowed once each summer after flowering.
more maintenance than any other landscaping.
3. Reuse Organics and
Low-maintenance groundcovers or woodland “Buy Recycled”
gardens where fallen leaves are naturally recy-
cled produce less waste. These can be used to Sometimes major changes in the layout of a gar-
replace grass in low-traffic areas. In many cases, den or maintenance plan are not possible. In
ground covers will be healthier and more attrac- these cases, it is important to carefully select
tive than lawns grown in less than optimum con- landscaping practices to reduce waste. Some
ditions, and they require less work to stay attrac- general criteria to use in selecting yard debris
tive. Some common, quick-growing, low- management options include:
maintenance ground covers include
St. Johnswort (Hypericum perforatum), Rubus  Reducing or reusing as many materials as
calycinoides “Creeping Raspberry,” creeping possible at home (or on site at public facili-
thyme varieties, beach strawberry (Fragaria ties). On-site reuse or composting is the
chiloensis), and barren strawberry (Waldsteinia most efficient landscape waste management
Willd.). Many low and spreading shrubs also option.
provide interesting alternatives to lawn.  Using organic materials diverted from other
sites whenever possible to meet landscape
Areas used heavily as paths or play areas can be needs. Consider trading unwanted plants or
replaced by mulch or wood chips. To create a plant divisions with neighbors and friends.
low-maintenance, long-lasting path or play area, Always try to reuse wastes, such as wood
remove the sod and lay down two or three over- chips and animal manures, before purchasing
lapping layers of corrugated cardboard to sup- new materials that would provide the same
press weed growth. Cover the cardboard with service.
four to six inches of chip; it will compact as it is  Buying compost and mulch products made
walked on.

Chapter II
from recycled yard debris for potting mixes, large loads of yard debris.
soil amendments, and other garden needs.
Linn and Benton County residents can self-haul
4. Recycling Organic Materials compost to the Process and Recovery, PRC, lo-
cated near the Coffin Butte Landfill.
Recycling organic materials in most cases means
composting. Landscape trimmings and food Curbside Collection
scraps can be composted at home. There are also
commercial alternatives to composting at home. Curbside collection of yard debris is the most
convenient collection method for residents and
A. Commercial Composting the most effective in diverting large volumes of
yard debris from the waste stream. It is also the
There are two commercial composting collection most expensive. In Linn County, curbside col-
methods presently in use in Linn and Benton lection became available in the summer of 1993.
Counties: self-haul to commercial composters Benton County began their program around the
and curbside collection. same time.
1) Advantages and Disadvantages of Wheeled carts are provided for residents to de-
Centralized Composting posit yard debris. Only “clean” yard debris
Home composting is not practical for everyone. should be set out for collection. This includes
Curbside collection and recycling of yard debris the following:
is a sensible alternative for those who do not  Grass clippings
have the time or space to make compost. Cen-
 Leaves
tralized composting is also useful for processing
materials that are difficult to handle at home,  Brush which is in containers or Bundled
such as brush and woody prunings. The con-  Small branches
trolled high-temperature composting conditions
at centralized facilities can assure a high-quality In 2010, it became possible for Corvallis resi-
product from problem materials such as invasive dents to include all food waste in their carts yard
weeds and diseased plants. debris carts. NO garbage, rocks, soil, or other
non-organic materials are allowed.
A major disadvantage of centralized composting
is the expense, effort, and environmental degra- Plastic bags are not allowed in any curbside col-
dation of hauling raw materials to a central loca- lection programs. They are difficult to remove
tion for composting, then hauling material back and are a contaminant in the finished compost.
in the form of finished compost. “Biodegradable” plastic bags are not allowed
either, as they are not all truly biodegradable and
2) Collection they complicate the processing of the material.
Many communities promote the use of sturdy
Many methods are used to collect yard debris, Kraft paper bags which are readily available and
offering varying levels of convenience and ex- compost easily.
pense. Typically, there is a trade-off between
convenience of the collection system and its cost. 3) Commercial Compost Facilities
Self-Haul to a Compost Facility The collection system affects the design of a pro-
cessing facility. The types and amounts of spe-
Self-haul collection systems require individuals cific materials are some of the main factors con-
to take separated yard debris to a composting sidered. Commercial composting uses three ma-
facility. Small fees are charged. Time and haul- jor steps: preprocessing, active composting, and
ing costs can cut the savings in dumping fees for postprocessing.
commercial landscapers if the facility is more
than a few miles from a job site. In addition, Preprocessing
self-haul systems require the use of a truck for
Preprocessing begins with receiving, inspecting,

Chapter II
and sorting the materials. Removing contami-

nants is important to making high-quality com- The highest levels of commercial composting
post. Some contaminants like rocks, logs or tire technology employ composting digesters, com-
rims can seriously damage composting equip- puterized aeration and turning systems, and so-
ment. Sorting yard debris controls the materials phisticated odor control systems.
that go directly to the composting area. This
saves wear and tear on shredding equipment. Postprocessing
Large materials are shredded to decrease break-
down time. Many types of chipping and shred- Compost producers depend on a wide variety of
ding equipment are available for size reduction. end users, or markets, for their compost, and they
may tailor their postprocessing activities for par-
Active Composting ticular users. Postprocessing activities prepare
the finished compost for final use through
In this phase, bacteria and other composting crit- screening, other grading methods, and packag-
ters feast on the yard debris. Commercial pro- ing. Screening removes contaminants and
cessors can use a variety of methods and technol- uncomposted materials, including rocks, large
ogies -- some slow, some fast -- to break down wood chips, sticks, and large plastic items.
the material. The methods vary in: Some operations, usually developed or heavily
subsidized by municipalities, simply give their
 level of technology used, compost away to make room for the next batch.
 attention paid to managing and monitor- These operations do little or no postprocessing.
ing the operation, More often, operations produce compost in order
 space required, to compete in the soil products markets. For
 length of time needed to obtain finished these producers, the compost must be screened to
product, and remove contaminants and materials that have
not decomposed.
 ability to combine other organic materials
with the yard debris.
In addition to screening compost, producers may
blend their compost with sand, peat moss, or oth-
Some processors use low-level technology,
er materials to create soil mixes for special uses.
simply making huge piles of debris several sto-
If producers hope to sell primarily through retail
ries tall or long windrows of material, letting
outlets to home gardeners, they will package the
everything compost slowly over one or two
compost into bags.
years.
4) Regulations
Low-level composting demands more space per
volume of debris, but the savings in equipment The Department of Environmental Quality has
and personnel costs may be substantial. regulations that apply to commercial composting
operations. Local zoning and land-use laws cov-
The middle range of technology involves con- er the siting of composting facilities.
structing and turning long windrows of decom-
posing materials. Windrow sizes vary widely, Composting operations may also be regulated by
but are typically five to ten feet wide, four to local air and water pollution agencies, which are
eight feet high, and hundreds of feet long. The concerned with dust, waste water, and odors.
equipment used to turn windrows ranges from
front end loaders to specialized machinery de- B. Home Composting
signed exclusively for turning compost wind-
rows. These operations create and maintain Composting at home is far more efficient than
windrows that will achieve high temperatures, collecting and transporting organic materials to a
allowing thermophilic bacteria to do the main centralized facility and then back to a home gar-
composting work in as little as four to six weeks. den as a mulch or soil amendment. The best
Then the windrows are combined into large cur- market for the finished product is right in one’s
ing piles that are allowed to cool until the com- own back yard.
post is stable, or mature.

Chapter II
Some people begin composting to cut down on plants take up a host of minor and trace ele-
the amount of waste in their garbage can. Others ments. The more diverse the materials compost-
are motivated by a desire to use the compost pro- ed, the more likely it is that these elements will
duced. Composting is an excellent waste reduc- be returned to the plants. This does not mean
tion technique because it keeps organic material that the materials will compost more quickly or
out of the waste stream entirely. more thoroughly, but that they will feed the
plants better.
Compost improves the structure of the soil. The
soil is easier to work, has good aeration and wa- b. Non-Compostable Organic Materials
ter retention characteristics, and an increased re-
sistance to erosion. Compost also helps hold ele- Everything that was once alive will compost.
mental plant nutrients until plants are ready to However, not everything belongs in a compost
use them. Soils improved by added compost are pile. Some materials that create problems and
more likely to produce healthy plants able to re- should be kept out of home compost systems are
sist disease and insect attacks. listed in Table II -2.
1) Basic Compost Farming Managing Animal Wastes

Composting can be thought of as microorganism The only acceptable ways to dispose of cat and
farming. Just as a good farmer keeps in mind the dog feces is to flush them down the toilet or bury
basics of soil, season, pests, and climate when them in the ornamental areas of the garden. Pet
growing a crop, a good composter focuses on the wastes should not be composted with food or
materials being composted and the climate yard wastes.
around them to ensure a healthy compost crop.
Dog, cat and bird feces can carry pathogens that
Almost any combination of yard wastes left out are dangerous to people, so they should be han-
in the weather will decompose eventually. Un- dled as little as possible. These wastes should be
derstanding how to create the ideal conditions buried in ornamental garden areas only, where
described here will help in making compost they will be undisturbed for at least two years.
quickly and help to diagnose and solve compost-
ing problems. Pet wastes should not be buried within 100 feet
of a domestic water well, lake, or stream. A pit
a. Compost Materials 2- to 3-feet deep, covered securely with a heavy
board, can serve as a burial area for one or two
Anything organic--leaves on the ground, a fallen pets over an extended period of time. A little
tree, or a wood-framed house--will decompose. soil, sawdust, peat moss or compost should be
The more resistant the material is to decay, how- thrown on top of each deposit. When the hole is
ever, the longer the process will take. Except in filled to within 1 foot of the surface, it should be
some special situations, decomposition is inevi- filled with soil and a new pit should be started.
table! A total absence of air, such as in a peat
bog, will prevent decomposition. In very dry Burial is only recommended for small amounts
places, such as within the Antarctic, decomposi- of pet wastes.
tion may be slowed. But everything organic that
is out in the weather around Western Oregon will 2) Composting Systems
eventually become compost.
a. The Basics
Fallen leaves, grass clippings, sod stripped for a
garden, weeds, squash vines, watermelon rinds-- The basic components necessary for composting
even old cotton rags--all come from once-living are air, water, and food. The process of com-
organisms and can be composted. posting can be as simple or as complex as one
wants to make it. Passive composting can be
A diversity of materials is the key to a first-rate simply making a pile of materials and letting
compost. In addition to the major plant nutrients them break down slowly. Active composting
such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, involves paying attention to the amounts and

Chapter II
types of materials and turning the pile frequently. c. Composting Yard Wastes
There are three crucial components to compost- Yard wastes can be composted in simple holding
ing. To live, the microorganisms that make de- units wher e they will sit undistur bed for slow
composition happen need the same basic things decomposition, in turning bins that produce fin-
as humans—oxygen, water, and nutritious food. ished compost in as little as a month, or as
Turning or mixing the compost occasionally will mulches on paths or ar ound planting until
get oxygen into the pile. While the microorgan- they decompose in a year or two.
isms need water, if they have too much water,
they will drown. A good rule of thumb is that Holding units ar e simple container s used to
compost should be as wet as a wrung out rag. store yard and garden waste in an organized way
And lastly, those microorganisms need the right until the materials break down. Using a holding
nutrients in their food. Most things composted unit is the easiest way to compost. It requires no
are either brown or green. Brown material, like turning or other labor except placing wastes into
fallen leaves, are very high in carbon. Green ma- a pile or bin as they are generated.
terials are a rich nitrogen source. A healthy
compost pile needs both types of materials. Mi- Non-woody materials such as grass clippings,
croorganisms need 30 times more carbon than garden weeds, crop wastes, and leaves work best
nitrogen so adding more brown materials makes in these systems. Decomposition can take from
a compost pile function best. A more in-depth six months to two years. However, the process
discussion of the science of composting is in- can be sped up by chopping or shredding wastes,
cluded later in this chapter. mixing green and brown materials, and maintain-
ing proper moisture.
b. Criteria for Selecting a Compost System
Since materials are continuously added to hold-
There are many ways to make compost. Home ing units, they are at various stages of decompo-
compost methods range from mulched paths that sition. Generally, the more finished compost is
are replenished every other year, to turning units at the bottom of the pile, while partially decom-
that are maintained weekly. Many compost sys- posed materials are near the top. Once it is de-
tems can be built with scavenged materials, some termined that finished compost is at the bottom
require nothing but the soil in a garden, and oth- of a holding bin or pile, the compost is ready to
ers cost over $300. be harvested and used. (Finished compost is
somewhat of a personal judgment. It should look
Composting systems are organized by the type of like mulch, have a nice earthy smell, and not be
wastes they process: yard wastes are composted changing very much.) To harvest the compost,
by using them as mulches or in holding and the holding unit is removed from the compost
turning units; vegetative kitchen food wastes are pile and placed next to it. Yard wastes are then
composted either through soil incorporation or in forked from the top of the old pile into the bot-
worm bins. Turning units also may be used to tom of the empty holding unit until rich compost
compost kitchen and yard waste together in a hot is found. The compost can be used and the hold-
pile for those willing to turn the piles regularly. ing unit is ready to receive additional yard
Usually, food wastes should be composted in wastes.
closed systems separately from yard wastes to
keep rodents and other pests from becoming a Holding units can be made of light materials so
problem in the open, longer-standing yard waste they may be easily taken apart and moved
composting systems. Yard wastes are generally around the garden. Some examples of holding
not susceptible to pest problems, so they may be units include circles of snow fencing or hardware
composted in a variety of open systems. The cloth, old wooden pallets lashed together, or wire
style depends on what materials are to be recy- framed in wood. More permanent holding areas
cled, how much space is available, when com- can be made by stacking cinder blocks or mortar-
post is needed, and what it will be used for. ing bricks or rocks together. It is helpful to have
two of these stationary bins, one to use for fresh
wastes while the other is curing.

Chapter II
Sod also can be composted in a holding system, composted. These units can be expensive to buy
with or without a structure. Simply pile freshly or build. However, the effort and expense is re-
stripped sod roots up, grass down. Make sure it warded with large quantities of compost pro-
is thoroughly wet, and cover with black plastic to duced in a short time.
keep light out. Sod takes one to three years to
decompose completely. Decomposition of sod Non-woody yard wastes, along with vegetable
piles can be shortened to as little as six months wastes from the kitchen, may be composted in
by adding a high-nitrogen fertilizer such as cot- turning units. Composting in these units is most
tonseed meal or ammonium sulphate. Covered efficiently done in batches. Materials should be
piles are also an effective way to kill quack grass stockpiled until enough are on hand to make a
and some other noxious weeds. pile that fills a 3 ft. by 3 ft. by 3 ft. bin, or almost
fills a barrel composter. (To reduce odors and
Turning Units ar e typically a ser ies of bins pests, food wastes should be stored in a sealed
used for building and turning hot compost piles. container until enough materials are available to
An alternative turning system is a horizontally make a large pile.)
mounted rotation barrel. A turning unit allows
wastes to be conveniently mixed for regular aera-  Gather all the materials needed to make a
tion. This speeds composting by providing bac- pile that is at least 3 cubic feet. Use both
teria with the air they need to break down materi- green and brown materials to approximate
als. Turning systems require frequent mainte- the 30:1 carbon to nitrogen balance.
nance and involve preparation of the wastes to be
Table II-1. Common Compostable

Organic Waste Resources
Table II-2. Non-Compostable Organic Waste
Glass clippings
Landscapers are always trying to get rid of them.
Yard Wastes Do NOT compost these materials:
Weeds, old plants, wilted flowers
Leaves Plants infected with disease or a severe insect attack
You'll find these bagged and waiting at neighbors' where eggs could be preserved or where the insects them-
curbside. selves could survive in spite of the compost pile's heat
Food scraps (examples are apple scab, aphids and tent caterpillars).
Except for bread, meat, fat, bones, dairy, or oily foods.
They must be buried under 8" of soil, composted by earth- Ivy, succulents and certain pernicious weeds such as
worms, or in a hot compost pile. morning glory and buttercups; and grasses which spread
Wood Chips by rhizomes such as quack gr ass. These may not be
A tree service will deliver a load if you are willing to take killed by the heat of decomposition and can choke out
a large quantity. Use first on garden paths, then compost it other plants when compost is used in the garden.
after the initial decay has begun.
Sawdust Cat, dog and bird manures, which contain pathogens
This is best if first used as a livestock litter or allowed to harmful to children. These pathogens are not always
weather, since it takes a lot of nitrogen to break it down. killed in the heat of the compost pile.
Seaweed
Found washed up on some beaches. It's an excellent Meat and fish leftovers, bones, or greasy fatty foods
source of many plant nutrients. such as oils, butter, and cheeses.
Hair
Very high in nitrogen. Rescue some from the garbage at Piles made entirely of waxy leaves such as r hododen-
barber shops and beauty parlors. dron and English Laurel, or pine needles break down very
Coffee grounds and filters slowly. Try composting small amounts of these mixed
Almost every home and office has coffee grounds. Coffee with other materials, shred them first or use them as
chaff is a beautiful mulch. Available from coffee roasters. mulch.
Manures
Rabbit, cow and goat manures are the only sterile manures
to use. These manures provide useful organisms.

Chapter II
 Increase decomposition rate of the materials A rotating barrel composter may be made from a
by running them through a shredder or chop 55-gallon drum with a loading door cut and
them with a spade or machete on a piece of hinged. Aeration holes must be cut at the ends or
plywood. Brown leaves may be run over around the barrel. A variety of rotating barrel
with a rotary lawn mower to break them composters is available commercially. Avoid
down. barrel units made entirely from metal perforated
 Start building the pile with a 4- to 6-inch with 1" holes, as they leave materials dry or
base of brown material. If the pile is going to clumped together. Ideally, barrel units should
sit for a few weeks or more, use coarse mate- have flat sides, or "fins" inside to lift and drop
rial (small branches, corn stalks, straw) for materials as the barrel is turned.
this base layer to let air into the pile. Mois-
ten materials. Mulches ar e or ganic mater ials spr ead over
 Next, add a 4- to 6-inch layer of green mate- the surface of the soil to suppress weeds, keep
plant roots cool and moist, and prevent soil from
rials. If the greens are not very fresh, sprin-
kle on a small amount of blood meal or cot- eroding or compacting. Mulches are used
around plants in the garden, or as a soft "paving"
tonseed meal, poultry manure, or other high-
for paths and play areas. An ideal mulch materi-
nitrogen source. Fresh grass clippings should
al is one that costs nothing, is easy to keep in
be used in thin layers. Mix the green and
place, and reduces evaporation of soil moisture
brown layers together so bacteria can feed on
while permitting rapid penetration of water.
both simultaneously.
There are a great variety of organic and inorganic
These piles should be monitored and turned after
temperatures have peaked and begun to fall, in materials that can be used for mulching. In this
4 to 7 days; then turned a second time when the manual, only organic mulches will be discussed.
Some common organic materials used for mulch-
temperature peaks again, 4 to 7 days later. Com-
es include: wood chips, lawn clippings, com-
post processed this way will be ready in 3 weeks.
post, sawdust, leaves from deciduous trees and
Rotating barrel units do not need layering; mate-
shrubs, manure, and pine needles. It is also pos-
rial can be thrown in and mixed up. If rotating
sible to mulch with commercial by-products such
barrel composters are turned every 2 to 4 days,
as coffee chaff and buckwheat hulls, or straw.
compost will be ready to use in 2 to 3 weeks.
The focus here will be on using organic wastes
that are readily available in and around our
homes.
Figure II-2. Bins built from used pallets also

Figure II-1. Holding unit such as these are help to keep those pallets out of the waste
easy to set up. The wire enclosure can be stream, and are a preferred bin type for hard-
made by using a large loop of chicken wire, core recyclers. By simply building a swinging
snow fence, or Aquamesh. To empty the gate with the front pallet, it serves well as a
bin, it is simply dismantled. turning unit.

Chapter II
These materials are suitable for surface mulching corporating them into the soil where they will
around trees, shrubs, and other perennial plant- break down to fertilize established or future
ings. However, in annual flower and vegetable plantings, by placing them in worm bins that pro-
gardens, it is best to mulch with non-woody ma- duce high quality "castings" for use on plants
terials such as lawn clippings, compost, and oth- indoors or out, or layering them in hot piles
er green garden trimmings. Non-woody materi- along with yard wastes as described in the previ-
als break down quickly and can then be turned ous section. Food wastes incorporated into the
under without competing with plants for the ni- soil can take from one month to one year to de-
trogen that bacteria need to break down woody compose fully. It takes worms three to six
wastes. If woody wastes are used in an annual months to transform a bin of wastes into ver-
garden, they should be pulled aside before tilling micompost. Hot piles can compost a mixed
so that they do not use up nitrogen that plants load of food and yard wastes in three weeks.
need. If woody wastes are tilled in, they must be
balanced by adding a high-nitrogen source such Soil incorporation is the simplest method for
as blood meal. composting food waste. A hole is dug one foot
deep, and the food wastes are chopped and
The material most commonly used for mulching mixed into the soil, then covered with at least 8
commercial landscaping is ground bark ("beauty inches of additional soil. (Pet wastes can also be
bark”). A more natural looking alternative is the buried in the soil as long as it is done in orna-
chipped waste from tree pruning and removal mental gardens, not vegetable gardens.)
operations. This material can often be obtained Depending on soil temperature, the number of
for free by calling a tree service. If one has tree micro-organisms in the soil, and the carbon con-
work done at home, the tree service may be will-
ing to leave the chips. Any leaves left with the
branches will decompose in a short time, adding
to the beauty of the variegated mulch. Wood
chip makes an excellent path and play area mate-
rial, as it decomposes slowly and softens the sur-
face.
d. Composting Food
Non-fatty food wastes may be composted by in-
Figure II-4. Rotating barrel bin. Although

more challenging to build, the enclosed bin
can help where pests are a problem. Aera-
tion is provided by simply rotating the bar-
rel, which is easier than having to fetch a
shovel or pitchfork.
tent of the wastes, decomposition will occur in

one month to one year. Food wastes such as
meat, bones, or fatty foods such as cheese and
salad dressing are not recommended for soil in-
Figure II-3. 3-Bin turning unit. For the most de- corporation. These foods have the potential of
manding waste volumes, this type of unit allows attracting rodents, dogs, cats, or flies.
for multi-stage composting. Fresh material is
added to one bin, then turned and shoveled into Food wastes can be incorporated around the drip
the next bin. Finished compost is removed from line of trees or shrubs by using a post hole digger
the final bin. or shovel. The tree roots actively feed in this

Chapter II
zone, and will benefit most from nutrients added plywood. Brown leaves may be run over
there. Food wastes also may be buried in a fal- with a rotary lawn mower to break them
low area of an annual garden, or a trench may be down.
dug and filled with soil as food waste is added.  Start building the pile with a 4- to 6-inch
base of brown material. If the pile is going
In English gardens a form of soil incorporation to sit for a few weeks or more, use coarse
known as "pit and trench" composting is prac- material (small branches, corn stalks, straw)
ticed (illustrated in Figure II-5). This is a simple for this base layer to let air into the pile.
three-year rotation of soil incorporation of kitch- Moisten materials.
en wastes, growing crops, and path making. In  Next, add a 4- to 6-inch layer of green mate-
the first season a trench is dug, filled with food rials. If the greens are not very fresh, sprin-
wastes and covered. At the same time, another kle on a small amount of blood meal or cot-
row is used to grow crops and a third is used as a tonseed meal, poultry manure, or other high-
path. In the second year the fertile soil of the nitrogen source. Fresh grass clippings
former compost trench is used to grow crops, the should be used in thin layers. Mix the green
former crop row is used as a path, and the path is and brown layers together so bacteria can
dug as a new trench. After a third year of rota- feed on both simultaneously.
tion, the cycle starts over. This form of compost-  Continue alternating and mixing layers of
ing keeps the garden perpetually fertile with a
green and brown materials, adding water and
small organizational effort.
extra green materials as needed, until the
pile is 3 to 4 feet high (fill the bin).
Anaerobic composters, such as the Gedye bin,
can also be used to decompose both food and  Close bin or cover pile and wait.
yard waste. In anaerobic composting, bacteria  Monitor temperature in the interior of the
break down the organic material without the ad- pile regularly. It should peak between 120o
dition of oxygen. This type of composting re- to 160o F in 5 to 10 days.
tains more nitrogen while producing methane but  When the temperature begins to decrease,
does not reach temperatures high enough to kill turn the pile. Take materials from the outer
weed seeds or pathogens. edges and top off the pile and place them at
the base and middle of the new pile. Those
Anaerobic systems usually consist of a closed from the middle should be on the outside
bin or dark plastic bag which is filled with vege- edges and top of the new pile.
tative waste, moistened, closed, and placed in the  Continue monitoring the temperature in the
sun for 10 to 12 weeks. To avoid animal pests it pile.
is best to cover the bottom of the composting bin  About one week later, the temperature of the
with wire mesh. pile should peak. Turn the pile again. After
another week, the compost should be fin-
Hot compost piles ar e the only safe way to ished. Piles made this way without food
compost food and yard wastes together without wastes do not need to be turned; they will be
pest problems. They are also the best way to kill finished in 3 to 4 months.
soil diseases and weed seeds in compost, and to
produce compost in a short period. Not everyone Vermicomposting (wor m bin composition)
wants or needs to make hot compost piles. Here uses redworms in an enclosed container to con-
is a recipe for those who do: vert vegetable and fruit scraps into a nutrient-rich
soil amendment called worm castings.
Gather all the materials needed to make a pile
that is at least 3 cubic feet. Use both green and Materials needed
brown materials to approximate the 30:1 carbon
to nitrogen balance.  A container
 Bedding
 To increase decomposition rate of the mate-  Red worms
rials, run them through a shredder or chop  Kitchen scraps
them with a spade or machete on a piece of

Chapter II
Container: Kitchen scraps:

The size of the container depends on the amount
of waste to be composted. A worm bin can be Redworms are capable of eating most kitchen
scraps, but some waste is better left out of the bin
to avoid odor or pest problems. Do not compost
meats, fish, dairy products, oily foods, or cat
and dog waste.
Foods that can be added to the worm bin include:

 vegetable scraps
 fruit peels or pulp
 coffee and tea grounds and filters
 breads (without butter or mayonnaise)
Food may be cut up or ground into small pieces
Figure II-5. Pit and trench composting. to speed up the process. This provides more sur-
face area for the worms to feed on.
made by using almost any container that is an Worm bins are fun and an interesting way to
appropriate size, prevents light from entering, compost non-fatty kitchen wastes. In addition,
has air vents, and is covered. Surface area is they compost the newsprint, cardboard, or other
more important than depth for a worm system. wastes used as bedding. Worm bins are most
Generally, one square foot of surface is required efficient if sized and stocked according to the
for every pound of food waste to be composted amount of waste to be handled. Mary Appelhof's
per week. book “Worms Eat My Garbage” provides infor-
mation on how to determine what size a worm
Bedding: bin should be, and the amount of bedding and
worms required for an efficient system. Another
Suitable bedding materials include shredded source of information on worms and worm com-
newspaper or cardboard, dry leaves, straw, peat posting is the “Worm Digest.”
moss, and wood shavings.
3) Compost Uses
Redworms:
Compost is a much needed resource. It is not
only useful to the home gardener, but is essential
The most popular redworm used for vermicom- to the restoration of landscapes where topsoil has
posting is Eisenia fetida. In nature, redworms been removed or destroyed during construction
are surface dwellers that live in the top layer of or mining operations. Compost is increasingly
soil under the organic debris that is their food. being applied to agricultural and forest lands that
By creating suitable living conditions, one can have been depleted of their organic matter. The
take advantage of the redworm’s ability to recy- most common use of compost today is probably
cle organic matter. in topsoil mixes used in the landscape industry.
Worms eat half their weight in food scraps and Compost is typically applied:
about an equal amount of bedding each day. A 1. To mulch or “top dress” planted trees.
bin that starts with about a 1 pound of worms 2. To amend soil prior to planting.
will need to be fed a handful of food every other 3. To amend potting mixes.
day. As worms multiply the food supply should
be increased.

Chapter II
Mulching
Gardeners and landscapers use mulches and top

dressings over the surface of the soil to suppress
weeds, keep plant roots cool and moist, conserve
water, maintain a loose and porous surface, and
prevent soil from eroding or compacting. Com-
post also gives plantings an attractive, natural Figure II - 6.
appearance. Compost can be used to mulch Fun Facts About Worms
around flower and vegetable plants, shrubs, trees,
and ground covers.  There are more than 3,500 species of
earthworms worldwide, including red
To prepare any area for mulching, first clear worms.
away any visible grass or weeds that might grow  Each worm has five pairs of hearts and a
up through the mulch. Make sure to remove the simple brain.
roots of any weedy plants that spread vegetative-  The average worm is made up of 100 to
ly, such as quack grass, ivy, and buttercup. Dif- 200 ringed segments.
ferent types of plants benefit from varying appli-  A worm can grow a new head or tail if
cation rates and grades of mulch. Recommended some of its segments are nipped off.
uses of compost as mulch and top dressings are  Worms have no teeth or eyes but have
shown in Figure II-7. highly sensitive skin.
 Worms breath through their skin.
Soil Amendment  A worm can eat about half its own
weight in food scraps every day.
Compost can be used to enrich garden soils be-  An enlarged cummerbund-like band
fore planting annuals, ground covers, shrubs and near the worm’s head holds the repro-
trees. Many commercial topsoil mixes contain ductive organs.
composted yard debris or sewage sludge as a ma-  Each worm is both male and female
jor component. This may be mixed with sand, (hermaphroditic).
sandy soil removed from construction sites, peat  Worms exchange sperm to reproduce
moss, and/or ground bark. and each produces an egg (cocoon) from
which 2 to 4 baby worms emerge.
Soils may be amended by mixing compost top-  Eight breeding worms can become
soil mixes with existing soil. If a rich compost 1,500 worms in 6 months.
or topsoil mix is laid on top of the existing soil  Each healthy worm may produce an egg
without mixing, the zone where they meet can capsule every 7 to 10 days. These cap-
become a barrier to roots and water. In this con- sules incubate for 14 to 21 days.
dition, plants often develop shallow roots and  The baby worms will mature to breeding
eventually blow over or suffer from lack of water age in 2 to 3 months.
and nutrients. Recommended applications for  A healthy red worm can live from 7 to
different situations are shown in Figure II-8. 10 years and grows to about 3 inches.
Potting and Seedling Mixes Source: City of Eugene Solid Waste & Recycling Program and
OSU Lane County Extension Service
Sifted compost can be used to make a rich, loose
potting soil for patio planters, house plants, or
for starting seedlings in flats. Compost can be
used to enrich purchased potting mixes or to
make mixes at home. tainer growing mixes because it stores moisture
effectively and provides a variety of nutrients not
Plants growing in containers are entirely reliant typically supplied in commercial fertilizers or
on the water and nutrients that are provided in soil-free potting mixes. However, because of the
the potting mix. Compost is excellent for con-

Chapter II
limits of the container, it is essential to amend create compost. Inseparable from these dead res-
compost-based potting mixes with a “complete” idues are the living microorganisms that decom-
pose, or digest, them. The length of the process
fertilizer to provide an adequate supply of macro depends on several factors: density of the mate-
nutrients (N-P-K). Simple “recipes” for making rial, amount of surface area exposed, balance of
your compost mixes are shown in Figure II-9. carbon and nitrogen, and envir onmental con-
ditions such as moisture, air, and temperature.
4) Troubleshooting These factors, in various combinations, set the
stage for the cast of characters--bacteria, fungi,
The troubleshooting chart, Table II-4, is based millipedes, earthworms, and other living inhabit-
on information found in the book Home Com- ants of the compost pile--and determine the
posting Made Easy by C. Forrest McDowell and speed at which these characters perform.
Tricia Clark-McDowell, and The Incredible
Heap: A Guide to Compost Gardening by Stu The process of decomposition is a very complex
Campbell. but natural one. There are many organisms that
are responsible for the breakdown of organic
5) Why Composting Works- matter. Although most are not seen by the hu-
Technical Information man eye, they are there throughout the process.
Others that are large enough to see are usually
Chemical and biological factors affect the de- associated with the later breakdown stages.
composition of organic materials.
Not all bugs are bad. In fact, all bugs play a role
a. The Life Cycle of a Heap in nature. Many compost pile organisms eat oth-
The decomposition and recombining of various er organisms and turn them into compost. At
forms of plant and animal life (organic matter) least one-third of the volume in a compost pile is
made up of the dead, decomposed bodies of soil
Table II-3. Compostable Food Wastes
CAN BE Composted CAN NOT BE Composted

Apples Butter
Apple peels Bones
Cabbage Cheese
Carrots Chicken
Celery Fish scraps
Coffee grounds/filters Lard
Egg shells Mayonnaise
Grapefruit Meat scraps
Lettuce Milk
Onion peel Peanut butter
Orange peel Sour cream
Pears Vegetable oil
Pineapple Yogurt
Potatoes
Pumpkin shell
Squash
Tea leaves and bags
Tomatoes
Turnip leaves

Chapter II
organisms. Still, a compost pile shouldn’t allow ducing at an incredible rate. One gram of bacte-
in any old bugs. ria can become about 450 grams of bacteria in
only three hours.
First time composters may be surprised by the
size and complexity of the community of small There are many kinds of specialized bacteria op-
organisms residing in a compost pile. These or- erating in different temperature ranges.
ganisms, which include many insects, bugs, Psychrophilic bacter ia wor k best in temper a-
slugs, bacteria, and fungi, form what is called a tures of about 55 degrees F, but can stay on the
"food web" (Figure II-10). In the food web, each job even in near freezing conditions. This is why
organism has a job to do in turning organic waste a compost pile sinks in the winter; these bacteria
into dark, crumbly finished compost. are busy breaking down organic matter. As these
cooler bacteria go to work, their activity actually
The food web decomposition process includes: begins to heat up the pile.
 Level One - primary consumers. Organisms The increased temperature creates the ideal con-
that shred organic matter and the microscopic ditions for the next type of bacteria to arrive.
organisms that eat the shredded organic resi-
dues. Mesophilic bacter ia wor k best in temper a-
 Level Two - secondary consumers. Organ- tures of about 70 degrees F to 90 degrees F, but
isms that eat level one organisms. can stay on the job in even hotter conditions. The
 Level Three - tertiary consumers. Organisms activity of mesophilic bacteria can heat the pile
that eat level two organisms. up to temperatures greater than 110 degrees F.
All members of the compost food web are very Thermophilic bacter ia become active when
beneficial to a compost pile and should be left the temperature reaches between 104 degrees F
alone to do their work. They need each other to to 200 degrees F. If a compost pile steams in the
survive. If any of the member organisms are re- morning or on a frosty day, it's because these
moved by using insecticides, their natural cycle bacteria are busy at work decomposing the or-
is disrupted and the compost is contaminated ganic waste. These bacteria generally last for up
with insecticide residues. to five days and then the pile begins to cool.
Level One - Primary Consumers As the psychrophiles eat away at organic matter,
they give off a small amount of heat. If condi-
This level is made up of herbivores: bacteria, tions are right for rapid growth, this heat will be
fungi, actinomycetes, nematodes, mites, snails, sufficient to set the stage for the mesophiles. In
slugs, earthworms, millipedes, sowbugs, and many compost piles, these efficient mid-range
worms. Note that some types of mites are carni- bacteria do most of the work. However, given
vores. optimal conditions, they may produce enough
heat to kick in the real hot shots–the thermo-
The most productive members of a compost philes.
pile's food web are the bacteria, which are chem-
ical decomposers. As a group, they can eat near- Although at first they are the most active decom-
ly anything. Some are so adaptable that they can posers, the bacteria are not alone in all of this
use more than a hundred different organic com- work. Other microbes, fungi, and a host of in-
pounds as their source of carbon due to their vertebrate decomposers also take part. Some are
ability to produce a variety of enzymes. Usually, active in the heating cycle, but most other organ-
they can produce the appropriate enzyme to di- isms prefer the cooler temperatures of later de-
gest whatever material they find themselves on. composition.
Every piece of organic matter placed in the pile After temperatures go down, the decomposing
is covered with varying amounts of bacteria. As pile becomes a real zoo. Larger organisms,
they digest the organic material and break it many of them feeding on the piles' earlier inhab-
down into its basic elements, they are also repro- itants, add diversity to the action.

Chapter II
ble. They can roll themselves into

Actinomycetes pr oduce gr ayish cobwebby a ball to protect themselves, which
growths (molds) throughout the compost that give gives them their common nick-
the pile a pleasing, earthy smell, similar to a rot- name: "roly polys." Pill Bug
ting log. They are frequently seen in drier parts of
the pile and survive a wide range of temperatures. Mites ar e the second most common inver te-
brate found in compost. They are transparent-
Fungi send their thin mycelial fiber s out far bodied creatures with eight leg-like jointed ap-
from their spore-forming reproductive bodies. pendages. Some can be seen with the naked eye
Molds are actually a form of fungi. The presence and others are microscopic. Some scavenge in
of mold and fungi usually implies decay. The leaves, rotten wood, fungi, and other organic
most common of these pop up on a cool pile. debris. Others are predators and feed on nema-
Fungal decomposition is less efficient than bacte- todes, eggs, insect larvae, and other mites and
rial decay as cold temperatures greatly restrict its springtails. Considered pests in fermenting in-
growth. dustries such as wineries and cheese factories,
they are not pests in the compost pile.
Snails, slugs, millipedes, sow bugs, pill bugs,
mites, and earthworms are the larger invertebrates Worms play an impor tant par t in br eaking
that shred the plant materials, creating more sur- down organic materials and forming finished
face area for action by the microscopic fungi, bac- compost. As redworms process organic materi-
teria, and actinomycetes, which are in turn eaten als, they coat their wastes with a mucus film that
by organisms such as mites and springtails. These binds small particles together into stable aggre-
creatures all excrete "castings" that are very dark gates and prevents nutrients from leaching out
and fine, and great for your plants. with rainwater. These stable aggregates give the
soil a loose and well draining structure. Earth-
Snails ar e ter r estr ial mollusks, typically having worms pull organic materials into the mineral
a spirally coiled shell, broad retractile foot, and soil along many burrows. As a result of the
distinct head. They generally feed on living plant worm's well-deserved reputation for being ex-
material but will attack fresh garbage and plant cellent decomposers, many people think that it's
debris. a great idea to add extra worms to their compost
pile. This is unnecessary. Let the worms find
Slugs ar e basically snails without the shell. their own way into the pile, when the conditions
They too feed on living plant material, fresh gar- are right. They prefer the pile when it is cooler,
bage, and plant debris, and will also show up in so adding worms could lead to their quick de-
the compost heap. mise in a hot, steamy pile.
Millipedes ar e nonpoisonous ar thr opods with Level Two - Secondary Consumers

cylindrical bodies of 20 to 100 segments, with two
pairs of legs per segment. They feed mainly on This level includes both herbivores and carni-
decaying plant tissue but will also eat insect car- vores: nematodes, protozoa, rotifers, soil flat-
casses and excrement. worms, springtails, some types of mites, and
feather-winged beetles.
Sow Bugs ar e fat bodied cr usta-
ceans with delicate plate-like gills Nematodes, or r oundwor ms, ar e tiny, cylin-
along the lower surface of their ab- drical, and often transparent microscopic worms
domens which must be kept moist. Sow Bug who are the most abundant invertebrates in the
They move slowly, and feed on rot- soil. Typically less than one millimeter in
ting woody materials and highly durable leaf tis- length, a handful of decaying compost can con-
sues, such as the woody veins. The sow bugs that tain several million nematodes. Under a magni-
roll up like armadillos are known as pill bugs. fying lens, nematodes resemble fine human hair.
They can be classified into three categories: 1)
Pill bugs look similar to sow bugs and also those that eat decaying vegetation, 2) those that
graze on decaying vegetation, but are more flexi- are predators on other nematodes, bacteria, al-

Chapter II
gae, protozoa, etc., and 3) those that can be seri- Figure II - 7.

ous pests in gardens where they suck the juices Using compost as Mulch
of plant roots, especially root vegetables. Though
there are pest forms of nematodes, most of those On Flower and Vegetable Beds:
found in soil and compost are beneficial.  Screen or pick through compost to remove
Protozoa ar e the simplest for m of animal or - large, woody material. They are less attrac-
ganism. Even though they are single-celled and tive, and will compete for nitrogen if mixed
microscopic in size, they are larger and have into the soil.
more complex activities than most bacteria. Pro-  Apply ½ to 1 inch of compost over the entire
tozoa obtain their food from organic matter in bed, or place in rings around each plant ex-
the same way bacteria do, but because they are tending as far as the outermost leaves. Al-
present in far fewer numbers than bacteria, they ways keep mulches a few inches away from
play a much smaller part in the composting pro- the base of the plant to prevent damage by
cess. pests and disease.
Rotifers ar e minute wor ms, which usually On Lawns:

have one or two groups of vibrating cilia on the  Use screened commercial compost, or sift
head. Their bodies are round and divisible into homemade compost through a ½ inch or finer
three parts: a head, trunk, and tail. Many forms mesh. Mix with an equal amount of sand or
are aquatic and are generally found in films of sandy soil.
water. The rotifers in compost are found in wa-  Spread compost/sand mix in ¼ to ½ inch lay-
ter that adheres to plant substances where they ers after thatching or coring and before re-
feed on microorganisms. seeding.
Flatworms ar e, for the most par t, gener al On Trees and Shrubs:

scavengers that graze on a wide variety of things,  Remove sod from around trees and shrubs as
including animal matter. As their name implies, far as branches spread. If this is impractical,
flatworms are flat and usually quite small in their remove sod in a circle a minimum of 4 feet in
free-living form. Most flatworms are carnivo- diameter around plants.
rous and live in films of water within the com-  Use coarse compost or material left after sift-
post structure. ing. Remove only the largest branches and
rocks.
Springtails, along with nema-
todes and mites, are extremely nu- For Erosion Control:
merous in compost. They are very  Spread coarse compost, or materials left after
small wingless insects and can be sifting, in 2- to 4-inch deep layers over entire
distinguished by their ability to Springtail planting area or in rings extending to the drip
jump when disturbed. They run in and around the line.
particles in the compost and have a small spring-  Mulch exposed slopes or erosion prone areas
like structure under the belly that catapults them with 2 to 4 inches of coarse compost.
into the air when the spring catch is triggered.
They feed mainly on fungi, although they also
eat nematodes and small bits of organic debris. Most species feed on fungi.
They are a major population controlling factor on
fungi.
Level Three - Tertiary Consumers
Feather-winged beetles ar e the
smallest of all beetles and possibly This level is made up of carnivores, or physical
of all insects. These beetles are decomposers, and includes centipedes, predatory
distinguished by their feather-like mites, rove beetles, ants, spiders, pseudoscorpi-
wings. Some are blind and most Feather-winged ons, and earwigs. Most of these creatures func-
live under bark in forests and beetle tion best at medium or mesophilic temperatures,
woodland. Not surprisingly they go unnoticed. so they will not be in the pile at all times.

Chapter II
invisible to the naked eye, while some tropical

Wolf Spiders ar e tr uly wolves of the soil and species are up to half an inch in length. Mites
litter micro-communities. They build no webs, reproduce very rapidly, moving through larval,
merely run freely hunting their prey, which in- nymph, adult, and dormant stages. They attack
clude all sizes of arthropods, from mites to centi- plant matter, but some are also second-level con-
pedes. sumers, ingesting nematodes, fly larvae, other
mites, and springtails.
Centipedes ar e found fr equently in soil micr o-
communities. Centipedes are flattened, segment- Rove Beetles ar e the most common beetles in
ed worms with 15 or more pairs of legs–one pair compost. While feather-winged beetles feed on
per segment. They hatch from eggs laid during fungal spores, the larger rove beetles prey on
the warm months and gradually grow to their other insects. Beetles are easily visible insects
adult size. They feed only on living animals, es- with two pairs of wings, the more forward-
pecially insects and spiders. placed of these serving as a cover or shield for
the folded and thinner back-set ones that are used
Mites ar e r elated to ticks, spider s, and hor se- for flying. These beetles prey on snails, insects,
shoe crabs because they have six leg-like jointed and other small animals. The black rove beetle
appendages. Some mites are small enough to be is an acknowledged predator of snails and slugs.
Some people import them to their gardens when
Figure II-8. slugs become a garden problem.
Using Compost as Soil Amendment
Ants feed on a var iety of mater ial, including
In Flower and Vegetable Beds and Ground Co- aphid, honeydew, fungi, seeds, sweets, scraps,
vers: other insects, and other ants. Compost provides
 Dig or till base soil to a minimum depth of 8- some of these foods, and also provides shelter for
10 inches. nests and hills. Ants will remain only while the
 Mix 3 to 4 inches of compost through the en-
tire depth. For poor soils, mix an additional Figure II-9.
3 inches of compost into the top 3 inches of Using Compost in Potting Mixes
amended soil. In established gardens, mix
2 to 4 inches of compost into the top 6 to For Starting and Growing Seedlings in Flats or
10 inches of soil each year before planting. Small Containers:
 Sift compost through a mesh ½ inch or finer.
On Lawns:  Mix 2 parts sifted compost, 1 part coarse sand
 Till base soil to depth of 6 inches. and 1 part Sphagnum peat moss. Add ½ cup
 Mix 4 inches of fine textured compost into the of lime for each bushel (8 gallons) of total
loosened base soil. mix. Use liquid fertilizers when true leaves
emerge.
Planting Trees and Shrubs:
 Dig or till base soil to a minimum depth of For Growing Transplants and Plants in Larger
8 to 10 inches throughout planting area, or an Containers:
area 2 to 5 times the width of the root ball of  Sift compost through 1 inch mesh or remove
individual specimens. larger particles by hand. Mix 2 parts com-
 Mix 3 to 4 inches of compost through the en- post, 1 part ground bark, perlite, or pumice,
tire depth. For poor soils, mix an additional 1 part coarse sand, and 1 part loamy soil or
3 inches of compost into the amended topsoil. peat moss. Add ½ cup of lime and ½ cup of
 Do not use compost at the bottom of individu- 10-10-10 fertilizer for each bushel (8 gallons)
al planting holes or to fill the holes. Mulch of mix. (An organic fertilizer alternative can
the surface with wood chips or coarse com- be made from ½ cup blood meal or cotton-
post. seed meal, 1 cup of rock phosphate, and
½ cup of kelp meal.)

Chapter II
pile is relatively cool. Ants prey on first-level mites, larvae, and small earthworms.
consumers, and help benefit the composting pro-
cess by bringing fungi and other organisms into Earwigs ar e lar ge pr edator s, easily
their nests. The work of ants can make compost seen with the naked eye. They move
richer in phosphorus and potassium by moving about quickly. Some are predators, oth-
minerals from one place to another. ers feed chiefly on decayed vegetation. Earwig
Source: California Integrated Waste Management Board

Pseudoscorpions ar e pr edator s that seize vic- (2005) “Critters in Your Pile;” http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/
tims with their visible front claws, organics/homecompost/Microbes/Default.htm
then inject poison from glands lo-
cated at the tips of the claws. Pseu- b. Unwanted Guests: The Pests of the Pile
doscorpians are so small, their prey
include tiny nematode worms, Given a comfortable or nourishing environment,
Pseudoscorpion
pest species will show up to "get in on the ac-
Table II - 4. Troubleshooting Compost Piles

PROBLEM SYMPTOM/CAUSE SOLUTION
Compost pile does not heat up Too Wet: compost materials are Turn the pile, adding dry absorbent mate-
soggy; not enough air. rial (carbon or “brown”) like straw or
corn stalks
Too Dry: not enough moisture. Moisten pile without saturating it.
The pile is damp and warm right in Turn pile, adding nitrogen-rich materials
the middle, but nowhere else. Pile is such as manure, grass clippings, fresh
not decomposing. leaves, or vegetable or fruit wastes.
Ammonia smell Too much nitrogen (green matter such If nitrogen problem: turn pile and add
as grass clippings) in the pile or the more carbon (brown) material.
pile is too alkaline (possibly too much
limestone added). If alkaline related: turn pile and add acid
material like sawdust, oak leaves, or veg-
etable scraps.
“Rotten Egg” smell Pile is too wet and there isn’t enough Turn pile to aerate it and add dry carbon
oxygen. (brown) materials to absorb excessive
moisture
The center is dry and contains tough, Not enough water in pile. Turn and moisten; add fresh green wastes;
woody wastes. Too much woody material. chop or shred.
Pests (rats, raccoons, fruit flies, etc.) Rodents and raccoons are attracted to Remove meat/fatty foods from pile. Turn
meat and fatty food scraps like cheese pile to increase temperature. Balance
and other dairy products. carbon to nitrogen ratio. Use rodent-
proof bin; keep lid on, put ¼-inch wire
mesh on bottom or sides and insure air
venting holes are less than ½-inch diame-
ter.
Flies, gnats, etc. are attracted to un- Don’t leave exposed! Mix or cover with
covered wastes, especially fruits, mel- carbon (brown) materials, finished com-
ons, and vegetables. post, or some soil.
The pile is damp and sweet-smelling, Lack of nitrogen in pile. Mix in fresh grass clippings or nitrogen
but will not heat up. Compost is done! fertilizer.

Chapter II
Questions and Answers About Composting

Do I need a bin to make compost?
No, organic matter will eventually decompose without human help. But a container of some sort will keep your pile neat,
protect it from the weather and pests, and make the job of tending it much easier.
Where is the best place to put a compost pile?
Pick a sheltered spot, out of the full summer sun if possible. Avoid trees and shrubs that may push their roots up into the
pile. Give some thought to both convenience and appearance when choosing a location.
What is the "laziest" way to compost yard wastes? Food wastes?
Woody or "brown" yard wastes, like tree trimmings and autumn leaves, can be shredded and used as mulch around plants
and on paths. Eventually they'll return to the soil. Food wastes, as well as green yard wastes like grass clippings, can be
dug into the ground. Use larger-scale "soil incorporation" only where you won't be planting for a few months.
Can I compost in the winter?
Even research teams on the South Pole have composted their garbage successfully! You can retain heat a little longer in the
fall by covering the pile and insulating the container, perhaps with bags of leaves. Increasing the amount of green material
or using a compost activator may help keep the temperature up. Keep adding to the compost through the winter: it may not
seem to be doing much, but the frozen materials will quickly finish breaking down when spring comes.
Should I add ground limestone, soil, or fertilizer?
A perfectly good compost pile can be built out of nothing fancier than leaves and grass clippings. Lime will balance out the
pH of a pile of highly acidic materials, like pine needles. However, most compost is naturally close to a neutral pH by the
time it is ready for use. A scattering of soil should be added if your compost isn't in contact with the ground, because it is
the soil organisms that do the decomposing work. With a variety of ingredients, fertilizer is seldom necessary.
What if the compost pile doesn't heat up?
The odds are that an inactive compost pile just doesn't have enough "greens" in it to start its temperature rising. The answer
is to rebuild the pile with more high-nitrogen materials or a "starter" like manure "tea." That will probably solve the prob-
lem, but also check that the pile is as moist as a wrung-out sponge.
How do I compost with too many high-nitrogen materials?
You can dig extra "greens" directly into the soil, store some in a sealed container, buy straw or sawdust to mix with it, or
dry some in the sun to decrease the nitrogen content.
How do I compost with too many high-carbon materials?
This is often a problem in autumn when there's no shortage of dead leaves. If you have space, bag some and store them for
covering up the food scraps you'll add through the winter, or for spring and summer when "browns" are harder to find.
Bags of leaves also make insulating windbreaks for compost bins. Another option is to moisten the leaves and store them
in sealed bags to begin decomposing. In spring, add them to the compost. Mulching is another alternative, but shred the
leaves finely. And again, a composting neighbor might be able to use your surplus.
When is compost "finished" and safe to use?
When an active compost pile fails to heat up once more, and very little of the original material can be recognized, the com-
post is ready to use. It will be the rich brown color of good soil and smell something like the humus of a forest floor.
Do I need to fertilize if I use compost?
The nutritional value of compost depends on the materials that were used to make it–one very good reason for putting as
much variety into the pile as possible. If you're trying to enrich a severely depleted garden plot, or growing plants like peo-
nies that demand a lot of food, you might want to add some commercially produced organic fertilizer. Soil testing is a good
idea in this case. For most gardens and flower beds, however, compost provides a concentrated source of balanced nutri-
ents, as well as the organic matter the soil needs.
Source: New Brunswick Department of the Environment, "Black Magic, The Composting Handbook"

Chapter II
tion." Rats are probably the least-wanted guests guidelines; they are not accurate for every mate-
of all. With a hospitable environment and plenty rial of that type. For instance brown grass clip-
of food, their numbers increase quickly and they pings from a poorly kept lawn will have far less
may become transmitters of disease. So, it is im- nitrogen content than lush green clippings from
portant to compost food wastes by burying them an abundantly fertilized lawn. Also, the leaves
in the garden, in rodent-proof worm bins, or in from different types of trees vary in the C:N bal-
hot compost piles. Always keep high-protein ance. It helps to think of materials high in nitro-
and fatty food wastes out of the compost pile gen as "Greens," and woody, carbon-rich materi-
(meat and fish scraps, bones, cheeses, butter, and al as “Browns.”
other dairy products).
Table II-5. Average Carbon:Nitrogen
Many flies, including house flies, can spend their Ratios for Organic Materials
larval phase as maggots in decomposing food
wastes. Though they play an important part in High Nitrogen Materials: C:N
the breaking down of all types of organic debris,
they are unwanted guests around human house- Grass Clippings 19:1
holds. There are several ways to control their
numbers: frequently turn compost piles that con- Sewage Sludge (digested) 16:1
tain food (larvae die at high temperatures); cover Food Wastes 15:1
piles with a dry material that has a high carbon
content, such as straw or old grass clippings; or Cow Manure 20:1
avoiding composting food wastes in yard waste Horse Manure 25:1
piles.
High Carbon Materials: C:N
c. Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratios:
"Greens" and "Browns" Leaves and Foliage 40-80:1
All living organisms are made up of large Bark 100-130:1
amounts of the element carbon (C) combined Paper 170:1
with smaller amounts of nitrogen (N). The bal-
ance of these elements in a material is called the Wood and Sawdust 300-700:1
carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N). This r atio is
an important factor in determining how easily
bacteria can decompose an organic waste. The The best way to become familiar with this bal-
micro-organisms in compost use carbon for ener- ancing is to be specific about it at first, then relax
gy and nitrogen for protein synthesis. The pro- into an intuitive assessment of what a pile needs.
portion of these two elements used by the bacte- Some people like to think in terms of half brown
ria averages about 30 parts carbon to 1 part nitro- and half green material when building a compost
gen. Given a steady diet at this 30:1 ratio, they pile out of kitchen and yard wastes. While this
can work on organic material very quickly. may not give the optimum C:N balance, it is a
useful rule of thumb for those new to composting
Most materials available for composting do not and not familiar with the materials.
have this ratio, so to speed-up composting, our
job is to balance the numbers. For instance, a It can be thought of like a chef varying the in-
mixture containing equal parts of brown tree gredients for a recipe. Be curious, write down
leaves (40:1 ratio) and grass clippings (20:1 ra- the type and quantity of materials used, and take
tio) would have the ideal 30:1 ratio. This will note of the temperature the pile reaches and the
work best on a weight, not volume, basis. Mix- quality of the finished compost. After a while,
ing materials of different sizes and textures also the process becomes no more technical than
helps to provide a well-drained and well-aerated making a cake.
compost pile.
Actually, building a compost pile is often com-
The C:N ratios listed in Table II-5 are only pared to making a layer cake. Materials can be

Chapter II
added in 2- to 6-inch layers. Water and amend- A melting block of ice is a great analogy for or-
ments can be added between layers, like frosting. ganic materials in compost. When the block is
Alternating layers of "greens" and "browns" large it melts quite slowly, but when it is broken
helps to proportion carbon and nitrogen through- into smaller pieces the surface area increases,
out the pile. After two layers are placed, they and the melting increases. Similarly, when or-
should be mixed together. This ensures speedy ganic materials are chopped or shredded into
multiplication of bacteria. smaller pieces, the composting process speeds
up. With more surface area exposed, decompos-
A pile that is too high in carbon will stay cool er bacteria have more food easily available so
and sit a long time without breaking down. A they can reproduce and grow more quickly.
pile too high in nitrogen will give off the smell
of ammonia gas, and is also likely to get slimy
and have a foul odor. The decomposition pro- It is not essential to break organic materials into
cess is working on everything organic, and with small pieces to compost them, it just speeds the
time to wait and space to keep these materials, process. Sometimes, such as when using mulch-
eventually the reward will be compost. es, slow decomposition is advantageous. It
can certainly be less work!
d. Surface Area
Mulches are organic materials placed on the soil
Organisms not drawn to scale.
Food Web adapted with permission from

Dr. Daniel Dindal.
Figure II-10. Food web at the compost pile. (Source: The Ecology of Compost, Daniel Dindal,

Chapter II
surface to control weeds, lessen evaporation, and

stop soil erosion. Wood chips and sawdust are If the pile is too wet, it should be turned (pulled
commonly used as mulches. As they weather apart and restacked). This will allow air back
and slowly break down, they save water, labor, into the pile and loosen up the materials for bet-
soil, and money. ter draining. A pitchfork is the best tool for turn-
If coarse materials are run through a shredder ing compost piles. Shovels are not very useful
until only small bits remain, much more surface for picking up loose, mixed yard waste.
area is exposed for micro-organisms to work on.
This allows decomposer organisms to digest If the pile is too dry, it can be soaked from above
more material and multiply faster, generating with a trickling hose. However, a more effective
more heat. Any coarse, woody materials added practice is to turn the pile and re-wet the materi-
to compost piles should be chopped, shredded, als in the process. Once dry, certain materials
split, or bruised to speed the rotting process. such as dead leaves, sawdust, hay, straw, and
some dried weeds and vegetables will shed water
Many types of shredders and chippers are availa- or absorb it only on their surface. These dry ma-
ble, from large models used by tree services to terials must be gradually wetted until they glisten
small hand-cranked types. Some homeowners with moisture. Then they should be mixed until
are finding it appropriate to purchase a small the water has been absorbed into their fibers.
electric model jointly with their neighbors. A
rotary lawn mower with its bag removed can be f. Volume
used to shred leaves on a hard surface, such as a
driveway. This is managed best by blowing the A pile should be large enough to hold heat and
yard debris against a wall. small enough to admit air to the center. As a rule
of thumb, the minimum dimensions of a pile
If a simpler technology is desired, coarse yard should be 3ft by 3ft to hold heat. The maximum
wastes can be chopped with a machete on a piece dimensions that will allow air to the center of the
of plywood. Even some pounding with the back pile are 5ft by 5ft by any length.
of a hatchet will create entry ways for decompos-
er organisms. There are ways around this rule of thumb. By
insulating the sides of the pile, higher tempera-
e. Moisture and Aeration tures can be maintained in a much smaller vol-
ume. Although labor-intensive, it works. By
All life on earth needs a certain amount of water turning a pile or using "ventilation stacks" in the
and air to sustain itself. The compost pile is no center of the pile, dimensions larger
different. The amounts of air and water in a than 5 feet wide are possible. However, a pile
compost pile form a delicate balance that must this large is unnecessary in most backyard situa-
be maintained for rapid decomposition to take tions.
place. At less than 40 percent moisture, the bac-
teria are slowed by the lack of water. At greater g. Time and Temperature
than 60 percent moisture, there is not enough air The hotter the pile, the faster the composting
for aerobic decomposition and anaerobic bacteria process. Temperature is dependent on many fac-
can take over the pile. tors: carbon to nitrogen ratios, surface area,
moisture content, and aeration. Also, remember
Viewed as a micro-organism farm, the moisture that only fresh materials will heat up. With prop-
needs of the pile may need to be tended to just as er consideration of these temperatures, piles can
the farmer tends to the irrigation of crops. Fortu- be built and the composting process is quicker.
nately, there is a simple rule of thumb: compost
should be about as moist as a wrung-out sponge. If time is less important, a cooler, slower pile can
It should be obviously moist to the touch, but be built with less attention given to the details of
yield no liquid when squeezed. This level of materials used and the environment provided for
moisture provides a thin film of water on materi- them. This low-maintenance method of com-
als for the decomposer organisms while still al- posting will still create an excellent compost.
lowing air into their surroundings.

Chapter II
h. Compost Benefits normally wash right through. Added to a clay or

silt soil, compost breaks up the small tightly
Most of the wastes that made up the pile are no bound particles and forms larger aggregations,
longer recognizable in the finished compost, with which allow water to drain and air to penetrate.
the exception of some persistent, woody parts.
What remains is dark, loose, crumbly material Nutrient Content
that resembles rich soil. The volume of the fin-
ished compost has been reduced by about Dark, loose compost looks like it should be rich
30 to 50 percent because of biochemical break- in nutrients. Indeed, compost contains a variety
down and water respiration. The compost is now of the basic nutrients that plants require for
ready to be used for growing new plants and be- healthy growth. Of special importance are the
ginning the cycle over again. micro-nutrients present in compost, such as iron,
manganese, copper, and zinc. They are only
Compost will improve the quality of almost any needed in small doses, like vitamins in our diet,
soil. The main benefit is to improve the but without them plants have difficulty extract-
“structure” of the soil. The structure of a soil ing nutrients from other foods. Micro-nutrients
determines its ability to drain well, store ade- are often absent from commercial fertilizers, so
quate moisture, and meet the many needs of compost is an essential dietary supplement in any
healthy plants. Although compost provides im- soil.
portant nutrients, it is not a substitute for fertiliz-
ers. More important than the nutrients supplied Compost also contains small amounts of the
by compost, is its ability to make existing nutri- macro-nutrients that plants need in larger doses.
ents more easily available to plants. Macro-nutrients include nitrogen, phosphorous,
potassium, calcium, and magnesium. These nu-
Soil Structure trients are usually applied in measured amounts
through commercial fertilizers and lime. The
The value of compost as a soil amendment is three numbers listed on fertilizer bags (e.g., 10-
suggested by its appearance. Even a casual ob- 10-10) refer to the percentage of the three prima-
servation of soil amended with compost shows ry macro-nutrients available in the fertilizer--
that it is made up of many round, irregular nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium (N-P-K).
“aggregates.” Aggregates are groups of particles
loosely bound together by the secretions of Although compost generally contains small
worms and compost bacteria. If these aggregates amounts of these macro-nutrients, they are typi-
are rubbed between a finger and thumb, they cally present in forms that are not readily availa-
break down into smaller aggregates. In between ble to plants. When applied in 4- to 6-inch lay-
and within the aggregates themselves are many ers, compost may provide significant amounts of
small air channels like the empty spaces left in a these nutrients. However, due to the variability
jar of marbles. and slow release of major nutrients, compost is
considered a supplement to fertilization with
A well-structured soil with lots of small aggre- more reliable nutrient sources.
gates stays loose and easy to cultivate. The
channels that aggregates create through the soil Nutrient Storage And Availability
allow plant roots and moisture to penetrate easi-
ly. The smaller pores within the aggregates Understanding how compost is able to store nu-
loosely hold moisture until a plant needs it. The trients and make them available when needed by
larger pore spaces between the aggregates allow plants requires a closer look. When viewing
excess water to drain out and air to circulate and compost through a microscope that enlarges
warm the soil. things 1,000 times, individual compost particles
resemble aggregates that are not observed with
By encouraging the formation of aggregates, the unaided eye. Like the aggregates, individual
compost improves the structure of every type of particles of compost contain many porous chan-
soil: silt, sand, or clay. In loose sandy soils, nels. Just as the channels in the aggregates pro-
compost helps to bind unconsolidated particles vide space to store water, these spaces in com-
together to retain water and nutrients that would post particles provide spaces to store nutrients.

Chapter II
The sides of the channels provide vast surfaces

inside the particles where individual ions of min-
erals and fertilizers can cling. These ions are
given up to plant roots as the plants require them.
Thus, compost is able to store nutrients that
might otherwise wash through a sandy soil or be
locked up in spaces of a clay soil.
The ions clinging to the surfaces of our compost

particles tend to be those that give soil a
“neutral” pH. A measure of soil acidity or alka-
linity is its pH. The acidity or alkalinity of a soil
affects the availability of nutrients to plants.
Most important plant nutrients are relatively eas-
ily available to plants at a pH range of 5.5 to 7.5.
At pH levels above this range (alkaline) or below
this range (acid), essential nutrients become
chemically bound in the soil and are unavailable
to plants. Yard debris compost typically has a
pH range of 5.5 to 7.5. When mixed into soil,
this compost will help keep the pH at optimum
levels for nutrient availability.
Beneficial Soil Life

Taking a step back from the microscopic view,
another beneficial characteristic of compost is
evident. The presence of red worms, centipedes,
sow bugs, and others show that compost is a
healthy living material.
The presence of decomposer organisms means

that there is still some organic material being
slowly broken down and releasing nutrients.
They are also indicators of a balanced soil ecolo-
gy, which includes organisms that keep diseases
and pests in check. Many experiments have
shown that the rich soil life in compost helps to
control diseases and pests that might otherwise
overrun a more sterile soil lacking natural checks
against their spread.

Chapter II
Figure II-11. Carbon:Nitrogen ratio ef-

fects on composting.
Figure II-12. Particle size effects on compost-

ing.

Chapter II
Figure II-13. Turning frequency effects on

composting.
Figure II-14. Pile volume effects on composting.

Chapter II
Chapter II
Composting and Vermicomposting
Redirecting Food Waste

PREFLECTION – Acknowledge food waste
What types of food waste are generated in your kitchen (from prep, spoiled in the frig, uneaten)?
In your household, what volume of food waste is generated in a week?
How is food waste handled in your work or volunteer setting?
ACTION – Explore composting and vermicomposting options.

Talk with friends, family, or co-workers until you find someone who can share first hand compost-
ing experience with you.
Analyze your own living situation (single-family dwelling, apartment, town home) and determine if
a composter/worm bin has a place.
Visit a garden or home improvement store and investigate composter/worm bin styles.
Call your waste management company about options other than composting at home.
REFLECTION – Ask yourself these questions:

Who are the beneficiaries of composting?
Am I more drawn to traditional composting or vermicomposting?
What would be different in my life if I composted?
How would others in my household be impacted if we started composting?
If I don’t want to compost, what changes do I need to make in my life?
RE-ACTION – Make simple changes to reduce waste.

Set an achievable goal (e.g. take leftovers to work for lunch one more day a week) for reduction of
food waste at home.
Suggest options in your work or volunteer setting about reduction and/or handling of food waste.
INVOLVE YOUR CHILDREN

If you have a kitchen scale, scrape all food waste together at the end of a meal and weigh it.
If you don’t have a scale, put it in a flat bottomed bowl and use a ruler to measure how high
it comes up the side.
Don’t forget to measure the fuzzy green stuff you forgot to eat for 2 weeks!
Keep a running tally for a week and multiply it out for a year.

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Chapter II

Composting & Vermicomposting

Master Recycler Program 2019 Page 17

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root development. These strong rooted plants

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and sorting the materials. Removing contami-

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1) Basic Compost Farming Managing Animal Wastes

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Table II-1. Common Compostable

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Figure II-2. Bins built from used pallets also

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Figure II-4. Rotating barrel bin. Although

tent of the wastes, decomposition will occur in

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Container: Kitchen scraps:

Foods that can be added to the worm bin include:

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Gardeners and landscapers use mulches and top

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Table II-3. Compostable Food Wastes

CAN BE Composted CAN NOT BE Composted

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ble. They can roll themselves into

Millipedes ar e nonpoisonous ar thr opods with Level Two - Secondary Consumers

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gae, protozoa, etc., and 3) those that can be seri- Figure II - 7.

Rotifers ar e minute wor ms, which usually On Lawns:

Flatworms ar e, for the most par t, gener al On Trees and Shrubs:

Master Recycler Program 2019 Page 33

invisible to the naked eye, while some tropical

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Source: California Integrated Waste Management Board

Table II - 4. Troubleshooting Compost Piles

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Questions and Answers About Composting

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Master Recycler Program 2019 Page 37

Organisms not drawn to scale.

Food Web adapted with permission from

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surface to control weeds, lessen evaporation, and

Master Recycler Program 2019 Page 39

h. Compost Benefits normally wash right through. Added to a clay or

Page 40 Master Recycler Program 2019

The sides of the channels provide vast surfaces

The ions clinging to the surfaces of our compost

Beneficial Soil Life

The presence of decomposer organisms means

Master Recycler Program 2019 Page 41

Figure II-11. Carbon:Nitrogen ratio ef-

Figure II-12. Particle size effects on compost-

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