Metacognition: An Overview 20

Chapter 2

METACOGNITION: AN OVERVIEW
2.1. Conceptual Evolution of Metacognition

2.2. Components of Metacognition

2.3. Metacognitive skills

2.4. Metacognitive strategies

2.5. Importance of Metacognitive Strategies

2.6. The Problem Solving Cycle

Metacognition: An Overview 21

METACOGNITION: AN OVERVIEW
Education is the process of all round development of an individual. Education
is the main tool to develop the innate potentialities of an individual. It makes one to
not only realize his/her potentialities but also enables one to use them for the
development of oneself and the society. Around the world, major changes in the
design of curricula and the methodologies for teaching learning have been driven by
the need to adopt learner centered approaches to education with the view that learners
would emerge empowered, capable of autonomous, life long learning skills. Such
initiatives have also attempted to bridge the gap between ‘knowing what’ and
‘knowing how’ a dichotomy which was seen to be a fundamental weakness of teacher
centered approaches stems from one aim: It is to make student learning possible. In
recent years, higher education has begun to accommodate this aim as evidenced by
the focus on the use of constructivist learning environment (Jonassen, 1999), open
ended learning environments (Land and Hannafin, 1996), microworlds and anchored
instruction (cognition and technology group, 1992), problem based learning (Savery
and Duffy, 1995) and goal based scenarios (Schank and Cleary, 1995).

Students at almost any age are capable of taking charge of their own learning.
Self Regulated Learning is a fairly new construct in research on student performance
and achievement in class room settings. Recently, several scholars have suggested
that SRL skills (Self Regulated Learning Skills) are important not only for students in
traditional te’te – a tete classroom setting but also for the students participating in a
web-based learning environment / online education.

Self-regulated learners know how to plan and control the time and effort to be
used on tasks, and they know how to create and structure favourable learning
environments, and direct their mental process towards the achievement of personal
goals i.e. Metacognition. They are able to put into play a series of volitional strategies,
aimed at avoiding external and internal distractions in order to maintain their
concentration, effort and motivation while performing academic tasks. They are
flexible and analyze reasons why learning did not occur as planned and then revises
the approach to circumvent the problem. They are initiators of the learning process
Metacognition: An Overview 22

and accept greater responsibility for their achievement, choose cognitive strategies
that have higher payouts they seek to understand ideas and material rather than just
memorize and recall.

Therefore, it is necessary to promote self regulated learning skills among the

children to make new and useful adaptations to the emerging challenges in our global
environment. So the focus is on examining the conceptual foundations of
metacognition, metacognitive skills and metacognitive strategies.

2.1 Conceptual Evolution of Metacognition

Metacognition is one of the latest buzz words in educational psychology. It

refers to higher order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive
processes engaged in learning.

Cognition is the mental processing of information, which is the function of

human mind that allows perceptions to grow into conceptions. When we have control
over our own cognitive functions that is termed as metacognition. It is the combined
monitoring and regulation of one’s own thinking processes. It is a conscious
verification of one’s personal cognitive status that allows a person to develop and
expand upon new knowledge. Metacognitive Skills predict success in academic
endeavours and other areas of life. It plays an important role in communication,
reading comprehension, language acquisition, social cognition, attention, self control,
memory, self-instruction, problem solving and personality development (Cooper,
1999).

Metacognition is a broadly defined concept incorporating any knowledge or

cognitive process that refers to monitors or controls any aspect of cognition, it is now
seen as a central contributor to many aspects of cognition including memory,
attention, communication, problem solving and intelligence with important
applications to areas like education, ageing, neuro-psychology and eyewitness
testimony.

The conceptual bases of Cognition and Metacognition were considered by

James (1911) as he began to describe the mechanics of the mental machine. American
Metacognition: An Overview 23

Novelist Henry, also described early concepts of cognition as a choosing activity or

selective attention.

The notion of a learner, as a personal creator and constructor of knowledge

was suggested by U.S. Philosopher and educator Dewey in 1859.

Dewey (1902) expressed that ‘Learning is an active process’. It involves reaching out
of one’s mind. It involves organic assimilation from within.

The inductive vision of learning through observation is a prime component of Dewey

and was exhibited in his book, ‘how we think’. He was one of the first educators to
take a scientific look at thinking from a metacognition view point. He proposed two-
distinct metacognition phases of reflective thought.

1. A conscious recognition of doubt where desired knowledge is obscured in

some way causing a state of perplexity.

2. The active thinking process required relieving this difficulty as an act of

searching, hunting, inquiring, to find material that will resolve the double
settle and dispose of the perplexity (Dewas, 1900).

Dewey recognized and described the cognitive processes of self monitoring,

and self regulation, and provided an early conceptual design of metacognition.

Most references directed to the nascent studies of metacognition, single out

from the work of Piaget (1980-1996), a Swiss psychologist and philosopher. His
initial studies illustrated early metacognitive activity in children. According to him,
the young is directing cognition, but is not yet conscious of the evolving thought
processes, which he/she displays. Some of Piaget’s later research with older children
described an evolving ability on the part of these learners to verbalize the actual step
by step processes utilized to complete assigned tasks. Piaget termed this awareness
and narrative ability as, “consciousness of cognizance”, which we call metacognition
for this function.

During the period of early research, another provocative cognitive researcher,

the Russian psychologist Vygotsky (1896-1934) involved in the area of conceptual
Metacognition: An Overview 24

development. Vygotsky observed that children naturally make sense of any task with
the use of speech as a tool, first verbalizing a situation to make sense of it and then
internalizing this speech as part of self regulated thought. An individual continues to
use his/her private inner language to think, which Vygotsky (1933) labelled as one’s
“inner voice”. People often talk to themselves to reinforce their own concrete
experiences and or to link their experiences to those of others. This cognizant use of
inner speech to direct personal learning is a primary criterion of what could be
labelled as the Vygotskian, metacognitive theory and it clearly resembles the
cognitive psychology of executive control.

U.S. Researchers, such as Flavell and Wellman (1977), Borkowski (1979)

realized that the learners could demonstrate previously undisclosed and unexplored
control processes of learning and thinking. Both the cognitive researchers and
computer programmers emphasized an information processing model of learning and
they applied the term ‘executive process’ when they describe the strategic control of
thinking process. Neiser (1967) was one of the first psychologists who attempted to
illustrate the concept of an executive thinking ability. Executive process is a control
mechanism used to organize cognition, to harness and orchestrate the various
cognitive skills, such as memory, the recognition of icons and verbal cues etc., which
is a metacognitive process. The executive process is multifaceted and can be
considered as inseparable element of a more expansive thinking activity that
comprehensively monitors, evaluates, and regulates the information flow of the
human cognitive system.

Flavell (1970) a cognitive researcher, professor of psychology, introduced the

term, metacognition. Flavell (1977) was the first to recognize that specific strategies
for remembering, categorizing and recalling, needed information, which can be
consciously directed by learners. Metacognition is defined as “cognition about
cognition or knowing about knowing”. In Flavell’s words metacognition refers to
one’s knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive processes or anything related to
them eg:- the learning - relevant properties of information or data. For example, I am
engaging in metacognition if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A than
Metacognition: An Overview 25

B; if it strikes me that I should double check C before accepting it as fact (Begum &
Mohan, 2007).

2.2 Components of Metacognition

Metacognition is often simply defined as, “thinking about thinking”. In

actuality, defining metacognition is not that simple. Although the term has been part
of the vocabulary of educational psychologists for the last couple of decades, and the
concept for as long as humans have been able to reflect on their cognitive
experiences, there is much debate over exactly what metacognition is. One reason for
this confusion is that there are several terms currently used to describe the same basic
phenomenon (eg:- self regulation, executive control), or an aspect of that phenomenon
(eg:- meta memory), and these terms often used interchangeably in the literature.
While there are some distictions between definitions, all emphasize the role of
executive processes in the overseeing and regulation of cognitive processes.

Metacognition is classified into 3 components

2.2.1. Metacognitive Knowledge or Metacognitive Awareness

It is what individuals know about themselves and others as cognitive

processes, knowledge that can be used to control cognitive processes. Flavell further
divides Metacognitive Knowledge into 3 categories: Knowledge of Person variables,
Task variables, Strategy variables.

Knowledge of Person variables refers to general knowledge about how

human beings learn and process information, as well as individual’s knowledge of
one’s own learning processes.

Knowledge of Task variables include knowledge about the nature of the task
as well as the type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual.

Knowledge of Strategy variables include knowledge about both cognitive

and metacognitive strategies, as well as conditional knowledge about when and where
it is appropriate to use such strategies.
Metacognition: An Overview 26

Metacognitive Awareness involves 3 kinds of content knowledge.

Declarative Knowledge is the factual information that one knows; it can be

declared, spoken or written. An example is knowing the formula for calculating
momentum in a physics class (Momentum = Mass times velocity)

Procedural Knowledge is knowledge of how to do something, of how to

perform the steps in a process. For example, knowing the mass of an object and its
rate speed and how to do the calculation. Monitor the selection and application as well
as the effects of solution processes and regulate the stream of solution activity that
represents, according to Kluwe (1982). Metacognitive Procedural Knowledge, Kluwe
uses the term executive processes to denote this kind of Procedural Knowledge.
Executive processes involve both monitoring and regulating other thought processes,
and therefore correspond with Flavell’s (1979) Metacognitive Strategies and Brown’s
(1978) Metacognitive Skills. Executive monitoring processes are those that are
“directed at the acquisition of information about the person’s thinking processes they
involve one’s decisions that help.

to identify the task on which one is currently working

to check on current progress of that work

to evaluate that progress

to predict what the outcome of progress will be. Executive regulation
processes are those that are “directed at the regulation of the course of
one’s own thinking”. This involve one’s decisions that help

to allocate his or her resources to the current task

to determine the order of steps to be taken to complete the task

to set the intensity

the speed at which one should work the task
Thus the general distinction between Procedural and Declarative Knowledge and
the finer distinctions between what is and is not metacognitive within which each kind
of knowledge has helped to further define metacognition and cognitive monitoring.

Conditional Knowledge is knowledge about when to use a procedure, skill or

strategy and when not to use it; why a procedure works and under what conditions;
Metacognition: An Overview 27

and why one procedure is better than another. For example, students need to
recognize that an exam word problem requires the calculation of momentum as part of
its solution. In Anderson’s Act Theory, however, Conditional Knowledge is regarded
as an intrinsic part of Procedural Knowledge, which is represented by condition -
action rules.

This notion of three kinds of knowledge applies to learning strategies as well

as course content when they study; students need the Declarative Knowledge that (1)
all reading assignments are not alike; for example, that a history textbook chapter with
factual information differs from a primary historical document, which is different
from an article interpreting or analyzing that document. They need to know that
stories and novels differ from arguments. Furthermore they need to know that there
are different kinds of note taking strategies useful for annotating these different types
of texts. And (2) students need to know how to actually write different kinds of notes
(Procedural Knowledge), and (3) they need to know when to apply these kinds of
notes when they study (Conditional Knowledge).

2.2.2. Metacognitive Regulation

Metacognitive Experiences involve the use of Metacognitive Strategies or

Metacognitive Regulation (Brown, 1987). Metacognitive strategies are sequential
processes that one uses to control cognitive activities, and to ensure that a cognitive
goal (eg:- understanding a text) has been met. These processes help to regulate and
oversee learning, and consist of planning and monitoring cognitive activities, as well
as checking the outcomes of those activities. Thus metacognitive regulation is the
regulation of cognition and learning experiences through a set of activities that help
people control their learning.

For example, after reading a paragraph in a text, a learner may question herself
about the concepts discussed in the paragraph. Her cognitive goal is to understand the
text. Self questioning is a common Metacognitive Comprehension Monitoring
Strategy. If she finds that she cannot answer her own questions, or that she does not
understand the material discussed, she must then determine what needs to be done to
ensure that she meets the cognitive goal of understanding the text. She may decide to
Metacognition: An Overview 28

go back and reread the paragraph with the goal of being able to answer the questions
she had generated if, after rereading through the text she can now answer the
questions, she may determine that she understands the material. Thus, the
Metacognitive Strategy of self questioning is used to ensure that the cognitive goal of
comprehension is met.

2.2.3. Metacognitive Experiences

Metacognitive experiences are those experiences that have something to do

with the current, ongoing cognitive endeavour. Metacognitive experiences usually
precede or follow a cognitive activity. They often occur when cognitions fail, such as
the recognition that one did not understand what one just read. Such an impasse is
believed to activate metacognitive processes as the learner attempts to rectify the
situation.

Metacognition, or the ability to control one’s cognitive processes (self

regulation) has been linked to intelligence (Borokowski et al., 1987, Brown, 1987,
Sternberg, 1984, 1986). Sternberg refers to these executive processes as
“Metacomponents in his triarchic theory of control, other cognitive components as
well as receive feed back from these components. According to Sternberg,
Metacomponents are responsible for “figuring out how to do a particular task or set of
tasks, and then making sure that the task or set of tasks are done correctly” (Sternberg,
1986). These executive processes involve planning, evaluating, monitoring and
problem solving activities. Sternberg maintains that the ability to appropriately
allocate cognitive resources, such as deciding how and when a given task should be
accomplished is central to intelligence.

Flavell (1979) offered a model of Metacognition with four components.

Metacognitive knowledge

Metacognitive experience

Goals (tasks)

Actions (strategies)
Metacognition: An Overview 29

Cognitive Strategy Metacognitive Strategy

Metacognitive Knowledge Cognitive Goal

Task Self Strategy

Figure 2.1 Flavell’s Model of Metacognition

Metacognitive Knowledge refers to the personal perspectives of one’s own learning

abilities as well as others.

Metacognitive knowledge refers to one’s stored world knowledge that “has to

do people as cognitive creatures and with their diverse cognitive tasks, goals, actions
and experiences. It consists of one’s knowledge or beliefs about three general factors:
his or her own nature or nature of another as a cognitive processor, a task, its
demands, and how those demands can be met under varying conditions; and strategies
for accomplishing the task (cognitive strategies that are involved to make progress
toward goals and metacognitive strategies that are invoked to monitor the progress of
cognitive strategies). Metacognitive knowledge may influence the course of cognitive
Metacognition: An Overview 30

enterprises through a deliberate and conscious memory search or through unconscious

and automatic cognitive processes. Metacognitive knowledge may lead to a wide
variety of Metacognitive experience, which Flavell describes a conscious cognitive
affective experience that accompany and pertain to an intellectual enterprise.

Metacognitive experience is the conscious consideration of intellectual

experiences that accompany any success or failure in learning.

Metacognitive goals or tasks of metacognition are the actual objectives of

cognitive endeavour, such as reading and comprehension of a passage.

Metacognitive actions or strategies refer to the utilization of specific

techniques that may assist in understanding.

Metamemory involves two processes, the first process monitors progress as

an individual learns and the second makes changes and adopts various strategies
if a person believes that they are not doing well (Nelson and Narens, 1994;
Ridley, et al. ,1992).

According to Martinez, to give a sense of the breadth of Metacognitive

functioning identified 3 Major categories of Metacognition

Metamemory

Metacomprehension

Problem Solving

Critical Thinking
Metamemory

One component of metacognition, is about one’s memory capabilities and

strategies that can aid memory, as well as the processes involved in memory self
monitoring. This self awareness of memory has important implications for how
people learn and use memories. When studying, for example, students make
judgments of whether they have successfully learned the assigned material and use
these decisions, known as “Judgments of learning” to allocate study time.
Metacognition: An Overview 31

So, Meta-memory refers to learner’s awareness of and knowledge about their

own memory systems and strategies for using their memories effectively. Meta-
memory includes,

(a) Awareness of different memory strategies

(b) Knowledge of which strategy to use for a particular memory task

(c) Knowledge of how to use a given memory strategy most effectively

Metacomprehension

This term ‘refers to the learners’ ability to monitor the degree to which they
understand the information being communicated to them, to recognize failures to
comprehend, and to employ repair strategies when failures are identified.

Learners with poor Meta-comprehension Skills often finish reading passages

without even knowing that they have not understood them, on the other hand learners
who are more adept at Meta-comprehension will check for confusion or
inconsistency, and undertake a corrective strategy, such as rereading, relating
different parts of the passage to one another looking for topic sentences or summary
paragraphs or relating the current information to prior knowledge (Harris, et al.,1988).

Metamemory and Metacomprehension skills help the learner to make

adjustments in their own learning processes in response to their perception of
feedback regarding their current status of learning. This concept is known as
“self regulation”. Its focus is on the ability of the learners themselves to monitor
their own learning (without external stimuli or persuasion) and to maintain the
attitudes necessary to invoke and employ these strategies on their own. To learn most
effectively, students should not only understand what strategies are available and the
purposes these strategies will serve, but also become capable of adequately selecting,
employing, monitoring and evaluating their use of these strategies, (Hallahan
et al.,1979; Harris, 1992; Harris, 1989,1993).

This concept involves - self appraisal and self management of cognition.

Self appraisal is people’s personal reflections about their knowledge states and
Metacognition: An Overview 32

abilities and their affective states concerning their knowledge, abilities, motivation
and characteristics as learners. Such reflections answer questions about “what you
know, how you think, and when and why to apply knowledge or strategies” (Paris &
Winograd, 1990). Self management refers to “Metacognition in action”, that is,
mental processes that help to “orchestrate aspects of problem solving”. Focusing on
self appraisal and self management helps in the conceptualization of learners as
individuals who need to be actively involved in the orchestration of their knowledge
construction.

Problem Solving

This almost exclusively human pursuit is a significant category of cognitive activity.

Problem solving is exercised daily, often continuously, especially in a complex
society where following established rules and procedures is not enough to succeed.
Problem solving can defined simply as the pursuit of a goal when the path to that goal
is uncertain.

In other words, it’s what you do, when you don’t know what you are doing.
Problem solving certainly involves cognition. But more is required: constantly
stepping back mentally to appraise and rework plans by asking such questions as,
what am I trying to accomplish? What are the most promising pathways? Is my
strategy working?

Critical Thinking

Like problem solving, critical thinking encompasses a lot of what human beings do or
at least potentially can do while problem solving and critical thinking are distinct
functions they can be seen as complementary. Critical thinking is evaluating ideas for
their quality, especially, judging whether or not they make sense. There are many
metacognitive standards that apply to thinking critically, for example, when
evaluating ideas or messages, we can ask:

Is the idea stated clearly?

Does one idea follow logically from another?
Metacognition: An Overview 33

Is the message logical, rational and coherent? Or does it

contradict itself or make unwarranted inferences or
unsupportable generalizations?
Critical thinking can take very specific forms. In fact, the methods of inquiry
used in science and those used in other domains can be viewed as specialized tools
developed over many years to focus on a more basic and general orientation to critical
thinking.

Metamemory

Critical Thinking Metacognition Problem Solving

Metacomprehension

Figure 2.2 Michel E. Martinez’s Model of Metacognitive Functioning

2.3 Metacognitive Skills

Metacognitive skillfulness is often distinguished from Metacognitive

Knowledge. The latter concept refers to the Declarative knowledge one has about the
interplay between personal characteristics, task characteristics and the available
strategies in a learning situation (Flavell, 1979). Metacognitive knowledge, however,
does not automatically lead to appropriate execution of Metacognitive skills.

Metacognitive skills concern the Procedural knowledge that pertains to the

actual regulation of, and control over one’s cognitive processes and learning
Metacognition: An Overview 34

activities. They are occasionally referred to as Executive Skills (Kluwe, 1987). These
skills can be acquired and eventually executed implicitly though some argue that
awareness of their metacognitive nature is pre-requisite. Metacognitive skills are
important organizers of all of the tasks that we perform. They enable planning, setting
goals, initiating work, sustaining future - oriented problem solving activities,
monitoring and managing progress on tasks to detect and correct errors, and keeping
track of the effect of one’s behaviour towards others.

Metacognitive Skills appear to be highly interdependent, by means of

thorough orientation of a task, a metacognitively skilled student is likely to focus on
relevant information given in the task assignment necessary for building an adequate
task representation. Consequently, goals and directions for subsequent learning
activities, such an elaborate action plan entails the possibility of process control
during task performance. Working systematically according to that plan may enable
the student to keep track of the progress being made. Evaluation or monitoring
activities, which are necessary for detecting faulty procedures and mistakes, are more
fruitful within the frame work of such an action plan. Finally, elaboration activities
like drawing conclusions, recapitulating, and generating explanations are more helpful
if they are based on a clear trace of activities (Veenman et al., 1997).

Metcognitive skills are

Task Analysis

Planning

Monitoring

Checking or evaluation

Recapitulation

Reflection
These skills include taking conscious control of learning, planning and selecting
strategies, monitoring the progress of learning, correcting errors, analyzing the
effectiveness of learning strategies and changing learning behaviours and strategies
when necessary.
Metacognition: An Overview 35

2.3.1 Task Analysis involves the following

To identity the task on which one is currently working.

Consciously identify what you already know

Define the learning goal

Consider your personal resources
(eg:- text books, access to library, access to a computer work
station or a quiet study area)

Consider the task requirements

Determine how your performance will be evaluated

Consider your motivational level

Determine your level of anxiety
2.3.2 Planning

Estimate the time required to complete the task

Plan study time into our schedule and set priorities

Make a checklist of what needs to happen when

Organize materials

Take the necessary steps to learn by using strategies like
outlining, mnemonic, diagramming etc.
2.3.3 Monitoring and Reflection

Reflect on the learning process, keeping track of what

works and what doesn’t work for you

Monitor your own learning by questioning and
selftesting

Provide your own feed back

Keep concentration and motivation high
The act of Reflection involves an examination of stems of cognition, an examination
which includes analysis, evaluation of progress in terms of plans, monitoring and
modification of cognition.
Metacognition: An Overview 36

2.3.4 Evaluation

Evaluation means checking one’s own solution to the problem against the
standard procedure of solving strategy.

2.3.5 Recapitulation

To obtain feed back and to make adjustments regarding their effective use of
the process. It enables them to transfer the process to new situations beyond those in
which it has already been used.

Learners with good metacognitive skills are able to monitor and direct their
own learning processes. When learning a metacognitive skill, learners typically go
through the following steps.

 They establish a motivation to learn a metacognitive process. This

occurs when either they themselves, or some one else, help them to
know how to apply the process.
 They focus their attention on what is, that they or someone else does
that is metacognitively useful. This proper focusing of attention puts
the necessary information into working memory sometimes this
focusing of attention can occur through modeling. Sometimes it occurs
during personal experience.

 They talk to themselves about the metacognitive process. This talk can
arise during their interactions with others. But it is their talk to
themselves that is essential. This self talk serves several purposes,

It enables them to understand and encode the process

It enables them to practise the process

It enables them to obtain feed back and to make adjustments
regarding there effective use of the process

It enables them to transfer the process to new situations

Eventually they begin to use the process without being aware
that they are doing so
Metacognition: An Overview 37

2.4. Metacognitive Strategies

Taylor (2002) defines metacognition as “an appreciation of what one already

knows, together with a correct apprehension of the learning task and what knowledge
and skills it requires. Combined with the ability to make correct inferences about how
to apply one’s strategic knowledge to a particular situation and to do so efficiently and
reliably”.

The more students are aware of their thinking processes as they learn, the
more they can control such matters as goals, dispositions, attention (Marzano et al.,
1988).

Motivation
Study Attribution
Self
strategies efficacy

Metacognition

Monitoring
Reflector
and self
assessment

Figure- 2.3 Metacognition- The Central Process

Student who possess metacognitive skills are more likely to learn effectively than
those who lack these skills. Through certain metacognitive strategies we can develop
these skills among students.
Metacognition: An Overview 38

Planning

1. Advance organizers: It is previewing of main ideas and concept of the

material to be learned. It is carried out by skimming the concepts behind at the
physical principle ideas for the organization of the learning material.

2. Directed Attention: It involves deciding in advance to attend in general a

learning task and to ignore irrelevant distracters. It clearly diverts students’
attention towards a particular concept, principle or idea.

3. Functional planning: For relating respective formula is necessary to

carryout solving strategy, it involves visualization of the concept using simple
diagrams relating the known to the unknown.

4. Selective Attention: It involves deciding in advance to attend a specific

skill which involves solving a problem. This is done by searching the physical
terms, deriving units etc.

5. Self management: means management of or by oneself. It means taking of

responsibility for one’s own thinking process and directing one’s own
knowledge.

Monitoring

6. Self monitoring: means checking one’s own level of understanding and

planning process for problem solving during the treatment.

7. Regulating : It involves regulating one’s own thinking process during the

planning and organizing procedure.

8. Orchestrating: It consists of planning and adjusting for problem solving

i.e. arranging or directing the elements of a situation to produce a desired effect.

Evaluating

9. Self evaluation: It is checking one’s own solution to the problem against

the standard procedure of solving strategy (Flavell, 1979).
Metacognition: An Overview 39

Metacognitive Orientation & Enhancement of Learning Process:

PROCESS

Metacognitive Orientation

 Awareness of one’s cognitive process to

meet the demands for a given task
Advanced Organizer

 Acquisition of knowledge & initial

prediction about the problem
 Reflection in action
 Awareness of one’s thinking
 Developing the plan of action
 Developing logical thinking

Metaattention

 Motivating to respond
 Attending stimuli of the task
Metamemory

 Knowing one’s memory systems

Metacomprehension

 Comprehending the problems

 Acquisition of new knowledge
 Developing logical reasoning
Orchestration

Self –monitoring

 Selection of appropriate strategies to the

given problem
Metacognition: An Overview 40

 Knowing the progress towards the solution

 Perceiving the difficulty

Self-Regulation &

Self-Management

 Fostering creativity to allocate resources to

the current task
 Developing heuristic attitude
 Reduction of anxiety

Evaluation

 Regulation of cognitive and affective status to

attain the solution
 Setting intensity and speed to work with the
problem
Perceived Self-Efficiency

Reflection on action

 Developing strategic competency

 Promoting self confidence
 Originality
 Appreciation
 Interest in problem solving
Metacognition: An Overview 41

2.5. Importance of Metacognitive strategies.

As students become more skilled at using metacognitive strategies, they gain

confidence and become more independent as learners. Independence leads to
ownership as students realize that they can pursue their intellectual needs and discover
a world of information at their fingertips. The task of educators is to acknowledge,
cultivate, exploit and enhance the metacognitive capabilities of all learners. One
general aspect of metacognition is the periodic appraisal of one’s thinking. It is useful
for teachers and students alike because it is reflection on the dynamics of teaching and
learning, the core of education and a first step to change or revise one’s approach. The
following figure depicts how metacognitive strategy promotes deep learning through
metacognitive skills.

SETTING THE INTERVENTION GOAL

DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE LEARNING TASK

LEARINING TASK

MASTER OF THE LEARNING TASKS

THROUGH

1. ORIENTATION
2. PLANNING
3. SELF MONITORING
4. TESTING
5. REPAIRING
6. SELF-REGULATION

ORCHESTRATION OF OPERATIONS

EXECUTION/REEXECUTION OF OPERATIONS
IDENTIFICATIONS

REFLECTION

SELF-EVALUATION

Figure- 2.4 A New Metacognition Model For Training Metacognitive Strategies

Metacognition: An Overview 42

Children appear to develop and use increasing metamemory skills and various
other kinds of metacognitive skills. These skills involve the understanding and control
of cognitive processes. Examples are monitoring and modifying one’s own cognitive
processes while one is engaged in tackling cognitive tasks. A major difference
between the memory of younger and older children (as well as adults) is not in basic
mechanisms, but in learned strategies, such as rehearsal (Flavell & Wellman, 1977).
Thus, young children appear to lack not only the knowledge of strategies, but also the
inclination to use them when they do not know about them . Older children
understand that to retain words in short term memory they need to rehearse. Younger
children do not have this understanding. In a nutshell, younger children lack
metamemory skills.

Another aspect of metamemory skill involves cognitive monitoring. In

monitoring, the individual tracks and as needed, readjusts an ongoing train of thought.
Cognitive monitoring may consist of several related skills (Brown, 1978). For
instance, you are realizing “what you know and what you do not know”, you learn to
be aware of your own mind and the degree of your own understanding (Holt, 1964).
Other work on the development of cognitive monitoring proposes a distinction
between self monitoring and self regulation strategies (Nelson and Narren, 1994).
Self monitoring is a bottom up process of keeping track of current understanding
involving the improving ability to predict memory performance accurately. Self
regulation is a top-down process of central executive control over planning and
evaluation. Children benefit from training in using such cognitive monitoring
processes to enhance their use of appropriate strategies.

Metacognition is our understanding and control of our cognition (Schunk and

Nelson, 2003). It provides one of our best aids in language learning. As adults, we
have a great advantage in learning languages. Now, we have greater familiarity with
the structure of languages than we had when we were young. The extent to which
metacognition helps, however, depends on how similar a new language is to the
language or languages we already know.
Metacognition: An Overview 43

2.6. The Problem Solving Cycle

We engage in problem solving when we need to overcome obstacles to answer

a question or to achieve a goal. If we quickly can retrieve an answer from memory,
we do not have a problem. If we cannot retrieve an immediate answer, then we have a
problem to be solved. Problem solving cycle includes the following.

Problem Identification

As odd as it sounds, identifying a situation as problematic is sometimes a

difficult step. We may try to recognize that we have a goal. Or we might fail to
recognize that our path to a goal is obstructed or we might fail to recognize that the
solution we had in mind does not work.

Problem Definition and Representation

Once we identify the existence of a problem we have to define and represent

the problem well enough to understand how to solve it. If inaccurately define and
represent the problem we are much less able to solve it.

Strategy Formulation

Once the problem has been defined effectively, next step is to plan a strategy
for solving it. The strategy may involve,

Analysis-breaking down the whole of a complex problem into manageable element

Synthesis- putting together various elements to arrange them into something useful.
As in most dichotomies, one must be careful of drawing too much of a distinction
(Kotovsky, 2003). People use analysis to help in synthesizing information. They may
also use synthesis to help in analysis.

Divergent thinking – generates a diverse assortment of possible alternative solutions

to a problem,

Convergent thinking – narrows down the multiple possibilities to converge on a

single best answer. In solving real life problems, we need both analysis and synthesis
Metacognition: An Overview 44

and both divergent and convergent thinking. There is no single ideal strategy for
addressing every problem. Instead the optimal strategy depends on both the problem
and the problem solvers’ personal preferences in problem – solving methods.

Organization of Information

In this stage we try to integrate all of the information that will need to
effectively do the task at hand. It might involve collecting references or even
collecting your own ideas. Sometimes, people fail to solve a problem not because they
cannot solve it, but because they do not realize what information they have or how it
fits together. Once a strategy has been formulated we are ready to organize the
available information in a way that enable us to implement the strategy. Through out
problem solving cycle, we are constantly organizing and reorganizing the available
information.

Resource Allocation

In addition to our other problems, most of us face the problem of having

limited resources. These resources include time, money, equipment and space. Some
problems are worth a lot of time and other resources. More over we need to know
when to allocate which resources. Studies show that expert problem solvers (and
better students) tend to devote more of their mental resources to global planning than
do novice problem solvers. By spending more time in advance deciding what to do,
effective students are less likely to fall prey to false starts, winding paths, and all
kinds of errors. When a person allocates more mental resources to planning on a large
scale he or she is able to save time and energy and to avoid frustration later on.

Monitoring

Good problem solvers check up on themselves all along the way to make sure
that they are getting closer to their goal. If they are not, they reassess what they are
doing. They may conclude that they have made a false start, that they got off track
somewhere along the way, or even that they see a more promising path if they take a
new direction.
Metacognition: An Overview 45

Evaluation

Just as we need to monitor a problem while we are in the process of solving it,
we need to evaluate the solution. Through evaluation, a new problem may be
recognized. Moreover, the problems may be redefined, and new strategies may come
to light. New resources may also become available or existing ones may be used more
effectively. Hence the cycle is completed when it leads to new insights and
beginnings.

1
Problem
identification

7 2
Evaluating Definition of the
problem solving Problem

6 3
constructing a
monitoring strategy for
problem solving problem solving

4
5
Organizing
Allocation of
information
resources
about a problem

Figure 2.5 Sternberg’s Problem Solving Cycle

So metacognition refers to a level of thinking that involves active control

over the process of thinking that is used in learning situations. Planning the way to
approach a learning task, monitoring, comprehending and evaluating the progress
towards the completion of a task. These are skills that are metacognitive in nature.
The theory of metacognition has a critical role to play in successful learning means it
 Metacognition: An Overview 46

is important that it can be demonstrated both by students and teachers alike. The
following figure depicts the process, components and skills of metacognition.

Metacognition(knowledge about cognition)

“Meta-knowing”(Kuhn, 1999,2000)

Knowledge about mental world Knowledge about memory(“metamemory” Flavell, 1971)

“metacognitive knowing”(Kuhn,1999,2000) “metastrategic knowing “(Kuhn,1999,2000)

“Theory –of-mind” research Declarative metamemory Procedural metamemory

“Variables” category
• Understanding of false belief “sensitivity” category
(Flavell and Wellman,1977)
• Understanding of mental states (Flavell and Wellman, 1977)
such as desires, emotions, • knowledge about person,
attention, consciousness, etc task, and strategy variables
• Understanding of mental verbs

Monitoring component
Control and self- regulation component
(Nelson and Narens, 1990, 1994)
(Nelson and Narens, 1990, 1994)
• ease-of-learning (EOL) • knowledge of recall readiness
judgments
• judgments of learning (JOLs) • allocation of study time

• feeling of knowledge( FOK)

Figure 2.6 Taxonomy of metacognition components