Complex Variables

Dipok Deb
Lecturer
Department of mathematics, SUST
Why Complex Variables:
► The concept of complex geometry and Argand plane is very much useful
in constructing buildings and cars. This concept is used in 2-D designing
of buildings and cars. It is also very useful in cutting tools. Another
possibility to use complex numbers in simple mechanics might be to use
them to represent rotations.
► In Fluid dynamics, complex functions are used to describe potential flow in
two dimensions.
► Fluid Dynamics and its sub disciplines Aerodynamics, Hydrodynamics,
and Hydraulics have a wide range of applications. For example, they are
used in calculating forces and moments on aircraft, the mass flow of
petroleum through pipelines, and prediction of weather patterns.
► Complex numbers are used in signal analysis and other fields for a
convenient description for periodically varying signals.
Complex Number:

Imaginary
part

Real part
Graphical representation of Complex
Number:

Imaginary axis

Real axis

Argand Plane (W plane)

►
► Modulus and argument:

O
►
➢ Properties of Complex Number:
► If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, then, 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 and 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 = 𝑦
► 𝑧 2 = −𝑧 2 = 𝑧ҧ 2 = −𝑧 ҧ 2 = 𝑧 𝑧ҧ
► 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧ഥ1 + 𝑧ഥ2 , 𝑧Ӗ = 𝑧, 𝑧 + 𝑧ҧ = 𝑧 + 𝑧ҧ
► 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2
► 𝑧1 𝑧2 … … … 𝑧𝑛 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 … … … 𝑧𝑛
► 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
► 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛
► 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
Geometrical Interpretation of Complex
equation:
► Problem: Describe geometrically the region of the following
𝑧−4 > 𝑧
𝑌
Ans: let, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
Then, 𝑧 − 4 > 𝑧
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 4 > 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑋
⇒ (𝑥 − 4)2 +𝑦 2 > 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑶

⇒ 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 𝑦 2 > 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
⇒ −8𝑥 + 16 > 0
𝑥=2
⇒ 8𝑥 < 16
⇒𝑥<2
The region is the set of all points 𝑥, 𝑦 such that 𝑥 < 2. that is , the set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦)
left hand side of the straight line 𝑥 = 2.
Proof of the property of Complex Number:
2 2 2 2
► 𝑧 = −𝑧 = 𝑧ҧ = −𝑧ҧ = 𝑧 𝑧ҧ
► Proof: let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
► Then 𝑧ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
2
2 2
► 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
2
2 2
► −𝑧 = −𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + −𝑦 2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
2
2 2
► 𝑧ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑥2 + −𝑦 2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
2
► −𝑧 ҧ 2 = −𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2 = −𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

► 𝑧𝑧ҧ = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑖 2 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
[Proved]
► (i) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧ഥ1 + 𝑧ഥ2 , (ii) 𝑧Ӗ = 𝑧, (iii) 𝑧 + 𝑧ҧ = 𝑧 + 𝑧ҧ

(i) let 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2

𝑧1ҧ = 𝑥1 − 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2ҧ = 𝑥2 − 𝑖𝑦2
Now, 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2
= 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑖 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
⇒ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑖 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
⇒ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑖𝑦1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑖𝑦2
⇒ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧ഥ1 + 𝑧ഥ2

(ii) let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
Then, 𝑧ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
𝑧Ӗ = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑧

(iii) H.W
► (i) 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2
► (ii) 𝑧1 𝑧2 … … … 𝑧𝑛 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 … … … 𝑧𝑛
► (i) proof: we know that,
𝑧ҧ 2 = 𝑧 𝑧ҧ and 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧ഥ1 𝑧ഥ2
∴ 𝑧1 𝑧2 2 = (𝑧1 𝑧2 )(𝑧1 𝑧2 )
= 𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧ഥ1 𝑧ഥ2 = (𝑧1 𝑧ഥ1 ) (𝑧2 𝑧ഥ2 )
2 2 2
= 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2
∴ 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 [Proved]

► (ii) Proof: 𝑧1 𝑧2 … 𝑧𝑛 2 = (𝑧1 𝑧2 … 𝑧𝑛 )(𝑧1 𝑧2 … 𝑧𝑛 )

= (𝑧1 𝑧2 … 𝑧𝑛 )(𝑧ഥ1 𝑧ഥ2 … 𝑧𝑛 )
= (𝑧1 𝑧ഥ1 ) (𝑧2 𝑧ഥ2 ) … (𝑧𝑛 𝑧𝑛 )
2
= 𝑧1 𝑧2 2 … 𝑧𝑛 2

2
= 𝑧1 𝑧2 … 𝑧𝑛
∴ 𝑧1 𝑧2 … … … 𝑧𝑛 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 … … … 𝑧𝑛 [Proved]
► (i) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
2
► (i) Proof: we know that, 𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧ҧ and 𝑧Ӗ = 𝑧
2
∴ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
= 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑧ഥ1 + 𝑧ഥ2
= 𝑧1 𝑧ഥ1 + 𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 + 𝑧2 𝑧ഥ1 + 𝑧2 𝑧ഥ2
2 2
= 𝑧1 + (𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 + 𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 ) + 𝑧2
= 𝑧1 2
+ 2𝑅𝑒(𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 ) + 𝑧2 2
[∵ 𝑧 + 𝑧ҧ = 2𝑅𝑒(𝑧)]
∴ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 2
≤ 𝑧1 2
+ 2 𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 + 𝑧2 2
[∵ 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) ≤ 𝑧 ]
⇒ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 2
≤ 𝑧1 2
+ 2 𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 + 𝑧2 2
[∵ 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 ]
⇒ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 2
≤ 𝑧1 2
+ 2 𝑧1 𝑧2 + 𝑧2 2
[∵ 𝑧 = 𝑧ҧ ]
2 2
⇒ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
∴ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
[Proved]
► (ii) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛

► Proof: 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 = 𝑧1 + (𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 )
⇒ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 ≤ 𝑧1 + (𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 ) [∵ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ]
⇒ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + (𝑧3 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 )
⇒ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + (𝑧3 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 )

Proceeding in the same way we get,

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛
► (iii) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
► Proof: we know that, and 𝑧Ӗ = 𝑧
∴ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 2
= 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 [∵ 𝑧 2
= 𝑧𝑧]ҧ
= 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑧ഥ1 − 𝑧ഥ2 [ ∵ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧ഥ1 + 𝑧ഥ2 ]
= 𝑧1 𝑧ഥ1 − 𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 − 𝑧2 𝑧ഥ1 + 𝑧2 𝑧ഥ2
= 𝑧1 2
− (𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 + 𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 ) + 𝑧2 2
[𝑧 2
= 𝑧𝑧ҧ and 𝑧Ӗ = 𝑧]
= 𝑧1 2 − 2𝑅𝑒(𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 ) + 𝑧2 2 [∵ 𝑧 + 𝑧ҧ = 2𝑅𝑒(𝑧)]

2 2 2
Now, 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 2 𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 + 𝑧2 [∵ 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) ≤ 𝑧 ] and
∵ −𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
⇒ −𝑅𝑒(𝑧) ≤ 𝑧
⇒ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 2
≤ 𝑧1 2
+ 2 𝑧1 𝑧ഥ2 + 𝑧2 2
[∵ 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 ]
2 2 2
⇒ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 2 𝑧1 𝑧2 + 𝑧2 [∵ 𝑧 = 𝑧ҧ ]
⇒ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 2

Thus, 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
[Proved]
► Find the roots of (Using De moivre’s theorem)

1ൗ
𝑖 (−1 + 𝑖) 3

1ൗ
𝑖𝑖 (−2 3 − 2𝑖) 4

1ൗ
𝑖𝑖𝑖 (1 + 𝑖) 4

► Main book: page no: 28 problem no: (95 - 97)

► Complex function:
Let, 𝑆 be a set of complex numbers. A function 𝑓 defined on 𝑆 is a rule which assigns
to each 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆 a unique value 𝑓 𝑧 ∈ ℂ. We write this as
𝒇: 𝑺 → ℂ 𝒐𝒓 𝒘=𝒇 𝒛 , 𝒛∈𝑺
We say that 𝑓 is a complex function of a complex variable.
The set 𝑆 is called the domain of 𝑓 and
𝑺𝟏 ⊆ ℂ, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆, 𝑺𝟏 = {𝒇 𝒛 : 𝒇(𝒛) ∈ ℂ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛 ∈ 𝑺}
This 𝑆1 is called the range of 𝑓.

𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚, 𝒘 = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗
∴ 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒘 = 𝒇 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 = 𝒖 𝒙, 𝒚 + 𝒊𝒗(𝒙, 𝒚)
Where, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) are all real valued. 𝒖: ℝ𝟐 → ℝ , 𝒗: ℝ𝟐 → ℝ
This mapping converts one complex plane to another complex plane.
Reference: page no: 33-34, topics name: transformation.
Page no: 41-42, Problem: (1-3)
► Single valued Function: the function W = 𝑓(𝑧) is called a single valued function if
for every value of 𝑧 there is only one value of 𝑊.
Example: 𝑊 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2
► Multivalued function: the function W = 𝑓(𝑧) is called a multivalued function if for
every value of 𝑧 there are more value of 𝑊.
1
Example: 𝑊 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 5

► A multivalued function can be considered as a collection of single-valued

functions. Each member of which is called a branch of the function.
► Limit of Complex function:
let 𝑓(𝑧) be a function defined in some neighbourhood of 𝑧 = 𝑧0 , with the possible
exception of the point 𝑧 = 𝑧0 itself. We say that the limit of 𝑓(𝑧) as 𝑧 approaches 𝑧0 is
the number 𝑤0 and write
lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑤0
𝑧→𝑧0

Or equivalently, 𝑓(𝑧) → 𝑤0 as 𝑧 → 𝑧0 ,
If for any 𝜀 > 0 there exists a positive number 𝛿 such that
𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑤0 whenever 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝛿

Properties of limit: Book reference:

Page no: 38 (Theorems on Limit and Infinity)
Problems of limit: Book reference: page no: 52-53, problem: (29-30)
Continuity:
Let 𝑓(𝑧) be a function defined in some neighbourhood of 𝑧 = 𝑧0 , with the
possible exception of the point 𝑧 = 𝑧0 itself. The function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous
at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 if
(i) 𝑓(𝑧) is defined at 𝑧 = 𝑧0
(ii) lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑙 exists
𝑧→𝑧0

(iii) 𝑓 𝑧0 = 𝑙
or
𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 , If for any 𝜀 > 0 there exists a positive number 𝛿
such that
𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) < 𝜀 whenever 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝛿

Properties of Continuity: Books reference: Page No: 39 (Theorems on continuity).

Continuity in a region:
A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous in a region if it is
continuous at all points of the region.
Uniform Continuity:
𝑓(𝑧) is said to be uniformly continuous in a region If for any 𝜀 > 0 we can find a
positive number 𝛿 such that
𝑓 𝑧1 − 𝑓(𝑧2 ) < 𝜀 whenever 0 < 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 < 𝛿
Where, 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 are any two points of the region.
Here, 𝛿 = 𝛿(𝜀) and 𝛿 is independent on 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 .
Problem:
Limit: Book reference: Page no: (52-53) Problem: 29(a, b), 30
Continuity: Page no: 53 Problem: 31, 32.
Uniform Continuity: Page no: 54. Problem: 36-37.
► Derivatives of a complex function:
if 𝑓(𝑧) is single-valued function in some region ℜ of the 𝑧
plane, the derivative of 𝑓(𝑧) is defined as
′
𝑓 𝑧 + ∆𝑧 − 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑧 = lim
∆𝑧→0 ∆𝑧
Provided the limit exists.
Then we say that, 𝑓(𝑧) is differentiable at 𝑧
► Analytic function/Regular function/Holomorphic function:
If the derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) exists at all points 𝑧 of a
region ℜ, then 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic in ℜ.

A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic at a point 𝑧0 if there exists

a neighborhood 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝛿 at all points of which 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) exists.
Cauchy-Riemann equations: A necessary and sufficient condition of a
function to be analytic in a region ℜ.
Necessary condition: a necessary condition that 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
be analytic in a region ℜ is that, in ℜ, u and v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann
equations.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
… … … … … (𝑖)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
=−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Sufficient condition: If the partial derivatives in (i) are continuous in ℜ, then

the Cauchy-Riemann equations are sufficient conditions that 𝑓(𝑧) be analytic in
ℜ.

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) are sometimes called conjugate functions.

 𝑑
► Problem: 1. show that, (𝑧)ҧ does not exist anywhere.
𝑑𝑧

2. Show that, 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧ҧ is non analytic.

3. Show that, 𝑓 𝑧 = 2𝑥 + 𝑖𝑥𝑦 2 is no where analytic.
𝑑
4. Prove that, (𝑧 2 𝑧)
ҧ does not exist anywhere
𝑑𝑧

5. Determine whether 𝑧 2 has a derivative anywhere.

Problem: 2. Book reference:

page no: (77-79) problem no: 17,23,24
► Harmonic Function:
If the second partial derivatives of 𝑢 and 𝑣 with respect to 𝑥 and 𝑦 exists and are
continuous in a region ℜ, then we find from Cauchy-Riemann equation,

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣

+ = 0, + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
It follows that, the real and imaginary part of an analytic function satisfy Laplace’s
equation.
Then 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) and v(𝑥, 𝑦) are called harmonic functions and are said to be harmonic in
a region ℜ.
Harmonic Conjugate: The function 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be a harmonic conjugate of
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) if 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) and v(𝑥, 𝑦) are harmonic and satisfy Cauchy-Riemann Equation.