MATERIAL PROPERTIES 1-9

If the shear modulus becomes small compared to the bulk modulus, ν  ≈ 0.5
and E ≈ 3G . Table 1.1 summarizes approximate material properties for several
common materials.

Table 1.1 Approximate Mechanical Properties of Typical Materials

E G λ  α  w
Young's ν  Shear Bulk Thermal Weight
Modulus Poisson's Modulus Modulus Expansion Density
Material ksi Ratio ksi ksi × 10 -6 lb/in
3

Steel 29,000 0.30 11,154 16,730 6.5 0.283

Aluminum 10,000 0.33 3,750 7,300 13.0 0.100
Concrete 4,000 0.20 1,667 1,100 6.0 0.087
Mercury 0 0.50 0 3,300 - 0.540
Water 0 0.50 0 300 - 0.036
Water* 0.9 0.4995 0.3 300 - 0.036

* These are approximate properties that can be used to model water as a solid
material.

It is apparent that the major difference between liquids and solids is that liquids
have a very small shear modulus compared to the bulk modulus, and liquids are
 not incompressible.

1.9 SHEAR AND COMPRESSION WAVE VELOCITIES

The measurement of compression and shear wave velocities of the material using
laboratory or field experiments is another simple method that is often used to
define material properties. The compressive wave velocity, V c , and the shear
wave velocity, V s , are given by:

λ + 2 G
V c = (1.19)
ρ
1-10 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

G
V s = (1.20)
ρ

where ρ is the mass density of the material. Therefore, it is possible to calculate

all of the other elastic properties for isotropic materials from these equations. It is
apparent that shear waves cannot propagate in fluids since the shear modulus is
zero.

1.10 AXISYMMETRIC MATERIAL PROPERTIES

A large number of very common types of structures, such as pipes, pressure

vessels, fluid storage tanks, rockets, and other space structures, are included in
the category of axisymmetric structures. Many axisymmetric structures have
anisotropic materials. For the case of axisymmetric solids subjected to non-
axisymmetric loads, the compliance matrix, as defined by Equation (1.3), can be
rewritten in terms of the r ,  z and θ  reference system as Equation (1.21). The
solution of this special case of a three-dimensional solid can be accomplished by
expressing the node point displacements and loads in a series of harmonic
functions. The solution is then expressed as a summation of the results of a series
of two-dimensional, axisymmetric problems[3].

 1 ν 12 ν 13 ν 14 

 E − − − 0 0 
E2 E3 E4
 1 
− ν 21 1 ν  ν 
 r   E
ε  − 23 − 24 0 0   σ    α r 
E2 E3 E4  r
 ε    1
  σ  z   α  
  − 31 ν  ν  ν 
0     z 
 z 1
− 32 − 34 0
 ε θ    E1 E2 E3 E4  σ θ   + ∆T α θ   (1.21)
  =  ν  ν  ν  1   τ rz   
 γ rz  − 41 − 42 − 43 0 0   α rz 
γ rθ    E1 E2 E3 E4  τ rθ    0 
   ν     
− 56  τ  zθ  
1
γ  zθ    0 0 0 0  0 
E5 E6
 ν 

 0 1 
0 0 0 − 65
 E5 E6 
MATERIAL PROPERTIES 1-11

1.11 FORCE-DEFORMATION RELATIONSHIPS

The stress-strain equations presented in the previous sections are the fundamental
constitutive laws for linear materials. However, for one-dimensional elements in
structural engineering, we often rewrite these equations in terms of forces and
deformations. For example, for a one-dimensional axially loaded member of 
length L and area  A , the total axial deformation ∆ and axial force P are
∆ = L ε  and P =  Aσ  . Because σ  = Eε  , the force deformation relationship is:

P = k a ∆ (1.22)

 AE
where k a = and is defined as the axial stiffness of the member. Also,
L
Equation (1.22) can be written in the following form:

∆ =  f a P (1.23)

L
where  f a = and is defined as the axial flexibility of the member. It is
 AE
important to note that the stiffness and flexibility terms are not a function of the
load and are only the material and geometric properties of the member.

For a one-dimensional member of constant cross-section, the torsional force T in

terms of the relative rotation ϕ  between the ends of the member is given by:

T  = k T ϕ  (1.24)

 JG
where k T  = in which  J  is the torsional moment of inertia. Also, the inverse
L
of the torsional stiffness is the torsional flexibility.

In the case of pure bending of a beam fixed at one end, integration of a stress
distribution over the cross-section produces a moment  M . The linear strain
distribution results in a rotation at the end of the beam of  φ  . For this finite length
beam, the moment-rotation relationship is:

 M  = k bφ  (1.25)

1-12 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

EI 
where the bending stiffness k b = . For a typical cross-section of the beam of 
L
length dx , the moment curvature relationship at location  x is:

 M ( x ) =  EI ψ ( x ) (1.26)

These force-deformation relationships are considered fundamental in the

traditional fields of structural analysis and design.

1.12 SUMMARY

Material properties must be determined experimentally. Careful examinations of 

the properties of most structural materials indicate that they are not isotropic or
homogeneous. Nonetheless, it is common practice to use the isotropic
approximation for most analyses. In the future of structural engineering,
however, the use of composite, anisotropic materials will increase significantly.
The responsibility of the engineer is to evaluate the errors associated with these
approximations by conducting several analyses using different material
properties.

Remember the result obtained from a computer model is an estimation of the

behavior of the real structure. The behavior of the structure is dictated by the
fundamental laws of physics and is not required to satisfy the building code or
the computer program's user manual.

1.13 REFERENCES

1. Popov, E. P. 1990.  Engineering Mechanics of Solids. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

ISBN 0-13-279258-3.

2. Boresi, A. P. 1985.  Advanced Mechanics of Materials. John Wiley & Sons.

ISBN 0-471-88392-1.

3. Wilson, E. L. 1965. “Structural Analysis of Axisymmetric Solids.”  AIAA

 Journal. Vol. 3, pp.2269-2274.
 2.

EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY

 Equilibrium Is Esse ntial - Compatibi lity Is Optional

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Equilibrium equations set the externally applied loads equal to the sum of the
internal element forces at all joints or node points of a structural system; they are
the most fundamental equations in structural analysis and design. The exact
solution for a problem in solid mechanics requires that the differential equations
of equilibrium for all infinitesimal elements within the solid must be satisfied.
 Equilibrium is a fundamental law of physics and cannot be violated within a
"real" structural system. Therefore, it is critical that the mathematical model,
which is used to simulate the behavior of a real structure, also satisfies those
basic equilibrium equations.

It is important to note that within a finite element, which is based on a formal

displacement formulation, the differential stress-equilibrium equations are not
always satisfied. However, inter-element force-equilibrium equations are
identically satisfied at all node points (joints). The computer program user who
does not understand the approximations used to develop a finite element can
obtain results that are in significant error if the element mesh is not sufficiently
fine in areas of stress concentration[1].

Compatibility requirements should be satisfied. However, if one has a choice

between satisfying equilibrium or compatibility, one should use the equilibrium-
based solution. For real nonlinear structures, equilibrium is always satisfied in
2-2 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

the deformed position. Many real structures do not satisfy compatibility caused
by creep, joint slippage, incremental construction and directional yielding.

2.2 FUNDAMENTAL EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS

The three-dimensional equilibrium of an infinitesimal element, shown in Figure

1.1, is given by the following equilibrium equations[2]:

∂σ 1 + ∂τ 12 + ∂τ 13 + β  = 0

∂x1 ∂x 2 ∂ x 3 1

∂τ 21 + ∂σ 2 + ∂τ 23 + = 0

β 2 (2.1)
∂x 1 ∂x 2 ∂x 3

∂τ 31 + ∂τ 32 + ∂σ 3 + = 0

β 3
∂x 1 ∂x 2 ∂x 3

The body force, β i , is per unit of volume in the i-direction and represents
gravitational forces or pore pressure gradients. Because τ ij = τ  ji , the
infinitesimal element is automatically in rotational equilibrium. Of course for this
equation to be valid for large displacements, it must be satisfied in the deformed
position, and all stresses must be defined as force per unit of deformed area.

2.3 STRESS RESULTANTS - FORCES AND MOMENTS

In structural analysis it is standard practice to write equilibrium equations in

terms of stress resultants rather than in terms of stresses. Force stress resultants
are calculated by the integration of normal or shear stresses acting on a surface.
Moment stress resultants are the integration of stresses on a surface times a
distance from an axis.

A point load, which is a stress resultant, is by definition an infinite stress times an

infinitesimal area and is physically impossible on all real structures. Also, a point
moment is a mathematical definition and does not have a unique stress field as a
physical interpretation. Clearly, the use of forces and moments is fundamental in
structural analysis and design. However, a clear understanding of their use in
EQUILIBRIUM AND COMPATIBILITY 2-3

finite element analysis is absolutely necessary if stress results are to be physically

evaluated.

For a finite size element or joint, a substructure, or a complete structural system

the following six equilibrium equations must be satisfied:

Σ Fx = 0 Σ Fy = 0 Σ Fz = 0

Σ Mx = 0 Σ My = 0 Σ Mz = 0 (2.2)

For two dimensional structures only three of these equations need to be satisfied.

2.4 COMPATIBILITY REQUIREMENTS

For continuous solids we have defined strains as displacements per unit length.
To calculate absolute displacements at a point, we must integrate the strains with
respect to a fixed boundary condition. This integration can be conducted over
many different paths. A solution is compatible if the displacement at all points is
not a function of the path. Therefore, a displacement compatible solution
involves the existence of a uniquely defined displacement field.

In the analysis of a structural system of discrete elements, all elements connected

to a joint or node point must have the same absolute displacement. If the node
displacements are given, all element deformations can be calculated from the
basic equations of geometry. In a displacement-based finite element analysis,
node displacement compatibility is satisfied. However, it is not necessary that the
displacements along the sides of the elements be compatible if the element passes
the "patch test."

A finite element passes the patch test "if a group (or patch) of elements, of 
arbitrary shape, is subjected to node displacements associated with constant
strain; and the results of a finite element analysis of the patch of elements yield
constant strain." In the case of plate bending elements, the application of a
constant curvature displacement pattern at the nodes must produce constant
curvature within a patch of elements. If an element does not pass the patch test, it
may not converge to the exact solution. Also, in the case of a coarse mesh,
2-4 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

elements that do not pass the patch test may produce results with significant
errors.

2.5 STRAIN DISPLACEMENT EQUATIONS

If the small displacement fields u1 , u 2 and u 3 are specified, assumed or

calculated, the consistent strains can be calculated directly from the following
well-known strain-displacement equations[2]:

∂u1
ε 1 = (2.3a)
∂ x 1
∂u 2
ε 2 = (2.3b)
∂ x 2
∂u3
ε 3 = (2.3c)
∂ x 3
∂u1 ∂u 2
γ 12 = + (2.3d)
∂ x 2 ∂ x 1
∂u1 ∂u3
γ 13 = + (2.3e)
∂ x 3 ∂ x 1
∂u2 ∂u3
γ 23 = + (2.3f)
∂ 3 ∂ x 2
 x 

2.6 DEFINITION OF ROTATION

A unique rotation at a point in a real structure does not exist. A rotation of a

horizontal line may be different from the rotation of a vertical line. However, in
many theoretical books on continuum mechanics the following mathematical
equations are used to define rotation of the three axes:

1  ∂u1 ∂u 2 
θ 3 ≡  −  (2.4a)
2  ∂ x 2 ∂ x 1 