Chapter: 4 Chemical Bonding Time Allocation

Major Concepts Teaching Periods 14

4.1 Why do atoms form chemical Bonds? Assessment Periods 4
4.2 Formation of Chemical Bonds
4.3 Types of Bonds
4.4 Intermolecular Forces
4.5 Nature of Bonding and properties

Students will be able to:

 Find the number of valence electrons in an atom using the Periodic Table. (Applying)
 Describe the importance of noble gas electronic configurations. (Understanding)
 State the octet and duplet rules. (Remembering)
 Explain how elements attain stability. (Understanding)
 Describe the ways in which bonds may be formed. (Remembering)
 State the importance of noble gas electronic configurations in the formation of ion.
(Remembering)
 Describe the formation of cations from an atom of a metallic element. (Applying)
 Describe the formation of anions from an atom of a non-metallic element. (Applying)
 Describe the characteristics of an ionic bond. (Understanding)
 Recognize a compound as having ionic bonds. (Analyzing)
 Identity characteristics of ionic compounds. (Understanding)
 Describe the formation of a covalent bond between two non metallic elements.
(Understanding)
 Describe with examples single, double and triple covalent bonds. (Understanding)
 Describe the properties of polar and non-polar compounds. (Understanding)
 Draw electron cross and dot structures for simple covalent molecules containing single,
double and triple covalent bonds. (Applying)
 Describe the weak forces of interaction such as dipole-dipole interaction and hydrogen
bonding. (Understanding)

Introduction:

In the previous chapter, you have learnt about the matter. You are also familiar with the
fact that all the matters in this world are composed of atoms. The attractive force which binds atoms
together is called as a chemical bond or chemical forces. Few elements also consist of un-bounded atoms.
For instance, helium, neon, argon, xenon and krypton present in the atmosphere consist of un-bounded
atoms. The way in which various atoms are bonded together has a profound effect on the properties of
substances.

Some substances are hard and tough; others are soft and flexible why? Diamond is the hardest
natural material known on Earth. Yet diamond is just pure carbon. What is special about this element that
makes diamond so hard?Resins are widely used to paint dams, bridges, buildings and automobiles. What
make them sticky? How do adhesives such as glue bind two surfaces together? What is the nature of such
linkages? Why is that so? In this chapter, we will explore the nature of various types of chemical bonding.

4.1 Why do atoms form chemical bond?

Why do atoms form chemical bonds? The essential answer is that everyone in the world desires to be
stable in their life. Atoms are just like that, they are also trying to become more stable, so atom try to
shares required number of electrons with each other to obtain the electronic configurations of noble
gases.

Electronic Configuration of Noble Gas

Noble gases have ns2, np6 electronic configuration in the outermost shell and rarely form chemical bond.
The noble gases are helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn). These
elements are sometimes called the inert gases. This is because they do not participate in chemical
reactions. Following is the outer shell of three noble gas atoms as shown in figure 4.1

Figure: 4.1 Outer electronic configuration of the noble gases

Note: H of helium , N of Neon be written in capital letter and Ar completely be

e

written Argon. Show also outer shell configuration for remaining atoms Kr and Xe

Note that these elements have a completely filled outermost shell. Helium contains 2 electrons and other
noble gases contain 8 electrons in the valence shell. Because of these electronic configurations of noble
gases are stable and not active. Atoms to acquire two electrons in the valence shell is called duplet rule,
whereas atoms to acquire eight electrons in the valence shell is called the octet rule. In 1916 a chemist
G.N. Lewis used this fact, why atoms undergo chemical reactions. He called his explanation as octet rule.
An octet is a set of eight - think 'octopus' (an animal with eight legs).

What are valence electrons?

Electrons present in the outermost shell of any atom may play an important role in determining the
chemical properties of atoms, including its ability to form chemical bonds. These electrons in the
outermost shell of an atom are called as valence electrons or outer electrons. Finding of valence electron
or the electron configuration consider an example of Boron (B), it has electronic number five. The
electronic configuration look like this: 1s2, 2s2, 2p1 since there are three electrons in the second shell
(2s2and 2p1), we can say boron has three valence electrons. The valence electrons which are involved in
chemical bonding are termed as bonding electrons.
In the chapter 3, you have learned that the group number indicates the number of valence electrons in
an atom. For example, sodium belongs to group I, so it contains one electron in its valence shell. Similarly,
phosphorus belongs to group VA, so it contains five electrons in their valence shell.

TEST YOURSELF

 Why atom form chemical bond?

 When atoms are considered to be unstable?
 Why doesn’t helium atom tend to gain electron?
 Where are valence electrons located, and why are they important?
 What is meant by bonding electrons?
 Write the electronic configuration of Ne (atomic No. 10), Carbon (atomic No. 6) and sulpher
(atomic No. 16).
 Why, noble gases do not react with other element to form compounds?
 Find the number of valence electrons in the following atoms.
(a) Chlorine (b) Sodium (c) Magnesium (d) Potassium

4.2. FORMATION OF CHEMICAL BONDS

Chemical bonding is the combining of atoms to form new substances. An interaction that holds two atoms
together is called a chemical bond. Atoms can lose, gain or share valence electrons to form chemical
bonds.

4.3. TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS

Depending on the tendency of an atom to lose or gain or share electrons there are three types of bond.
1. Ionic Bonds
2. Covalent Bonds
3. Co-ordinate covalent bond or (dative covalent) bonding

4.3.1. Ionic Bonds

In the formation of ionic bond, an atom loses electrons and changes into positive ion (cation). Whereas
another atom gains this electron and changes into negative ion (anion). These cations and anions have
opposite charges. They attract one another by electrostatic force of attraction. The force of attraction that
holds the oppositely charged ions together are called as ionic bond or electrovalent bond. This type of
chemical bond which is formed by complete transfer of electrons between two atoms is called ionic bond.

Generally, ionic bond is formed between the atoms of two different groups, metal and non-metal.
Compounds that contain ionic bonds are called ionic compounds. Such as sodium chloride, potassium
chloride, magnesium fluoride etc.

Following are the two examples of formation of ionic bond.

Example:1 The Reaction between Sodium and Chlorine

Sodium is a metal of group IA. It easily loses its one electron of valence shell and acquire stable electronic
configuration of noble gases. Whereas, chlorine is a non-metal of group VIIA and easily accepts one
electron to complete its octet.

When sodium reacts with chlorine then sodium atom loses one electron and form positive ion (Na+).
Chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outermost shell, it needs one electron to complete octet. By
gaining one electron, chlorine atom now has eight electrons in its outermost shell and a chloride ion is
formed (Cl-). The formation of ionic bonds by a ‘dot and cross’ diagram is shown in figure……

Sodium atom is a metal of IA group of the periodic table and has only one electron in the outer most shell.
The electron arrangement of sodium atom is 2, 8, 1. By losing one electron from the outer most shell,
sodium forms cation (Na+). Whereas chlorine atom is non-metal of VIIA group and has seven electrons in
its outermost shell. The electron arrangement of chlorine atom is 2, 8, 7. Since chlorine atom has seven
electrons in its outermost shell, it needs one electron to complete octet. By gaining one electron, chlorine
atom now has eight electrons in its outermost shell and a chloride ion is formed (Cl-).
Na → Na+ + e
2, 8, 1 2, 8

Cl + e → Cl-
2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8

(Sodium chloride)
Both these atoms are now oppositely charged ions. The two positively charged ions are attracted to each
other by electrostatic force of attraction. Thus Na+ and Cl- ions are joint by ionic bond and form sodium
chloride. The formation of ionic bonds by a ‘dot and cross’ diagram is shown in figure 4.2.

Note: write figure 4.2 in above

Example:2 The Reaction between Magnesium and Oxygen

Consider another example of ionic bond formation is the reaction between magnesium and oxygen
forming magnesium oxide. Magnesium is in group-II of the periodic table and has only two electrons and
oxygen is in group VIA and has six electrons in its outermost shell. By losing two electrons from the
outermost shell, magnesium becomes Mg2+ and it is left with 8 electrons in the second shell. By gaining
two electrons, oxygen atom now also has eight electrons in its outermost shell and becomes O 2-. Both
these atoms are now changed into oppositely charged ions. The attraction between the oppositely
charged ions forms the ionic bond between magnesium and oxygen. The formula of magnesium oxide is
MgO. In this example the formation of ionic bonds by a ‘dot and cross’ diagram is shown in figure 4.3.

Magnesium Oxygen atom Magnesium ion Oxygen ion

atom 2, 6 2, 8 2, 8
2 8, 2
Figure 4.3 Formation of ionic bond in Magnesium oxide

The ionic bond between magnesium and oxygen is stronger than the ionic bond between sodium and
Chlorine because of the greater charge on the ions. Magnesium oxide has a higher melting point due to
the presence of the stronger bond.

The formation of ions

As we have already learned that atom have same number of protons and electronsin their nucleus.
Therefore, they are electrically neutral. By lose or a gain of electrons, an atom becomes an ion.

In an ion formation, the number of protons and electrons becomes different. Thus, an ion can either carry
a positive or negative charge (s). Ions come in two types. Cations (positively-charged ions)
and anions (negatively-charged ions) are formed when a metal loses electrons, and a nonmetal gains
electron.

Formation of Cations (Positive ions)

In general, atoms of metals only have few outer electrons. Thus, they tend to lose electrons to form
cations. In this way, they achieve the electronic configuration of a noble gas. The sodium atom loses its
outer electrons to become a sodium ion. The sodium ion still has more protons(11 positive charges) than
electrons(10 negative charges). The sodium ion has an extra positive charge.A positive ion or cation is
formed. The charge on cation corresponds to the number of electrons the atom loses. Hence, it has
written as Na+.

Figure 4.5 Formation of Sodium ion

Formation of Anions (Negative ions)

Atoms of nonmetals generally, have more than four outer electrons. Thus, they tend to gain electrons to
form anions. In this way, they achieve the electronic configuration of a noble gas.

The fluorineatom gainsoneelectrons to form a fluoride ion. The fluoride ion has less protons (9
positive charges) than electrons (10 negative charges). Thus fluoride ion has one negative charge because
it has one more electron than protons. A negative ion or anion is formed. The charge on anion corresponds
to the number of electrons the atom gains.Hence, it has written as F-1.

Figure: Formation of Fluoride ion

In the above examples, sodium ion formed bylossof one electron, andit has formula Na+ whereas, fluoride
ion formed by gains of one electron and it has formula F-. In this way, both atoms attains the electronic
configuration of a neon atom (Ne).

DO YOU KNOW

 The alkali metals (IA group elements) lose a single electron to form a monovalent cation.
 The alkaline earth metals (IIA group elements) lose two electrons to form di valent cation (M++).
 Aluminum, a member of the IIIA family, loses three electrons and form tri valent cation (M+++).
 The halogens (VIIA group elements) have seven valence electrons. All the halogens gain one
electron to complete fill their valence energy level. And all of them form an anion with a single
negative charge.

 The VIA elements gain two electrons and form di valent anions (eg O2-, S2-)

 The VA elements gain three electrons and form tri valent anions (eg N3-, P3-)

4.3.2. Covalent Bonding and its Types

In this type of bond, electrons are not gained or lost by atoms. A covalent bond is formed by mutual
sharing of electrons between two atoms. This type of bonding occurs between two atoms of the same
element or atoms of different elements. This bonding occurs primarily between nonmetals; however, it
can also be observed between metals and non-metals. Thus a covalent bond is a bond formed by sharing
of electrons between two atoms.

Consider the formation of covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen belongs to group IA
and has one electron in their valence shell. When two hydrogen atoms share their valence electrons, both
atoms achieve the electronic configuration of noble gas and satisfy the duplet rule.
A covalent bond is generally represented by a short straight line (---) between two bonded atoms. Figure
4.4 shows the formation of a covalent bond by a‘dot’ and ‘cross’ diagram.
 Figure 4.4 The formation of a hydrogen molecule
N

Note: In the above figure one outer electron of hydrogen atom change from DOT with cross (X). same at
right side of arrow

Types of Covalent Bond

Do You Know?
As we know that the covalent bond is formed by
mutual sharing of electrons between two atoms. The When there is one electron in a sub-orbital, it is called
electrons of atoms that pair up to form a chemical an unpaired electron. When the sub-orbital is filled
with a maximum of two electrons, it is called an
bond is called bond pair electrons. Depending upon
electron pair. The electron pairs can be found in two
the number of bond pair, a covalent bond is further
types as bond pair and lone pair.
classified into three types.
The main difference between bond pair and lone pair is
 Single Covalent Bond that bond pair is composed of two electrons that are in
 Double Covalent Bond a bond whereas lone pair is composed of two electrons
 Triple Covalent Bond that are not in a bond.

4.3.1 Single Covalent Bond (-)

A covalent bond which is formed by the mutual sharing of one bond pair is called a single covalent bond
and it is represented by a single short straight line. The formations of H-H, H-Cl, CH4 are few examples of
this type of bonding. Below figure shows the formation of chlorine molecule by a dot and cross diagram.

Formation of Chlorine Molecule

A chlorine atom belongs to group VIIA and it has seven outer electrons. It needs one more electron to
achieve a stable octet electronic configuration. When two chlorine atoms share their valence electrons,
both atoms achieve the electronic configuration of noble gas. and satisfy the octet electronic
configuration. The single bond in chlorine molecule is represented by a dot and cross diagram is shown in
figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5 Formation of single covalent bond in nitrogen molecule

Some other examples of formation of single covalent bond in hydrogen chloride and methane can be
represented as follows:

H. + Cl* H. *Cl or HCl

Figure 4.6 Formation of single covalent bond in hydrogen chloride and methane

Note: Change above structure by dot and cross

4.3.1 Double Covalent Bond ( )

A covalent bond which is formed by the mutual sharing of two bond pairs electrons pairs between two
atoms is called a double covalent bond and it is represented by two short straight lines . The
examples of molecules having double bonds are oxygen (O2) and ethene (C2H4) are few examples of this
type of bonding. Below is a dot and cross structure.

Formation of Oxygen Molecule

Oxygen is a non-metal. Oxygen atom belongs to group VIA of the periodic table. An oxygen atom and it
has 6 valence electrons in its outer shell. Oxygen is in group 6 VI of the periodic table. It needs two more
electrons attain to achieve a stable octet electronic configuration. Each oxygen atom will share two of its
outer electrons with another oxygen atom to form oxygen molecules (O2).Thus, two pair of electrons is
shared between the two oxygen atoms. Thus A double covalent bond is formed. The double bond in an
oxygen molecule is represented by a dot and cross diagram is shown in figure 4.7

Figure 4.7 Formation of double covalent bond in oxygen molecule

NOTE: Left side of equation, show two oxygen atoms with dot and cross having six electrons

The structural formula of an oxygen molecule is written

Another example of double covalent bond in ethene molecule can be represented as follows:

4.3.1 Triple Covalent Bond

A covalent bond which is formed by the mutual sharing of three bond pairs is called a triple covalent bond
and it is represented by a three short straight line (N……N). For example, nitrogen (N2) and ethyne (C2H2).
Note: show three straight line between two nitrogen atom N N.

Formation of Nitrogen Molecule

Nitrogen is a non-metal. Each nitrogen atom has 5 electrons in its outer shells. Nitrogen is in group V of
the periodic table. Two nitrogen atoms will each share three electrons to form three covalent
bonds which is called triple covalent bond and formed a nitrogen molecule (N2). The triple bond in
nitrogen molecule is represented by dot and cross diagram a is shown in figure 4.11

Write here two nitrogen atoms

Figure 4.8 Formation of triple covalent bond in nitrogen molecule

The structural formula of a nitrogen molecule is:

Another example of triple covalent bond in ethyne molecule can be represented as follows:

Thus, we can simply define three types of covalent bond as:

 Mutual sharing of two electrons between two atoms form a single covalent bond.
 Mutual sharing of four electrons between two atoms form a single covalent bond.
 Mutual sharing of six electrons between two atoms form a single covalent bond.
 Fig 4.11

4.3.3 Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bond

Covalent bond may be formed between two similar and dissimilar atoms. For example, H-Cl, O=O, N N
(NOTE three small line add between two nitrogen atoms)

Nonpolar covalent bond

The covalent bond formed between identical atoms is called non-polar covalent bond. Both the identical
atoms exert some force on the shared electron pairs. Non polar covalent in hydrogen molecule is as
shown below:

E.N 2.1 E.N 2.1

In the above example, each H atom has an equal electronegativity value of 2.1, therefore the covalent
bond between them is considered non-polar.

It means nonpolar covalent bonds are formed when the electronegativities of the two atoms are equal.

Polar covalent bond

On the other hand, different atoms share electron pair, both the atoms exert unequal forces on the
shared electron pair. Such a covalent bond is called a polar covalent bond. For example, bond in HCl,
H2O, NH3 are polar covalent bonds.

In the formation of polar covalent bond, one of the atoms will attract the share electron pair more
strongly than the other one. This atom will be called more electronegative atom. So, the more
electronegative atom partially draws electron towards itself, this make it partially negatively charged
and another atom partially positively charged.

Hydrogen chloride is a good example of polar covalent bond

For example, in Hydrogen chloride, Cl is more electronegative than the hydrogen. This causes the Cl atom
to acquire a slight negative charge, and H atom a slight positive charge due to electronegative difference.
Thus, the bond between hydrogen and chlorine is called a polar covalent bond.
 Hº + •Cl::: → Hº •Cl:::

Thus, polar covalent bonds, with equal sharing of the bond electrons, arise when the electronegativities
of the two atoms are unequal.
Do You Know?
The compounds which have polar covalent bonds are called polar Electronegativity is a measure of
compounds. the tendency of an atom to attract
a bonding pair of electrons.
Electronegative values determine whether a chemical bond will be ionic or Fluorine (the most electronegative
covalent in nature. When the difference between electronegative values of element) is assigned a value of4.0,
two bonded atoms is more than 1.7, the bond will be purely ionic or and values range down to cesium
electrovalent, whereas the difference is less than 1.7, the bond will be and francium which are the least
covalent. If the electronegative difference of bonded atoms is zero, the bond electronegative at 0.7.
will be pure covalent or non-polar.

4.3.34. Coordinate Covalent Bond or Dative Covalent Bond

In the topic we have learned each atom contributes one electron to bond form a covalent bond. However,
covalent bond can be formed between two atoms even when only one of the atoms contributes both
electrons constituting the covalent bond. Such a bond is called as a coordinate covalent bond or dative
bond. Thus, we can define a coordinate covalent bond as follows:
The type of bond in which bond pair of electrons is contributed by one atom only, is called coordinate
covalent or dative covalent bond.
Concept of donor and acceptor
The atom that donates the electron pair is called the donor and the other atom which accepts the electron
pair is called acceptor. A coordinate covalent bond is represented by an arrow ( )pointing towards the
atom which accepts the electron pair. A few examples of formation of a coordinate covalent bond are as
under:
Reaction between Ammonia and Hydrogen Chloride
The reaction involves the formation of a dative bond between N atom in NH3 containing lone pairs and H+
ion from HCl. When ammonia reacts with hydrogen ions (H+) in an aqueous solution of an acid, the
hydrogen ion is attracted to the lone pair and a coordinate covalent bond is formed.
Note: H+ replaced with HCl

Cl-

Figure 4.9 Reaction between Ammonia and Hydrogen Chloride

Note: pic need to be improved and set arrow.
When hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, hydrogen ion is attracted to the lone pair of electrons which
is available on oxygen and hydronium ion is formed as shown below:

Once a bond is formed, it is impossible to tell any difference between the dative covalent and ordinary
covalent bonds. There is no difference between them in reality. The only difference between the two is a
mode of formation. Due to their covalent nature of bond formation, the properties of these compounds
are similar to those of covalent compounds.

Metallic Bond

Ionic bonds form due to the transfer of an electron from one atom to another. Covalent bonds involve the
sharing of electrons between two atoms. Metallic bonds are formed by the attraction between metal ions
and delocalized or "mobile" electrons as shown in figure 4.10

Figure 4.10 Diagramatic representation of metallic bonding

 Metal atoms loose the outer shell electrons and becomepositively charged ions and occupy a
fixed positionin a lattice.
 The outer shell electrons are free to move between the metal ions so are called delocalzed and
move freely
 Thus the metal lattice structureshows as a lattice in which positively charged ions surrounded by
a delocalized outer electron.

A metallic bond can be defined as follows:

A metallic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between the mobile electrons (delocalized
electrons) and fixed, positively charged metal ions. All metal atoms of a metal are joint by metallic bond

TEST YOURSELF

 Magnesium is in group 2 IIA. How many electrons are in the outer shell of a magnesium atom?
 What is the charge of a magnesium ion and what is its symbol?
 Why Fluoride ion is not considered as Neon atom?
  Does anionic bond have a dipole?
 Why doesn’t helium atom tend to gain electron?
 Describe the formation of anions for the following non-metals using dot cross structure.

(a) Sulphur(atomic No.16) (b) Oxygen (atomic No.8)

 Where are valence electrons located, and why are they important?
 Why, noble gases do not react with other element to form compounds?
 Write the formation of cations for the following metals atoms using dot cross structure.

(b) K (atomic No.1619) (b) Al (atomic No.13)

4.5 4 Intermolecular forces

As we already discussed that the some forces which holds the atoms together in a substances are called
chemical bonds. Moreover, along with these strong bonding forces, weak forces also created in between
the molecules. These are called intermolecular forces. Thus, Intermolecular forces are defined as the set of
all the forces that occur between two neighboring molecules. Below fig…shows The bonding and
intermolecular forces of hydrochloric acid are shown below:

Note: Delete from above “Figure bonding and intermolecular forces”

These intermolecular forces are weaker than ionic and covalent bond. The interaction between
intermolecular forces may be used to describe how molecules
interact with each other. The strength or weakness of Do you Know
intermolecular forces determines the states of matter of a Intra-molecular forces are forces
substance (e.g., solid, liquid, gas) and some of the chemical between atoms within a single
properties (e.g., melting point, structure).
molecule. These forces are stronger
than intermolecular forces as between
There are several types of intermolecular forces, but we will
discuss two of them. H and Cl.

4.4.1 Dipole-Dipole Interaction

Dipole-Dipole interactions result when the two dipolar molecules interact with each other. When partially
negative portion of one of the polar molecules is attracted to the partially positive portion of the second
polar molecule, the electrostatic attraction is created between two molecules. These attractive forces are
called Dipole-Dipole interactions and represented as below:

In
the diagram, "δδ" (read as "delta") means "slightly" - so δ+δ+ means "slightly positive".

Examples of Dipole-Dipole Interactions

Dipole-dipole interaction can be seen in hydrogen chloride. Chlorine atoms are much more
electronegatives than hydrogen atoms. A partial negative charge is created on Chlorine and in turn a
partial positive change on hydrogen due to electronegative difference.

When two molecules of hydrogen chloride come close to each other, the slightly negative end of one
molecule is attracted to the slightly positive end of another molecule. These attractive forces are simply
called dipole-dipole interaction as represented below:

4.4.2 Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen bond is a type of dipole dipole interaction. When hydrogen form polar covalent with more
electronegative atom like An Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Sulpher (S), etc then
hydrogen get partial positive charge and other electronegative atom get partial negative charge. The
interaction between partially positive charged hydrogen atom of one molecule with electronegative atom
of other molecule is called Hydrogen bond.
In molecules containing N-H, O-H or F-H bonds, the large difference in electronegativity between the H
atom and the N, O or F atom leads to a highly polar covalent bond. Because of the difference in
electronegativity, the H atom bears a large partial positive charge and the N, O or F atom bears a large
partial negative charge.

The high partial positive charge on H atom enables it to attract highly electronegative (N, O, or F) atom of
the other molecule.

Example of Hydrogen Bonding

Consider the example of hydrogen fluoride. The fluorine atom is more electronegative. They tend to pull
on the shared pair of electrons, creating a partial negative charge on itself and a partial positive charge
on the hydrogen. The partial positive charge bearing hydrogen, then forms a bond with the
electronegative atom of a neighboring molecule, while its electronegative element forms another bond
with the positive hydrogen of another neighboring molecule. Therefore, several molecules combine by
hydrogen bonding thus:

These intermolecular forces are extremely important in determining the properties of water, biological
molecules, such as proteins, DNA etc. and synthetic material such as glue, paints and dyes is are developed
due to hydrogen bonding. Synthetic resins bind two surfaces together by hydrogen bonding or dipole-
dipole interaction. Moreover, hydrogen bonding affects the physical properties of the molecules like
melting and boiling point, density, solubility etc.

TEST YOURSELF

 Why coordinate covalent bond is always polar?

 Write down cross structure of CCl4
 Why does not a hydrogen atom form more than one covalent bond?
 Represent the formation of anions by the following nonmetals using electron ‘dot’ and ‘cross’
structure.
(a) N (b) Br (c) P

 Why a dipole does occur in a molecule?

4.5 Nature of bonding and properties

As discussed earlier the losing or gaining of electrons leads to ionic bonding, while the sharing of electrons
leads to covalent bonding. The properties of the compounds depend upon the nature of bonding exist in
them. Let us now discuss the effect of nature of bonding on the properties of compounds.
4.5.1 Ionic Compounds
Compounds having ionic bonds are called ionic compounds. The properties of ionic compounds relate to
how strongly the positive and negative ions attract each other in an ionic bond. Most of the ionic
compounds are in a solid or crystal form with strong electrostatic forces. Following figure shows the
arrangement of Na+ and Cl- ions in NaCl in. In crystal structure of sodium chloride eac Na+ ion is surrounded
by six Cl- ions. Similarly, each Cl- ions is surrounded by six Na+ ions.

Figure 4.22 arrangement of ions in Solid crystal of NaCl

The ionic compounds exhibit the following properties:

i) Ionic compounds form crystals.
ii) Ionic compounds tend to be hard and brittle
iii) The large attracting forces result in a very stable structure and a lot of energy is required to
break these forces. So ionic compounds have high melting points. For example, melting point
of NaCl is 8010C and boiling point 14130C.
iv) Aqueous solutions of ionic compounds also conduct electricity. This is because when an
ionic compound dissolves in water, the ions are free to move in aqueous solution.
v) Ionic compounds usually dissolve in polar solvent like water and are insoluble in non-polar
solvents like oil, petrol, kerosene, etc.

4.5.2Covalent Compounds

As we know that covalent compounds are formed by mutual sharing of electrons between atoms. As the
bonding force of covalent bonds are generally weak as compared to ionic bond. The covalent compounds
have following properties:

i) Covalent compounds can exist as crystals, though. Eexamples include sugar crystals and
diamond.
ii) The melting and boiling points of most covalent compounds are usually low.
iii) They are bad conductors of electricity.
iv) They are insoluble in water, but soluble in non-polar solvents like oil, petrol, kerosene, etc.

4.5.3Polar and Nonpolar Compounds

Polar and non polar both compounds differ in properties.

 i) Nonpolar covalent compounds are generally insoluble in water while polar covalent
compounds soluble in water.
ii) Nonpolar covalent compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid, molten or aqueous
solution, but polar covalent compounds usually conduct electricity due to the formation of
ions with water.
iii) Nonpolar covalent compounds are soluble in non-polar solvent like petrol, benzene etc. While
polar covalent compounds insoluble in non-polar solvent.
iv) H2SO4, H2O, HCl, HF, HBr, HI are few examples of polar covalent compounds are H2SO4, H2O,
HCl, HF, HBr, HI
v) CO2, CH4, C2H6 are few examples of non-polar covalent compounds are CO2, CH4, C2H6

4.5.4 Metal
Do You Know?
Following are the different properties of metals such as: Malleable mean that metals can
be hammered into different
 Metals are usually malleable and ductile. shapes and rolled into sheet.
 They are conductor of electricity and heat due to the presence Ductile is the property through
of delocalized electrons (mobile electrons). which metal can be drawn into
 Melting and boiling points of metal are usually high as the atoms wires.
in metals are packed tightly.
 Metals have high densities.

TEST YOURSELF

 Why coordinate covalent bond is always polar?

 Write down cross structure of CCl4
 Why does not a hydrogen atom form more than one covalent bond?
 Represent the formation of anions by the following nonmetals using electron ‘dot’ and ‘cross’
structure.
(b) N (b) Br (c) P

 Why a dipole does occur in a molecule?

 What do you understand about intermolecular forces between two molecules?
 Why metals are good conductor of heat?

Society, Technology and Science

Explain the need for different for synthetic adhesive like glue and epoxy resins

Synthetic adhesives like epoxy resins and glues are the substance that stick to the surface
of the other objects. The material like plastic, wood, metal, ceremic glass and rubber etc.
to which glue is applied are called substrate. Epoxy adhesive is more expensive as
compared to resin glue. Both are synthetic adhesive and require mixing before use, but
 Explain the need for different for synthetic adhesives like glues and epoxy resins
Synthetic adhesives like epoxyresins and glues are the substance that stick to the surface of the
other objects. The material like plastic, wood, metal, ceramic glass and rubber etc. to which glue
is applied are called substrate. Epoxy adhesive is more expensive as compared to resin glue.
Both are synthetic adhesives and require mixing before use, but epoxy hardens much faster
than resin glue. We can use adhesive any time to reattach the broken objects. For example,
Polyvinyl acetate is a common white glue. It is used in book binding.Polyurethaneglueisa flexible
adhesive. It is used in fixing of soles to the bodies of shoes and wood working. Natural rubber
bond to substrate on contact. It is used in self- adhesive envelopes. Conductive adhesive is
commonly used in electronics to repair equipment. Amino resins are water soluble adhesive,
they are used in bonding of layers in plywood. Epoxy glue contain epoxy. Its form strong bonds
with material glass, plastics, plywood, laminated boards and ceramic. Another use for epoxy
resin is the decorative flooring applications. Commonly, epoxy resins are used where water
resistance is required. Bridges, dams, power stations are also coated with epoxy resins.

Society, Technology and Science

Explain how Aircrafts, cars, trucks and boats are partially held together with epoxy adhesive
(Analyzing)
The excellent adhesive properties of epoxy resins are due to the attractive forces between the
epoxy resin and the surface of the substrate. One of the most common uses of epoxy resin is for
adhesive purposes. For that purpose, epoxy resin is used in the construction of vehicles, trucks,
and boats aircrafts. The drying time is 6-30 minutes hardly.
 Key points
 It is the aim of every atom try to achieve a noble gas structure configuration.
 Only outer most valence electrons are involved in bonding.
 Ionic bonding involves transfer of electrons.
 Metal reacts with non metal to form ionic compounds.
 Atom which loose electron(s) form positive ions. Atoms which gain electron(s) form negative ion.
 In an ion, the number of electrons is different from the number of protons.
 Ionic bonding is commonly formed between elements in of group IA or II A and groups VI A or VII
A.
 Covalent bonding involves sharing of electrons and form molecules.
 The sharing of three pairs of electrons between two atoms is called a triple bond.
 Metal tends to lose valence electrons to form positively charged ions (cations).
 Nonmetals usually gain electrons to form negatively charged ions (anions)
 Common covalent molecules are water H2O, Methane CH4, Ammonia NH3and carbon dioxide CO2.
 A co-ordinate bond also called a dative covalent bond.
 A covalent bond can be polar or nonpolar according to the electron. But coordinate bond is only
polar in which both electrons come from the same atom.
 The sharing of two pairs of electrons between two atoms is called a double covalent bond.
 A hydrogen bond is a partially electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen (H) which is bound to
a more electronegative atom such as nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), or fluorine (F), and another
adjacent atom bearing a lone pair of electrons
 When slightly negative end of polar molecule is weakly attracted to the slightly positive end of
another molecule then such attracting forces are called dipole-dipole interactions.

Exercise

Section A: Multiple Choice Questions

Circle ( ) on the correct answer:

1. An example of ionic compound is:

(a) H2 (b) CH4

(c) N2 (d) NaCl

2. Interaction between highly electron deficient hydrogen and highly electronegative atom is called

A. covalent bond B. ionic bond

B. hydrogen bond D. metallic bond

3. Two fluorine atoms share one electron each in their outermost shell to gain achieve electronic
configuration of:
A. Xe B. Ar
C. Kr D. Ne
4. Number of electrons lost by atoms of group IIIA equals:
A. 1 B. 2
C. 3 D. 4
5. Atom which loses two electrons from its outer shell to form ion is called:
A. oxygen B. potassium
C. magnesium D. carbon

6. In NaCl crystal lattice each Na+ ion is surrounded by:

A. 6 Cl- ions B. 6 Na+ ions C. 8 Cl- ions D. 12 Cl- ions

7. At room temperature most of ionic compounds are:

A. amorphous solids B. crystalline solids
B. liquids D. gases

8. Tendency of atoms to acquire eight electrons in their valence shell is:

A. octet rule B. duplet rule
C. triplet rule D. none of above

9. When one atom forms cation by losing electron and other forms anion by accepting that electron then
bond form between them is:
A. Covalent bond B. Ionic bond
B. coordinate covalent bond D. hydrogen bond

10. Nobel gases are stable because they contain:

A. 4 electrons in valence shell B. 6 electrons in valence shell
C. 8 electrons in valence shell D. 10 electrons in valence shell

11. Bond which involve 3 shared electron pairs is a :

A. double covalent bond B. single covalent bond
B. triple covalent bond D. none of above

12. To form anion, non-metal atom: A non-metal atom form anion by

A. loses of electrons B. gain of electrons
C. loses of protons D. gain of protons

13. When two identical atoms share electron pairs and exert force on each other than bond form is:
A. non-polar covalent bond B. polar covalent bond
C. double covalent bond D. coordinate covalent bond
14. Synthetic resins are used on places where:
A. electric resistance is required B. water resistance is required
C. adhesion is required D. friction is required

15. Oxygen belongs to group VIA so number of electrons in its valence shell are:
A. 3 B. 4
C. 5 D. 6

16. Electron pairs which are not shared by atoms are called:
A. electron pairs B. lone pairs
C. protonbond pairs D. shellshared pairs

17. Strength of intermolecular forces from ionic or covalent bond is:

A. Weaker B. stronger
C. equal D. none of above

18. Ionic crystals have:

A. high melting points B. moderate melting points
C. low melting points D. none of above

19. Bond formed by mutual sharing of electron is:

A. ionic bond B. coordinate covalent bond
C. covalent bond D. metallic bond

20. Which of the following diagram shows the atoms are bonded with same electro negativity?

Section B: Short Questions Answer

1. Draw dot and cross diagrams to show how different types of chemical bonds are formed when fluorine
reacts with
(a) Hydrogen (b) potassium
2. What is meant by octet and duplet rule?
Explain with examples single, double and triple covalent bond.

3. Can you draw an ion which is formed by the atom losing three electrons?
4. How oxygen forms an anion?
5. Draw the structure of CCl4.What is the differentiate between lone pair and bond pair?
6. Explain why table salt has a very high melting point.
7. How is electronegative value determined the formation of chemical bond?
8. Why is to easy for magnesium atom to lose two electrons?
9. Atoms of metallic elements can form ionic bond, but they are not very good to form covalent bonds.
Why?
10. How does an ion differ from an atom?
11. Describe dipole-dipole forces.
12. Write five uses of adhesive material.
13. Why Intermolecular forces are weaker than interamolecular forces?
14. Write four characteristics of metallic bond.
15. Covalent bonds are strong and hard to break but why most of the covalent compounds have low
melting and boiling points.
16. Write down the characteristics of ionic compounds.
17. Why ionic compounds are solid?
18. Explain How is hydrogen bonding affecting the physical properties of compounds?

16. Complete the chart:

Atomic Number of Number of Electronic Number of

Number protons electrons configuration valence electrons

11 11 12 2, 8, 1 1

12

13

14

15

16

Section C: Long Questions Answer

1. How are electrovalent bond formed? Discuss the formation of bond between
sodium and chlorine atom? Define ionic bond. Discuss the formation of sodium
chloride (NaCl).
2. Metals and non-metals form ionic compounds by chemical bonding. How does
this happen?
3. Explain how element attain stability?
 4. Describe the formation of a covalent bond between two nonmetallic atoms.
Explain single, double and triple covalent bond with examples.
5. Explain with examples single, double and triple covalent bond.
6. How are electrons arranged in molecular compound? Draw electron dot and cross
structures for the following atoms.
(a) H2O (b) N2 (c) CH4
(d) C2H2 (e) Cl2 (f) H2

7. Define metallic bond. How are metallic bonds are formed?

8. What is coordinate covalent bond? Explain with two examples.
9. Write down the characteristics of ionic compounds.
10. How does the structure of an ionic compound affect its physical properties?
11. What do you understand about ionic character of covalent bond?
12. Differentiate the properties of polar and non-polar compounds.
13. Explain how is hydrogen bonding affecting the physical properties of compounds?
14. Explain the importance of glues and epoxy resins in our society.