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Module M1.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions: Flexible Learning Approach To Physics

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
68 views82 pages

Module M1.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions: Flexible Learning Approach To Physics

Soalbsoal

Uploaded by

vbry4nck3p
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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F L E X I B L E L E A R N I N G A P P R O A C H T O P H Y S I C S

Module M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


1 Opening items 3 Logarithmic functions
1.1 Module introduction 3.1 Logarithms to base 10: the inverse of 10x
1.2 Fast track questions 3.2 Logarithms to base e and other bases
1.3 Ready to study? 3.3 Properties of logarithms
2 Exponential functions 3.4 Using logarithms in physics
2.1 Exponential growth and decay 4 Closing items
2.2 Gradients and rates of change 4.1 Module summary
2.3 Exponential functions and the number e 4.2 Achievements
2.4 Exponential functions and exponential change 4.3 Exit test
2.5 Evaluating the number e Exit module

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COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
1 Opening items
1.1 Module introduction
When the electric charge stored in a capacitor is discharged through a resistor, the rate of flow of charge through
the resistor is proportional to the charge remaining on the capacitor. In a population of breeding organisms, the
number of offspring produced in a given time, and hence the rate of population growth, is proportional to the
size of the population. These processes of electrical discharge and population growth both provide examples of
exponential change.
Exponential changes are the subject of Section 2 of this module. Subsection 2.1 introduces some more examples
of exponential change and uncovers some of their common characteristics. Subsection 2.2 concerns the rate of
change of a quantity and shows how this can be related to the gradient of the tangent to the graph of that
quantity. In particular, by requiring that the rate of change of a quantity should always be equal to the
instantaneous value of the quantity itself, we are led to define an exponential function, of the form y(x) = ex,
where e is an important mathematical constant, equal to 2.718 (to three decimal places). Subsection 2.3
examines the general mathematical properties of exponential functions, and in Subsection 2.4, exponential
functions are used to describe various examples of exponential change, including the decay of radioactive nuclei.
Section 2 ends with a more mathematical approach to the definition and evaluation of the number e that involves
the concept of a limit.

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In Section 3, logarithmic functions (logs) are introduced. We see how logarithms can be expressed in different
bases, how the logs of products, quotients and powers can be expanded, and how the base of a logarithm can be
changed. The antilog function is also introduced, and we look at how logs, antilogs and exponential functions
can be handled on a calculator. The module ends with a brief look at how logarithmic functions are used in
physics to analyse data that obey an exponential law or a power law.

Study comment Having read the introduction you may feel that you are already familiar with the material covered by this
module and that you do not need to study it. If so, try the Fast track questions given in Subsection 1.2. If not, proceed
directly to Ready to study? in Subsection 1.3.

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1.2 Fast track questions
Study comment Can you answer the following Fast track questions? If you answer the questions successfully you need
only glance through the module before looking at the Module summary (Subsection 4.1) and the Achievements listed in
Subsection 4.2. If you are sure that you can meet each of these achievements, try the Exit test in Subsection 4.3. If you have
difficulty with only one or two of the questions you should follow the guidance given in the answers and read the relevant
parts of the module. However, if you have difficulty with more than two of the Exit questions you are strongly advised to
study the whole module.

Question F1
Plot a graph of y = x2 by evaluating y when x = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3. Estimate the gradient (i.e. slope) at x = 2 by
drawing a tangent to the curve.

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Question F2
Explain what is meant by:
1
lim
x →∞ x

Question F3
State the usual symbol for the following expression, and give its value to three decimal places:
lim (1 + 1 m )
m
m→∞

Question F4
What is the gradient of the graph of y = exp (kx) at x = 0?
1

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Question F5
Where possible, simplify the following expressions:
(a) loge [(ex)y]
1

(b) loge (ex + e2y)


1

(c) exp [loge (x) + 2 loge (y)]


1 1 1 1

(d) exp [2 loge (x)]


1 1 1

(e) a loga ( x )

Question F6
If P = k f −0a , what are the gradient, and the intercept on the vertical axis, of the graph of log 10 (P) (0plotted
1
1 1 1

vertically) against log10 ( f 0)? 1 1 1

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Study comment Having seen the Fast track questions you may feel that it would be wiser to follow the normal route
through the module and to proceed directly to Ready to study? in Subsection 1.3.

Alternatively, you may still be sufficiently comfortable with the material covered by the module to proceed directly to the
Closing items.

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1.3 Ready to study?
Study comment In order to study this module you will need to understand the following terms: constant of proportionality,
decimal places, dependent variable, dimensions, function, independent variable, index, inverse function, power,
proportional, reciprocal and root. You will need to be able to use SI units, perform simple algebraic and numerical
calculations (including using a calculator), plot the graphs of simple functions, and determine the gradient of a straight line
that may be specified graphically or algebraically. If you are uncertain about any of these terms you can review them by
referring to the Glossary, which will indicate where in FLAP they are developed. The following Ready to study questions
will allow you to establish whether or not you need to review some of the topics before embarking on this module.

Question R1
Write the following expressions in their simplest form:
(a) a × a × a × K × a (b) 50 .
33
144 42444 3
m factors

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Question R2
If a is any positive number, what is the value of x in the equation: (a4)5 × (a2 )3 = ax.

Question R3
Write the following expressions in their simplest form:
(a) 16 −1/4, (b) 163/4, (c) 4 5/2, (d) 27−2/3, (e) 1/(3–2).

Question R4
If y is a function of x, given by y = F(x), what is meant by saying that G(x) is its inverse function?
If F(x) = x3, what is G(x)?

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Question R5
Plot a graph of y = x2 by evaluating the right-hand side of the equation at the points x = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3.
Use your graph to find solutions of the equation x2 = 2.72.

Question R6
Which of the following expressions will give a straight line when y is plotted against x? For those that will give a
straight line, state the value of its gradient. (All symbols except y and x represent non-zero constants.)
(a) y = mx + c, (b) y = ax2 + b, (c) y + x = k, (d) y/x = p, (e) y/x = qx + r.

Question R7
What is the gradient of the straight line joining the points with Cartesian coordinates (1, 5) and (3, 13)?

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2 Exponential functions

2.1 Exponential growth and decay


In physics, and elsewhere, we are often concerned with how a quantity changes with time. The following
examples all have an important feature in common. As you read, think what that feature might be.
Suppose that you were to invest £100 with a bank at an interest rate of 5% per year. At the end of the first year
your money would have earned £5 in interest, and your total investment would be worth £105. To find the value
of your investment after a further year, you would add 5% of £105 (i.e. £5.25) to obtain a total of £110.25 — and
1 1

so on. Year after year, your total investment would increase, and so would the annual interest, since it would
grow in proportion to your total investment. Thus, on an annual basis, the rate of growth of your investment (i.e.
the interest gained per year) is proportional to your total investment.
When the electric charge Q stored in a capacitor is discharged through a resistor, the rate at which charge leaves
the capacitor and flows through the resistor is described by the electric current I through the resistor. The size of
this current is determined by the resistance R and the voltage V across the resistor: I = V/R. ☞ However, V itself
depends on the capacitance C and the charge Q remaining in the capacitor: V = Q/C. It follows that I = Q/(RC).
So, at any moment, the rate at which charge is lost from the capacitor, I, is proportional to the charge, Q,
remaining in the capacitor.

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The ‘activity’ of a radioactive sample is a measure of the number of atomic nuclei in that sample that
disintegrate per second. ☞ Since each disintegration effectively removes one unstable nucleus from the sample
it is also a measure of the rate at which unstable nuclei are lost from the sample. Now any individual nucleus is
equally likely to decay in each second of its lifetime, so the number of disintegrations occurring in a sample in
one second will be proportional to the number of unstable nuclei in that sample. Thus, at any time, the rate of
decrease in the number of the unstable nuclei in a sample is proportional to the number of unstable nuclei that
remain.

✦ What do the above examples have in common?

All the changes discussed above are examples of exponential changes. Such change may cause a quantity to
increase (e.g. to grow) or to decrease (e.g. to decay), and may be characterized in the following way:

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
In an exponential change the rate of change of some quantity, y, at any time t, is directly proportional to
the value of y itself at that time:

{rate of change of y(t)} ∝ y(t) ☞


i.e. {rate of change of y(t)} = ky0(t)
3 (1)
where k is a constant of proportionality.
If k is positive, y increases with time — this kind of change is called exponential growth.
1 1

If k is negative, y decreases with time — this kind of change is called exponential decay.
1 1

In our first example, the constant k was simply the interest rate, so, k = 0.05 year0−1 (i.e. 5% per year). In the third
1

example, the case of radioactive decay, the rate of change in the number of unstable nuclei was negative since
the change reduced the number of such nuclei in the sample. ☞ In such cases the constant of proportionality is
usually written as −λ, where λ is a positive quantity called the decay constant — for example, a certain isotope
1 1

of polonium has a decay constant of λ = 0.0133 s−1. Notice that the units of the decay constant reflect the units of
1

the time interval used to define the rate.

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COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Question T1
How many nuclear disintegrations per second would you expect from a sample containing 6.0 × 1018 polonium
nuclei (λ = 0.0133 s–1)? ❏
1 3

Question T2
In the second example above, what is the constant of proportionality relating the rate of discharge, I, of a
capacitor to the charge Q remaining on the capacitor? ❏ 3

There are many examples of exponential change in physics, some of which you will meet during this module.
All exponential changes have an underlying mathematical similarity, and later in this section we will develop
some powerful mathematical ideas and techniques relating to such changes. First, though, we need to have a
more careful look at the idea of a rate of change.

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2.2 Gradients and rates of change
Figure 1 illustrates how the volume, V, of water increases with time
when a bath is filled. You can see from the graph that the water from the 40
tap is running at a constant rate, because the volume of water increases
by equal amounts in equal time intervals, i.e. by 2 litres in each 30
second — the rate of change of volume is therefore 2 litres s−1.
1 1 1 1

V/litre
☞ 20

✦ What is the gradient of the graph in Figure 1? 10


What is the relationship between the gradient and the rate of change of
volume?
0 5 10 15 20 25
t/s

✦ What would the graph look like if the bath were emptying at a Figure 1 The volume of water in a
3

constant rate of 5 litres s−1?


1 1
bath that fills at a constant rate.

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30
We can generalize the above discussion to any
constant rate of change:
(a)
For any quantity y that changes at a
constant rate, the graph of y against time t 20
is a straight line with a gradient equal to (b)
the rate of change of y.

V/litre
In practice, a bath does not continue to empty,
unaided, at a constant rate. As the water level
falls, the water pressure also falls, and so the 10
rate at which water flows out of the bath
decreases. Figure 2 shows how the volume of
water in an emptying bath might change with
time. The graph drops steeply at first,
corresponding to a rapid flow, and gradually (b)
(a)
becomes shallower as the flow rate diminishes.
☞ 0 6 10 14 20 25
t/s
Figure 2 The volume of water in a bath emptying at a decreasing
rate. The lines (a) and (b) are used to estimate the flow rate at t = 10 s.
1

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30
As before, we can relate the rate of change of
volume to the steepness of the graph, even
though the steepness is changing from moment (a)
to moment, but how do we do this? What
feature of a curved graph such as in Figure 2
20
will let us work out the rate of change of the (b)
plotted quantity at any time? We could get a

V/litre
rough value for the rate of change of volume at,
say, t = 10 s by finding the change in the
1

volume of water in the bath between t = 6 s and 1

t = 14 s (about −7 litres) and then dividing that


1 1
10
volume by the time interval of 8 s (14 s − 6 s) to
1 1 1

get a rate of change of volume of about


−0.9 litres s−1. This is equivalent to finding the
1 1

gradient of the straight line joining the points


on the graph at t = 6 s and t = 14 s. Or we could
1 1 (b)
choose a shorter time interval, say 2 s, between
1
(a)
t = 9 s and t = 11 s. You can see from the lines
1 1 0 6 10 14 20 25
(a) and (b) drawn on Figure 2 that a different t/s
choice of time interval gives a straight line with Figure 2 The volume of water in a bath emptying at a decreasing
rate. The lines (a) and (b) are used to estimate the flow rate at t = 10 s.
1

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30
a different gradient, and hence a different rate of change
of volume. The difference arises because the flow rate is
changing during the time intervals and what we have
calculated is an average rate of change of volume over
each of the specified periods. But how can we improve on
this to find the rate of change at a particular time? 20

If we make the time interval very small indeed, we can

V/litre
hope that the flow rate hardly changes at all during that
interval. Instead of a line joining two well-separated
points on a curve, the situation is more like that shown in
Figure 3; there will be single straight line that just 10
touches the curve at t = 10 s, the steepness of which
1

matches exactly that of the curve at that point. Such a line


is called a tangent to the curve. Using this idea we can
define the gradient of the curve, at any particular point, to
be the gradient of the tangent to the curve at that
particular point. This gradient tells us the instantaneous
rate of change at our chosen value of t, rather than the 0 10 20
average rate of change over an interval. t/s
Figure 3 Finding the gradient at a point on a curve by
3

drawing a tangent.
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So, if we have a change in volume ∆V in a time interval ∆t, the quantity ∆V/∆t will be equal to the average rate
of change of volume during the interval ∆t ☞ . But if we make ∆t and ∆V smaller and smaller we can reasonably
expect that ∆V/∆t will provide an increasingly good estimate of the gradient of the tangent. Indeed, if ∆t and ∆V
are small enough ☞, we can expect ∆V/∆t to represent the (instantaneous) rate of change of V.
In the remainder of this module we will use the notation ∆V/∆t to represent the instantaneous rate of change of V
with respect to t ☞. In other words, no matter what value of t we are discussing, we will always assume that we
can find suitable values ∆t and ∆V to ensure that ∆V/∆t provides an accurate value for the gradient of the tangent
at that value of t. From a strictly mathematical point of view this is not always justified, nor is it a particularly
good use of notation, but we shall use it none the less.
When trying to find an instantaneous rate of change from a graph you will probably have to make your best
guess at an appropriate tangent, evaluate its gradient as accurately as possible, and accept that by working
graphically you are limited to making estimates of rates of change. (Fortunately, there are algebraic techniques
that enable us to work out rates of change accurately, but these too belong to the subject of differentiation and
will not be developed in this module.)

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COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
30
Question T3
Find the gradient of the tangent at t = 10 s shown in1 1

Figure 3. Draw a tangent to the curve at t = 5 s and hence


1

estimate ∆V/∆t when t = 5 s. ❏1 3

20

The above discussion can be generalized to the rate of

V/litre
change of any quantity:

The rate of change of any quantity y, at a particular


time, can be represented by the quotient ∆y/∆t, 10
provided the changes ∆y and ∆ t are sufficiently
small. The value of such a rate of change is given by
the gradient of the tangent to the graph of y against t
at the time in question.

Furthermore, the idea of a gradient of a curved graph is 0 10 20


not confined to graphs showing variation with time. t/s
Figure 3 Finding the gradient at a point on a curve by
3

drawing a tangent.
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COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
✦ Figure 4 is a graph of the equation y = x2. By drawing tangents to the y
curve, estimate ∆y/∆x when x = 0, x = 2, and x = −1. 10
8

4
2

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x

Figure 43A graph of the equation


y = x 2.
1

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Before we end this subsection, we will have a brief look at some more
15
rates of change and their physical interpretations. One example is shown

x/m
in Figure 5a, where the graph shows how the position coordinate, x, of 10
an object moving along a straight line, changes with time. This is called 5
linear motion ☞. Where the graph is steep, the position changes rapidly
with time — i.e. the object moves quickly — and shallower parts of the
1 1 1 1
0 10 20 30 40
(a) t/s
graph correspond to the object moving more slowly. A negative gradient
corresponds to the object moving in the reverse direction.
5

vx /m s−1
1
0
10 20 30 40
t/s
−1

(b)

Figure 5 Graphs of (a) the position


3

coordinate and (b) the instantaneous


velocity of an object moving along a
straight line.

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We can therefore say that, at any particular time, the gradient of this
15
position–time graph is equal to the instantaneous velocity v x of the

x/m
object. Figure 5b shows how the velocity, vx, of the object represented in 10
Figure 5a changes with time. 5

0 10 20 30 40
✦ Suggest a physical interpretation of the gradient of Figure 5b.
(a) t/s

5
Using the notation introduced above, we can rewrite the condition for

vx /m s−1
exponential change (Equation 1) as:

1
0
10 20 30 40
t/s
In an exponential change, at any time ∆y/∆t = ky −1
(2)

(b)

Figure 5 Graphs of (a) the position


3

coordinate and (b) the instantaneous


velocity of an object moving along a
straight line.

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COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Figure 6 shows an example of a quantity that is 20
changing exponentially: N, the number of
unstable nuclei in a radioactive sample, decays
exponentially with time t. The gradient of the
curve at any particular time is equal to the
15
number of disintegrations per second occurring at
that time. By drawing tangents to the graph at
various times and measuring their gradients it is
easy to see that the gradient is indeed

N/1010
proportional to N , as required. 10
When N = 10 × 1010, 6 × 1010 and 2 × 1010, the
measured gradients are −5 × 104 s−1, −3 × 104 s−1
1 1

and −1 × 104 s−1.


1

5
Figure 6 The number of unstable nuclei in a
3

radioactive sample plotted against time, with tangents


drawn at N = 10 × 1010, 6 × 1010 and 2 × 10 10. This is
an example of exponential decay.
0 1 2 3 4 5
t/106s

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Figure 7 shows how the charge Q (measured in 4
coulombs) stored in a capacitor changes with time.
By measuring the gradients of tangents at various
times, we can find the rate of flow of charge, i.e.
the current, at these particular times.
3

Question T4
By drawing tangents to the curve, estimate the

Q/C
2
currents when Q = 2 C, 1 C and 0.5 C, and hence
1 1 1

verify that Figure 7 shows exponential decay. ❏ 3

Figure 7 The charge remaining on a discharging


3

capacitor. Another example of exponential decay. 0 2 4 6 8 10


t/s

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COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Question T5 V
8
Figure 8 shows the graph of V = 8/x2 .
Explain how you would show that
this curve does not describe exponential decay. ❏ 3

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x

Figure 83 See Question T5.

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2.3 Exponential functions and the number e
In this subsection, you will learn how to write functions representing the values of quantities that change
exponentially. We will begin with exponential growth, since we can then deal entirely with positive quantities
☞. We will look for a function y(x) such that, at any value of x, the rate of change of y is equal to the value of y
itself, i.e. we will look for a function y(x) such that ∆y/∆x = x. For the sake of simplicity we will treat x as a
purely numerical variable.
In Subsection 2.1, we saw that when there is a constant annual interest rate the value of an investment grows
exponentially. With an interest rate of 5% per year, the value after one year is found by multiplying the initial
sum by 1.05 and, after two years, by multiplying again by 1.05, i.e. in two years the value of the initial
investment increases by a factor of (1.05)2. If the investment is left for n years at the same interest rate, its initial
value will be multiplied by a factor of (1.05)n .
The above example suggests that we should look at functions of the form y(x) = y0ax, where y0 is the initial value
of y and a is some (positive) constant number. It may therefore be helpful at this point to have a brief reminder
of the properties of such functions.

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For any numbers a, x and y:

axay = ax + y
1 1
(3)

(ax)y = axy (4)

1
a− x = (5)
ax

ax/y = (a1/y )x (6) ☞

Also, recall that a0 = 1 and that by a1/k (for k a positive integer) we mean the kth root of a, i.e. a solution of the
equation xk = a.

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COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Now let us look at a particular function: y(x) = 2x. Figure 9 shows the y
graph of this function, and Table 1 shows its value for various values 8
of x.
Table 1 Values of the function y1(x) = 2 x. 7

x 2x x 2x 6
−3.5 0.09 0 1.00
5
−3.0 0.13 0.5 1.41
−2.5 0.18 1.0 2.00 4
−2.0 0.25 1.5 2.83
−1.5 0.35 2.0 4.00 3
−1.0 0.50 2.5 5.66
2
−0.5 0.71 3.0 8.00
1
✦ Find the gradients of tangents to the graph of y = 2x at x = –1, 0, 1
and 2. Is this function growing exponentially? −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x
Figure 93 The graph of y(x) = 2 x.

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COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
In fact the gradient is consistent with ∆y/∆x ≈ 0.7y, not with ∆y/∆x = y. If you were to plot the graph of y(x) = 3x
you would find that it too grows exponentially, with a gradient approximately equal to 1.1 × 3x. This suggests
that there may be some number a between 2 and 3 such that if y(x) = ax, then the gradient would be exactly equal
to the value of y.
It turns out that there is indeed such a number. To three decimal places its value is 2.718, but like π and 2 , it is
an irrational number ☞ that cannot be accurately represented by any decimal with a finite number of decimal
places. For this reason it is conventional to represent its accurate value by the letter e and simply substitute an
appropriate numerical value whenever necessary. e is one of the most important numbers in physics and in
mathematics ☞.

e = 2.718 281 828 459 05 … (to 14 decimal places)


1 1 1 1

If y(x) = ex (7) ☞
then the rate of change ∆y/∆x = y(x)

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COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
✦ Figure 10 is a graph of y(x) = ex. Draw tangents at a y
few different points on the graph and measure their
gradients. Confirm that at each point you examine the 30
gradient is equal to the value of y.
25

20

15

10

−1 0 1 2 3 x

Figure 10 The graph of the function y(x) = e x.


3

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COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
The function ex is known as the exponential function, and to emphasize that it is a function of x it is often
written as exp (x) ☞ . So far, we have used it to describe how something varies with x, where x can be any
1

variable without dimensions (since powers are always dimensionless numbers).


To evaluate exponential functions on a calculator, use the e x key (possibly labelled exp (x)) or its equivalent ☞.
1

If your calculator does not have such a key, you may be able to calculate ex by using the yx key with y = 2.718,
but you are probably best advised to buy a new calculator ☞.

Question T6
Evaluate e2 , e3, e1.43, e−1 and e0 . ❏
3

2.4 Exponential functions and exponential change


So far, you have seen that the function y(x) = exp (x) describes exponential changes in which the rate of change
1

is equal to y(x) at any given value of x. In this subsection, we will see how exponential functions can be used to
describe exponential changes that correspond to any value of k in ∆y/∆x = ky.

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
✦ Table 2 gives some values for the function y
y(x) = exp (3x).
1
6
Figure 11 shows the graph of this function for the range
x = 0 to x = 0.6.
Draw tangents at the points y = 2 and y = 3 and measure 5
their gradients. Suggest a relationship between the values of
y and the gradient. 4

Table 2 A table of values (to 3


x exp (3x)
1
three decimal places) for the
−1.0 0.050 function y(x) = exp (3x). 2
−0.5 0.223
0 1.000
1
0.5 4.482
1.0 20.086
1.5 90.017 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 x

2.0 403.429 Figure 11 3The graph of y(x) = exp (3x).


1

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
You have just illustrated an important general rule about exponential functions:

For any function y(x) = exp (kx), the gradient at any value of x is k y(x), and so the rate of change
1

∆y/∆x = ky(x).

In other words, we seem to have found the function that satisfies the general condition for exponential change.
So far, though, we have looked only at examples where k is positive (i.e. exponential growth), whereas we also
need to be able to deal with exponential decay, where k is negative.

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
✦ Figure 12 shows a graph of the function y(x ) = e−x y
(i.e. k = −1). What is the sign of the gradient at any point on 2.5
the curve? What is the relationship between the gradient and
the value of y?
(Draw tangents and measure their gradients if you have to, 2.0
but you can probably guess the answer.)
1.5
The above example illustrates that the exponential function
y(x) = exp (kx), with a suitable value of k, can describe both
1

exponential growth and exponential decay. So we now have 1.0


an almost complete description of any exponential change.
Why ‘almost’? So far, we have neglected the initial value of 0.5
y. If y = exp (kx), then when x = 0, y = 1. Clearly, this is not
1

necessarily true in all physical situations. Also, since the start


of Subsection 2.3 we have been treating x and y as a purely −1 0 1 2 3 x
numerical variables, without any associated units. In practice
we are certain to be interested in situations where y and x are Figure 12 The graph of the function
3
physical quantities that involve units of measurement.
y1(x) = exp (−x).
1

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Dealing with these remaining conditions is actually very straightforward. All we have to do to represent a
general exponential change is to use a function of the form y0 exp (kx). Thus:
1

For any exponential change, i.e. any change in which ∆y/∆x = ky


y(x) = y 0 exp (kx)
1 (8)
where y0 is the value of y when x = 0.

As far as units are concerned, y will have the same units as y 0 , and the product kt must be a pure number
(i.e. dimensionless), so if x is a time in seconds, say, then the units of k should be seconds–1. ☞

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


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Figure 13 shows the y
y0 = 2, k = 2 y0 = 1, k = 2
graphs of the
exponential function 3.0
y = y0e kx for various y0 = 1, k = 1
values of y 0 and k.
2.5
If you measured the
gradients of tangents
to any of these graphs 2.0
you would find that in
each case they satisfy
the equation 1.5
∆y/∆x = ky
at every value of x.

0.5 y0 = 1, k = −1
y0 = 2, k = −2
y0 = 1, k = −2
−0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 x
Figure 13 3
kx
Graphs of the function y (x) = y0e for various values of y0 and k.
1

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
This illustrates the general rule that for exponential functions the initial value of y does not alter the relationship
between the value of y and the gradient. So, we now have a complete ‘recipe’ for describing exponential
change.

Question T7
When a capacitor discharges, ∆Q/∆t = −Q/(RC). If the initial charge is Q 0 , write an equation that describes how
Q changes with time (i.e. write a definition of Q as a function of time). ❏
3

Question T8
Radioactive decay may be described by the equation N = N0 ekt. What are the values of N 0 and k for the decay
shown in Figure 6? ❏ 3

We will now consider some specific examples of exponential change.

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Half-lives and decay absorption coefficients
Apart from the proportionality between the function and the value of its gradient, y(t) = y0 e kt has another
interesting property. To see this, consider the effect of increasing t in a series of equal steps, say from 0 to 1/k, to
2/k, to 3/k, and so on. What are the corresponding values of y(t)? They are y0 , y 0 e, y0e2, y 0 e3, and so on. Clearly,
equal additions to t cause y(t) to change by equal multiplicative factors. This is true whatever the size of the
additions to t may be (though different sized increments naturally correspond to different multiplicative factors),
and it applies to exponential decay as well as exponential growth. In fact, the best known example of this is
probably the use of half-life to characterize the decay of radioactive nuclei. Such decays are described by an
exponential function of the form N(t) = N0 e−λt, so in any time interval of length 1/λ the number of nuclei will
decrease by a factor of e−1. Similarly, in any interval of length 0.693/λ the number of nuclei is reduced by a
factor of 0.5. That’s why this is called the half-life. ☞
So far we have been concentrating on changes with time, but we have already noted that an exponential function
is not limited to such changes. For example, when a parallel beam of electromagnetic radiation passes through
matter, its intensity I ☞ is related to the distance x that it has travelled through the medium by an exponential
function: I = I 0 exp (−µ0x ) where µ is called the absorption coefficient. It also depends on the nature of the
1 1

radiation and the nature of the matter. For every additional distance 1/ µ that the beam travels through the matter,
its intensity is reduced by a factor of e–1.

✦ What are the dimensions of µ?

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


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The function at
Throughout the last two subsections, we have been mainly concerned with functions of the form y(x) = y 0 ekx.
But we have also seen that functions such as 2x and 3x also satisfy the requirement that their gradients are
proportional to their values at any given value of x. Clearly then, the exponential function exp (x), or ex, is just
1

one special example of the kind of function that can describe exponential change. More generally, any function
of the type y(x) = y0 akx (where a is any positive number) will describe exponential change, though it will not
1

satisfy the equation ∆y/∆x = ky. For instance, in Subsection 2.3, you saw that the gradient of the graph of
y(x) = 2x is approximately ∆y/∆x ≈ 0.7y while that of y(x) = 3x is approximately ∆y/∆x ≈ 1.1y, so in both of these
cases, where k = 1, it is certainly not the case that ∆y/∆x = ky even though ∆y/∆x is proportional to y. What really
distinguishes the function y(x) = y 0 ekx is the fact that for it alone we can assert that ∆y/∆x = ky for all values of k.
Although the functions y(x) = y0ekx and y(x) = y 0 akx are different (provided a ≠ e), there is a simple relationship
between them. Because it is always possible to find a number c such that a = ec, for any positive value of a, it is
always possible to write
y0akx = y0(ec)kx = y0eckx 3 (a > 0)
Thus, any function that describes exponential change can always be rewritten in terms of the exponential
function, all we have to do is find the value of c that satisfies the equation a = ec. We will return to this in
Subsection 3.2, where you will see how it is done.

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
A note on terminology In an expression such as q0p (where p and q are either constants or variables), the power
3

p is sometimes called the exponent of q ☞. Correspondingly, some authors use the term ‘exponential function’
to mean all functions of the type y(x) = ax. Those authors still use exp (x) to represent ex, but they sometimes call
1

it the natural exponential function (since it arises from descriptions of naturally-occurring processes) in order
to distinguish it from other functions of the type a x . However, in FLAP the term exponential function is
generally used to mean a function of the form y(x) = ex or y(x) = ekx. Variables related by functions of the form
y(x) = y 0 ekx are generally said to satisfy exponential laws. Such laws arise in many areas of physics.

2.5 Evaluating the number e


In Subsection 2.3, the value of e was produced more or less out of a hat, and was then shown to have the
necessary properties to describe exponential change. Now we will show how the value of e can be calculated
from first principles.
We start from the requirement that we want a number e such that if y(t) = y0ekt, then ∆y/∆t = ky. In order to avoid
having to deal with negative numbers, we will consider an example of continuous exponential growth. Our
original example of the growth of an investment is now not a very good one, since the interest is added only
once a year and so the value goes up in steps rather than continuously. A better example would be the growth of
a large population of organisms (aphids, perhaps, or bacteria) where the population changes over even a very
short time interval.

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Suppose the number of organisms at time t is N(t), and that at any time t the instantaneous rate of change is
∆N/∆t = kN(t). Even if we do not have an expression for N(t) in terms of t, we can still use the given information
to draw an approximate graph of N against t. To do this we note that the increase in the population over a small
time interval ∆t will be approximately ∆N = kN(t)∆t.
(This is only an approximation because the equation ∆N/∆t = kN(t) will not be completely accurate for any finite
value of ∆t, no matter how small.)
So, if N0 is the number of organisms at the start of a time interval ∆t, the approximate number at the end of that
interval will be N 0 + ∆ N = N0 + kN0 ∆t. This process can be repeated for the next interval ∆t, by taking
N 1 = N0 + kN0 ∆t as the new starting value and ∆N = kN1∆t as the increment over that second interval. This can
be continued until we have built-up a complete (though approximate) graph of N(t) over any desired period of
time.

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Figure 14a shows such a graph for k = 0.1 s−1 and 1 N/104
N 0 = 105 , drawn using a time interval of ∆t = 5 s. If a time
1 30
interval of ∆t = 1s were used (still with k = 0.1 s−1), then 1

the graph would not only be smoother but it would also


climb more steeply, as shown in Figure 14b. The 25
increased steepness arises because, instead of using the
same rate of change for a whole 5 s, based on the value of
1

N at the start of that interval, we calculate a new rate of 20


change after only 1 s, based on a slightly larger N.
1
(b)
(a)
✦ Which graph in Figure 14 is the better approximation 15
to the real situation? How could the graphs be made even
more realistic?
10

Figure 14 An approximate graph of N against t where


3
5
N0 = 10 5 , k = 0.1 s−1 and (a) ∆t = 5 s, (b) ∆t = 1 s.
1 1 1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Table 3 shows the values used to plot Figure 14. t/s (a) N/104 (b) N/104
when ∆t = 5 s
1 when ∆t = 1 s
1

0 10.000 10.000
1 11.000
2 12.100
3 13.310
4 14.641
5 15.000 16.105
6 17.716
Table 3 Values of N calculated using
3 7 19.487
(a) ∆t = 5 s, and (b) ∆t = 1 s.
1 1

(Remember that N/104 in the column heading 8 21.436


means that each entry in the column has been
9
divided by 104.) 23.579
10 22.500 25.937

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Let us now see what happens as we make ∆t smaller and smaller. N
Figure 15 illustrates the procedure. N 0 is the initial number of
organisms and t is some arbitrary period of time which can be N2 C
subdivided into intervals. If we divide t into 2 equal intervals of length
∆t = t/2, and if N1 is the approximate number after the first interval of
N1 B
length t/2, then
N0 A
= N0  1 + 
kN0 t kt
N1 = N0 + (9)
2  2
and after the second interval of length t/2 t
0 t/2 t
∆t ∆t
= N1  1 + 
kN1t kt
N2 = N1 + (10)
2  2
Figure 15 Estimating N(t) by dividing a
3

Combining Equations 9 and 10, we find the time t into small intervals. The curve
2 represents the actual variation of N with t.
N2 = N0  1 + 
kt
(11)
 2

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Now, if we had chosen to use 10 smaller intervals, each of length t/10, we would have obtained a somewhat
different, and more accurate, estimate of the total number of organisms after time t:
10
N10 = N0  1 +
kt 
 10 
Similarly, if we had used n equal intervals, then we would have found
n
Nn = N0  1 + 
kt
(12)
 n
If we now let the value of n become larger and larger we can expect the value of Nn to get closer and closer to
the true final value (which we know to be N0e kt ). Thus, as n becomes larger the following approximation
becomes increasingly accurate:
n
N0 e kt ≈ N0  1 + 
kt
 n

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
For reasons that will soon become apparent, it is useful to eliminate n from this relationship in favour of a new
variable m defined by m = n/kt. In making this substitution it is important to remember that the final power of n
must be replaced by mkt, and the statement that the approximation becomes increasingly accurate as n becomes
larger should also be restated in terms of m. Thus, as m becomes larger the following approximation becomes
increasingly accurate:
kt
mkt  m
N0 e kt ≈ N0  1 +  = N0   1 +  
1 1
(13)
 m  m 

It follows from Equation 13 that e ≈ (1 + 1/m)m, and that this approximation becomes increasingly accurate as m
becomes larger and larger. This statement can be made more concise by using the mathematical idea of a limit.
We say that e is the limit of (1 + 1/m)m as m tends to infinity. This is conventionally written as:

e = lim (1 + 1 m ) ☞
m
(14)
m→∞

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Question T9 Table 4 See Question T9.

Given that a = (1 + 1/m)m, complete Table 4 (using a calculator) and thus confirm m a
that (1 + 1/m) m provides an increasingly good approximation to e as m becomes
larger and larger. ❏3 2 2.2500

5 2.4883

10 2.5937

102 2.7048

103

104

105

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COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
3 Logarithmic functions
In Section 2, you saw how exponential changes can be described by a function of the general form y(t) =
y0 exp (kt). Given values for y0 and k, this function provides a unique value of y for any given value of t. In this
1 1

section our main aim is to investigate the inverse function, that tells us the value of t corresponding to any given
value of y. However, we begin our investigation by examining a slightly different question: given that x = 10y,
what is the value of y that corresponds to a given value of x? In other words, given that x = 10y, we want to know
the inverse function that will enable us to write y as a function of x.

3.1 Logarithms to base 10: the inverse of 10x


For some values of x, we can find y such that x = 10y, without really thinking about inverse functions at all. For
example, if x = 100 then, since 100 = 10 × 10 = 102 , y must be equal to 2.

✦ If x = 10y, what is y when, (a) x = 10 000, and (b) x = 0.1?


1

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Figure 16a is a graph of the equation x = 10y, plotted with x
the x-axis vertical and the y-axis horizontal. This may look 18
odd, but when plotting graphs it is conventional to plot 16
values of the independent variable along the horizontal axis 14
and values of the dependent variable along the vertical
axis, and that is exactly what we have done. It is the choice 12
of names for the variables that is unconventional in this 10
case, not the graph plotting. In any event, it is clear from 8
Figure 16a that each value of x corresponds to a different
6
value of y, and that means it will be possible to define an
inverse function to x = 10y . The graph of this inverse 4
function (with conventional x- and y-axes orientation) is 2
shown in Figure 16b. It was obtained by re-plotting the
data from Figure 16a so as to show y as a function of x. −1.2 −0.8 −0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 y
(This process is equivalent to reflecting the curve in Figure
16a in an imaginary mirror placed along the line y = x.) Figure 16 (a) A graph of the function x = 100y with
3

This shows that we can, in principle, find y for any positive the x-axis vertical and the y-axis horizontal.
value of x.

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
The function of x shown in Figure 16b is usually denoted by y
y = log10 (x) and its value for a given value of x is called the
1
1.2
logarithm to base 10 of x, or the common logarithm of x. This is 1.0
an example of a logarithmic function — you will meet others in
1 1
0.8
Subsection 3.2. As you can see from Figure 16b, it is only defined
for positive values of x. 0.6
0.4
The logarithm to base 10 of x is the number y which satisfies 0.2
the equation x = 100y, i.e. 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 x
y = log10 (x)
1
−0.2 (15)
In other words, log10 (x) is the power to which we must raise
1 −0.4
10 to obtain x. −0.6
−0.8
We have written x in brackets in log10 (x), to emphasize that we are
1

dealing with a function, but the brackets are often omitted in −1.0
practice. Note, too, that log10 (x) is sometimes written as log (x).
1 1 −1.2

Figure 16 (b) A graph of the inverse


3

function, y = log 10 (x), plotted on axes with


1

the conventional orientation.

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
From our definition we see that:
log10 (10) = 1 since 101 = 10
log10 (1) = 0 since 10 0 = 1

log10   = −1 since 10 −1 =
1 1
 10  10

Question T10

Without using your calculator, work out the values of:


(a) log10 (100), (b) log10 (1000), (c) log10 (0.1), (d) log10 (0.001), (e) log10 (101/2),
1 1 1 1 1

(f) log10 (10), (g) log10 (1), and (h) log10 (101.52). ❏
1 1 1 3

Use the x0y key on your calculator to find 100.397 94 and 10–2.301 03, and hence find values for log10 (2.5) and
1 1
1

log10 (0.005) to five decimal places.


1

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
The values of log10 (x) are harder to calculate directly when x is not an obvious power of 10. However, they can
1

be read from graphs such as that in Figure 16b, or found using the ‘log’ key on a calculator. For example, to find
log10 (3.7), key in 3.7 then press the ‘log’ function key — you should obtain the answer 0.568 2017.
1 1 1 1

✦ Use your calculator to find log10 (100), log10 (10), log10 (1), log10 (0.001), log10 (2) and log10 (3.16).
1 1 1 1 1 1

Question T11

Use the log function key on your calculator to find x when (a) 10x = 6.8, (b) 10x = 537, (c) 10x = 0.34.
(Give your answers to four significant figures.) ❏ 3

Question T12

Use your calculator to find (a) log10 (4.725), (b) log10 (47.25) and (c) log10 (472.5). (d) Without further use of the
1 1 1

calculator, find log10 (4725) and log10 (4.725 × 107 ). ❏


1 1 3

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
We have already established that taking the logarithm to base 10 ‘undoes’ the operation of raising 10 to a power
(see part (e) of Question T10, for example). Likewise, raising 10 to a power ‘undoes’ the operation of finding the
logarithm to base 10. This can be expressed another way. If we eliminate y from Equation 15 we find

10log10 (x) = x
1

therefore log10 (10x) = x


1 (16)

The function 10x is sometimes called the antilog or antilogarithmic function. Antilogs can be found on a
calculator using the ‘inverse’ and ‘log’ function keys. ☞
✦ Use the function keys on your calculator to find antilog (x) for x = 2, x = –1, x = 0.397 94 and
1 1

x = –2.301 03 — key in the number, then press ‘inv’ and ‘log’.


1 1 1

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
3.2 Logarithms to base e and other bases
In Subsection 3.1, we looked at logarithms based on powers of 10. It is possible to use numbers other than 10 as
the base for logarithms — in fact it is possible to have logarithms to any base a that is greater than zero:
1 1

The logarithm to base a of x is the number y such that x = ay.


In other words, the logarithm to base a of x is the power to which we must raise a to obtain x, i.e. if x = ay
then
y = loga (x) 1 (17)

Just as the functions 10x and log10 (x) are the inverse of each other, so the functions ax and loga (x) are the inverse
1 1

of each other. This can be expressed by eliminating y from Equation 17 to obtain x = a loga ( x ) , or alternatively by
eliminating x to obtain y = loga (ay). Replacing y by x throughout the second of these results (which we are free
1

to do since we can always rename a variable) we see that for any base a:

if a loga ( x ) = x
then loga (ax) = x
1 (18)

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
✦ Given that N/N 0 = 2 kT, find an expression for T.
(Hint: Start by taking appropriate logs of both sides of the given equation.) ☞

The most widely-used logarithms and logarithmic functions are those based on powers of 10 or on powers of the
number e.

The logarithm to base e of x is the number y such that x = ey, i.e.

if x = ey
then y = loge (x)
1 (19)
and hence
exp [loge (x)] = x
1 1

and loge [exp (x)] = x


1 1 (20)

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Since the number e arises from the description of naturally-occurring processes (radioactive decay), the
logarithmic function based on powers of e is often known as the natural logarithm and loge (x) is sometimes
1

denoted by ln (x) ☞. Note that loge (x) can be found on a calculator, in the same way as finding log10 (x), the key
1 1
1

is usually marked loge (x) or ln (x). (You may have to press ‘inv’ followed by ‘ex’ if your calculator doesn’t have
1 1

a ‘loge’ or ‘ln’ key.)

✦ Given that e = 2.718 (to three decimal places), use the yx key on a calculator to find e1.5041, and hence write
down an approximate value for loge (4.5). 1

Question T13

Without using your calculator, what are the values of loge (1) and loge (e)?
1 1 ❏
3

Question T14

Using your answers to Question T13, and the value of log e (10) found using your calculator, sketch an
1

approximate graph of the function loge (x) on the same axes as a graph (such as that in Figure 16b) of
1

log10 (x). ❏
1 3

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
Natural logarithms can, as you have just seen, be handled on a calculator in a similar way to common
logarithms. Their inverse function, too, can be dealt with similarly. ☞

✦ Suggest how to find exp (x) on a calculator using the ‘inv’ (i.e. inverse) and ‘log’ keys
1 ☞.
Use this method to find e1.5041.

We are now able to solve the problem posed at the start of Section 3 — namely, to write t as a function of y
1 1

given that y(t) = y0 exp (kt). If we divide both sides of this equation by y 0 we obtain y/y 0 = exp (kt) = ekt. We can
1 1 1

then use Equation 21 (or take loge of both sides) to deduce that:

if y = y 0 exp (kt)
1 1

then loge (y/y 0 ) = kt


1 (21)

so that t = (1/k) loge (y/y 0 )


1 1

FLAP M1.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions


COPYRIGHT © 1998 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY S570 V1.1
When dealing with exponential decay, the constant k will be negative, and care will need to be taken when
dealing with signs. For example, when a capacitor discharges through a resistor, the charge Q on the capacitor is
given as a function of time by Q = Q0 exp (−t0/RC0). To find the time at which Q reaches a certain value, divide
1 1

both sides by Q 0 to obtain Q/Q0 = exp (−t0/RC0), and then take log e of both sides to see that loge (Q/Q0) = −t/RC.
1 1

So, t = −RC loge (Q/Q0).


1 1

We can also now solve the problem encountered at the end of Subsection 2.4, where we wanted to find a number
c such that akt = exp (ckt). In other words, since eckt = (ec)kt, we wanted to find the value of c such that a = ec.
1

If we take loge of both sides of this equation we find c = loge (a). You will recall that this is an important result
1

since it enables us to rewrite any function of the form y(t) = y 0 a kt in terms of the exponential function
y(t) = y0eckt.
Question T15
Use your calculator to find x when (a) ex = 4.8, (b) ex = 10, (c) ex = 0.56. ❏
3

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Question T16
The number of organisms, N, in a certain population increases exponentially: N = N0 exp (kt) where k = 0.02 h−1.
1 1 1

If N0 = 1000, how long does it take for the population to double, i.e. what is t when N = 2000? Without doing
any further calculation, write down the time taken for N to increase from 2000 to 4000. ❏
3

Question T17
In a sample of radioactive material, the number, N, of polonium nuclei decays exponentially: N = N0 exp (–λt)
1 1

where λ = 0.0133 s−1. How long does it take for the number of polonium nuclei to halve? ❏
1 3

Question T18
By finding a suitable value of k, rewrite the function y(x) = 3x in the form y(x) = ekx . Check your answer by
finding 3x and exp (kx) when x = 2. ❏
1 3

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3.3 Properties of logarithms
In this subsection we examine some further properties of logarithms that can be deduced from the relationships
we have already discussed together with the rules for manipulating indices that were summarized in Equations 3
to 6.
Products and quotients
First, let us look at the result of multiplying two numbers together where each is expressed as 10 raised to a
power ☞ . Suppose that x = 100p and y = 100q. By definition then, log10 (x) = p and log 10 (y) = q (see Equation 15).
1 1

Now, xy = 100p × 100q = 100p + q


1 1

so log10 (xy) = log10 (100p + q) = p + q = log10 (x) + log10 (y)


1 1
1 1
1 1

thus log10 (xy) = log10 (x) + log10 (y)


1 1 1

Of course, instead of working to base 10, we could equally well have written x and y as powers of some other
number a, and then taken logs to base a. If we had done so we would have found the following general result:

loga (xy) = loga (x) + loga (y)


1 1 1
(22)

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You can illustrate this rule with the aid of a calculator. For example, log10 (3) = 0.477, log10 (7) = 0.845 and
1 1

log10 (21) = 1.322 (all to three decimal places), i.e. log10 (21) = log10 (3) + log10 (7).
1 1 1 1

✦ Confirm that loge (21) = loge (3) + loge (7).


1 1 1

You have in fact already met another example of this rule. In Question T12, you saw that
log10 (4.725 × 10n ) = n + log10 (4.725) — which follows from Equation 22 because log 10 (10n) = n.
1 1 1 1 1

The next example demonstrates some properties of logs of quotients and reciprocals. ☞
✦ (a) By writing x = 100p and y = 10 q , find an expression for log10 (x/y) in terms of log10 (x) and log10 (y).
1 1 1

(b) Use your answer to express log10 (1/x) in terms of log10 (x).
1 1

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The example above suggests the following general rules, which apply to logs to any base a:

loga (x/y) = loga (x) − loga (y)


1 1 1 (23)
loga (1/x) = −loga (x)
1 1 (24)

✦ Check Equations 23 and 24 with the aid of your calculator. For example, try x = 24, y = 8, using
(a) logs to base 10, and (b) logs to base e.

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Powers and roots
Suppose we have some number y = xn where n is an integer, then
y = x × x × xK× x
144244 3
n factors

It follows from Equation 24 that

log a (y) = log a (x) + log a (x) +K+ log a (x)


144444 42444444 3

n terms

thus, loga (xn) = n loga (x).


1 1 1

This is indicative of a more general result that applies to any power of x, not just integer powers:

loga (xb) = b loga (x)


1 1 1 (25)

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You can check Equation 25 with the aid of a calculator.
loga (xb) = b loga (x)
1 1 1 (Eqn 25)
For example, you can show that log10 (32) = log10 (9) = 2 log10 (3); that log10 (491/2) = log10 (7) = [log10 (49)]/2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

and that log10 (41.73) = log10 (11.004) = 1.73 × log10 (4).


1 1 1


✦ By taking logs to base 10 of both sides of the equation, find the value of x when 2x = 3 × 5x.

loga (xy) = loga (x) + loga (y)


1 1 1
(Eqn 22)

loga (x/y) = loga (x) − loga (y)


1 1 1 (Eqn 23)

loga (1/x) = −loga (x)


1 1 (Eqn 24)
As you will see in Subsection 3.4, Equations 22 to 25 enable logs to be used in tackling a wide variety of
problems in physics. But before we end this subsection, we will extend our discussion and show how to convert
between different bases for logarithmic functions.

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Changing the base of logarithms
In Subsection 3.2 we derived the following expression involving loga (x):

a loga ( x ) = x (Eqn 18)


Now suppose we take logs to another base, b, of both sides:
log b (a loga ( x ) ) = log b ( x ) (26)

loga (xb) = b loga (x)


1 1 1 (Eqn 25)
From Equation 25,

loga (x) × logb (a) = logb (x)


1 1 1 (27)

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So we have a relationship between the log of x to two different bases — most usefully, it enables us to convert
1 1

between the two most widely-used bases:

log10 (x) × loge (10) = loge (x)


1 1 1 (28) ☞
To three decimal places, loge (10) = 2.303, and so loge (x) = 2.303 × log10 (x). Using your calculator, you can
1 1 1

verify that Equation 28 describes the relationships between loge (x) and log10 (x) for various values of x. But if
1 1

you look at the answer to Question T14 you will see that the graph of loge (x) can be obtained from the graph of
1

log10 (x) by re-scaling the y-axis by a factor of loge (10), just as Equation 28 implies.
1 1

Question T19

Use logs to base ten to find the value of x when 6 = 2x. ❏ 3

Question T20

By finding log10 (5) and log10 (2) on a calculator, calculate log2 (5).
1 1 1 ❏
3

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3.4 Using logarithms in physics y
We have already seen one use of logarithms in physics — given that
1 1
8
y = y0 exp (kt) we can find t in terms of y, i.e. t = [loge (y/y 0 )]/k.
1 1 1

(See Subsection 3.2, in particular Questions T16 and T17.) 6


Now consider another problem related to exponential change. Suppose
an experiment gives the results shown in Figure 17. Does this graph
follow an exponential law? And if so, what is the value of k? It is hard 4
to see whether or not Figure 17 really does represent an exponential
function — you can measure gradients at various points, as we did in
1 1

Subsection 2.2 (e.g. in Question T4), but this is time-consuming, and 2


there are always uncertainties involved with drawing tangents.Let us
consider an easier approach. If y does follow an exponential law, we
0
must have y = y0 exp (kt), and hence
1 1
0 2 4 6 8 t
loge (y/y 0 ) = kt
1 (Eqn 21). Figure 17 Experimental measurements
3

of a quantity y that varies with time.

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We can use Equation 23
loga (x/y) = loga (x) − loga (y)
1 1 1 (Eqn 23)
to write loge (y) − loge (y0) = kt, and hence
1 1

loge (y) = kt + loge (y0)


1 1 (29)
If we recognize loge (0y) as a simple variable (call it Y if you like) then we see that Equation 29 has the general
1

form of the equation of a straight line (0y = mx + c), so if we plot loge (0y) against t, we should expect to get a
1

straight line with gradient k that intersects the vertical axis at loge (0y0). If the results do not follow an exponential
1

law, the graph will not be a straight line. ☞

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Question T21
Figure 18 shows graphs of the 2 2
results from two (hypothetical)
experiments. Which graph
shows that the relationship
between y and t follows an
exponential law, and what is the

log10(y)

log10(y)
value of k in that case? ❏3

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t t
(a) (b)

Figure 18 3 See Question T21.

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Similar techniques can be used for variables that obey a power law, i.e. a relation of the form y = k x0p
(or y = kt p) where the power, p, is some constant number. For example, suppose you think that variables F and r
1

might obey a power law of the form


k
F = 2 (30) ☞
r
where k is an unknown constant. How can you test your hypothesis experimentally? And how can you find the
value of k? The properties of logarithms, as summarized in Equations 22–25, provide a way. First, write the
expression F = k/r2 in terms of log10 (F0) and log10 (r), using Equation 23:
1 1

loga (x/y) = loga (x) − loga (y)


1 1 1 (Eqn 23)

log10 (F0) = log10  2  = log10 (k) − log10 (r 2 )


k
(31)
r 
1 1 1 1 1

Then, using Equation 25


loga (xb) = b loga (x)
1 1 1 (Eqn 25)

we find: log10 (F) = −2 log10 (r) + log10 (k)


1 1 1 1 (32) ☞

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✦ Suppose you were to plot a graph of log 10 (F0) against log10 (r). What would be its gradient and its intercept
1 1

☞ on the vertical axis?

Plotting a graph using logarithms thus enables you: to test the data to see whether they follow the expected
exponential law, and to find the value of the constant k. Note that you do not have to use logs to base 10, since
Equations 22–25 apply to logs to any base a. This technique can be summarized as follows:

if y = kx0p

then loga (0y) = p loga (x) + loga (k)


1 1 1 1 (33)
so a graph of loga (0y) against loga (x) has gradient p and intercept log a (k). The logs may have any base,
1 1 1

though bases 10 or e are generally used.

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Question T22
According to one of Kepler’s laws of planetary motion ☞ , the orbital period, T, of a planet is related to its
(average) distance, R, from the Sun: T 2 = kR 3 . What would be the gradient of a graph of log10 (T0) against
1 1

log10 (R)? What would be the gradient if log to base e was used rather than base 10? ❏
1 3

Question T23
An experimenter measures the period of oscillation, T, of various masses m supported by a spring and suggests,
on theoretical grounds, that T ∝ m . How could the experimental data be tested to see whether T ∝ m ? ❏3

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4 Closing items
4.1 Module summary
1 If the graph of some function y(t) is a straight line, then the rate of change of y is constant, and is equal to
the gradient of the graph. If the graph is a curve, then the rate of change at any point is defined by the
gradient of the tangent to the curve at that point.
2 If the rate of change of a variable is always proportional to the current value of that variable, then we can
say that variable changes exponentially. If we represent the variable by y, and its rate of change by ∆y/∆t,
we can write ∆y/∆t = ky, where a positive value of k characterizes exponential growth, and a negative value
of k characterises exponential decay.
3 If ∆y/∆t = ky, then y(t) = y0 exp (kt), where the exponential function exp (kt) = ekt. The units of k are such that
1 1 1

kt is a dimensionless quantity.
4 The following relationships are a consequence of the general properties of powers:
exey = e0x + y
1 1

(ex)y = exy
1
e− x = x
e
ex/y = (e1/y)x

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5 Exponential functions are not restricted to describing changes with time. For example, the function exp (kx) 1

(with k such that kx is dimensionless) could describe how a quantity varies with position or any other
quantity.
6 The constant, e, is given in terms of a limit by:
e = lim (1 + 1 m) = 2.718 (to three decimal places)
m
m →∞
7 The logarithm to base a of x is the power to which we must raise a to obtain x. So, if x = a y , then
y = loga (x). The function loga (x) is thus the inverse of the function ax, hence a loga ( x ) = x and loga (ax) = x.
1 1 1

8 The most widely-used logarithmic functions have a = 10 and a = e.


9 Any function ax can be written in terms of the exponential function: ax = exp (cx), where c = loge (a).
1 1

10 The following relationships arise from the definition of a logarithmic function and the rules for combining
indices:
loga (xy) = loga (x) + loga (0y)
1 1 1 (Eqn 22)
loga (x/y) = loga (x) − loga (0y)
1 1 1 (Eqn 23)
loga (1/x) = −loga (x)
1 1 (Eqn 24)
loga (xb) = b loga (x)
1 1 1 (Eqn 25)

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11 The base (a or b) of any logarithmic function can be changed using the relationship
loga (x) × logb (a) = logb (x)
1 1 1 (Eqn 27)
So loga (x) = loge (x)/c, where c = loge (a).
1 1 1

12 If y = y0 exp (kt), then loge (0y) = loge (0y0) + kt, and a graph of log e (0y) against t has gradient k and intercept
1 1 1 1 1

loge (0y0).
1

13 If y and x are related via a power law, y = kx0p , then


loga (0y) = p loga (x) + loga (k)
1 1 1 1 (Eqn 33)
and a graph of loga (y) against loga (x) has gradient p and intercept loga (k).
1 1 1

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4.2 Achievements
Having completed this module, you should be able to:
A1 Define the terms that are emboldened and flagged in the margins of the module.
A2 Recognize examples of exponential change.
A3 Estimate the gradient at a point on a curved graph by drawing a tangent.
A4 Sketch a graph of y = y0 exp (kt) and describe its significant features.
1 1

A5 Write down an expression for the rate of change of y, where y = y0 exp (kt), for any given value of t or y.
1 1

A6 Recognize and interpret the common expression for the number e written in terms of a limit.
A7 Explain the relationships between the functions loga (x), ax and antilog (x) and know that many common
1 1

applications of such functions use a = e or a = 10.


A8 Sketch graphs of y = loge x and y = log10 x and describe their significant features.
1 1

A9 Find the value of c such that at = ect.


A10 Manipulate and simplify expressions involving logarithmic and exponential functions of products,
quotients and powers.

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A11 Change the base of a logarithmic function and find the value of c such that loga (x) = loge (x)/c.
1 1

A12 Use a calculator to evaluate exponential functions, and logarithmic functions in base e and base 10.
A13 Use logarithmic functions to test whether experimental data obey an exponential law or a power law, and
to find the values of unknown constants in such relationships.

Study comment You may now wish to take the Exit test for this module which tests these Achievements.
If you prefer to study the module further before taking this test then return to the Module contents to review some of the
topics.

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4.3 Exit test y
100
Study comment Having completed this module,
you should be able to answer the following
questions, each of which tests one or more of the
Achievements. 80

Question E1
60
(A2 and A3) Figure 19 shows how a certain
3

variable y changes with x.


By drawing tangents, estimate the gradient 40
∆y/∆x at y = 20, y = 40 and y = 60.
Are your answers consistent with y being an
exponential function of x? 20

−1 0 1 2 x

Figure 19 See Question E1.


3

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Question E2
(A4, A5 and A11) For the function y = y0 exp (kt) with y0 = 3 and k = 0.1, (a) state a general expression for the
3 1 1

gradient of the graph at any value of t, (b) calculate the gradient of the graph when t = 0 and when t = 2, and
(c) sketch a graph of the function.

Question E3

(A9) 3 Rewrite the equation y = 10bx in terms of the exponential function exp (x).
1

Question E4

(A10) Given that log10 (3) = 0.477 and log10 (2) = 0.301, evaluate the following without using a calculator: (a)
3 1 1

log10 (300), (b) log10 (6), (c) log10 (60).


1 1 1

Question E5

(A7 and A10) Without using your calculator, simplify


3

(a) exp [loge (π)], (b) loge (eπ), and (c) log π π 2 .
1 1 1 ( )

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Question E6
(A11 and A12) 3 Find loge (π) and loge (2) on your calculator and hence evaluate
1 1

log2 (π).
1

Question E7
(A12 and A13) The results of an (hypothetical) experiment are given in Table 5.
3 Table 5 See Question E7.
Suppose the data obey a law of the form T = kA α . Find k and α by plotting a A T
suitable graph.
1 0.70
3 1.46
6 2.31
10 3.25
20 5.16
30 6.76
45 8.86

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Study comment This is the final Exit test question. When you have completed the Exit test go back to Subsection 1.2 and
try the Fast track questions if you have not already done so.

If you have completed both the Fast track questions and the Exit test, then you have finished the module and may leave it
here.

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