UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

PHYTOCHEMISTRY AND BIOACTIVITY INVESTIGATIONS

OF THREE KENYAN CROTON SPECIES

BY

BETH E. NDUNDA
I80 / 80060 / 08

A Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirement for the

Award of Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Chemistry at the
Department of Chemistry, University of Nairobi

2014
 DECLARATION

This is original work by the author except where reference is made. It has never been
submitted anywhere for award of any degree or diploma.

-------------------------------------------------------------------- Date ------------------------------------

Beth NDUNDA Reg. No. I80/80060/08
Department of Chemistry, University of Nairobi.

This PhD research work has been submitted with our approval as University supervisors

------------------------------------------------------------------- Date-------------------------------
Prof. Jacob O. MIDIWO
Department of Chemistry, University of Nairobi

------------------------------------------------------------------- Date ------------------------------

Dr. Leonida K. OMOSA
Department of Chemistry, University of Nairobi

------------------------------------------------------------------ Date-----------------------------
Dr. Moses K. LANG’AT
Department of Chemistry, FEPS
University of Surrey, UK

ii
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my children (Evans, Lewis and Michelle Mbithi).

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To God be the glory for the grace that has enabled me complete this training. The same grace
had many individual persons and institutions contribute immensely to the validation of my
dream of presenting this thesis report. First and foremost are my supervisors Prof. Jacob O.
Midiwo, Dr. Moses K. Langat and Dr. Leonidah Kerubo Omosa. I will forever be grateful for
your patience as you guided, supported and encouraged me through the challenges of
research and academic work. Prof. Dulcie Mulholland (Surrey University-UK), thank you for
giving me the chance to learn in your research laboratory under your commendably
insightfull and well co-ordinated supervision.

To all my colluagues in the Department of Chemistry-University of Nairobi, thank you for

the concern which you never kept hidden and willingness to help whenever needed. Prof.
Abiy Yenesew and the entire Natural Products Research group, your enthusiasm and
accomplishments in research are a motivator worth emulating. Prof. Amir Yusuf (Chairman,
Department of Chemistry- University of Nairobi), thank you for supporting me when I
needed time away to go and gain more experience and knowledge that saw the completion of
this work. The University of Nairobi through the Office of the DVC (Administration and
Finance), International Foundation of Science (IFS), Organization of Prevention of Chemical
Weapons (OPCW) and Internationanal Science Program (ISP-Sweden) through KEN 02 are
acknowledged for financial support. Natural Products Research network for East and Central
Africa (NAPRECA) and Pan African Chemistry Network (PACN) are acknowledged for
training sponsorships. Prof. Illias Muhammad (School of Pharmacy- University of
Mississipi), Dr. Christine Bii (KEMRI) and Prof. S.P. Dhanabal (Principal- JSS college of
Pharmacy, Ooty-Tamil Nadu, India) are acknowledged for collaborative work.

Dr Linda Langat, your good nature supplemented by Kenzo boosted the tutorials Moses was
giving me. Prof. Angela De Namor and my colleagues at Surrey University-UK, Dr. Francis
Machumi (Muhimbili Research Center- Tanzania), Mr Partick Mutiso (Taxonomist),
Theophillus Mbithi (my invaluable “co-parenter”), Antonia Mwikali (my personal assistant),
Dr. Vincent Bagire and Dr. Levi Kabagambe (Makerere University, Bussiness school), Emily
Sumbeiywo and Dr. Pius Kigamwa (University of Nairobi Health Services) and my children
(Evans, Lewis and Michelle Mbithi), I appreciate the special roles that each one of you
played in my life over the study period.

iv
 ABSTRACT
Three Kenyan Croton species, C. megalocarpoides Friis and Gilbert, C. alienus Pax and C.
sylvaticus Hochst were investigated for their phytochemistry and biological activity
relevancies. Anti-microbial activity evaluation was done on aqueous and methanol crude
plant extracts to enable selection of most active parts. Documented procedures were used to
profile the selected extracts for their phytochemical concentrations followed by fractionation
using column chromatography. The phytochemicals obtained were identified using NMR
spectroscopic techniques and subjected to various biological activity tests. Forty one
compounds (fifteen of them new) were isolated. C. megalocarpoides roots produced twenty
diterpenoids belonging to, ent-clerodane (thirteen, twelve new), abietane (three, one new) and
ent-trachylobane (four known) series. Two known triterpenoids (lupeol and acetyl aleuritolic
acid) and common phytosterols (stigmasterol and sitosterol) were also isolated. Two novel
compounds (alienusolin, a 4α-deoxyphorbol ester and crotonimide C, a glutarimide alkaloid
derivative) and nine known compounds (an alkaloid, six methylcyclohexane derivatives of
crotepoxide, a triterpenoid and a phytosterol were isolated from C. alienus leaves and roots.
From C. sylvaticus roots, seven diterpenoids belonging to clerodane (four, one new),
halimane (two known) and labdane (one known) series and a phytosterol were isolated.

Anti-microbial activity tests were done using different strains of bacteria and fungi. Candida
albicans was the most susceptible micro-organism to the crude plant extracts. C. alienus and
C. sylvaticus (root and stem bark aqueous extracts) were active at the lowest concentration
tested (25 mg / mL). C. sylvaticus stem bark (methanol extract) was the only crude extract
that inhibited the growth of a bacteria strain (Bacillus subtillis) at a concentration of 10 mg /
mL. The compounds that were isolated and assayed from C. alienus and C. megalocarpoides
were inactive to all microorganisms used (IC50 > 20µg / mL). C. alienus leaves (MeOH:
DCM, 1:1 v / v extract) is the only crude extract that showed activity against Leishmania
donovanii (IC50 = 80µg / mL). The compounds isolated from it were however inactive against
the same, L. donovanii (IC50 and IC90 > 40µg / mL). All the crude extracts and compounds
isolated and tested from C. alienus and C. megalocarpoides were inactive against D6 and
W2 strains of Plasmodium falciparum (IC50 > 4760 ng / mL); VERO (IC50 > 4760 ng / mL)
and Aedes aegypti and Anopheles gambiae larvae (LC50 and LC95 >100 ppm). The methanol
extract of C. megalocarpoides and C. sylvaticus stem barks had a low total phenolic content
(1.89 + 0.02% -1.14 + 0.01% w / w equivalent of gallic acid) and anti-oxidant activity
(IC50 > 1000 µg / mL compared to ascorbic acid, IC50 = 9.51 + 0.22 µg/mL).

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION ..........................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................... iv
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... x
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................xii
LIST OF SCHEMES .............................................................................................................. xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES .......................................................................................................... xv
LIST OF ABREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................xviii
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the study .............................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Natural products and their place in modern drugs ....................................................... 4
1.1.2 Pharmacological activity screening of medicinal plants ............................................. 7
1.1.3 Phytochemistry and biological activity reports on Kenyan Croton species ................ 7
1.2 Statement of the problem ........................................................................................... 12
1.3 General objective of the study ................................................................................... 13
1.3.1 Specific objectives of the study ................................................................................. 13
1.4 Justification of the study ............................................................................................ 14
CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 15
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 15
2.1 Background information on microbial infections and parasitic diseases .......................... 15
2.2 Botanical information on Croton genus............................................................................. 17
2.2.1 The Euphorbiaceae family .............................................................................................. 17
2.2.2 The Croton genus............................................................................................................ 18
2.2.3 Geographical distribution of Croton species .................................................................. 18
2.3 Ethnomedicinal uses of Croton species ..................................................................... 19
2.4 The Phytochemistry of Croton genus ........................................................................ 31
2.4.1 Alkaloids from Croton genus .................................................................................... 31
2.4.2 Flavonoids from Croton genus ....................................................................................... 38
2.4.3 Terpenoids from Croton genus .................................................................................. 40
2.4.3.1 Biosynthesis of terpenes ............................................................................................ 40

vi
2.4.3.2 Biosynthesis of diterpenes ......................................................................................... 42
2.4.4 Essential and fixed oils from Croton genus............................................................... 46
2.4.5 Diterpenoids reported from Croton genus ................................................................. 48
2.4.5.1 Acyclic diterpenoids reported from Croton genus .................................................... 49
2.4.5.2 Bicyclic diterpenoids reported from Croton genus ................................................... 50
2.4.5.2.1 Clerodanes ................................................................................................................. 50
2.4.5.2.2 Halimanes and an Indane derivative .......................................................................... 55
2.4.5.2.3 Labdanes .................................................................................................................... 56
2.4.5.3 Tricyclic Diterpenoids from Croton genus ................................................................ 58
2.4.5.3.1 Abietanes ................................................................................................................... 58
2.4.5.3.2 Daphnanes ................................................................................................................. 59
2.4.5.3.3 Pimaranes and Isopimaranes ..................................................................................... 59
2.4.5.4 Tetracyclic diterpenoids from Croton genus ............................................................. 60
2.4.5.4.1 Atisanes ..................................................................................................................... 60
2.4.5.4.2 Kauranes .................................................................................................................... 61
2.4.5.4.3 Tiglianes .................................................................................................................... 63
2.4.5.5 Pentacyclic diterpenoids from Croton genus ............................................................. 64
2.4.5.6 Macrocyclic diterpenoids from Croton genus ........................................................... 65
2.4.5.7 Limonoids from Croton genus .................................................................................. 69
2.4.6 Triterpenoids and Phytosterols .................................................................................. 70
2.4.6.1 Biosynthesis of Triterpenoids and Phytosterols ........................................................ 70
2.4.6.2 Triterpenoids from Croton genus .............................................................................. 72
2.4.6.3 Phytosterols from Croton genus ................................................................................ 74
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 75
METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................. 75
3.1 General experimental procedure ................................................................................ 75
3.2 Plant sources .............................................................................................................. 75
3.3 Extracting plant parts for preliminary screening ....................................................... 76
3.4 Phytochemical and antioxidant activity screening of crude plant extracts ................ 76
3.5 Biological activity screening of crude plant extracts and isolated compounds ......... 77
3.5.1 Anti-microbial screening procedure .......................................................................... 77
3.5.2 In vitro anti-leishmanial............................................................................................. 78
3.5.3 In vitro anti-plasmodial ............................................................................................. 78
3.5.4 In vitro cytotoxicity ................................................................................................... 79

vii
3.5.5 Mosquito larvicidal assays ......................................................................................... 79
3.6 Extraction and isolation of compounds from Croton megalocarpoides .................... 79
3.7 Extraction and isolation of compounds from Croton alienus.................................... 80
3.8 Extraction and isolation of compounds from Croton sylvaticus ............................... 81
CHAPTER FOUR.................................................................................................................... 82
RESULTS AND DISCUSIONS .............................................................................................. 82
4.1 Phytochemistry Investigations Results .............................................................................. 82
4.1.1 The Phytochemistry of Croton megalocarpoides ........................................................... 82
4.1.1.1 Ent-clerodane diterpenoids from Croton megalocarpoides ...................................... 82
4.1.1.1.1 Crotocorylifuran (391) ............................................................................................... 83
4.1.1.1.2 12-epi-crotocorylifuran (392) .................................................................................... 86
4.1.1.1.3 8-Hydroxycrotocorylifuran (393) .............................................................................. 89
4.1.1.1.4 2-Ketocrotocorylifuran (394) .................................................................................... 91
4.1.1.1.5 7, 8-Dehydrocrotocorylifuran (395) .......................................................................... 93
4.1.1.1.6 Megalocarpoidolide F (396) ...................................................................................... 95
4.1.1.1.7 12-Epi-megalocarpoidolide F (397) .......................................................................... 97
4.1.1.1.8 Megalocarpoidolides E (398) .................................................................................... 99
4.1.1.1.9 Megalocarpoidolide G (399) ................................................................................... 101
4.1.1.1.10 Megalocarpoidolide H (400) ............................................................................ 103
4.1.1.1.11 Megalocarpoidolide I (401) ............................................................................. 105
4.1.1.1.12 Megalocarpoidolide J (402) ............................................................................. 108
4.1.1.1.13 Megalocarpoidolide K (403) ............................................................................ 110
4.1.1.2 Abietane diterpenoids from Croton megalocarpoides ............................................ 112
4.1.1.2.1 Isolophanthin A (404) .............................................................................................. 112
4.1.1.2.2 Isolophanthin E (405) ............................................................................................. 114
4.1.1.2.3 Abietic acid (406) .................................................................................................... 116
4.1.1.3 Trachylobane diterpenoids from Croton megalocarpoides ....................................... 118
4.1.1.3.1 3α, 18-Dihydroxytrachylobane (407) ...................................................................... 118
4.1.1.3.2 Ent-trachyloban-18-ol (408) .................................................................................... 121
4.1.1.3.3 Tachyloban-18-oic acid (409) ................................................................................. 122
4.1.1.3.4 3α-Hydroxytrachyloban-18-al (410) ....................................................................... 124
4.1.1.4 Triterpenoids from Croton megalocarpoides ............................................................ 126
4.1.1.4.1 Acetylaleuritolicacid (411) ...................................................................................... 126
4.1.1.4.2 Lupeol (412) ........................................................................................................... 129

viii
4.1.2 The Phytochemistry of Kenyan Croton alienus ........................................................... 131
4.1.2.1 A Phorbol ester derivative, alienusolin (413) ............................................................ 131
4.1.2.2 Glutarimide alkaloids from Croton alienus ............................................................. 134
4.1.2.2.1 Julocrotine (414) ...................................................................................................... 134
4.1.2.2.2 Crotonamide C (415) .............................................................................................. 136
4.1.2.3 Methylcyclohexane derivatives from Croton alienus ............................................. 138
4.1.2.3.1 Crotepoxide (416) and other methylcyclohexanediepoxide derivatives ................. 138
(417 and 418) ......................................................................................................................... 138
4.1.2.3.2 Methylcyclohexane monoepoxide derivatives (419 - 421) ..................................... 141
4.1.2.4 A triterpenoid and a phytosterol from Croton alienus ............................................ 144
4.1.2.4.1 D4-stigmasterone (422) ............................................................................................ 144
4.1.3 The Phytochemistry of Kenyan Croton sylvaticus ....................................................... 146
4.1.3.1 Ent-clerodane diterpenoids from Croton sylvaticus ................................................ 146
4.1.3.1.1 Hardwickiic acid (423) ............................................................................................ 146
4.1.3.1.2 Kolavenol and its derivatives .................................................................................. 148
4.1.3.2 Halimane diterpenoids from Croton sylvaticus ....................................................... 152
4.1.3.2.1 Crotohalimaneic acid (428) ..................................................................................... 152
4.1.3.2.2 Penduliflaworosin (429) .......................................................................................... 155
4.1.3.3 A labdane diterpenoid from Croton sylvaticus ........................................................ 157
4.2 Preliminary phytochemical screening results .......................................................... 159
4.3 Biological activity screening results ........................................................................ 159
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................... 163
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................. 163
5.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 163
5.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 164
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 165

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Popular medicinal plants across the globe ................................................................ 2

Table 1.2: Sources of some bio-active phytochemicals used in modern drugs ......................... 4
Table 2.1: Ethnomedicinal uses of Croton species .................................................................. 19
Table 2.2: Carbon skeletons of alkaloids reported from Croton genus ................................... 31
Table 2.3: Benzylisoquinoline-derived alkaloids possessing aporphine, proaporphine .......... 32
Table 2.4: Tetrahydroprotoberberine, glutarimide, guaiane, harman, tyramine and ............... 36
Table 2.5: Peptide derived alkaloids and other types of alkaloids from Croton species ......... 37
Table 2.6: Flavonoids reported from Croton species............................................................... 39
Table 2.7: Essential oils reported from Croton species ........................................................... 47
Table 2.8: Carbon skeletons of diterpenoids from Croton genus ............................................ 48
Table 2.9: Enantiomeric diterpenes and their distinguishing parameters ................................ 49
Table 2.10: Clerodanes from Croton genus and their reported biological activities ............... 50
Table 2.11: Labdanes from Croton species and their reported biological values .................... 56
Table 2.12: Kauranes from Croton genus ................................................................................ 61
Table 2.13: Cembranoids from Croton species ....................................................................... 66
Table 2.14: Triterpenoids from Croton species ....................................................................... 72
Table 3.1: Compounds isolated from the roots of Croton megalocarpoides ........................... 80
Table 4.1: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of crotocorylifuran (391) ............................. 85
Table 4.2: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 12-epi-crotocorylifuran (392) ................. 87
Table 4.3: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 8-hydroxycrotocorylifuran (393) ............ 90
Table 4.4: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 2-ketocrotocorylifuran (394) ................... 92
Table 4.5: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 7, 8-dehydrocrotocorylifuran (395) ........ 94
Table 4.6: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide F (396) .................... 96
Table 4.7: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 12-epi-megalocarpoidolide F (397) ........ 98
Table 4.8: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide E (398) .................. 100
Table 4.9: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide G (399) ................. 102
Table 4.10: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide H (400) ............... 104
Table 4.11: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide I (401) ................. 107
Table 4.12: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide J (402)................. 109
Table 4.13: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide K (403) ............... 111
Table 4.14: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of isolophanthin A (404) ......................... 113
Table 4.15: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of isolophanthin E (405) .......................... 115

x
Table 4.16: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of abietic acid (406)................................. 117
Table 4.17: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 3α, 18-dihydroxytrachylobane (407) .. 120
Table 4.18: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of ent-trachyloban-19-ol (408) ................ 121
Table 4.19: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of ent-trachyloban-18-oic acid (409)....... 123
Table 4.20: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 3α-ent-hydroxytrachyloban-18-al ....... 125
Table 4.21: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of acetylaleuritolic acid (411) ................. 127
Table 4.22: NMR (300 MHz) spectroscopic data of lupeol (412) ......................................... 130
Table 4.23: NMR spectroscopic data of alienusolin (413) .................................................... 133
Table 4.24: NMR spectroscopic data of julocrotine (414) .................................................... 135
Table 4.25: NMR spectroscopic data of crotonamide C (415) .............................................. 137
Table 4.26: 1H NMR spectroscopic data of cyclohexane diepoxides from Croton alienus .. 140
Table 4.27: 13C NMR spectroscopic data of cyclohexane diepoxide from Croton alienus... 140
Table 4.28: 1H NMR data (300 MHz) of methylcyclohexene monoepoxides (419 and 420)143
Table 4.29: 13C NMR data (75 Hz) for methylcyclohexane monoepoxide derivatives (419 143
Table 4.30: NMR spectroscopic data of D4-stigmasterone (422) .......................................... 145
Table 4.31: NMR spectroscopic data of hardwickiic acid (423) ........................................... 148
Table 4.32: 1H NMR spectroscopic data of kolavenol and its derivatives (424-427) ........... 150
Table 4.33: 13C NMR spectroscopic data of kolavenol and its derivatives from .................. 151
Table 4.34: NMR spectroscopic data of crotohalimaneic acid (428) and hardwickiic acid .. 154
Table 4.35: NMR (600 MHz) spectroscopic data of penduliflaworosin (429) ...................... 156
Table 4.36: NMR spectroscopic data of labda-13E-ene-8α, 15- diol (430) .......................... 158
Table 4.37: Anti-microbial activity test results of crude plant extracts ................................. 160
Table 4.38: Anti-microbial test results of control drugs used in secondary screening .......... 161

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Chemical structure of some potent phytochemicals since ancient times ................ 2
Figure 1.2: Chemical structures of some bio-active phytochemicals in modern drugs ............. 6
Figure 1.3: Croton alienus plant and twigs ................................................................................ 8
Figure 1.4: Croton megalocarpoides plant and fruits ................................................................ 9
Figure 1.5: Croton sylvaticus flowering buds and fruits ........................................................... 9
Figure 1.6: Compounds reported from Eastern and Southern Africa Croton sylvaticus species
.................................................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 2.1: Structures of chemical constituents in commonly used anti-biotics ..................... 15
Figure 2.2: Cutaneous leishmaniasis and chemical constituent of paromomycin ................... 16
Figure 2.3: Global malaria distribution (WHO global atlas, 2005) ......................................... 17
Figure 2.4: Geographical distribution of Croton genus ........................................................... 18
Figure 2.5: Benzylisoquinoline-derived alkaloids possessing aporphine, proaporphine ......... 35
Figure 2.6: Tetrahydroprotoberberine, glutarimide, guaiane, harman, tyramine and .............. 37
Figure 2.7: Peptide derived alkaloids and other types of alkaloids from Croton species ........ 38
Figure 2.8: Flavonoids reported from Croton species ............................................................. 39
Figure 2.9: Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes reported from Croton species ......................... 47
Figure 2.10: Acyclic diterpenoids from Croton species .......................................................... 50
Figure 2.11: Clerodane diterpenoids from Croton species ...................................................... 53
Figure 2.12: Bioactive clerodane diterpenoids from other plants ............................................ 55
Figure 2.13: Halimane diterpenoids and an Indane derivative from Croton species............... 56
Figure 2.14: Labdane diterpenoids from Croton species ......................................................... 58
Figure 2.15: Abietane related parent diterpene hydrocarbons ................................................. 59
Figure 2.16: Daphnane diterpenoids from Croton steenkampianus ........................................ 59
Figure 2.17: Pimarane diterpenoids from Croton species ....................................................... 60
Figure 2.18: Atisane diterpenoids from Croton species .......................................................... 60
Figure 2.19: Kaurane diterpenoids from Croton species ......................................................... 62
Figure 2.20: Tiglianes and Phorbolesters from Croton species ............................................... 64
Figure 2.21: Trachylobanes from Croton species .................................................................... 65
Figure 2.22: Cembranoids from Croton species and jatrophone from Euphorbia species ...... 68
Figure 2.23: Limonoid diterpenoids reported supposedly from Croton jatrophoides ............. 70
Figure 2.24: Triterpenoids from Croton species ...................................................................... 73
Figure 2.25: Phytosterols from Croton species........................................................................ 74

xii
Figure 4.1: Ent-clerodane derivatives Isolated from Croton megalocarpoides ....................... 83
Figure 4.2: Bold lines showing COSY couplings in compound 391 ....................................... 85
Figure 4.3: Key NOESY correlation illustrations for compounds (391) and (392)................. 88
Figure 4.4: Key NOSEY correlation illustrations for megalocarpoidolide F (396) and 12-epi-
megalocarpoidolide F (397) ..................................................................................................... 99
Figure 4.5: Abietane diterpenoids from Croton megalocarpoides ........................................ 112
Figure 4.6: Key NOESY correlations of compound 405 ....................................................... 116
Figure 4.7: Trachylobane diterpenoids from Croton megalocarpoides................................. 118
Figure 4.8: COSY, HMBC and NOESY correlations observed in alienusolin (413) ............ 134
Figure 4.9: Glutarimide Alkaloids from C. alienus ............................................................... 134
Figure 4.10: Methylcyclohexane diepoxide derivatives from Croton alienus ...................... 138
Figure 4.11: Methylcyclohexane monoepoxide derivatives from Croton alienus ................ 141
Figure 4.12: Kolavenol and its derivatives from Croton sylvaticus ...................................... 149

xiii
 LIST OF SCHEMES
Scheme 1: Biosynthesis of terpenoids from acetyl-Co A ........................................................ 41
Scheme 2: Cyclization of GGPP during biosynthesis of cyclic diterpenes ............................. 42
Scheme 3: Biosynthesis of bicyclic diterpenoids..................................................................... 44
Scheme 4: Biosynthesis of tri- , tetra- and penta-cyclic diterpenes ........................................ 45
Scheme 5: Cembrane as a precursor skeleton of other diterpenoids ....................................... 46
Scheme 6: Biosynthesis of triterpenoids and phytosterols ...................................................... 71

xiv
 LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1 a: Mass spectrum for crotocorylifuran (391) ..................................................... 198
Appendix 1 b: 1H NMR spectrum for crotocorylifuran (391) ............................................... 199
Appendix 1 c: 13C NMR spectrum for crotocorylifuran (391) ......................................... 19999
Appendix 1 d: NOESY and HMBC spectra for crotocorylifuran (391) ................................ 201
Appendix 2 a: MS Spectrum of 12-epi-crotocorylifuran (392) ............................................. 202
Appendix 2 b: 1H and 13C NMR Spectra of 12-epi-crotocorylifuran (392) ........................... 203
Appendix 2 c: NOESY and HMBC Spectra of 12-epi-crotocorylifuran (392) ..................... 204
Appendix 3 a: Mass Spectrum of 8-hydroxycrotocorylifuran (393) ..................................... 205
Appendix 3 b: 1H and 13C NMR Spectra of 8-hydroxycrotocorylifuran (393)...................... 206
Appendix 3 c: HMBC and NOESY Spectra 8-hydroxycrotocorylifuran (393) ..................... 207
Appendix 4 a: Mass spectrum of 2-ketocrotocorylifuran (394)............................................. 207
Appendix 4 b: 1H and 13C NMR spectra of 2-ketocrotocorylifuran (394) ............................. 208
Appendix 4 c: HMBC and NOESY spectra of 2-ketocrotocorylifuran (394) ....................... 209
Appendix 5 a: Mass Spectrum of 7, 8-Dehydrocrotocorylifuran (395) ................................. 211
Appendix 5 b: 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of 7, 8-Dehydrocrotocorylifuran (395) ....... 212
Appendix 5 c: HMBC and NOESY Spectra of 7, 8-Dehydrocrotocorylifuran (395) ............ 213
Appendix 6 a: Mass and FTIR Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide F (396)................................ 214
Appendix 6 b: 1H and 13C NMR Spectra Megalocarpoidolide F (396) ................................. 215
Appendix 6 c: HMBC and COSY Spectra for Megalocarpoidolide F (396) ......................... 216
Appendix 7 a: Mass and FTIR Spectra of 12-Epi-megalocarpoidolide F (397) .................... 217
Appendix 7 b: 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra 12-Epi-megalocarpoidolide F (397) ........... 218
Appendix 7 c: NOESY Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide F (396) its C-12 Epimer (397) ...... 219
Appendix 8 a: Mass Spectrum of Megalocarpoidolide E (398) ............................................ 220
Appendix 8 b: 1H NMR Spectrum of Megalocarpoidolide E (398) ...................................... 221
Appendix 8 c: 13C NMR Spectrum of Megalocarpoidolide E (398) ..................................... 222
Appendix 8 d: HMBC and NOESY Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide E (398) ....................... 223
Appendix 9 a: Mass Spectrum and FTIR Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide G (399)............... 224
Appendix 9 b: 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide G (399) .................. 225
Appendix 9 c: HMBC and NOESY Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide G (399) ....................... 226
Appendix 10 a: Mass and FTIR Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide H (400) ............................. 227
Appendix 10 b: 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide H (400) ................ 228
Appendix 10 c: HMBC and NOESY Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide H (400) ..................... 229

xv
Appendix 11 a: FTIR and CD Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide I (401) ................................. 230
Appendix 11 b: 1H and 13C NMR Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide I (401) ............................ 231
Appendix 11 c: HMBC and NOESY Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide I (401) ...................... 232
Appendix 12 a: FTIR and CD Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide J (402) ................................. 233
Appendix 12 b: 1H and 13C NMR Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide J (402) ........................... 234
Appendix 12 c: HMBC and NOESY Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide J (402) ...................... 235
Appendix 13 a: 1H and 13C NMR Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide K (403) .......................... 236
Appendix 13 b: HMBC and COSY Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide K (403) ....................... 237
Appendix 14 a: 1H NMR Spectrum of Isolophanthin A (404) .............................................. 238
Appendix 14 b: 13C NMR Spectrum of Isolophanthin A (404) ............................................. 239
Appendix 14 c: DEPT Spectrum of Isolophanthin A (404) ................................................... 240
Appendix 14 d: NOESY and HMBC Spectra of Isolophanthin A (404) ............................... 241
Appendix 15 a: 1H and 13C NMR Spectra of Isolophanthin E (405) ..................................... 242
Appendix 15 b: HMBC and NOESY Spectra of Isolophanthin E (405) ............................... 243
Appendix 16 a: Mass and FTIR Spectra of Abietic acid (406).............................................. 244
Appendix 16 b: 1H and 13C Spectra of Abietic acid (406) ..................................................... 245
Appendix 17 a: Mass Spectrum of 3α, 18-Dihydroxytrachylobane (407) ............................. 246
Appendix 17 b: 1H NMR Spectrum of 3α, 18-Dihydroxytrachylobane (407)....................... 247
Appendix 17 c: DEPT and 13C NMR Spectra of 3α, 18-Dihydroxytrachylobane (407) ...... 248
Appendix 17 d: HMBC and NOESY Spectra of 3α, 18-Dihydroxytrachylobane (407) ....... 249
Appendix 18 a: 1H NMR Spectrum of Ent-trachyloban-19-ol (408) ..................................... 250
Appendix 18 b: DEPT and 13C NMR Spectra of Ent-trachyloban-19-ol (408) ..................... 251
Appendix 19 a: Mass and FTIR Spectra for Ent-trachyloban-18-oic acid (409) ................... 252
Appendix 19 b: 1H and 13C NMR Spectra of Ent-trachyloban-18-oic acid (409) ................. 253
Appendix 20 a: 1H NMR Spectrum of 3α-ent-hydroxytrachyloban-18-al (410) ................... 254
Appendix 20 b: 13C NMR Spectrum of 3α-ent-hydroxytrachyloban-18-al (410) ................. 255
Appendix 20 c: HMBC and NOESY Spectra of 3α-ent-hydroxytrachyloban-18-al (410).... 256
Appendix 21 : 1H NMR and 13 C NMR Spectra of Acetylaleuritolic acid (411)................... 257
Appendix 22 a: 1H NMR Spectrum of Lupeol (412) ............................................................. 258
Appendix 22 b: 13C and DEPT NMR Spectra of Lupeol (412) ............................................. 259
Appendix 23 a: Mass Spectrum of Alienusolin (413) ........................................................... 260
Appendix 23 b: 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of Alienusolin (413) ................................. 261
Appendix 23 c: COSY and HMBC Spectra for Alienusolin (413) ........................................ 262
Appendix 23 d: NOESY Spectrum of Alienusolin (413) ...................................................... 263

xvi
Appendix 24 : 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of Julocrotine (414) .................................... 264
Appendix 25 a: HRESIMS Spectrum of Crotonamide C (415) ............................................. 265
Appendix 25 b: 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra for Crotonimide C (415) ........................... 266
Appendix 26 : 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of Crotepoxide (416) .................................. 267
Appendix 27 a: 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of Monodeacetylcrotepoxide (417)........... 268
Appendix 27 b: Overlaid 1H Spectra of 416 & acetylated 417 .............................................. 269
Appendix 28 : 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of Dideacetylcrotepoxide (418) .................. 270
Appendix 29 : 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of Senepoxide (419) ................................... 271
Appendix 30 : 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra for β-Senepoxide (420) ............................... 272
Appendix 31 : 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of Diacetyldiene molecule (421) ................ 273
Appendix 32 : 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of D4-stigmasterone (422) .......................... 274
Appendix 33 : 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of Hardwickiic acid (423) ........................... 275
Appendix 34 : 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of Kolavenol (424) ..................................... 276
Appendix 35 : 1H NMR and 13
C NMR Spectra of 15-acetoxy-ent-3,13E-clerodadiene (425)
................................................................................................................................................ 277
Appendix 36 : 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of 3, 8(17), 13E-clerodatriene-15-ol (426) . 278
Appendix 37 a: 1H NMR and 13C NMR Spectra of 15-formate-ent-3,13E-clerodadiene (427)
................................................................................................................................................ 279
Appendix 37 b: HMBC Spectrum of 15-formate-ent-3,13E-clerodadiene (427) .................. 280
Appendix 37 c: NOESY Spectrum of 15-formate-ent-3,13E-clerodadiene (427) ................. 281
Appendix 38 a: 1H NMR Spectra of Hardwickiic acid (423) and Crotohalimaneic acid (428)
................................................................................................................................................ 282
13
Appendix 38 b: C NMR Spectra of Hardwickiic acid (423) & Crotohalimaneic acid (428)
................................................................................................................................................ 283
Appendix 39 a: 1H NMR Spectrum of Penduliflaworosin (429) ........................................... 284
Appendix 39 b: 13C NMR Spectrum of Penduliflaworosin (429).......................................... 285
Appendix 40 a: 1H NMR Spectrum of Labd-13E- ene -8α, 15-diol (430) ............................ 286
Appendix 40 b: 13 C NMR Spectrum of Labd-13E- ene -8α, 15-diol (430) .......................... 287
Appendix 41 : Ndunda, B., Langat, M., K., Wanjohi, J., M., Midiwo, J., O. and Kerubo,
L., O. (2013) Alienusolin, a New 4α-Deoxyphorbol Ester Derivative, and Crotonimide C, a
New Glutarimide Alkaloid from the Kenyan Croton alienus. Planta medica 79: 1762-1766--
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------288

xvii
LIST OF ABREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ACT Artemisinin based Combination Therapies
CC Column Chromatography
CD Circular Dichroism
COSY Correlation Spectroscopy
DBE Double Bond Equivalence
DCM Dichloromethane
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DEPT Distortionless Enhancement by Polarization Transfer
DMSO Dimethylsulfoxide
DPPH 2, 2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
ED50 Effective Dose-50: Amount of material required to produce a specified effect on 50% of
test animal
EI MS Electron Impact Mass Spectrometry
FT-IR Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
GPR General Purpose Reagent
HERPES N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N-2-ethanesulfonic acid
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HMBC Heteronuclear Multiple Bond Correlation
HPLC High Performance Liquid Chromatography
HR-EIMS High Resolution Electron Impact Mass Spectrometry
HSQC Heteronuclear Single Quantum Correlation
IC50 Inhibition Concentration-50: Concentration of substance that produce 50% inhibition of
certain process
IUCN International Union of Conservation of Nature and natural resources
IR Infrared
KEMRI Kenya Medical Research Institute
LC50 Lethal Concentration-50: Concentration that kills 50% of test animal
MIC Minimum Inhibition Concentation
MS Mass Spectrometry
NMR Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
NOESY Nuclear Overhauser effect Spectroscopy
pLDH Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase

xviii
PTLC Preparative Thin Layer Chromatography
TLC Thin Layer Chromatography
UV Ultra Violet
UV-VIS Ultra Violet-Visible
WHO World Health Organization
δH Proton Chemical Shift in the Proton NMR spectra
δC Carbon Chemical Shift in the Carbon NMR spectra

xix
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Since time immemorial and in almost all cultures, man has relied on nature for basic needs
such as food, shelter, clothing, transportation, fertilizers, flavours, fragrances and medicines
(Cragg and Newman, 2005). This is attributed to availability of chemical diversity in animals,
minerals and plants, plants parts being the major sources of empirical traditional medicine
systems (Verpoorte et al., 2005). The medicines initially took the form of crude drugs such as
tinctures, teas, poultices, powders and other herbal formulations whose dosage was developed
through experience and experimentation (Balick and Cox, 1997; Samuelsson, 2004). Due to
development of separation Chemistry and pharmacological testing, the medicines are
nowadays made of active compounds isolated from the plants, or their synthetic equivalents.
Information on the specific plants to be used for a particular ailment and the method of
application was initially passed down by oral traditional mode but later became documented
in herbal pharmacopoeias (Balunas and Kinghorn, 2005). These records are characterised by
marked regional differences and healing practices that can be attributed to the rich biological
and cultural diversity.

Despite unreliable reports on therapeutic properties attributed to some medicinal plant

therapies, there is a lot of historical evidence to their dependability. Hundreds of clay tablets
from as early as 2600 BC from Mesopotamia are some of the earliest documented evidence
of nature being used as a medicine. The chemical structures of three popular and potent
phytochemicals that have been in use since time immemorial have been given in Figure 1.1.
Included is morphine (1), one of the most potent pain killers to date, reported to have been
isolated from opium poppy. Others are oils of Cedrus species (cedar) and Cupressus
sempervirens (cypress), Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice), Commiphora species (myrrh) and
Papaver somniferum (poppy juice) all of which are still in use today for management of
ailments ranging from coughs and colds to parasitic infections and inflammation (Newman et
al., 2000; Butler and Buss 2009). Salicylic acid (2) was first reported by Hippocrates in the
5th century BC, describing it as a “bitter powder extracted from willow bark that could ease
aches, pains and reduce fever” (Fryers, 1982). Ancient Egyptians used Ammi majus (Bishops
weed) for treatment of vitiligo (a skin condition characterised by loss of pigmentation).

1
It is from this plant (Bishops weed), β-methoxypsoralen (3) (7H-furo[3,2-g]chromen-7-one or
7H-furo[3,2-g][1]benzopyran-7-one), a drug used to treat psoriasis and other skin disorders as
well as T-cell lymphoma has recently been reported from (Staniszewska et al., 2003; Beissert
and Schwarz, 2002).

HO
O OH OMe

O OH
H
H O O O
HO N
2 3
1
Figure 1.1: Chemical structure of some potent phytochemicals since ancient times

Over the centuries, the Chinese have extensively documented their herbal prescriptions for
known illnesses in Materia Medica, first records dating back to 1100 BC (Butler and Buss,
2009). Some other well-known medicinal plants found around the globe are given in Table
1.1.

Table 1.1: Popular medicinal plants across the globe

Region Botanical name (common name)

Acacia senegal (gum arabic), Agathosma betulina (buchu), Aloe ferox
Africa (Cape aloes), Aloe vera (North African origin), Artemisia afra
(African wormwood), Aspalanthus linearis (rooibos tea), Boswellia
sacra (frankincense), Catha edulis (khat), Catharanthus roseus (rosy
periwinkle), Commiphora myrrha (myrrh), Harpagophytum
procumbens (devil‟s claw), Hibiscus sabdariffa (hibiscus, roselle),
Hypoxis hemerocallidea (African potato), Prunus africana (African
cherry) (Newman et al., 2000; Neuwinger, 2000).
Australia and Croton tiglium (purging croton), Duboisia hopwoodii (pituri),
South-East Asia Eucalyptus globulus (bluegum), Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree),
Myristica fragrans (nutmeg or mace), Piper methysticum (kava
kava), Strychnos nux-vomica (strychnine), Styrax benzoin (benzoin)
and Syzygium aromaticum (cloves) (Maher, 1999; Kapoor, 1990;
Newman, 2000; Gurib-Fakim, 2006).

2
Central and South Cinchona pubescens (Peruvian bark), Erythroxylum coca (coca), Ilex
America paraguariensis (mate), Myroxylon balsamum (tolu balsam), Paullinia
cupana (guarana), Peumus boldus (boldo), Psidium guajava (guava),
Spilanthes acmella (Brazilian cress), Tabebuia impetiginosa
(lapacho) and Uncaria tomentosa (cat‟s clow) (Fabricant and
Farnsworth, 2001; Gurib-Fakim, 2006).
North America Echinacea purpurea (Echinacea) and Hydrastis canadensis
(Goldenseal) (Pieroni, 2000; Gurib-Fakim, 2006)
Angelica polymorpha var. sinensis (dang gui), Artemisia annua (qing
China hao), Ephedra sinica (ma huang), Paeonia lactiflora (bai shao yao),
Panax ginseng (ren shen) and Rheum palmatum (da huang) (Magner,
1992; Padua de et al., 1999; Gurib-Fakim, 2006).
Azandirachta indica (neem), Centella asiatica (gotu kola),
India Cinnamomum camphora (camphor), Elettaria cardamomum (ela or
cardamomum), Rauwolfia serpentina (Indian snake root), Santalum
album (sandalwood), Terminalia species (myrobolan) and Withania
somnifera (aswargandha) (Kapoor, 1990; Magner, 1992; Padua de,
1999; Gurib-Fakim, 2006).
Middle East and Allium cepa (onion), Astracantha gummifera (tragacanth), Carthamus
Egypt tinctorius (safflower), Carum carvi (caraway), Ferula assafoetida
(asafoetida), Lawsonia inermis (henna), Papaver somniferum (opium
poppy), Peganum harmala (syrian rue), Prunus dulcis (almond),
Punica granatum (pomegranate), Rosa damascene (damask rose),
Ricinus communis (castor oil plant), Salvadora persica (toothbrush
tree), Senna alexandrina (senna), Sesamum indicum (sesame),
Trachyspermum ammi (ajowan), Trigonella foenum-graecum
(fenugreek) and Vitis vinifera (grape) (Padua de, 1999; Neuwinger,
2000; Gurib-Fakim, 2006).

3
1.1.1 Natural products and their place in modern drugs
Natural products and their derivatives represent more than 50% of all the drugs in clinical use
with higher plants contributing about 25% to this number (Fransworth et al., 1985; Cragg and
Newman, 2005) and 11% of those considered basic and essential by WHO (Rates, 2001). A
lot of other products of natural origin are used as tools in pharmacological, physiological and
biochemical studies. Three of the major sources of anti-cancer drugs on the market or
completing clinical trials are from North American plants used by the American natives
against ovarian cancer (papaw, Asimina spp and western yew tree, Taxus brevifolia),
leukemia, lymphoma lung and testicular cancer (mayapple, Podophyllum peltatum) (Gurib-
Fakim, 2006).

Two other good anti-cancer agents are vincristine (4) and vinblastine (5) [Figure 1.2],
alkaloids reported from Rosy Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) formerly known as Vinca
rosea, a Madagascan medicinal plant, used by the natives to treat diabetes and fever
(Newman et al., 2000, Gurib-Fakim, 2006). Other notable medicinal plants in use in modern
medicine include Dioscorea species (diosgenin) from which all anovulatory contraceptive
agents have been derived; Rauwolfia species, a source of reserpine and other anti-
hypertensive and tranquilizing alkaloids; a group of South American trees belonging to the
Pilocarpus spp of the Citrus family from where pilocarpine that is used to treat glaucoma and
“dry mouth” is derived; Cassia spp, a source of laxative agents and Digitalis spp., a source of
cardiotonic agent that is used to treat heart failure (Newman et al., 2000). There are many
other indigenous botanical drugs whose active constituents have found their way into useful
modern drugs summarised in Table 1.2; Figure 1.2 (Babu et al., 2003; Gurib-Fakim, 2006).

Table 1.2: Sources of some bio-active phytochemicals used in modern drugs

Botanical name Region of Biomedical Bio-active

(common name) origin Indigenous use uses phytochemicals
[Figure 1.2]
Adhatoda vasica India, Antispasmodic, Antispasmodic,
Sri Lanka antiseptic, oxytocic, cough Vasicine (6)
insecticide, fish suppressant
poison

4
Artemisia annua L. China Treat fever Anti-malarial Artemisinin (7a)
Artesunate (7b)*1
Arteether (7c)*
Artemether (7d)*
Cinchona South Treat fever Anti-malarial Quinine (8)
succuriba America
Condrodendron Brazil, Arrow poison Muscular d-Tubocurarine (9)
tomentosum Peru relaxation
Gingko biloba Eastern Asthma, Dementia, Ginkgolides A-C, J,
(Gingko) China Anthelmintic cerebral M (Five terpene
(the fruit) deficiencies trilactones 10-14)
Harpagophytum Southern Fever, Pain, Harpagoside (15),
procumbens Africa Inflammatory Rheumatism Caffeic acid (16)
(devil‟s claw) conditions
Kava pyrones
Piper methysticum Pacific Ritual Anxiolytic, (kavain (17); 7,8-
(Kava Kava) Island stimulant, Tonic Mild stimulant dihydrokavain (18);
methysticin (19);
7,8-
dihydromethysticin
(20); yangonin (21);
desmethoxyyangonin
(22)
Podophyllum North Laxative, Skin Cancer Podophyllotoxin
peltatum (May America infections chemotherapy, (23)
apple) warts
Silybum marianum England Liver diseases Hepatic toxicity Silibinin (24)
(Milk thistle)
Mentha arvensis Central Digestive Coughs, sore Menthol (25)
Asia problems, gall throats, topical
bladder and analgesis
coughs

1 * Artemisinin derivatives that are more effective anti-malarial drugs

5
 OH OH
N N

N N
N N
H3COOC H3COOC
C2H5 C2H5
COOCH3 N COOCH3
4 O N O
COOCH3 COOCH3
CHO OH 5 OH
N OH
H
N O +
N O O
HO N
6 O
H O OH
O H H
O MeO
O O
O
R O
H R OH N
O N

7b CO(CH2 )2CO2Na 8 9
HO
7a O 7c CH2CH3
O
7d OMe
HO
O
HO O
R1 R1 R2 R3
O C O 10 GA H H OH O O
A 11 GB OH H OH
O F D
t-Bu 12 GC OH OH OH OH
O B O
R3 E
13 GJ H OH OH
O 14 GM OH OH H 15
R2 O
O OH
O
HO O OH OH
O O
O
O
O O
O O O
O
17 18
19 O
OH O O
16 O 20
OH O OH OH
O HO
O
O O
O
O O
O O
22 O O

O O
21 O O HO

O O
23 24
OH O
25
HO
OH

Figure 1.2: Chemical structures of some bio-active phytochemicals in modern drugs

6
1.1.2 Pharmacological activity screening of medicinal plants
There is enormous potential of finding phytochemicals with therapeutic properties from
plants as evidenced by the various reports accessed. Due to the diversity of medical uses of
plants, their development into drugs involves a multidisciplinary approach, one of them being
biological screening of the extracts in pharmacologically relevant assays. An inclusive
evaluation of plant species belonging to genera that are reputed for their medicinal value has
been hailed as of great value in solving some of the challenges facing health care needs of
mankind. This approach has led to a reservoir of potential chemotherapeutic agents and
starting points for the development of new drugs from nature, the first step in the lengthy
drug development process (Reichert 2003; Dickson and Gagnon, 2004).

Plant species belonging to Croton genus were investigated in this study. Croton is one of the
largest genera of the Euphorbiaceae family, members of which are well known for producing
compounds of diverse medicinal uses and toxicity (Caruzo et al., 2011; Berry et al., 2005).
Microbial infections and parasitic diseases, some of whose successful therapy can be traced
from natural sources account for 26.2% of the global causes of death, the vast majority being
from developing countries (WHO, 2003). Based on the aforementioned, this study intended
to evaluate the phytochemistry and bioactivity of the chosen Kenyan Croton species. The
ultimate goal was to support potential formulations of new drugs that could help in
management of microbial infections, malaria and neglected tropical diseases. In addition, it
was the intention of the investigators to provide scientific data that would give credible
support to their conservation and cultivation for medicinal value if found to have any.

1.1.3 Phytochemistry and biological activity reports on Kenyan Croton species

So far, only four of the fifteen Kenyan Croton species have had their phytochemistry
reported. These are C. dichogamus Pax. (Jogia et al., 1989); C. macrostachyus Del., A. Rich
(Kapingu et al., 2000); C. megalocarpus Hutch (Addae-Mensah et al., 1989) and C.
sylvaticus Hochst (leaves) (Mwangi et al., 1998). This leaves us with scanty information
about the ethno-pharmacological relevancies and chemical constituents of eleven Kenyan
Croton species (C. alienus; C. bonplandianus Pax (Syn. C. sparsiflorus)-Originally a South
American (Argentina) species which is now a common weed in Kenya; C. megalocarpoides
Pax; C. menyhartii Pax.; C. polytrichus Pax.; C. pseudopulchellus Pax.; C. talaeporos Radc-
Smith.; C. scheffleri Pax.; C. somalensis Vatke and Pax and C. zambesicus Mull.Arg).

7
This knowledge gap, backed by observed folkloric uses of the family Euphorbiaceae justified
this study on the phytochemistry and pharmacological relevancies of three of the Kenyan
Croton species, C. alienus Pax. C. megalocarpoides Friis and Gilbert and C. sylvaticus
Hochst (Krauss).

C. alienus is a moderate sized tree that is threatened with extinction and is endemic to central
Kenya (IUCN, 1993). It is distributed in the humid, evergreen mountainous regions near
Nairobi, often found in association with Brachylaena hutchinsii Hutch and C. megalocarpus
Hutch (Beentje, 1994). Its leaves are silvery-white shiny on the underside, turning orange-red
with age and its flowers are greenish white [Figure 1.3]. Literature reviewed gave only one
ethno-medicinal use of C. alienus (treatment of body weakness) (Gachathi, 2007) and
isolation of only one compound, crotepoxide (Chhabra et al., 2007).

Figure 1.3: Croton alienus plant2 and twigs

C. megalocarpoides is a monoecious shrub or tree, growing up to 8 meters tall in rocky

places of semi-evergreen coastal bush land or forest of Kenya and South Somalia (Beentje,
1994). Just like C. alienus, this plant is listed by IUCN among plant species that are
threatened with extinction (IUCN, 1993). Its taxonomic relationship with other African
Croton species is demonstrated by its semblance to C. megalocarpus (a plant it has often
been confused with), C. mayumbensis and C. mubango by possession of grey scaly bark,
silvery beneath leaves and tri-lobed fruits [Figure 1.4]. No ethno-medicinal use and / or
phytochemical report were accessed by the investigators by the commencement of this study.

2
C.alienus plant in its natural habitation at Ngong forest in Nairobi City County

8
 Figure 1.4: Croton megalocarpoides plant and fruits

C. sylvaticus is a plant found mainly in Africa at an altitude of 350-1750 m, spreading from

Ethiopia in the North to the Eastern Cape in South Africa, more widely in Gabon to Angola
(Venter and Venter, 1996). In Kenya, it is found in the Coastal regions (Kokwaro, 1993;
Kokwaro, 2009; Beentje, 1994). C. sylvaticus tree is monoecious, growing up to 30 meters
tall with a dense spreading crown, bole straight up to 1 meter in diameter and bark smelling
of black pepper. Its leaves are broadly ovate and flowers are greenish-cream producing
orange or red tri-lobed fruits [Figure 1.5].

Figure 1.5: Croton sylvaticus flowering buds and fruits

In Kenya, C. sylvaticus is used in ethno-medicine as a wash for body swellings caused by

kwashiorkor and purgative (leaves), oral remedy for tuberculosis (stem bark) and poultices
for swellings (roots) (Kokwaro, 1993 and 2009). Other reports on its ethno-medicinal uses in
various regions in Africa include: - treatment of gall-sickness in cattle; abdominal pains;
indigestion; pleurisy; rheumatism; chest pains; inflammation; malaria and fish poison(Watt,
1962; Neuwinger, 1996; Neuwinger, 2000; Neuwinger, 2004; Beentje, 1994).

9
Water and methanol extracts of C. sylvaticus (unspecified part, concentration and species
locality) are reported to have exhibited very promising 5-lipoxygenase inhibitory activity
(Frum and Viljoen, 2005). Another report indicated absence of anti-microbial activity at 500
µg / mL by the stem bark extract of the Eastern Africa species (Taniguchi and Kubo, 1993).
Reported phytochemical constituents of C. sylvaticus are given in Figure 1.6 and include
toxalbumin crotin (32), a glycoprotein molecule attached to crotin, a dihydrochalcone
isolated from its roots (Watt, 1962).

Hydro-distillation of the leaves of the Eastern Africa C. sylvaticus species showed presence
of over fifty-two components (Mwangi et al., 1998), a few of which were isolated and
characterized [sitosterol; caryophyllene oxide (33); α-humulen-1,2-epoxide (34);
penduliflaworosin (35); hardwickic acid (36); lupeol (37); stigmasterol (38) and julocrotine
(39)]. Fourteen phytochemicals were isolated from the stem bark and leaves of the Southern
Africa C. sylvaticus species (Langat, 2009) [a phytosterol, sitosterol; one acyclic diterpenoid,
trans-phytol (40); three trans-ent-clerodane diterpenoids [15, 16 – dihydroxy-trans-ent-
cleroda-3, 13-diene (41), 15-acetoxy-2-oxo-trans-ent-cleroda-3,13- diene (42) and trans-
annonene (43)]; two trans-clerodane diterpenoid [15-acetoxy-trans-cleroda-3, 13-diene (44)
and 15-hydroxy-trans-cleroda-3, 13-dien-15-ol (45)]; one trans-ent-clerodane nor
diterpenoid, 19-nor-clerodane, sylvaticinol (46); three triterpenoids [lupenone (47), 3β-
acetoxylup-20(29)-ene (48) and β-amyrin (49)]; a nor-cyclo-farnesene sesquiterpenoid, (+) –
[5R, 6S, 9R] - 4, 5 – dihydroblumenol A (50); a ferulate derivative, lignoceryl trans –ferulate
(51) and a lignan, (+) – syringaresino (52)].

10
 OH O
H
HO O
O
O
O

32 H O
O OH 33 34
O

O 35
CO2CH3
H
CH3 N
H
O
N O CH2OH

CO2H 38 39
37 HO
HO 40
36 O OCOCH3
OH OCOCH3
OH OH

H H
H H
O H

43 44 45
41 42
O
H H
H

H
O
H H
O H H HO
O H 49
H 48
H
H 47 CH3OCO OMe
O
OH
O
46 O
CH2 (CH2 )22CH3 O
OH
MeO H
O H OMe
OH
HO O
O 51
50 MeO 52

Figure 1.6: Compounds reported from Eastern and Southern Africa Croton sylvaticus
species

11
1.2 Statement of the problem
Despite the tremendous progress made in medicine, diseases have continued to terrorise
mankind and threaten human health for centuries in all ages, races and sexes. Bacterial, viral,
protozoan, helminthic and fungal invaders are the major threats according to WHO (WHO,
2008). The burden is however felt more in developing countries due to poverty, unavailability
of medicines and the emergence of widespread resistance of pathogens to the available drugs
(Okeke et al., 2005). The majority poor in developing countries still use natural products of
plant origin based on accumulated explicit and implicit wealth of knowledge and belief in
tribal medical systems (WHO, 2008). Other reasons adduced for the impressive use of native
medical systems are social-cultural acceptability; ease of availability hence affordability; eco-
friendliness and the belief that, being from natural origins, they are free from side effects.
Despite all the arguments in support of herbal based drugs use, folk medicine will continue to
be folk medicine unless they are scientifically validated to give their pharmacological-
toxicological profiles (efficacy, safety of therapy and raw materials and interaction with other
drugs).

In Africa alone, close to 50% of the population does not have access to essential medicines
CFA (2005), yet, the continent is home to various plant species that are of medicinal value.
Some of these African medicinal plants are endangered by extinction because of the rapid
loss of their natural habitants due to uncontrolled human activities (IUCN, 1993). The impact
of this loss cannot be under estimated because of the high endemism of some of the plant
species in the African continent. There is therefore great need for urgent documentation of
their phytochemistry and pharmacological values (Green and Sussman, 1990).

Considering the high diversity of the Croton genus (over 1300 species), the number studied
for their ethno-pharmacological relevancies‟ are rather few. American and Asian Croton
species lead in chemistry and pharmacology reports. Plaunotol, the active ingredient in a drug
currently dispensed in most pharmacies and hospitals in the world for the treatment of peptic
ulcer was isolated from an Asian Croton plant, C. sublyratus Kurz, later renamed, C.
stellatopilosus H (Luzbetak et al., 1979). The same compound has been found to have anti-
cancer properties (Kawai et al., 2005). The seeds of another Asian Croton plant, C. tiglium
have been found to be a source of “Croton oil”, established to be a tumor promoter (co-
carcinogen) and anti-HIV-1 phorbol esters have also been isolated from it (El-Mekkawy et
al., 2000).

12
1.3 General objective of the study
To investigate the phytochemistry and bioactivity potential of Kenyan C. alienus, C.
megalocarpoides and C. sylvaticus.

1.3.1 Specific objectives of the study

1. To isolate phytochemicals from the selected Croton plants

2. To characterize the isolated phytochemicals from the selected Croton plants

3. To screen the crude plant extracts and isolated phytochemicals for in vitro anti-
plasmodial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-leishmanial and mosquito larvicidal
activities

4. To assess the cytotoxicity of biologically active compounds

13
1.4 Justification of the study
At present, interest in herbal medicines is enjoying a renaissance with a seeming emergence
of a new culture of “return to nature” among pharmaceutical companies and other stake
holders. A positive, rational and non-prejudicial approach in scientifically evaluating the
potential of reputed medicinal plants as chemotherapeutics is a more realistic response to
global health burden. This was the driving force behind the serendipitous, random and
multidisciplinary screening approaches that were used in this study. Croton plants have an
historical application in folk medicine for management of a wide array of ailments with
terpenoids, alkaloids and flavonoids being the major classes of phytochemicals reported from
them (Salatino et al., 2007). Some of these compounds from Croton species and other
sources have been found to be pharmacologically useful. Others have been used in studies as
chemical models or templates for the design and total synthesis of new drug entities.

There are reports on therapeutic effects of Croton plants originally not described in the texts
of traditional systems thus making them new chemical entities. Isolation of a large number of
chemical compounds having toxic and inhibitory effects to the growth of micro-organisms
from some of these plants has also been reported. Notable examples were the cytotoxic,
antimycobacterial and antimalarial effects of secokaurane diterpenes of C. kongensis, the
cytotoxicity of taspine, the hypolipidemic and hypoglycaemic effects of C. urucurana and the
cytotoxicity of trachylobane diterpenes of C. zambesicus (Salatino et al., 2007). Over 70% of
the Croton species reported in ethnomedicinal treatment of malaria and tested for anti-
plasmodial activities were found to be active, an indication of the potential of these species in
the fight against malaria. Included were C. argyratus (aerial parts, inactive; roots, active
(Horgen et al., 2001)), C. californicus (leaves and stem, weakly active (Chavez et al., 1982))
, C. capitatus (aerial parts, weakly active (Spencer et al., 1947)), C. geayi (stem bark, active
(Rasoanaivo, 1999)) , C. guatemalensis (stem bark, active (Franssen et al., 1997)), C.
hovarum (leaves, active (Krebs and Ramiarantosa 1996 and 1997; Rasoanaivo et al., 1999),
C. lobatus (entire plant, active (Attioua et al., 2007)) , C. leiophyllus (roots, active (Horgen et
al., 2001)), C. tonkinensis (entire plant, active (Be and Truong, 1991) and C. urucurana
(entire plant, in active (Brandao et al., 1985)).

14
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Background information on microbial infections and parasitic diseases

Since the isolation of penicillin by Alexander Flemings (1929) and its subsequent successful
clinical application as anti-biotic, a number of penicillin derivatives with similar properties
have been synthesised (Bahl and Bahl 2011). These derivatives [Figure 2.1] have the same
skeletal structure (26) but differ in the character of the side chain, R. Other synthetic anti-
biotics in current use include streptomycin (27), tetracyclin (28) and its 7-chloro derivative,
aureomycin (29) and 5-hydroxy derivative, terramycin (30) (Bahl and Bahl 2011).

O
H NH2
O HN
OH
N S O
HO
R HO NH
O OH
N O NH2
COOH O
O HO NH
26 NHCH3
HO OH
27 NH
N(CH3)2
10
OH Cl N(CH3)2
6 4 OH OH N(CH3 )2
OH OH
OH
OH
12
14 16 1 CONH2
OH CONH2
OH O OH O OH CONH2
OH O OH
28 OH O OH O
OH O
29 30

Figure 2.1: Structures of chemical constituents in commonly used anti-biotics

Parasitic infections cause a tremendous burden of disease in both the tropics and subtropics as
well as in more temperate climates and developed countries, including the USA (CDC, 2013).
The use of natural products for treatment of parasitic diseases is well documented, stemming
from the fact that some natural products are biosynthesized as defence agents against plant
pathogens (Kaur et al., 2009). Cutaneous leishmaniasis, the most common form of
leishmaniasis is one of the severe neglected parasitic diseases. It is caused by a sandfly bite
and manifests itself as a sore at the bite site that takes a few months to a year to heal, leaving
a disfiguring (ugly) scar (MedicinNet, 2013; James et al., 2006; CDCa,b 2013;WHO, 2013)
[Figure 2.2]. A number of drugs that are used to treat leishmaniasis include paromomycin
(31), liposomal amphotericin B, ketoconazole and berberine (from a plant source, a Berberis
species (Kumar, 1997)). Seeds of Phytolacca maricana are reported to produce antiviral
proteins that are anti-leishmanial (Kokate, 2013).

15
 OH
HO
O
HO
H2N
NH2
O
HO O
O NH2
OH
H2N NH2
HO O OH
O 31
HO

Figure 2.2: Cutaneous leishmaniasis3 and chemical constituent of paromomycin

Malaria is one of the most fatal parasitic diseases which despite continuous control measures
continue to be a major concern in sub-Saharan Africa. About 40% of world population lives
in areas at risk of malaria infection [Figure 2.3] with Africa bearing over 90% of the global
disease burden (WHO, 2003; WHO, 2011; UNEP, 2001). WHO recommends integrated
management of malaria and a scale up of prevention campaigns and / or measures. Quinine
(8), isolated from Cinchona succuriba in 1820 was the first successful malaria drug therapy
from a natural source but reports of toxicity associated with its use had the therapy change to
sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) based drugs. The malaria parasites‟ development of
resistance to the SP based drugs necessitated a change to the current first line treatment, the
artemesinin-containing combination therapy (ACTs). The active ingredients in these ACTs
are the artemisinin (7a) derivatives, artesunate (7b), arteether (7c) and artemether (7d).
Artemisinin (7a) is a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from a Chinese herb, Artemisia annua L.
(Asteraceae) that has activity comparable to that of quinine (WHO, 2003; Babu et al., 2003).

Vector control is reported to be the best preventive measures of malaria spread. WHO still
recommends the use of DDT for indoor residual spraying (IRS) using “best application
practices” until locally appropriate and cost-effective alternatives are availed for a suitable
transition (WHO, 2011; UNEP, 2001).

3
Cutaneous leishmaniasis in the hand of a Central American adult (Picture by CDC Dr. DS Martins (CDCa, 2013) and face
th
of a Kenyan Child (Picture from Kenyan Nation Newspaper of 6 May 2014)

16
 Figure 2.3: Global malaria distribution (WHO global atlas, 2005)

2.2 Botanical information on Croton genus

The name “Croton” is a Greek word referring to thick smooth seeds, a common feature of
most Croton plants which belong to the Crotonoideae subfamily of the Euphorbiaceae family.

2.2.1 The Euphorbiaceae family

The Euphorbiaceae is a very large family with about 300 genera, comprising of 7,500 species
that are distributed in its five sub-families which were originally Acalyphoideae,
Crotonoideae, Euphorbioideae, Oldfieldioideae and Phyllanthoideae (Govaerts et al, 2000).
The Phyllanthoideae subfamily has recently become the new family of Phyllanthaceae while
the Oldfieldioideae has become Picrodendraceae family (Wurdack et al., 2005). Eight genera
of Euphorbiaceae family have more than 100 species, making them significantly large
(Euphorbia > 1600; Croton > 1300; Acalypha > 430; Glochdion > 280; Macaranga >240;
Manchot >160; Jatropha >150 and Tragia >140).

17
Members of Euphorbiaceae family are well known in different parts of the world as toxic and
/ or medicinal which is a reflection of their high chemical diversity. The plants are
characterized by the frequent occurrence of milky sap that is rich in secondary metabolites,
mainly alkaloids and terpenoids (Palgrave, 1990 and 2002).

2.2.2 The Croton genus

Croton genus consists of over 1300 species of monoeceous and dioeceous trees, shrubs and
herbs. Included are well known medicinal plants such as C. tiglium, C. schiedeanus and C.
zambesicus (Caruzo et al., 2011; Berry et al., 2005).The plants usually have stellate hairs,
rounded scales and flowers that are usually spikes or racemes with separate sexes on the same
tree. The leaves are alternate, sometimes opposite, rarely whorled, simple and usually with
two glands at the top of the petiole. Contact with some of these plants leaves can cause
dermatitis. Their fruits occur as three lobed capsules while seeds of others are reported to be
tumor promoters (Palgrave, 1990 and 2002; Mabberley, 2009).

2.2.3 Geographical distribution of Croton species

Croton plants are mainly found in the warm tropical regions and to some extent in the
temperate regions of the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Tropical America, India and
Africa are the major centers of distribution [Figure 2.4]. Extreme diversity is reported in
Madagascar, West Indies and Southern Brazil (Caruzo et al., 2011; Berry et al., 2005;
Mabberley, 2009).

Figure 2.4: Geographical distribution of Croton genus4

4
Dark shaded regions represent areas of Croton species distribution

18
 2.3 Ethnomedicinal uses of Croton species
Croton plants have been used widely and variedly in folk medicine all over the world. A
notable example is sangre de drago, a sap from a number of American Croton species
including C. lechleri Muell.-Arg which is marketed as an herbal remedy for diarrhea,
inflammation, insect bites, viral infections and wounds (Cai et al., 1993a, b; Chen et al.,
1994). Common ethno-medicinal uses of Croton plants include treatment of: - cancer,
constipation, diabetes, digestive problems, dysentery, external wounds, fever,
hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, inflammation, intestinal worms, malaria, pain, ulcers and
weight-loss (Salatino et al., 2007). Specific ethno-medicinal applications of various species
across the globe are given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Ethnomedicinal uses of Croton species

Name of species (other names, region) Plant part Condition managed

C. alienus Pax (Kenya) Unspecified Body weaknesses (Gachathi,
2007)
C. antanosiensis Leandri (Syn. Croton Stem bark Induce virility during
antanosiensis var. basaltorum Leandri) circumcision ceremonies,
(Madagascar) Ordeal poison in ancient times
(Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim,
2008)
Leafy branches Fumigate houses in case of
epidemic diseases (Schmelzer
and Gurib-Fakim, 2008)
C. antisiphiliticus Stimulant, Wound healing,
(Brazil) Entire plant Veneral diseases, Rheumatic
fever (Elisabetsky et al., 1992)
C. arboreous Millsp. ( “Cascarillo”, Mexico) Aerial parts Auxiliary anti-inflammatory in
respiratory ailments (Aguilar-
guadarrama and Rios, 2004)
C. argyratus (Malaysia) Dried flowers Purgative (Ilham et al., 1995)

C. aubrevillei J. Leonard (Cote d‟ivoire, Ghana, Leaves and Stomach-aches, Constipation

Cameroon and Central African Republic) Stem bark and Female fertility, Guinea-

19
 infusion worm infection.
Stem bark and Pain, toothbrush, aid sleep in
stem babies
Roots, leaves High blood pressure and
and stem bark stomach-aches(Schmelzer and
infusion Gurib-Fakim, 2008)
C. barorum Leandri (Madagascar) A decoction of Malarial fever, Cough,
stem and root Diarrhea, Leukaemia
barks (Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim,
2008) and Breast Cancer
(Rakotonandrasana et al.,
2010)
Aromatic leafy Insect Repellent (lice) and
branches Perfumery in soap (Schmelzer
and Gurib-Fakim, 2008)
C. bonplandianus Baill (Argentina although it Entire plant Antiseptic (Bandoni et al.,
has gotten its way into Kenya where it is found 1976)
as a common weed)
C. cajucara Benth. ( “Sacaca” , Peru and Brazil) Stem bark and Diabetes, Diarrhea, Malaria,
Leaves (in form High Blood Cholesterol
of tea or pills) Levels, Gastrointestinal
disturbances, Hepatic
disturbances, weight loss
(Duke, 1984; Duke, 1994;
Campos et al., 2002; Grassi-
Kassisse et al., 2003)
C. californicus Mueller Arg. (California, U.S.A.) Leaves Rheumatism, Malaria, Pain
reliever (Williams et al., 2001;
Chavez et al., 1982; Wilson et
al., 1976; Farnsworth et al.,
1969)
C. capitatus Mitchx Unspecified Malaria (Farnsworth et al.,
1969)

20
C. caudatus (Indonesia, India) Stem bark Stomach disorders, Malaria
(Banerji et al., 1988)
C. celtidifolius Baill. (“Sangue-de- adave”, Stem bark and Inflammatory diseases,
Brazil) Leaf infusions Leukemia, Ulcers and
Rheumatism (Nardi et al.,
2003)
C. ciliatoglandulifer (Syn. C. ciliato- Entire plant Purgative ( Farnsworth et al.,
glandulosus, Mexico) 1969)
C. cortesianus (Mexico) Aerial parts Veneral diseases and Wound
healing (Dominguez and
Alcorn, 1985)
C. corymbulosus (U.S.A) Aerial parts Purgative (Coon, 1974)
C. decaryi Leandri (Madagascar) Leafy branches Mattress filler to Repel Lice
Decoction from Calm patients suffering from
aerial parts Paranoid Psychosis (Schmelzer
and Gurib-Fakim, 2008)
C. dichogamus Pax (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Leaves, Roots Fever, Chest ailments,
Rwanda and Ethiopia) Stomach diseases,
Tuberculosis, Impotence
(Kokwaro, 1993 and 2009)
Whole plant Malaria (Jeruto et al., 2011)
decoction
C. draco Cham. & Schltdl. (one of the “sangre- Aerial parts Fever, Tumors, Bleeding,
de-drago” plants, bearing a red sap widely used Cough, Flu, Diarrhoea and
in traditional medicine in Mexico and Central Stomach ulcers, Topically as
America) wound healing for cuts, open
sores, herpes, Anti-septic after
tooth extraction and Oral sores
(Gupta et al., 1996; Murillo et
al., 2001)
C. draconoides (Peru) Latex Cancer, Wounds,
Inflammation (Piacente et al.,
1998)

21
C. eluteria Bennett (“Cascarilla”, Syn. C. Stem bark (used Dysentry, Dyspepsia ( Duke,
eluteria (L.) Wright, West Indies and Northern as substitute for 1984), Malaria, Fever,
South America-Bahama Island) Chinchona and Bronchitis,Tonic and Bitters,
Cascara,Vigor Flavoring for liqueurs and
et al., 2001) Scenting tobacco
C. flavens L. (Curacao, Venezuela) Leaves Rheumatism, Fever, Menstrual
pains(Flores and Ricalde,
1996)
C. fragilis (Mexico) Entire plant Stomach-aches, Hepatic pains
(Hecker, 1984)
C. geayi Leandri (Madagascar) Infusion of its Fevers, Coughs, Asthma and
Leafy twigs Constipation in new-born
babies(Schmelzer and Gurib-
Fakim, 2008; Palazzino et al.,
1997)
C. glabellus (Mexico) Leaves Ulcers (Flores and Ricalde,
1996)
C. glandulosus (Mexico) Entire plant Stomach-aches (Heinrich et
al., 1992)
C. goudotii Baill (Syn. C. mollivelus Baill, Unspecified Chronic blennorrhea, Cough
Madagascar) and an Aphrodisiac
(Rakotonandrasana et al.,
2010)
Leaves Malaria, Chronic gonorrhea
Stem bark (Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim,
2008)
C. gratissimus Burch (Syn. C. microbotryus Pax, Leaves Rheumatism, Perfume,
C. antunesii Pax, C. welwitschianus Mull. Arg. Dropsy, Fever, Bleeding gum,
and C. zambesicus Muell. Arg. (Syn. C. amabilis Perfume (Farnsworth et al.,
Muell. Arg.; Western and Southern Regions of 1969)
Africa) Stem bark Carthatic, Eruptive irritant,
Respiratory condition,
Intercostals neuralgia, Dropsy,

22
 Indigestion, Pleurisy, Uterus
disorder (Wattand Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962), Fish poison
(Farnsworth et al., 1969)
C. gubouga S. Moore (Syn. C. megalobotyrs Seed and stem Emesis, Pugartive,
Mull. Arg.; South Africa, Tanzania , Botswana, bark Febrifuge, Fish poison,
Caprivi strip, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe; Laxative, Malaria (Watt and
Goodson and Clewer, 1919; Kew, 2012 and Breyer-Brandwijk,1962;
2013) Neuwinger,1996, 2000 and
2004)
C. guatemalensis (Guatemala) Stem bark and Malaria (Franssen et al., 1997)
Leaves
C. haumanianus (Congo) Stem bark, Blennoragy, Gastric diseases,
Leaves Hypertension, Epilepsy
(Tchissambou et al., 1990)
C. hovarum Leandri (Madagascar) Stem bark Fish poison (Krebs and
- Ramiarantosa, 1996)
Aerial parts Molluscicidal ( Schmelzer and
Gurib-Fakim, 2008)
Leaves Colic and Acute Body
Weakness (Krebs and
Ramiarantsoa, 1997)
C. humilis (Jamaica) Entire plant Insecticide (Asprey and
Thornton, 1955)
C. insularis (Caledonia, Pacific Islands-East Entire plant Abortifacient (Rageau, 1973)
Australia)
C. jatrophoides Pax (Tanzania) Roots Colds, Intestinal worms and
Stomachache (Schmelzer and
Gurib-Fakim, 2008; Kokwaro,
2009)
C. joufra Roxb. (“Plau Noi”; Thailand) Stem bark Blood purification
Decoction of Anti-dysentery and Peptic
Leaves and promoter

23
 Stem bark
Decoction of the Anthelmintic (Mokkhasmit et
flowers al., 1971; Sutthivaiyakit et al.,
2001)
C. kongensis Gagnep. ( “Plao Ngeon” or “Plau Entire plant Sores ( Pei, 1985)
Noi”; Thailand; China)
C. lechleri L.(one of the “sangre-de-drago” Latex from stem Wound healing, Cancer,
plants; Ecuador and Peru; Cai et al., 1993a, b and bark Stomach ulcers, Rheumatism
1991) (Duke, 1994)
C. lobatus Linne (Senegal, Eritrea and Ethiopia; Leaves Malaria, Pregnancy troubles,
(Ivory Coast) Dysentery, Rheumatic pain
Carribean, South America and The Arabian Leaves Whooping Cough,
Peninsula) combined with Convulsions, Mouth infections
seeds and bark
of “fufusuf
bigor”(Senegal)
Fresh leaves Eye diseases, un consciousness
juice (Neuwinger, 1996, 2000and
2004; Attioua et al.,2007)
Leaf macerate Lotion for female sterility
Leaf decoction Purgative (Schmelzer and
(Togo) Gurib-Fakim, 2008)
Leaves and Antispasmodic in case of
Roots (Benin) threatening miscarriage and
hiccups
Leaves + leaves Anti-hypertensive medication
of Hildegardia (Neuwinger, 1996, 2000 and
barteri 2004)
C. longiracemosus (Gabon) Roots Antheimintic, Anti-
Inflammatory (Akendengue
and Louis,1994)
C. macrostachys Hoscht. ex A. Rich ex Delile Entire plant and Malaria, Dysentry,
(Syn. C. macrostachys var. mollissimus Chiov.; Seeds Rheumatism, Taenacide,

24
Madagascar, Somali, Sudan, Eritrea, East Africa, decoctions Venereal diseases,
Angola Guinea, Liberia, Malawi, Zambia and (Schmelzer and Conjuctivitis, Purgative, blood
Zimbabwe ( Kew, 2012 and 2013) Gurib-Fakim, clotting, mumphs, skin rashes
2008; Klauss Anthelmintic, vermifuge,
and Adala, Female infertility,
1994; Mazzanti Constipation, Stomach pains,
et al., 1987) Chest pains, Bloat, wound
healing, Diabetics
C. malabaricus (India) Fresh shoots Joint Pains, Rheumatic
Arthritis (Pushpangadan and
Atal, 1984)
C. malambo Karsten (“Palomatias”, Stem bark Diabetes, Diarrhoea,
“Torco”; Venezuela and Colombia) infusion Rheumatism, Gastric Ulcer,
Anti-Inflammatory, Analgesic
(Suárez et al., 2003)
C. mayumbensis J. Leonard (Gabon, Cameroon Stem bark and Microbial Infections, Human
and The Central African Republic) Leaves Parasitic Diseases such as
Amoebiasis (Yamale et al.,
2009)
C. mauritianus (Reunion Island) Entire plant Fever (Vera et al., 1990)
C. megalobotrys (Zimbabwe) Stem bark, Purgative, Malaria, Abortion,
Roots, Seeds Tape worms ( Nyazema, 1984)
C. megalocarpus Hutch (Kenya Eastwards to Entire plant Gall bladder problems, Chest
The Democratic Republic of Congo and pains, Internal swellings,
Southwards to Mozambique, Malawi and Malaria ( John et al., 1994)
Zimbabwe (Kew, 2012 and 2013) Stem bark Anthelmintic, Whooping
decoction Cough
Root decoction Pneumonia
Sap issuing from Bleeding Wounds (Kokwaro,
its leaves 2009)
C. membranaceus Mull Arg.( West Africa) Root and Leaf Aromatize tobacco (Bahamas),
extracts Improve Digestion (Nigeria),
Benign Prostate Hyperplasia

25
 and Measles (Ghana)
Essential oils Aromatherapy to treat cough,
from the Stem Fever, Flatulence, Diarrhoea
bark and Nausea (Asare et al.,
2011; Adesogan, 1981)
C. menyhartii (Eastern Africa, Somalia) Roots Malaria, Dymenorrhea,
Intestinal obstruction,
Influenza (Kokwaro, 1993 &
2009)
C. mongue Baill (Syn. C. mongue var. Stems and seeds Toxic
vatambensis Leandri.; Madagarscar) Stem Match manufacturing ( Ralison
et al., 1986)
C. mubango Mill. (Congo, Ivory Coast, Angola) Entire Plant Female sterility, Spiritual
madness, Asthma, Paralysis,
Hepatalgia, Sleeping Sickness,
Diarrhea,
Furgative, Vermifuge (Watt
and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962;
Bossard et al., 1993; Bouquet
and Debray, 1974; Otshudi et
al., 2000)
C. mucronifolius (Brazil) Leaves Syphilis, Rheumatism,
Influenza (Lemos et al., 1992)
C. nepetaefolius Baill. (“Marmeleirovermelho”. Infusions or Antispasmodic properties,
Brazil) decoctions of Relieve flatulence, Increase
the stem bark appetite, Sedative (Santos et
and leaves al., 2008)
C. oblongifolus Roxb. (“Chucka”; India, Entire plant and Sores, Ringworm, Migraine,
Thailand and China) seeds Leprosy, Dysentery, Diarrhea,
Purgative, Insecticide, Blood
Purification, Anti-Pyretic,
Gastric Ulcers, Liver
enlargement and remittent

26
 fever, Hepatitis (Pei, 1985;
Sommit et al., 2003;
Ngamrojnavanich et al., 2003)
C. onacrostachyus (Kenya) Entire tree Psychotherapeutic effect on
muphs-“ngumbu” (Kokwaro,
2009)
C. palanostigma Klotzsch (Peru) Stem bark latex, Boils and sores, Uterine ulcers,
Leaves, Wounds, Snake bites, Gastro-
intestinal cancer (Lahlou et al.,
2000)
C. penduliflorus Hutch (Sierra Leone Eastwards Roots, Seeds, Purgative, Stomach-aches,
to Nigeria , Central African Republic and Gabon Stem bark Labor pains, Headaches,
(Schmelzer and Gurib-Fakim, 2008) Impotence (Anika and Shetty,
Leaf infusion 1983)
Menstrual disorders(Cote
Seed extract d‟Ivoire), Fever (Ghana)
Uterine tumors and Stomach
complaints (Nigeria)
(Adesogan, 1981)
C. polytrichus (Kenya) Roots Headache and labour pains
(Kokwaro, 2009)
C. pseudopulchellus Pax (Mali, Nigeria, Somalia, Unspecified Anthrax, Insecticide ( Hedberg
Kenya, Ethiopia, Angola, Zimbabwe, et al., 1983)
Mozambique and South Africa) Leaves Syphilitic ulcers, Chest
infections, Tuberculosis
(Tanzania)
Roots Asthma, Colds, Viral and
Tissue infections
Stem Condiment, Burnt and smoke
used to flavour fresh milk
(Kenya-Coastal region)
( Langat et al., 2012)
C. regelianus var. matosii ( “Velame de Cheiro”; Leaf Infusion Rheumatism, Malignant

27
Brazil) tumors, Stomach aches
(Torres et al., 2010)
C. repens (Mexico) Entire plant Dysentery, Diarrhea
(Heinrich et al., 1992)
C. roxburghii (India) Entire plant Antivenin, Clear bowels,
Malaria, Cardiotonic
(Selvanayahgam et al., 1994)
C. ruizianus (Peru) Leaves Anti-spasmodic, Vulnerary
(Piacente et al., 1988)
C. sakamaliensis Leandri (Syn. C. sakamaliensis Stem bark Diarrhea, Cough, Fever,
var. microphyllus Leandri, Madagascar) infusion Purgative (to remove intestinal
worms; Radulovic et al., 2006)
C. salutaris (Peru) Leaves Fever (Brandao et al., 1985)
C. scheffleri Pax (Tanzania) Roots Insanity, Remedy for
miscarriage ( Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962; Mathias,
1982)
C. schiedeanus Schlecht. ( “Almizclillo”, Hypertension (Guerrero et al.,
Columbia) - 2004; Guerrero et al., 2002;
Guerrero et al., 2001)
C. soliman (Mexico) Latex Skin infections, Warts
(Zamora-martinez and Pola,
1992)
C. steenkampianus Gerstner ( “Marsh fever- Fresh leaves Relieve body pains (Schmelzer
berry” and “Tonga Croton”; Tanzania, Vapor inhalation and Gurib-Fakim, 2008;
Mozambique and Southern Africa) Adelekan et al., 2008)
C. sublyratus Kurz, renamed C. stellatopilosus Its mixture with Gastric ulcers and gastric
H. and C. longissimus Airy Shaw ( “Plau noi”; C. oblongifolius cancer (Kawai et al., 2005)
South-Eastern Asian Countries and Thailand) Stem bark Anthelmintic and
dermatological problems
(Vongchareonsathit and De-
Eknamkul, 1998; Ogiso et al.,
1981)

28
C. sylvaticus Hochst (Syn. C. verdickii De Wild, Stem bark Abdominal disorders (Venter
C. oxypetalus Mull. Arg. and C. stuhlmannii Pax; and Venter, 1996; Mc Gaw et
Distributed from Ethiopia in the Northern parts Roots al., 2000),Tuberculosis
of Africa to the Eastern Cape in South Africa, (Kokwaro, 2009), Chest pains,
more widely found in Gabon to Angola ( Venter Unspecified Rheumatism, Fish poison
and Venter, 1996). Gall sickness in cattle (Watt
and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962;
Neuwinger, 1996, 2000 &
Leaves 2004), Indigestion, Pleurisy,
decoction Poultices for swellings / wash
Leaves infusion for body swellings caused by
kwashiokor (Kokwaro, 2009),
Malaria and Purgative
(Beentje, 1994)
C. texensis (U.S.A., India) Leaves, Roots Laxative, Antivenin (Moore,
1979)
C. tiglium L.( Asia) Fruits, Roots Fish poison, Abortifacient,
Tumors, Laxative, Gout,
Contraceptive, Insecticide,
Cancerous sores, Purgative
(Gimlette, 1929; Chang et al.,
1981)
C. tonkinensis Gagnep ( “Kho sam Bac Bo”; A Leaves Digestive disorders,
Vietnam) Abdominal pains, Dyspepsia,
abscesses, Impetigo, Gastric
and duodenal ulcers, Malaria,
Urticaria, Leprosy, Psoriasis,
Genital organ prolapse (Giang
et al., 2003; Minh et al., 2003)
C. trinitatis (Nicaragua) Entire plant Cough, Bleeding gum,
Influenza (Duke, 1994; Kuo et
al., 2007)
C. urucarana Baill. (Syn. C. ururucana Baill.; Red latex of Cancer, Diarrhea, Respiratory

29
Brazil and Argentina) stem bark and Urinary tract infection,
(“Sangre-de- Wound healing, Rheumatism
drago”) (Perez and Anesini, 1994;
Perez et al., 1997 &1998)
C. zambesicus Muell.Arg. (Syn.C. amabilis Roots Menstrual pains(Sudan)
Muell.Arg.; Originally a Guineo-Congolese Aperient, Anti-malarial, Anti-
species but now Widespread in Tropical Africa) diabetic (Sierra Leon and
Nigeria)
Leave decoction
(externally) Wash for fevers
(internally) Dysentery and Convulsions
(Sierra Leon and Nigeria)
Hypertension and Urinary
infections (Benin), Anti-
microbial, Fever associated
with malaria (El-hamidi, 1970;
Mohamed et al., 2009; Ngadjui
et al., 1999; Baccelli et al.,
2007; Okokon et al., 2005 &
2013)
Mixture of the Body strengthening medicine
leaves and (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,
Grewia villosa 1962)
C. zehntneri Pax. et Hoffm.( “Canelade-cunhã”; Leaves and Seizures, Insomnia, Anxiety,
Brazil) Stem bark Sedative, Appetite stimulating,
Gastro-intestinal disturbances,
Food and drinks sweetener
(Coelho-de-souza et al.,
1997&1998; Batatinha et al.,
1995)

30
2.4 The Phytochemistry of Croton genus
The phytochemistry of Croton genus is considerably diverse, comprising of many classes of
natural products mainly, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids and essential oils containing mono
and sesquiterpenoids. The sections which follow here in will capture each class of
compounds reported from Croton genus.

2.4.1 Alkaloids from Croton genus

Alkaloids are nitrogenous compounds classified according to the nature of the nitrogen
containing carbon skeleton. The alkaloids reported from Croton genus are made up of the
basic carbon skeletons given in Table 2.2 with specific examples given in Tables 2.3-2.5 and
Figures 2.5-2.7.

Table 2.2: Carbon skeletons of alkaloids reported from Croton genus

Basic skeleton Structure

3 4 3 4
5 5
Benzylisoquinoline (53) 6a
N 1 NH 6a
1 NH
Aporphine (54) 6
6

Proaporphine (55) 11
7 12 7
8
10 8 11

53 9 54 9 55
O

4
Peptide derived alkaloids 5

3 6
3 1
(56) 7 +
O 11 N
4 10 8
Morphinane (57) 12 15 16 1 14
N
13
Protoberberine (58) 5 13 9 N 9
14 9a
12 10

7
57 11
56 58

Harman (59) N NR2

NH2
Tyramine (60)
NR
Nicotine (61) H
N
Anabasine (62) N R
OH 60 61 CH3
Guaiane (63) 59
62 H 63

31
Table 2.3: Benzylisoquinoline-derived alkaloids possessing aporphine, proaporphine
and morphinane skeletons

Code Skeleton Name Source

64 Glaucine (Milanowski et al., 2002;
Dos Santos et al., 2001)
65 Thaliporphine (Milanowski et al., 2002)
C. lechleri
66 Norisoboldine (Berry et al., 2005)
67 Isoboldine (Amaral and Barnes, 1997)
68 Magnoflorine (Milanowski et al., 2002) C. celtidifolius
60 Sparsiflorine C. sparsiflorus
Aporphine
70 N-methyl-sparsiflorine (Bhakuni et al.,
1970)
71 Wilsonirine C. wilsonii
71 Hernovine (Stuart and
73 N-methylhernovine Chambers, 1967)
74 10-O-Methylhernovine
75 N,O-Dimethylhernovine
76 O,O-Dimethylhernovine C. hemiargyeus
77 Isocorydine (Wen-han et al.,
2003)
78 S(+)-Magnoflorine bromide C. turumiquirensis
(Casagrande et al., 1975)
79 Hemiargine B C. hemiargyeus
80 Norcorydine (Wen-han et al.,
81 O,O-Dimethylhernovine 2003)
82 Abnormal Nornuciferine C. sparsiflorus
83 aporphine Nuciferine (Bhakuni et al.,
1979)
84 Linearisine C. linearis
85 Homolinearisine (Farnsworth et al.,
86 Pronuciferine 1969; Haynes et
87 Base E al., 1966; Piacente
88 Proaporphine Jacularine et al., 1998)

32
89 Crotsparine/Crotoflorine C. sparsiflorus
90 Proaporphine N-methylcrotsparine (Bhakuni et al.,
91 N,O-Dimethylcrotsparine 1970; Casagrande
et al., 1975;
Bhakuni and Dhar,
1968; Chatterjee
and Majumder,
1968)
92 Amuronine (Charris et al., 2000) C. flavens
93 Crotonosine (Farnsworth et al., 1969; C. linearis
Haynes et al., 1966)
94 N,O-Dimethylcrotonosine (Stuart, 1970) C. plumieri
95 Methylcrotonosine C. discolor
96 Discolorine (Stuart, 1970)
97 Jaculadine
98 8, 9-Dihydro Crotsparinine C. sparsiflorus
99 proaporphine N,O-Methylcrotsparinine (Casagrande et al.,
1975; Bhakuni et
al., 1979; Bhakuni
and Dhar, 1969)
100 Salutaridine (Barnes and Soeiro, 1981; C. flavens
Morphinane Bracher et al., 2004; Eisenreich et al.,
Dienone 2003; Sanchez and Sandoval, 1982)
101 Norsalutaridine (Barnes and Soeiro, C. salutaris
1981)
102 8,14-Dihydrosalutaridine C. linearis
103 8,14-Dihydronorsalutaridine (Farnsworth et al.,
1969; Sanchez and
Sandoval, 1982;
Haynes et al.,
1968)
104 Flavinine (Bhakuni et al., 1979; Stuart C. flavens
et al., 1968 &1969)

33
105 O-Methylflavinantine (Farnsworth et C. ruizianus
Morphinane al., 1969; Eisenreich et al., 2003)
106 dienone Salutarine (Eisenreich et al., 2003) C. flavens
107 Flavinantine (Piacente et al., 1998;
Eisenreich et al., 2003; Stuart et al., C. chilensis
1969; Chambers and Stuart, 1968;
Bittner et al., 1997)
108 Isosalutaridine (Bittner et al., 1997)
109 Norsinoacutine C. lechleri
110 Sinoacutine (Charris et al.,
2000; Stuart et al.,
1969; Carlin et al.,
1995)
111 4,5-Dihydroxymorphinandien-7-one C.
(Tiwari et al., 1981) bonplandianum
112 Biarylic bis- Saludimerine A C. flavens
113 morphinane Saludimerine B (Bracher et al.,
dienone 2004)

34
 R R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
MeO MeO H MeO MeO Me MeO
64
R MeO OH H MeO MeO Me
65
66 MeO OH H MeO OH H N
N 67 MeO OH H MeO OH Me RO
R1 R5 68 MeO OH OH MeO H (Me)2+ H
69 MeO OH H OH H H R1O
R2 H
70 MeO OH H OH H Me
71 OH OH H MeO MeO H
72 MeO MeO MeO OH H H MeO R R1
R3 73 OH MeO MeO OH H Me
79 Me H
74 MeO MeO MeO MeO H H
R4 75 MeO MeO MeO MeO H Me 80 H Me
76 MeO H Me H H Me 81 Me Me
77 MeO Me H H H Me
MeO 78 MeO OH OH MeO H Br
MeO

N MeO
RO Me
R
H
R1 O
R R1 R2
84 OH MeO Me N
85 OH MeO Me H
R 86 92 Me
82 H MeO MeO Me O
87 MeO OH Me
83 Me 88 MeO OH H
N
89 H
MeO OH H R2
90 MeO H Me
91 MeO Me Me N R2
R
H
N Me
HO R1
R N R2 H
H RO
R1 R
R R1 R2
93 OH MeO H 96 H
O
94 MeO MeO Me 97 Me
R R1 R2
95 OH MeO Me
O 98 MeO OH H
O 99 MeO MeO Me

R R R1 R2 R3 R4
100 H MeO OH MeO Me O
R1
101 H MeO OH MeO H
102 H MeO OH MeO Me R
103 H MeO OH MeO H
R2 104 MeO OH H H H
105 MeO MeO H MeO Me
N 106 MeN
H MeO OH MeO Me OH
H R4 107 MeO OH H MeO Me
108 OH MeO H MeO Me
R3 MeO
R1 OMe
O

R2 HO

N NMe R
R1 R2 R3 R4
112 H
109 MeO OH MeO H H R4 113 MeO
110 MeO OH MeO Me
MeO
111 MeO OH H H R3
O
O
Figure 2.5: Benzylisoquinoline-derived alkaloids possessing aporphine, proaporphine
and morphinane carbon skeletons

35
Table 2.4: Tetrahydroprotoberberine, glutarimide, guaiane, harman, tyramine and
other benzylisoquinoline type alkaloids from Croton species

Code Type Name Source

114 Hemiargyrine (Amaral and Barness,
1998)
115 Tetrahydro Tetrahydropalmatrubine (Wen-han et al., C. hemiargyeus
protoberberine 2003)
116 Xylopinine (Wen-han et al., 2003)
117 Corytenchine C. tonkinensis
118 Corytenchirine (Pham et al.,
2004)
119 Coreximine C. flavens
120 Scoulerine (Eisenreich et al.,
2003)
39 Julocrotine (Mwangi et al, 1998; C. sylvaticus
/ 121 Aboagye et al., 2000; Bayor et al., 2009) C. membranaceus
122 Crotonimide A (N-[2, 6-dioxo-1-(2-
phenylethyl)-3-piperidinyl] propanamide) C. pullei
123 Crotonimide B (N-[2, 6-dioxo-1-(2- (Barbosa et al.,
Glutarimide phenylethyl)-3-piperidinyl] 2007)
methylpropanamide)
124 / Julocrotone / Isojulocrotol C. cuneatus
125 (Suarez et al.,
126 Julocrotol 2004)
127 Muscicapine A C. muscicapa
128 Guaiane Muscicapine B (De Araujo-Junior
129 Muscicapine C et al., 2005)
130 2-Ethoxycarbonyltetrahydroharman C. moritibensis
131 Harman 6-Hydroxy-2-methyltetrahydroharman (De Araujo-Junior
et al., 2004)
132 N-methyltyramine C. humilis
133 Tyramine N-methylhomotyramine (Stuart and
Byfield, 1971)

36
134 Laudanidine (Amaral and Barnes, 1997) C. celtidifolius
135 Benzylisoquinoline Reticuline (Milanowski et al., 2002) C. lechleri
136 Norlaudanosine (Wen-han et al., 2003) C. hemiargyeus

R
Me
N R R1 R2 R3 R3
MeO N
R2 H MeO OH H
117
118 Me MeO OH H
H MeO OMe
RO 119 H OH OH H H
OMe 120
R R1 R2 H H H OH
R2 R1
114 H OH H
R1 R
115 Me H OH
R
116 Me Me H H N R R1
H
O
127 H Me N
R O R1
N
H H
N H O 128 (Me)2CHCH2
Me
R'
129 Et(Me)CHCH2 Me R R1
O N
R1 130 H CO2Et
H Me O 131 OH Me
R R' MeO
121 H Et
(CH2 )nNHMe
122 H Et
123 H Isopropyl
n RO NR2 R R1 R2
124 CH3, OH Et
125 beta-OH Et HO 132 2 134 Me H Me
OR1
126 alpha-OH Et 133 3 135 H H Me
136 Me Me H

OMe

Figure 2.6: Tetrahydroprotoberberine, glutarimide, guaiane, harman, tyramine and

other benzylisoquinoline type alkaloids

Table 2.5: Peptide derived alkaloids and other types of alkaloids from Croton species

Code Type Name Source

137 N-benzoylphenylalaninol
138 Peptide derivative Aurentiamide acetate C. hieronymi
139 N-benzoylphenylalaninyl-N- (Catalan et al., 2003)
benzoylphenylalaninate
C. lechleri, C. draco,
140 Unspecified Taspine C. campestris
(Milanowski et al., 2002;
Risco et al., 2003; Tsacheva
et al., 2004; Ribeiro Prata et
al., 1993)
141 Isoquinoline Hemiargine D C. hemiargyeus

37
142 Phenanthrene Hemiargine C (Wen-han et al., 2003)
1, 2, 10-
143 Proaporphine Trihydroxycrotosinoline C. campestris
-N-oxide (Ribeiro Prata et al., 1993)
144 Nicotine derivative Anabasine C. muscicapa (De Araujo-
Junior et al., 2005)
145 Pyrrolidine 4-Hydroxyhygrinic acid C. hovarum (Krebs and
Ramiarantosa, 1996 & 1997)

H
N O
O
H
O N NH
OH O O
N
137 H O
O O
138
MeO N(Me)2
Me
OMe HN
O Et
O NH HO
139
O O
O Me MeO
141
140
OMe
MeO NH2
HO 142
HO CO2H
NO N
HO H
N
145
144
143
HO

Figure 2.7: Peptide derived alkaloids and other types of alkaloids from Croton species

2.4.2 Flavonoids from Croton genus

Flavonoids are phenolic derivatives that occur naturally as water-soluble glycosides. Their
classification is based either on their biosynthetic origin and / or molecular size. Some
flavonoids are both intermediates in biosynthesis as well as end-products which can
accumulate in plants. Ayanin, vitexin, tilirosine, rutin and quercetrin are some of the common
flavonoids isolated from Croton genus [Table 2.6; Figure 2.8].

38
Table 2.6: Flavonoids reported from Croton species

Code Name Source

146 Ayanin C. schiedeanus (Puebla et al., 2005;
147 Quercetin-3,7-dimethyl ether De Garcia et al., 1986)
148 5-Hydroxy-7,4‫׳‬-dimethoxyflavone C. betulaster (Barbosa et al., 2003)
149 Kaempferol -3-O-rutinoside C. cajucara (Capasso et al., 1998 & 2000)
150 Kaempferol-3,4‫׳‬,7-trimethylether C. menthodorus (Maciel et al., 2000)
151 Tiliroside C. tonkinensi; C. hovarum and C. zambesicus
152 Vitexin (Wagner et al., 1970; Capasso et al., 2000;
153 Isovitexin Phan et al., 2004; Krebs and Ramiarantosa,
1996 & 1997; Pham et al., 2004)
154 Kaempferol-3,7-dimethylether C. cajucara (Maciel et al., 2000)
155 Rutin C. menthodorus (Capasso et al., 2000)
156 Quercitrin C. glabellus (Novoa et al., 1985)
157 Quercetin C. steenkampianus (Schmelzer and Gurib-
158 Taxmarixetin Fakim, 2008; Adelekan et al., 2008)
159 Eriodictyol
R3 R R1 R2 R3 R
146 OMe OH OMe H HO
147 OMe OH OH H O
MeO O OH
R2 148 H H H OMe
149 OMe H H OMe
R1 OMe H H OH
R
150
OH HO O O
O O
OH O CH3
O
HO HO
O R HO HO
OH
154 H
HO OH
155 OH OH
OH O OH
OH HO O
OH
OH OH
O
O OH
OH
OH

O HO O
O
O
O
151 CH3
O 153 O
OH O OH
HO HO HO
OH OH
156
OH

OH OH
R
HO O
OH
HO HO O
OH HO O
O
OH OH
R
OH O 157 H
152 158 OH 159
O OH O
OH

Figure 2.8: Flavonoids reported from Croton species

39
2.4.3 Terpenoids from Croton genus
Terpenes are hydrocarbon components of resins and turpentine produced from resins. They
constitute a large and structurally diverse family of natural products derived from C5-isoprene
units. Chemical modifications through oxidation and re-arrangement of their carbon skeletons
produce terpenoids. Mono-, sesqui-, di-, tri-terpenoids and phytosterols have been reported
from Croton genus. Only three compounds of all those characterised in this study were
alkaloids. The rest were terpenoids, majority being diterpenoids of ent-clerodane series. The
sections which follow here will therefore focus on the general biosynthetic pathway for
terpenes. Details of biosynthesis of diterpenes in order to provide a background to the study
will also be discussed.

2.4.3.1 Biosynthesis of terpenes

A simple direct head-to- tail coupling reaction is not applicable in the linking of the C5
isoprene units to produce terpenes. The process is rather complex, involving a sequence of
enzymatic reactions (with very few exceptions) that can be accounted for using chemical
analogies based on established chemical principles and mechanisms. Plants predominantly
use the Mevalonate pathway to synthesise terpenes. The process starts from a single acetyl-
coenzyme A (Acetyl-CoA). Three of these Acetyl-CoA molecules go through various steps to
generate (R)-mevalonate from where the fundamental building blocks of terpenes which are
two isomers, isopentenyl-diphosphate / isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and
dimethylallyldiphosphate (DMAPP) are derived [Scheme 1]. The conversion of IPP to
DMAPP is catalysed by isopentenylpyrophosphate isomerase. Further enzymatic catalysed
combinations of IPP and DMAPP results to precursor molecules from where various
terpenes are derived. Monoterpenes are derived from geranyl diphosphate (GPP) which is
formed as result of combinations between IPP and DMAPP. Combination of IPP and GPP
results to formation of farnesyldiphosphate (FPP) from which sesquiterpenes are derived.
Diterpenes are derived from geranylgeranylpyrophosphate (GGPP) which is a product of
combining IPP and FPP. Squalene is the parent carbon skeleton from where triterpenoids are
derived and is as a result of enzymatic combination of two FPP molecules in a tail to tail
manner. Combinations of two GGPP molecules results to formation of tetraterpenes. In all
these reactions, the role of the enzyme is to activate the pyrophosphate groups to become
better leaving groups in order to generate an allylic-tertiary carbocation through an SN1
reaction mechanism [Scheme 1] which is the first step in the combination processes (Dewick,
2002).

40
 HS-CoA H3C
HS-CoA OH
O O O
O O
Acetyl-Co A
Acetyl-Co A
S-CoA O SCoA
ACo-S (3S)-3-Hydroxy-3-methyl
Acetyl-Co A glutaryl-Coenzyme A 2NADPH
Acetoacetyl-Coenzyme A
ADP
ADP ATP
H3C ATP
OH 2NADP+
O H3C OH
O O H3C O
OH
O O
O O
P O P O O
(R)-Mevalonate-5-pyrophosphate O OH
O O P O (R)-Mevalonate
CO2 ATP O
(R)-Mevalonate-5-phosphate O
ADP Resonance stabilized Monoterpenes
allylic cation
OPP
IPP + OPP OPP
OPP
Isopentenylpyrophosphate +
isomerase OPP
IPP GPP
OPP + H H C10 -
Building
DMAPP block
IPP
O

+
P O
P represents OPP
O Diterpenoid
s H

H
+ OPP
OPP
Enzymatic combination GGPP +
C20 - Building H
of two GGPP molecules
Tetraterpenoids block H

Triterpenoids

H R Squalene
H OPP
C30-Building block IPP OPP

R H H
NADP+
+
H R
OPP
H
R
OPP H
FPP
NADPH C15 - Building
H
block
Head- to- Head coupling of two FPP mlecules
Sesquiterpenes

Scheme 1: Biosynthesis of terpenoids from acetyl-Co A

41
2.4.3.2 Biosynthesis of diterpenes
Diterpenes are C20 molecules derived from four isoprene units joined head to tail to the parent
hydrocarbon, phytane (3, 7, 11, 15-tetramethylhexadecane). They are non-volatile in nature
and are richly found in Conifer and Angiosperm resins and in appreciable quantities in
Labiatae, Ranunculaceae and Euphorbiaceae. They are also found in marine animals
(Coelentrates) like soft corals and sea fans (Dewick, 2002). As was illustrated in Scheme 1,
GGPP is the building block of all diterpenes. Its allylic pyrophosphate group with the
assistance of Mg2+ acts as a good leaving group to generate a carbocation which initiates a
variety of different reaction paths. Depending on the bound conformation of the active site of
each enzyme, a series of other reactions (addition to double bonds, Wagner-Meerwein re-
arrangements, hydride shifts as well as de-protonation) follows the carbocation formation.
Simple enzymatic reduction of GGPP leads to formation of acyclic diterpenoids while
protonation of a double bond can initiate cyclization reactions through two main modes as
illustrated in Scheme 2.

GGPP carbocation 4 +
4 2 4 2
6 1
OPP 2 H
18 19
18 19 +
12 1 12
14
6 20 6 20 12
Mode 1 8
4
1
14 10 14 10
8 Tail-to-Head 10 6
8 2
cyclization
17 Mode 2 16
17
12
14
16
8
GGPP 4 2
Cyclization by 10 Cembrene
OPP 4 + electrophilic addition
18 19 1
12 1 6
6 2 + +
20 Other steps H H
14
12
14 Copalyl 8
10 8
diphosphate 10 Verticillyl
16 synthase cation
+ 17 Tertiary verticillyl cation
H
H
OPP
OPP

+
+ H
H

H
H

(-)-Copalyldiphosphate (+)-Copalyldiphosphate

Enantiomeric carbocations from where di-, tri- and tetra-cyclic diterpenes are derived
Taxadiene

Scheme 2: Cyclization of GGPP during biosynthesis of cyclic diterpenes

42
Bicyclic diterpenoids are a product of enzymatic C-14 double bond protonation of GGPP
followed by the anti-parallel additions of the C-10 and C-6 double bonds and eventually the
loss of a proton from the methyl group to give a double bond. The cyclization process is
terminated by generation of a trans-decalin intermediate which undergoes more enzymatic
modifications involving folding of GGPP on the surface of copalyl and ent-copalyl synthase
to form the two bicyclic enantiomers, (+)-copalyl PP (labdadienyl PP) and (-)-copalyl PP
(ent-copalyl PP). Further enzymatic modifications and reduction processes generates labdane
and ent-labdane series of diterpenoids. Labdanes are basically 7, 11-10, 15-cyclophytanes
containing the decalin bicycle as a core structure which also defines the usually accepted
numbering system [Scheme 3] (Dewick, 2002). Normal cis- and trans- isomers of clerodane
and their ent- epimers arise from two methyl migrations in ent- and normal labdanes
respectively (Dewick, 2002; Kubo et al., 1982; DNP, 2007). Further cyclization of the (+)-
copalyl PP and (-)-copalyl PP gives rise to tri-, tetra- and penta-cyclic diterpenes through loss
of the pyrophosphate group followed by Wagner-Meerwein shifts [Scheme 4] (Dewick,
2002)..

Plants from Euphorbiaceae are reported to provide novel diterpenoids based on casbane and
its cyclization products. Biosynthetically, the process begins with a cembrane molecule
which is a reduction product of the cembrene molecule whose biosynthesis was illustrated in
Scheme 2. The process proceeds with various bi- and tri-cyclic diterpenoids formation
[Scheme 5] including a jatrophane skeleton whose name stems from Jatropha gossypiifolia
(Euphorbiaceae) reported to have the antineoplastic and antileukemic (+) - jatrophone (Frum
and Viljoen, 2005). Various differently substituted jatrophanes are reported from
Euphorbiaceae such as the esulones from Euphorbia esula and the euphormines from E.
helioscopia and E. maddeni (Frum and Viljoen, 2005).

43
 H+ OPP
H
H OPP

H
GGPP
H GGPP
ent- copalyl PP synthase H+
copalyl PP synthase
OPP

H H OPP

H
trans-decalin H trans-decalin

Phytane
OPP OPP
19
H 12 6 H
18 1
(-)copalyl 5
diphosphate / 7 (+)copalyl
H 14 10 H
ent-copalyl PP 3 diphosphate /
Reduction and labdadienyl PP
9
other transformations
17 Reduction and
20 other transformations

13 16 13 16
20 7, 11-10, 15 cyclization of phytane 20

15
17 15
H H 17
ent-Labdane
H 13 16
16 H Labdane
13
19 18 19
H 17 18
H 17

b H 15
+ 20 b 16
20 H 13
b H +
a H a H 17
a
19 18 a 19 18 15
13 16 20 H
b 16
13 16 13
H 17
H 17
15 H 17
H
20 15 Cis-clerodane
H 15
20 H
20

Cis-ent-clerodane
Trans-clerodane
Trans-ent-clerodane

Scheme 3: Biosynthesis of bicyclic diterpenoids

44
 (-) Copalyldiphosphate (+) Copalyldiphosphate
OPP
OPP
OPP
+ +
H H H OPP
H H
H
H H H
H
OPP

+ ent-kaurane
synthase
H
OPP
H + H
H
H H
H H Copalyl PP
ent-pimarenyl cation
ent-copalyl PP H

+
Cyclization of alkene onto Pimarenyl cation H
3Ocation generates 2Ocation (An Isopimarane)
W-M
1,2 alkyl shift
# (-)-Pimaradiene
H
*+ +
+
H H
H

H W-M = Wagner-Meerwein H
H
re-arrangement
2Ocation H
H
# + Abietenyl cation
H
*

+ H

H
H

H #
*
3Ocation

H H
H

H H
ent-Kaurene Trachylobane (-)-Abietadiene
H

Scheme 4: Biosynthesis of tri- , tetra- and penta-cyclic diterpenes

45
 5
5
7 15
7 3 3
16 C-2, C-15 cyclization
1 1
15
9 13 Casbane
9 13 17 11
11 C-6, C-10 bond
5 7
Cembrane 5 3
2
7 3
15
15
Open 1 9
13 Open C-1, C- 2 bond
C- 5, C-14 1
3 9 11 14
2
11
4
7 15 Jatrophane
Open C-1, C-15 bond
1 Lathyrane Bond C-1, C-2 and C-5, C-14
14

9 12
3
11 3 Shift C-15 from 15
C-2, C-15 cyclization C-2 to C-1 4
7
4
7 1 1
Tigliane
14
15
14
12
Daphnane
9
9 12
11
11
Rhamnofolane

Scheme 5: Cembrane as a precursor skeleton of other diterpenoids

2.4.4 Essential and fixed oils from Croton genus

Perhaps, one of the great values of the Croton genus is the discovery of C. megalocarpus
seeds as a potential source of fixed oils that could be a suitable alternative bio-diesel. Linoleic
acid (a fixed oil common in seeds) was found to be the major fatty acid, constituting 74.3%
of all the fatty acids present in the oil (Wu et al., 2013). Earlier reports on the same oil had
indicated that it possessed Epstein-Barr virus-activating potency (Wu et al., 2013). The seeds
of C. macrostachys were found to contain 48% oils (linoleic acid (80%), palmitic acid (12%),
stearic acid (6%) and myristic acid (2%)). The purgative and inflammatory activities of these
oils have been demonstrated rationalizing the ethno-botanical use of C. macrostachys as a
purgative (Mazzanti et al., 1987). C. penduliflorus seeds produced essential oils that were
found to be hypocholesterolemic but could predispose anaemia (Ojokuku et al., 2011). From
C. stellulifer [Syn. C. stelluliferus], oils having anti-microbial activities except against
Aspergillus niger were isolated (Martins et al., 2000). Other reported sources of oils from
Croton genus are given in Table 2.7; Figure 2.9.

46
Table 2.7: Essential oils reported from Croton species

Source Plant part Phytochemical constituents of the essential oil

(% essential oil) (% composition)
C. antanosiensis Dried aerial parts Monoterpenes (73.07) (α-pinene (160), β-pinene
(0.25) (161) and limonene (162)) (Radulovic et al., 2006)
C. aubrevillei Dried stem bark (0.19) Monoterpenes (α-pinene (160) (0.1), β-pinene
(Menut et al., 1995) (161) (2.0), linalool (coriander oil (163) (34.6)
and β-caryophyllene (164) (11.9))
C. decaryi Leaves (0.29) Leaf oil (sesquiterpenes (61.31))
Stem bark (0.19) Stem bark oil (monoterpenes (74.72))
(Radulovic et al., Both the leaf and stem bark oils (low amounts of
2006) aliphatic compounds of non-terpenic origin)
C. geayi Dried aerial parts Sesquiterpenes (45.74) (caryophyllene oxide
(0.32) (Radulovic et (166), β-caryophyllene (167), γ-cadinene (168)
al., 2006) and α-cadinene) and Monoterpenes (36.87)
C. sakamaliensis Leaves (0.32) Leave oil (sesquiterpenes (70.69))
Stem bark (0.15) Stem bark oil (monoterpenes (96.25))
(Radulovic et al., Both leaf and stem bark oils (low amounts of
2006) aliphatic compounds of non-terpenic origin)
C. stellulifer Stem bark Monoterpenes (α-phellandrene, α–pinene, ρ-
(Martins et al., 2000) cymene (165) and linalool)
C. zambesicus Species from various Monoterpenes, Sesquiterpenes and Aliphatic
localities in Africa compounds (Boyom et al., 2002)

O
OH
H

R R
H H H

H H
160 161
R- C(CH3)2 162 163 164 166 167 168
165

Figure 2.9: Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes reported from Croton species

47
2.4.5 Diterpenoids reported from Croton genus
Acyclic and cyclic diterpenoids are the most abundant natural products to have been isolated
from Croton genus. Acyclic diterpenoids are linear and may have cyclic or lactone groups
included while the cyclic ones are categorised according to the number of rings they possess
(di-, tri-, tetra- and penta-) as summarised in Table 2.8. The cyclic ones are additionally
classified into two distinctive enantiomeric groups referred to as a “normal” and “ent-” series
with opposite configurations at C-5, C-9 and C-10 as captured in Table 2.9.

Table 2.8: Carbon skeletons of diterpenoids from Croton genus

Type / Name Basic carbon skeleton

13
Acyclic 19
11
20
15 20
12 6 17
18 1
Phytane (169) 5 1
16
17

7
14 10
10
Bicyclic 3
3
9
Clerodane 16 17
6 170
169 20 19
18 13 19 171
(170) 18
20 17
Halimane
16
(171)
Labdane (172) 172
19 18

19
Tricyclic 16
17
12 3
Pimarane 16 15
1
20 20 17
(173) 1
13
15
13
5
1
18 10
14
Abiatane 8
14 11 20

10 8
9 8
(174)
7
12
H
Daphnane 6
19 18 173 14
(175) 19 18 174 15
175
17 16

12
Tetracyclic 13 17
18 11 13 17
20 16
1 14 17 20 14 16
1 C D
Kaurane (176) 13 9
10 15 19 16
15 14
Atisane (177) 7
10
H A
7
B
7
Tigliane (178) 6
6 3
19 18 176 5
19 18 177 178
20

48
 12
Pentacyclic 16 17
11 17
18
20 15
Trachylobane 1 13 3 16
14
9 15
(179) 10 6 1
8
20
Macrocyclic 3
14
5
6
Cembrane 8 12
19 18 179
(180) 19
10 180

Table 2.9: Enantiomeric diterpenes and their distinguishing parameters

Class of Specific Selected NOESY resonance correlations

diterpene Series rotation
Abiatane Normal + H-5α and H-9α; H-5α and 3H-18; 3H-19 and 3H-20
Labdane ent- - H-5β and H-9β; H-5β and 3H-18; 3H-19 and 3H-20
Normal + H-5α and H-9α; H-5α and 3H-18; 3H-19 and 3H-20;
Isopimaranes 3H-20 and 3H-17
ent- - H-5β and H-9β; H-5β and 3H-18; 3H-19 and 3H-20
Normal + H-5α and H-9α; H-5α and 3H-18; 3H-19 and 3H-20
Pimaranes ent- - H-5β and H-9β; H-5β and 3H-18; 3H-19 and 3H-20;
3H-20 and 3H-17

2.4.5.1 Acyclic diterpenoids reported from Croton genus

Phytol (181) is the simplest acyclic diterpenoid that easily gets biosynthetically oxidised to
plaunotol (182) (2, 6, 10, 14-phytatetraene-1, 19-diol) [Figure 2.10], the chief constituent of
the leaves of Thai medicinal plant C. sublyratus, later renamed C. stellatopilosus. This
phytochemical is marketed as “Plau noi” or “Kelnac” that is used as an anti-ulcerative
(Wungsintaweekul and De-Eknamkul, 2005). Other acyclic phytanes from Croton genus
include:- 3, 12-dihydroxy-1, 10, 14-phytatriene-5, 13-dione (183) from C. salutaris (Tansakul
and De-Eknamkul, 1998); trans-phytol and isomers of phytol (181) from C. zambesicus
(Catalan et al., 2003; Block et al., 2004) and geranylgeraniol (184), from C. lobatus (Attioua
et al.,2007; Chabert et al., 2006).

49
 O OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
O
CH2OH
OH

181 182 183 184

Figure 2.10: Acyclic diterpenoids from Croton species

2.4.5.2 Bicyclic diterpenoids reported from Croton genus

Clerodanes, labdanes, halimanes and an indane derivative are some of the bicyclic
diterpenoids reported from Croton genus, clerodane and labdane being the major classes.

2.4.5.2.1 Clerodanes
Clerodane diterpenoids are the most prevalent compounds reported from Croton genus. These
compounds have been tested for many pharmacological principles and have been found to be
potentially useful as anti-tumour, anti-viral, anti-microbial, anti-peptic ulcer, anti-fungal and
psychotropic agents. Their anti-feedant and insecticidal properties have also been reported.
Specific examples and their reported biological activities are given in Table 2.10 and Figures
2.11 and 2.12.

Table 2.10: Clerodanes from Croton genus and their reported biological activities

Code Name Source (Biological activities)

185 trans- Amazonian C. cajucara (185)
dehydrocrotonin C. schieddeanus (185 and 186)
, a nor-ent - (both epimers have ability to lower blood glucose and
clerodane triglyceride in rats, Insect growth-inhibition, anti-
diterpenoid inflammatory, anti-nociceptive (stops pain), anti-
ulcerogenic (stops ulceration), anti-tumour against sarcoma
186 cis- 180 and Ehrlich carcinoma ascetic tumours in rats,
dehydrocrotonin cytotoxicity, anti-genotoxicity (Maciel et al., 1997 and
2000; Babili et al., 1998; Merritt and Levy, 1992;
Rodriguez et al., 2004; Grynberg et al., 1999)
187 Derivatives C. sonderianus (Agner et al., 2001)
188 of trans- 188 and 189 from C. schieddeanus (its ethanolic extract
dehydrocrotonin was found to decrease pressure and have vasorelaxant effect

50
 189 (Maciel et al., 2006). 188 and 189 in addition to the
5β-hydroxy-cis- flavonoids, 3, 7-dimethylquercetin and ayanin, had
dehydrocrotonin synergestic role in the total vasodilator response induced by
(12R)-12- the plant (Guerrero et al., 2004).
hydroxycascarill
one
ent-clerodanes
190 Crotocorylifuran C. zambesicus (Ngadjui et al., 1999) and C. haumanianus
191, 192 - (Tchissambou et al.,, 1990)
193 Corylifuran C. corylifolius (Tchissambou et al., 1990 and Burke et al.,
- 1976)
194 Brazilian C. campestris (Babili et al., 1998)
195
Furano - Cascallin, All these cascallin derivatives are reported from C. eluteria
ent – Cascarillone, (stem bark extract was found to be balsamic, digestive,
clerodanes Cascarillin A hypotensive, narcotic, stomachic and tonic, (Vigor et al.,
196 Cascarillin B 2001))
197 Cascarillin C
198 Cascarillin D

199 Sonderianin
C. ururucana (Puebla et al., 2003)
200 -
201 12-epi-methyl-
barboscoate
202 Clerodane C. cajucara (Maciel et al., 1997)
diterpenoid
203 Furano- C. membraneaceus (Bayor et al., 2009)
clerodane,
crotomembranaf
uran
204-207 C. hovarum (Krebs and Ramiarantosa, 1996 &1997)
208 Isoteucvin 208-211 are reported from C. jatrophoides (Mbwambo et
209 Jatropholdin al., 2009). 211 is in addition reported from Mallotus sp.

51
210 Teucvin (Euphorbiaceae) and Teucrium sp. (Labiateae) and has been
derivative showed to be amoebicidal, have root development
211 Teucvin inhibition property (Mbwambo et al., 2009) and anti-
feedant activity against the colorado potato beetle,
Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), an economically
important pest with developed resistance to most classes of
synthetic insecticides (Chen et al., 2008).
212 Chiromodine C. megalocarpus
213 Epoxy- (Addae-mensah et al., 1989; Marko et al., 1999)
chiromodine
214 Crotepoxide, C. macrostachys
Crotomacrine, (Addae-mensah et al., 1989; Kapingu et al., 2000)
Floridoline,
Hardwickiic
12-Oxo-
hardwickiic acid

52
 O O
15 O O
O
14
16 O
13 O O OH
O O H O H H
11 H O
1 H 20 O O O
O
O 9 17
1
19 OH 188
3 H 186 187
H 6 185 CO2Me 189
18
O
O O
O O

O
O
O H O
CO2Me H O H
H H CH2OH
O
O
CO2Me
CO2Me 193
CO2Me 190 CO2Me 191 192 CO2Me 194
CO2Me
CO2Me CO2Me
O O
O
O
O O
O O
H H
H OH
H CH2OAc

O O 198
O 196 197 O O O
195 O O
O

O O O
O

O
O O H
H H CO2Me CO2CH3
H O H
O O

199 CO2Me 201 202 203

CO2Me
200
CO2CH3

O O O
O

R R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
H O
204 R4 OH H CH3 CHO OCH3 CH3
H R3 205 OH CH3 OH CHO OCH3 CH3
R5 O
206 OH CH3 OH CH3 OCH3 CH3
207 OH CH3 OH CH3 OCO2CH3 CO2CH3
208

R O O
O
R1 R2

O O
O O O
O
O O
H

O O OH
H
MeOOC O
MeOOC O 213
O O
OH 212
211
O O

209 210
O O
O
O O
O
OCOCH3

214
OCOCH3
O

Figure 2.11: Clerodane diterpenoids from Croton species

53
Many other reports pointing to the fact that clerodane diterpenoids not only from Croton
plants but also from many other plants are important bioactive molecules were accessed. A
few notable examples include clerocidin (215) from Oidiodendron truncatum (Moniliales)
that has shown antibiotic potential (Kapingu et al., 2000). Kolavenic acid (216) reported from
Polyalthia longifolia var. pendulla (Annonaceae) and many other sources (Aristolochiaceae,
Caesalpiriaceae and Compositae) is reported to possesses anti-bacterial activity to most
bacteria and anti-fungal activity against the kanamycin resistant fungal strains, Asperigillus
fumigatus and Candida albicans (Andersen and Rasmussen, 1984). Terpentecin (217)
isolated from Kitasatosporia sp. (Actinomyes) has been found to have anti-microbial and
anti-tumour properties (Rashid et al., 1996). Tinospora cordifolia Miers (Menispermaceae)
used in Ayurvedic medicine produced compound (218), used against jaundice, urinary
disease and rheumatism (Isshiki et al., 1985). Compound (219) was isolated from Casearia
sylvetris (Flacourtiaceae) and has been found to have anti-tumour potential against sarcoma
in mice (Hanuman et al., 1988).

Salvinoron (220), isolated from Salvia divinorum (Labiateae), has been reported as
possessing psychotropic activity (Itokawa et al., 1988). Solidago lactone which is reported
from Solidago sp. (Compositae) has been used as a piscicidal agent (Valdes et al., 1984).
Ajugarin 1 (221) with anti-feedant activity towards the African army worm (Spodoptera
exempta) and the African desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria)(Merritt and Levy, 1992) and
ajugarin IV (222) having insecticidal activity against the silkmoth, Bombyx mori (Nishino et
al., 1984) have been reported from Ajuga remota (Labiateae).

54
 OH O OH O
CO2H
H
CHO CHO
H O H O

O 216
215 217
CHO O O
O

H
H H
O HO
O O

O O
O O
HO H O O
OH Me
HO O
218 HO O OAc (CH2 )n
O
O 219

O H
HO
H
H O
H
R CH2OAc
H O
R1 OAc OHH2C R
OH R1
MeO2C 220
R 221 222
O R1

Figure 2.12: Bioactive clerodane diterpenoids from other plants

2.4.5.2.2 Halimanes and an Indane derivative

Biosynthetically, halimane diterpenoids possessing the halimane carbon skeleton (171) lie
between the labdanes (172) and clerodanes (170) in their general structure. Halimane
diterpenoids that have been reported from Croton genus include [Figure 2.13]:- centrafine 1
(223) from C. membranaceous, penduliflaworosin (224) from C. jatrophoides (Mbwambo et
al., 2009), C. penduliflorus Hutch (Adesogan, 1981) and C. sylvaticus leaves (Schneider et
al., 1995), (225) from C. hovarum (Krebs and Ramiarantosa, 1996 and 1997) and
neoclerodane-5, 10-en-19, 6β, 20,12-diolide (226) from C. macrostachys (Addae-mensah et
al., 1989). An indane derivative (227) from C. steenkampianus (Adelekan et al., 2008) is
another of the bicyclic phytanes reported from Croton species.

55
 O
O 15 O
O 16
14
14 16
12 O
13 12
O O 8 1
O 11 20 6
CO2CH3 11 O 1
O 9 10
1 10 9
17 4 3
O
17 3
5 7 COOH
3 7 11
5 HO 18
O COOMe O
223 18 224 OH
225 19 226 227
O 19 O

Figure 2.13: Halimane diterpenoids and an Indane derivative from Croton species

2.4.5.2.3 Labdanes
Hundreds of labdanes and their pharmacological values have been reported from higher
plants. Their reports from Croton species have been summarised in Table 2.11; Figure 2.14.

Table 2.11: Labdanes from Croton species and their reported biological values

Code Name Source (biological value)

228 2α,3α–Dihydroxylabda- 228 and 229 from C. ciliatoglanduliferus (both
8(17),12,14-triene inhibit photophosphorylation, electron transport
229 2α-acetoxy-3α–dihydroxylabda- (basal, phosphorylating and uncoupled) and have
8(17),12,14-triene partial reactions of both photosystems in spinach
thylakoids (Nabeta et al., 1995)
230 Labdane-8α, 15-diol C. eluteria (Vigor et al., 2001)
231 15-acetoxylabdan-8α-ol
232 Austroinulin C. glabellus (Morales-Flores et al., 2007)
233 6-O-acetylaustroinulin
234 Labda-
7,12(E),14-trien-17-oic acid 234-241 from C. oblongifolius (with an
235 Labda-7,12 (E),14-trien-17-al exception of 241, all are reported to have non-
236 17-hydroxylabda-7,12,14- specific and moderate cytotoxicity against five
Triene human tumour cell lines (Sommit et al., 2003;
237 17-acetoxylabda-7,12,14-triene Garcia et al., 2006)
238 labda-7,13-dien-17,12-olide
239 15-
hydroxylabda-7,13-diene-17,12-
olide

56
240 12,17-dihydroxylabda-7,13-diene
241 Ent-3α-hydroxymanoyl oxide
- Labda-7,12 (E),14-triene
242 Crotonadiol C. zambesicus (Ngadjui et al., 1999)
243 Maruvic acid C. matourensis (Chaichantipyuth et al., 2005)
- 2,3-dihydroxy-labda-8(17),12(13), C. joufra (weakly cytotoxic)
14(15)-triene (Sutthivaiyakit et al., 2001)
244 Gomojoside H C. membraneaceus (roots have anti-microbial
activity and cytotoxic activities against human
cancer cell line (Asare et al., 2011). 244 had
antimicrobial activities equal to the activity of
gentamycin (Bayor et al., 2009)
245 C. zambesicus (Ngadjui et al., 1999)
246 Geayinine (ent-8,13-epoxylabd-14- C. geayi (Radulovic et al., 2006)
enes)
247 Isogeayinine
248 Crotomachlin C. macrostachyus (Addae-mensah et al., 1989)

249 C. pseudopulchellus (Langat et al., 2012)

57
 20
11 13

17 15 OR
1 9 R
OR 16 OH R
H H OH
10 H
R
230 H 232 H
3
228 H 231 Ac OR 233 Ac
HO H H
H 6 229 Ac OR
19 18
R1

O
COR
OR
R H R
H O
R, R1
234 OH 236 OH H
H 238 H,HH
H 235 H 237 Ac R
H 239 H,OH
OH

O OH
H OH H H
HO2C

HO H H
H H 242
240 241 OH
H 243
CH2OR

O O
H H O
H R H H
CO2H CO2H H OH
244 Glu H H
245 H 246 OH
OR 247 H
OH 248 249

Figure 2.14: Labdane diterpenoids from Croton species

2.4.5.3 Tricyclic Diterpenoids from Croton genus

Tricycloditerpenoids reported from Croton genus include abiatanes, daphnanes, pimaranes,
and isopimaranes.

2.4.5.3.1 Abietanes
Migration of the methyl group, C-17 from C-13 to C-15 in pimaranes (173) results to
formation of abietane diterpenoids (174) [Table 2.8]. However, in plants, they are formed by
cyclization of geranylgeranylpyrophosphate, GGPP [Scheme 4]. Related parent diterpene
hydrocarbons include [Figure 2.15]: - 13, 16-cycloabiatanes (250); 17 (15-16)-abeo-abietanes
(251) in which the methyl group, C-17 has shifted from C-15 to C-16 and totaranes (252)
which arise from abietane when the isopropyl group migrates from C-13 to C-14. African C.
zambesicus is the only Croton species reported to have produced abietane diterpenoids but
their names were not included in the report accessed (Aiyar and Seshadri, 1970).

58
 16 17
16

20 15
15 20
13 13
1 16
20 1
17 13
14 1
8 14
10 14 10 8 15
10 8 17

6 6
19 18
250 6 19 252
251
19

Figure 2.15: Abietane related parent diterpene hydrocarbons

2.4.5.3.2 Daphnanes
Included in this category is rhamnofolanes such as (-)-20-acetoxy-9-hydroxy-1, 6, 14-
ramnofolatriene-3, 13- dione reported from C. rhamnifolius (Breitmaier, 2006). Daphnanes
are similar in structure to rhamnofolanes, differing only in the position of the isopropyl
group, C-15 where by, in daphnanes, it is on C-2 while in rhamnofolane, it is on C-1 [Scheme
5]. However, rhamnofolanes and other constituents from Jatropha species rarely occur in
plants. Instead, daphnanes are more frequently found ((Breitmaier, 2006). Two daphnanes,
steenkrotin B (253) and its triacetyl derivative (254) have been reported from C.
steenkampianus (Adelekan et al., 2008) [Figure 2.16].

O
O O
O

H HO H H
H
O O
OAc OAc
HO O 253 O OAc
254
HO
Figure 2.16: Daphnane diterpenoids from Croton steenkampianus

2.4.5.3.3 Pimaranes and Isopimaranes

Pimaranes (173) and isopimaranes are 13-14, 8-cyclolabdanes [Figure 2.11] with the
perhydrophenanthrene basic skeleton, differing only in their configuration at C-13 [Figure
2.17]. Ent-isopimarane, yucalexin P-4 (255) has been reported from Argentinian C.
sarcopetalus (Mwangi et al., 1998; De Heluani et al., 2000). 3β-hydroxy-19-acetoxy-ent-
isopimara-8, 15-dien-7-one (256), plaunol A and C, swassin and 3β-hydroxy-19-O-acetyl-
pimara-8(9), 15-dien-7-one which has been found to be weakly cytotoxic are reported from
Thai C. joufra (Sutthivaiyakit et al., 2001 Neuwinger, 2000).

59
From Asian C. oblongifolius, ent-pimara-7, 15 – dien – 19 – oic acid (257) was isolated (De
Heluani et al., 2000) while from African C. zambesicus, three isopimaranes, isopimara-7, 15-
dien-3β-ol (258), (259) and (260) are reported (Block et al., 2004).

O
17
15
11
20 13 16
1 R
14 H H 258 CH3
10 H 8
3 O
259 H
HO H HO 260 CH2OH
H
O H 6 255 H 256 257 R
OCOCH3 CO2H
19 18

Figure 2.17: Pimarane diterpenoids from Croton species

2.4.5.4 Tetracyclic diterpenoids from Croton genus

Atisanes, kauranes and tiglianes are the reported tetracyclic diterpenoids from Croton genus.
The bio-synthesis of kauranes and tiglianes was discussed in Schemes 4 and 5 respectively.

2.4.5.4.1 Atisanes
Atisane is the basic carbon skeleton of various diterpene alkaloids (aconitum-alkaloids) found
in the plant families of Rhanunculaceae and Garryaceae ((Breitmaier, 2006). Two 3, 4-seco-
atisane diterpenoids with cytotoxic potency [Figure 2.18], crotobarin (261) from C. barorum
and crotogaudin (262) from C. goudotii have been reported (Rakotonandrasana et al., 2010).

O
R
O

R
261 OCOCH3
262 H
Figure 2.18: Atisane diterpenoids from Croton species

60
 2.4.5.4.2 Kauranes
Kauranes are the commonest class of the tetracyclic diterpenoids reported from Croton genus
[Table 2.12; Figure 2.19].

Table 2.12: Kauranes from Croton genus

Code Name Source

263 -274 Twelve kauranes and ent-kauranes Vietnamese C. tonkinensis

275 -290 Fifteen ent-kauranes from the leaves only (Minh et (crude extract significantly
al., 2003; Ngadjui et al., 2002; Giang et al., 2005) cytotoxic (Kuo et al., 2007)
291 Argyrophilic acid, a stereoisomer of cunabic acid C. argyrophylloides
found to be active against gram positive bacteria
in vitro (Giang et al., 2004)
292 Ent –15 -oxokaur – 16– en – 18 – oic acid
(Fernandes et al., 1974)
293 Ent-16β, 17-dihydroxykaurane Japanese C. sublyratus
(Monte et al., 1988)
294 Two ent-kauranes including this one Asian C. kongensis
(Kitazawa and Ogiso, 1981)
- Ent-kauran-16β, 17-diol C. hutchinsonianus
- ent-kauran-16β, 17, 19-triol (Chen et al., 2007)
295-297 Three ent-kauranoids C. lacciferus (Li et al., 1990)
298 Geayine C. geayi
299 7-Oxogeayine (Radulovic et al., 2006)
300 - C. zambesicus (Aiyar and
Seshadri, 1970)
301-307 - C. pseudopulchellus
(Langat et al., 2012)

61
 13
R1 R R3
11
20
16
CHO 265 CH3 OH H
H H H
1 14 17
266 CH2OAc OH H
O
10 OH R3 267 CO2H H H
8
H 15 H O H H
3 268 CH2OAc H
5 O O OH OH
R2 269 CH3
19 18 263 CH2OH 264 R1 270 CH2OH H H

HO 271 CH2OH OH H
OAc 272 CH2OH OH OH
H H H
H H
H H H
O O O
OH OH
OAc H
CH2OAc 273 274 275 O
OH
R5 OAc 276
H R R2 R3 R4 R5
R1
H 279 H H OH OH OAc R1
H R4 280 H H OAc H OH R3
R 281 H OAc H H OH H
R H
O 282 H OAc OH H OAc
HO 277 OH R3
278 H 283 H OAc OH H H H
R2
284 OAc H OH OAc H
R2 R1 R2 R3
285 OAc H OAc OH H HO C
2
286 H OAc H OH H 287 OAc CH2 CH2
OAc 294 OAc H OAc OAc H 288 H O CH2
H
OAc 291 H CH2 CH2
OAc OMe H OH
H 292 H O O
H OH
OH
H H OH
OH O H
OH
289
290 H
293
HO 295
H OH
H OH

H
H
H
H H H H
296 CO2H
OH 297
298 H
CH2OH 299
H H3C CO2H
R1
H R3
H H R R1 R2
HO OH
302 CO2H H H H
HO R2
300 303 CHO H H H
H H
304 CO2H OH H H
H H
301 R3 305 CO2H OCOCH3 H H
CO2H 306 CO2H H H OH
R 307 CO2H H OH H

Figure 2.19: Kaurane diterpenoids from Croton species

62
 2.4.5.4.3 Tiglianes
Polyhydroxylated tiglianes (308) esterified with linoleic and palmitic acid is among the
irritant and co-carcinogenic (tumor-promoting) constituents of various members of the
Euphorbiaceae family (Dewick, 2002). Phorbol (309) and isophorbol (310) diterpenoids are
C- 4 epimers obtained upon hydrolysis of their esters. Hydrolysis of prostratin (311), isolated
from Pimela prostrata yields 12- deoxyphorbol (312). Fatty acid esters of 12- deoxyphorbol
occur in various members of Euphorbiaceae [Figure 2.20]. The main irritant component of C.
tiglium seeds is 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (313), a tumor promoter used in
experimental mice cancer research (Bandara et al., 1988). Other phorbol esters of C. tiglium
seeds include 13-O-acetylphorbol-20-linoleate, 13-O-tigloylphorbol-20-linoleate, 12-O-
acetylphorbol-13-tigliate, 12-O-decanoylphorbol-13-(2-methylbutyrate), 12-O-
tigloylphorbol-13-(2-methylbutirate) and 12-O-acetylphorbol-13-decanoate89, 12-O-
tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate and 12-O-(2-methylbu t i r o y l) - p h o r b o l - 1 3 - d o d e
c a n o a t e (Glaser et al., 1988). Small amounts of a phorbol ester were detected in flowers
of C. draco (Murillo et al., 2001).

A nitrogenous phorbol ester (314) with inhibitory effects on cyclo-oxygenase which is

responsible for production of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid has been reported from C.
ciliatoglandulifer (El-mekkawy et al., 2000). Another phorbol derivative with anti-
plasmodial activity, steenkrotin A (315) from C. steenkampianus has been reported
(Adelekan et al., 2008). Also included in this category are some crotofolane diterpenoids: -
crotoxide A and B (316 and 317) reported from C. dichogamus (Rios and Aguilar-
Guadarrama, 2006); crotofolins A, B, C and E (318, 319, 320 and 321 from C. corylifolius, a
Jamaican species closely related to C. dichogamus (Rios and Aguilar-Guadarrama, 2006) and
crotohaumanoxide (322) from C. haumanianus (Tchissambou, 1990). Hydrolysis of a
methanol soluble extract of essential oils obtained from C. macrostachys seeds showed
presence of phorbol esters upon comparison with a hydrolyzed product of commercially
available 12-O-tetradecanoyl-phorbol-13-acetate (313) (Mazzanti et al., 1987).

63
 OH OH
18 11 13 17 OH OH
H3C
1 C D H3C
9
19 CH3
14 16 H CH3
A H
B 7 OH
3 308 OH
5 O 309
20 OH O 310
OH
H3C OR OC14H27O OH
OH
CH3 OAc
H3C O 20

H H
OH H O
5 O
OAc 16
O HO OH Me2N O HO
8
14
H 3
R OH 1 15
O 313 H
OH
311 COCH3
H H 17
OH OH 19 O 10
312 H 12
O H 314
OH OAc 18 315
OH
O
R1 O
R2
OH
O H O H R1 R2
318 OH CH3
O O
317 319 CH3 OH
HO
O O
316 O
O
O O
O
O
320
H
O
O

OH O H
O
321 322
O
O

Figure 2.20: Tiglianes and Phorbolesters from Croton species

2.4.5.5 Pentacyclic diterpenoids from Croton genus

In this category, only trachylobanes are reported from two African Croton species [Figure
2.21]. From Beninian C. zambesicus, ent-18-hydroxy-trachyloban-3-one (323) and its vaso-
relaxant properties (Jogia et al., 1989), ent-trachyloban-3-one (324), 325, 326, ent-
trachyloban-3β-ol (327) and 328 are reported (Ngadjui et al., 1999; Block et al., 2004; Aiyar
and Seshadri, 1970). Cameroonian C. zambesicus is reported to have produced compounds
329, 330, 7β-acetoxytrachyloban-18-oic (331) and trachyloban-7β-18-diol (332) (Ngadjui et
al., 1999). Compounds 333, 334, trachyloban-18-oic acid (335), trachyloban-19-oic acid
(336), 3α, 19- dihydroxytrachylobane (337), 3α, 18, 19-trihydroxytrachylobane (338), 3β,19
– dihydroxytrachylobane (339) and 3β,18,19 – trihydroxytrachylobane (340) are reported
from Eastern Africa C. macrostachyus (Addae-mensah et al., 1989; Kapingu et al., 2000).

64
 12
11 17
20 16
1 13
15 H
10 8 H
3
H R O OR2 R1 R2 R
O H H HO 327 CH3
323 CH2OH 325 CO2H Ac H
H 6 R1 R
R 324 CH3 326 CH3 H 328 CH2OH
19
18

R1 , R2 R R1 R2
331 H CH3 COOH
329 CO2H , Ac
332 H COOH CH3
330 CH2OH , H H
333 OH CH3 CH2OH
OR2 R 334 OH CH2OH CH2OH
H H
R1 R1 R2
12
17
20
14 R R' R''
13 R , R1
15 CH3 COOH H
335
336 COOH CH3 H H 339 CH3 , CH2OH
CH3 CH2OH OH 340 CH2OH,CH2OH
R'' 337
HO
R H 338 CH2OH CH2OH OH H
18 R R1
19 R'
.
Figure 2.21: Trachylobanes from Croton species

2.4.5.6 Macrocyclic diterpenoids from Croton genus

Cembranoids are the macrocyclic diterpenoids reported from Croton genus [Table 2.13;
Figure 2.22]. C. zambesicus is a tropical African medicinal plant whose phytochemistry has
extensively been studied. It is reported in world plant check list database as being a synonym
of C. gratissimus var. gratissimus, C. amabilis Muell. Arg. and C. welwitschianus Muell.
Arg. (Kew plant data base, 2012 and 2013). A wide range of compounds including, labdane,
clerodane, and trachylobane diterpenoids and flavone-C-glycosides have been reported from
C. zambesicus (Ngadjui et al., 1999; Aiyar and Seshadri, 1970). This section however reports
C. gratissimus as having predominantly yielded cembrane diterpenoids (Pudhom et al., 2007;
Mulholland et al., 2010). The remarkable difference in the chemical constituents between C.
zambesicus and C. gratissimus var. gratissimus is therefore a sharp contrast in their
acclaimed synonymy. Jatrophone (358) reported from Euphorbia species is included in this
category because it is an intermediate skeleton during the biosynthesis of many important
diterpenoids from cembrane molecules [Scheme 5].

65
Table 2.13: Cembranoids from Croton species

Code Name Source (biological activities)

341 Neocrotocembranal 341-343 from the stem bark of C. oblongifolius
(Baccelli et al., 2007) 344 from C. poilanei. Compound 341 was found to
342 Crotocembranoic acid inhibited platelet aggregation induced by thrombin
(Roengsumran et al., 1999) (IC50 47.21 μg/ml) and have cytotoxicity against P-
343 Neocrotocembranoic acid 388 cells in vitro (IC50 value of 6.48 μg/ml).
(Roengsumran et al., 1999) Compounds 341-344 were studied for their
344 Poilaneic acid inhibitory activities against cAMP
(Roengsumran et al., 2002) phosphodiesterase. Those with carboxylic acid
functional groups showed higher activity
(Roengsumran et al., 1998)).
345, C. oblongifolius (they all showed broad cytotoxic
346 and Furano-cembranoids activities against five cell lines-BT474, CHAGO,
347 Hep-G2, KATO-3, and SW-620 by the MTT
[3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl-2,5-
348 Lactonized cembranoid diphenyltetrazoliumbromide] colourimetric method
(Roengsumran et al., 1998; Sato et al., 1981)
349 (+)-[1R,10R]-cembra- 349-357 were all isolated from Southern Africa
2E,4E,7E,11Z-tetraen-20, C. gratissimus (methanol and water extracts of this
10-olide plant showed scavenging ability of hydroxyl
350 (+)-[1R,4S,10R]-4- radicals (Langat et al., 2011) and 5-lipoxygenase
hydroxycembra- inhibitory activity (Steenkamp et al., 2005).
2E, 7E,11Z-trien-20,10- Compounds 350 and 352 had lower potency than
olide paclitaxel when subjected to PEO1 and PEO1-
351 (-)-[1R,4R,10R]-4- TaxR ovarian cancer cell lines. Their sensitivity to
hydroxycembra- taxane sensitive and taxane resistant cells was
2E, 7E, 11Z-trien-20, 10- however similar (Pudhom et al., 2007; Mulholland
olide et al., 2010). The isomer of compound 356, (+)-
352 (+)-[1R,2S,7S,8S,12R]-7,8- [10R]-cembra-1Z, 3Z, 7E, 11Z, 15-penten-20, 10-
epoxy-2,12-cyclocembra- olide was isolated from the leaves (Mulholland et
3E,10Z-dien-20,10-olide al., 2010).

66
353 & (+)-[1S, 4S, 7R, 10R]-1,4,7-
354 trihydroxycembra-2E, 8
(epimers (19),11Z-trien-20, 10-olide
at C-7)
355 (-)-[1S, 4S, 10R]-1, 4-
(hydroxyl Dihydroxycembra-2E, 7E,
derivative 11Z-trien-20, 10-olide
of 350)
356 (+)-[10R]-cembra-1E, 3E,
7E,11Z,15-penten-20,10-
olide
357 (+)-[1S, 4R, 8S, 10R]-1, 4,
8-Trihydroxycembra-
2E,6E,11Z-trien-20, 10-
olide

67
 18 17

15
1
5
3 16

19 14
7
13
20
342 343 CO2H 344 CO2H
341 11 CHO CO2H
9

OH OH OH
OH

HO HO
O HO HO
346 347 348
345 O O O
O H O
HO HO
H H H
H
H
O H

352 O
349 H
O 350 O 351 O O
O H O H O
HO HO
OH OH HO
OH
H H

HO HO

353 H
O 354 O
O H O 355
H
O 356 H
O
OH O O

O
OH

HO
O

357 H
O
O 358
O

Figure 2.22: Cembranoids from Croton species and jatrophone from Euphorbia species

68
2.4.5.7 Limonoids from Croton genus
Only one research group has reported the isolation of limonoids from a Croton plant, C.
jatrophoides (Kubo et al., 1990; Nihei et al., 2002, 2005 and 2006). This report is however
highly doubted because it is the first and the only group reporting a member of the
Euphorbiaceae family as producing several limonoids that are known to be restricted to the
Meliaceae, Simaroubaceae, Rutaceae, Cneoraceae and Flacourtiaceae families (Langat,
2009). A specimen of the C. jatrophoides plant studied and reported in one of their
publications to have yielded the limonoids, was not recorded as having been deposited in any
herbarium (Kubo et al., 1990). However, in subsequent papers published by the same
research group (Nihei et al., 2002, 2004, 2005 and 2006) it is reported that the plant specimen
(AC 76-134) was deposited at the University of Nairobi Herbarium but a spot check did not
confirm it.

The above aluded observations raise doubts on the true identity of the plant that yielded the
limonoids. C. jatrophoides is not listed by any of the authority books on Kenyan plant species
(Kokwaro, 2009; Beentje, 1994). It is listed as a Tanzanian Croton species (Kokwaro, 2009)
and there are phytochemical reports on isolation of five diterpenoids from it four clerodanes,
isoteucvin, an isomer of teucvin and another teucvin derivative, one halimane,
penduliflaworosin and jatropholdin (Mbwambo et al., 2009). Until other members of the
Croton genus are shown to yield limonoids, the correct identification of the C. jatrophoides
worked on by this research group (Kubo et al., 1990; Nihei et al., 2002, 2004, 2005 and
2006) remains questionable.

The chemical structures of the limonoids that were reported supposedly from C. jatrophoides
by Kubo et al., 1990 and Nihei et al., 2002, 2004, 2005 and 2006 are given in Figure 2.23
(Lemos et al., 1992; Santos et al., 2008; Sommit et al., 2003; Ngamrojnavanich et al., 2003).
Their names are: - dumsin (359); zumsin (360); zumketol (361); zumsenin (362); zumsenol
(363); dumnin (364); dumsenin (365); musidunin (366) and musiduol (367). Compounds 364
- 367 showed potent anti-feedant activity (PC50 < 2.0 µg/mL) against the larvae of the pink
bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiela and fallworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Nihei et al., 2004
and 2006)).

69
 O O
O
OAc OAc
OAc OH OAc
AcO O AcO
O
O

HO O H
H H O H
O H O
O O O
359 H O 361 H
360 H
O O
O
O OAc
OAc AcO
OAc O HO O
AcO
O HO
H O
R H O 364
R H
H 362 H O 363 O
H
O 365 OH OAc
O H O
H
O O

OAc OAc
AcO AcO
O O

O HO
OH O
H H H
366 O COOCH3 367 O
OH
H H

Figure 2.23: Limonoid diterpenoids reported supposedly from Croton jatrophoides

2.4.6 Triterpenoids and Phytosterols

Triterpenoids are C30 compounds derived from six isoprene units and are widely distributed
in plant kingdom in a free state or as esters or glycosides. They are further sub-grouped into
tetracyclic and pentacyclic triterpenoids. Phytosterols are degraded forms of terpenoids. A
number of tritepenoids and phytosterols were isolated from the plants that were being
investigated in this study. Consequently, the section which follows here will describe their
biosynthesis.

2.4.6.1 Biosynthesis of Triterpenoids and Phytosterols

Biosynthetically, triterpenoids are derived from squalene [Scheme 2]. The 3β-
hydroxytriterpenoids, however, originates from the 3S-isomer of squalene 2, 3-epoxide.
Cyclisation of the chair-boat-chair-boat conformation of squalene 2, 3-epoxide gives the
protostane cation [Scheme 6].

70
A series of 1, 2-hydride and methyl migrations, commonly called backbone rearrangements
occurs in the protostane (protosteryl) cation, to give a variety of triterpenoid skeletal types,
lanostane (from where steroids are made) being one of them (Frum and Viljoen, 2005;
Dewick, 2002).

Steroids are modified triterpenoids containing the tetracyclic ring system of lanosterol but
lacking the three methyl groups at C-4 and C-14 (C-28, 29, 30 in the lanostane numbering). A
wide range of biologically important natural products, steroids included, are derived from a
cholesterol basic structure with modifications especially to the side-chain. The functional
groups attached to the steroid nucleus give them the profound biological activities used in
routine medicine. Most natural triterpenoids and steroids contain a 3-hydroxyl group arising
from the original epoxide oxygen of oxidosqualene with the C-10 methyl and H-5 sharing an
anti-axial relationship. For steroids, majority have one or two methyl groups present at the
bridgehead positions C-10 and C-13 with their methyl carbon atoms numbered C-19 and C-
18 respectively as shown in the structure of cholesterol [Scheme 6].

NADP+, H2O
Squalene epoxide cyclase
19 NADPH, O2 Squalene epoxidase
+

14 H H
12
21
5

16 23
H
3 7 9
O Squalene-2, 3-epoxide
Squalene HO Protostane cation
1 18 21
Backbone re-arrangements 20
18
19 23
H H H
19
14 H 24
14
27
30 25
4 H H
Lanostane 26
HO HO
29 28 H Lanosterol H 4 Cholesterol
13
11
1 16
10
14 Other skeletal types
8
3
4 6 Steroid

Scheme 6: Biosynthesis of triterpenoids and phytosterols

71
2.4.6.2 Triterpenoids from Croton genus
Triterpenoids of various carbon skeletons have been reported from the Croton genus [Table
2.14; Figure 2.24].
Table 2.14: Triterpenoids from Croton species

Code Name Carbon Source

skeleton
368 Acetylealeuritolic acid C. cajucara, C. tonkinesis,
C. megalocarpus, C. hovarium,
Taraxerane C. urucarana (Addae-mensah et
al., 1989; Maciel et al., 1997;
Krebs and Ramiarantosa, 1996
and 1997; Puebla et al., 2003;
Pham and Pham, 2002)
369 Lupeol (Ngadjui et al., 1999; Lupane C. zambesicus,
Addae-mensah et al., 1989; C. megalocarpus ,
Mulholland et al., 2010; C. gratissimus and
Tschissambou, 1990) C. haumanianus
370 3β-O-Acetoacetyl lupeol C. megalocarpus
(Addae-mensah et al., 1989)
371 Betulin
372 Lupenone (Barbosa et al., 2003) C. betulaster
373 20-Hydroxylupan-3-one
374 Friedelin Friedelane C. hovarum (Krebs and
375 β-Amyrin Ramiarantosa, 1996 and 1997)
376 3-Oxo-olean-12-en-28-oic acid Oleanane C. betulaster
377 3-Oxo-olean-18-en-28-oic acid (Barbosa et al., 2003)

378 α-Amyrin (Block et al., 2004) Ursane C. hieronymi

379 α-Amyrin acetate C. hieronymi, C. tonkinensis
(Addae-mensah et al., 1989;
Pham and Pham, 2002)
380 3-Oxo-20β-hydroxytarastane Taraxastane C. betulaster
381 3-Oxo-22-hydroxyhopane (Barbosa et al., 2003)
382 Hop-22-(29)-en-3β-ol Hopane C. hieronymi (Risco et al., 2003)

72
 H H
H
COOH
H
H CH2OH
H H

H
H H
HO
H HO O H
H O H
O O
H 371
O
369 370
HO
368 H
H

H H H
H
H H CH2OH H H

O
H H HO H
HO
372 O 374 375
H
373 O

COOH
H H
H
COOH

H H

H
H R 380
O H
H 378 H
H H 379 Ac
O
376 377 H
O OR H
H
HO
21 22 H
H
OH H
H H
O
382
381
H

Figure 2.24: Triterpenoids from Croton species

73
2.4.6.3 Phytosterols from Croton genus
Quite a number of phytosterols [Figure 2.25] have been reported from Croton genus.
Included is:- sitosterol (383) from C. zambesicus (Ngadjui et al., 1999) and C. membranaceus
(Bayor et al., 2009); sitosterol -3-D-glucoside (384) , DL- threitol (385) (Bayor et al., 2009)
and ethylcholesta 4, 22-diene-3-one (386) from C. gratissimus (Mulholland et al., 2010);
cholestan-5,7-dien-3-ol (387), 3-hydroxycholest-5-en-7-one (388), cholestan-3-one (389) and
ergosterol (390) from C. pseudopulchellus (Langat et al., 2012). Others are stigmasterol,
campesterol, 3 – oxocycloart – 24E – en – 26 – oic acid, 22 –dihydrobrassicasterol,
cholesterol, ergosta – 4, 22 – dien – 3 – one, cholest – 8(14) – en - 3β-ol, gramisterol,
lophenol, isofucosterol, cholest – 4-en – 3 – one and β-sitostenone.

HO OH
H

HO OH
385
R
H
383 H
384 Glu
H H 386
O
387

OR
HO

O HO
O 389 390
388
HO

Figure 2.25: Phytosterols from Croton species

74
 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 General experimental procedure
Infra Red (IR) spectra were recorded using a Perkin-Elmer (2000) FTIR spectrometer. 1D
and 2D NMR spectra were recorded in CDCl3 on a 500 MHz Bruker AVANCE NMR
instrument at room temperature. Chemical shifts, δ, were expressed in ppm and referenced
against the solvent resonances at 7.28 and 77.23 ppm for 1H and 13
C- NMR respectively.
Mass Spectra were recorded on a GC-MS Bruker MicroToF Mass Spectrometer by direct
injection using a Bruker Bioapex-FTMS with electrospray ionization. GC-MS spectra were
recorded on an Agilent 7890A instrument (University of Oxford). The above analysis was
done at the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Surrey
University-UK.

Column chromatographies were done at the Department of Chemistry, University of Nairobi

and Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Surrey
University-UK. Merck Silica gel 60 (0.063-0.200 mm) and Fluka Sephadex LH-20 as
stationary phases and analytical TLC using factory prepared aluminium plates (0.25 mm)
coated with silica gel (high-purity grade (Merck Grade 9385), pore size 60 Å, 230–400 mesh
particle size) were used. Compounds were visualized by observation under UV light at 254 or
365 nm, followed by spraying with 1% vanillin-sulphuric acid spray reagent and warming.

3.2 Plant sources

C. alienus plant parts (leaves, stem and roots) were collected in September 2007 from Ngong
forest in Nairobi City County, C. sylvaticus in May 2009 from Taita Hills and C.
megalocarpoides in July 2009 from the Kenyan Coastal region. The plants were identified at
the University of Nairobi herbarium in the School of Biological Studies and voucher
specimens, BN 2007/12 for C. alienus, BN 2008/6 for C. sylvaticus and BN 2008/8 for C.
megalocarpoides deposited there.

75
3.3 Extracting plant parts for preliminary screening
The plant parts were dried under shade for 4 weeks after which they were ground into a fine
powder. Distilled water was used to extract 10 g of the powder by boiling (3 x 20 minutes),
cooling, filtering and freeze drying the filtrates. Similarly, 10 g of the powder was extracted
using methanol by cold percolation (3 x 72 hrs) at room temperature followed by filtration
and concentration of the combined extracts under reduced pressure below 50 OC using a
rotary evaporator.

3.4 Phytochemical and antioxidant activity screening of crude plant extracts

Qualitative phytochemical screening was done at the Center for Traditional Medicine
Research in Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI). Documented standard procedures
for presence of alkaloids, anthraquinones, flavanoids, phenolic compounds, steroids and
terpenoids were used on both aqueous and methanol plant extracts (Harborne, 1984; Peter
and Amala, 1998).

Total Phenolic Content (TPC) and anti-oxidant potential assessment of the crude plant
extracts was done at JSS College of Pharmacy in Ooty-Tamil Nadu state, India. Folin-
Ciocalteu reagent was used to estimate the total phenolic content (TPC) of the extracts A 0.1
mL suspension of 1 mg / mL extract in distilled methanol in an Erlenmeyer flask was made
up to 50 mL using distilled water to produce a 2M solution. A solution of 10% Folin-
Ciocalteu reagent in distilled water was made and 1 mL of it added to the plant extract
suspension followed by 3 mL of 0.7M sodium carbonate solution three minutes later. The
mixture was thoroughly shaken for 2 hrs at room temperature and its absorbance taken at 760
nm using a spectrophotometer. A serially diluted gallic acid monohydrate standard solution
(250 µg / mL to 25 µg / mL) was used to prepare the standard curve. The TPC in the extract
was expressed as % w / w gallic acid equivalent.

DPPH radical scavenging method was used to evaluate the anti-oxidant potential of the
extracts using ascorbic acid as a standard. The assay was carried out in a 96 well microtiter
plate. 100µM DPPH solution (200 µL) was added to 10 µL of test sample (prepared by
dissolving weighed sample in DMSO and serially diluting it to give a range of
concentrations, 1,000 µg / mL to 1.95 µg / mL). The plates were then incubated at 37OC for
20 minutes and the absorbance of each well measured at 490 nm, using microtiter plate reader
(ELISA) against the corresponding test and standard blanks.

76
The remaining DPPH of the test sample was compared with that of the standard (ascorbic
acid) by expressing it as IC50 (concentration of the sample required to scavenge 50% of
DPPH free radicals, calculated as, % inhibition = Absorbance of [(Control- Sample) /
Control] x 100%).

3.5 Biological activity screening of crude plant extracts and isolated compounds
Anti-microbial activity tests of the crude plant extracts were done at the Center for
Microbiology Research- KEMRI. Mosquito larvicidal activity assay was done at the School
of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi. The National Center for Natural Products
Research, School of Pharmacy- University of Mississippi in collaboration with Prof. L.
Walker and Prof. Illias Muhammad conducted the anti-leishmanial, anti-plasmodial and
general cytotoxicity activity tests and the anti-microbial activity test of the isolated
compounds. In all these assays, standard procedures were followed as alluded to in the
sections following below.

3.5.1 Anti-microbial screening procedure

The antimicrobial tests of the crude plant extracts were done using American Type Culture
Collection (Manassas, VA) organisms, referenced as ATCC in this text except where
otherwise indicated. Aqueous and methanol crude extracts were assayed using sterile filter
paper disc diffusion method. Different strains of bacteria (Bacillus subtillis, local isolate;
Escherichia coli, ATCC 25922 and Staphylococcus aureus, ATCC 25923) and fungi
(Aspergillus niger, local isolate; Cryptococcus neoformans, ATCC 90113 and Candida
albicans, ATCC 90028). The extracts were tested at high concentrations of 100 mg / mL, 50
mg / mL, 25 mg / mL and 10 mg / mL. Negative control (DMSO) and positive controls
(gentamycin for bacteria and nystatin for fungi assays) were included in each assay.

The isolated compounds were assayed at high concentrations of 20 µg / mL on a variety of

sampled fungi and bacteria strains (Candida albicans , ATCC 90028 (Ca); Candida glabrata,
ATCC 90030 (Cg); Candida krusei, ATCC 6258 (Ck); Aspergillus fumigates, ATCC 90906
(Afu); Cryptococcus neoformans, ATCC 90113 (Cn); Staphylococcus aureus, ATCC 29213
(Sa); Methicillin-resistant S. aureus, ATCC 33591 (MRS); Escherichia coli, ATCC 35218
(Ec); Pseudomonas aeruginosa, ATCC 27853 (Pa) and Mycobacterium intracellulare, ATCC
23068 (Mi)).

77
Susceptibility testing was done using a modified version of the CLSI methods as described in
literature (Samoylenko et al., 2009). Drug controls ciprofloxacin (ICN Biomedicals, Ohio)
for bacteria and amphotericin B (ICN Biomedicals, Ohio) for fungi were included in each
assay.

3.5.2 In vitro anti-leishmanial

In vitro anti-leishmanial activity was evaluated using a culture of Leishmania donovani
promastigotes in two phases (primary for selecting those to undergo secondary screening)
with pentamidine and amphotericin B as positive controls. High concentrations of 80 µg/mL
(for primary assay) and 40 µg/mL (for secondary assay), appropriately diluted were added to
the Leishmania promastigotes culture (2 x 106 cells / mL) in triplicates. The plates were then
incubated at 26 OC for 72 hrs. Growth of Leishmania promastigotes in each test sample was
determined by alamar blue assay and IC50 values computed from the growth inhibition curve
(Samoylenko et al., 2009).

3.5.3 In vitro anti-plasmodial

Crude extracts and pure compounds were tested for their in vitro anti-plasmodial activity by a
modified assay that determines the parasitic lactase dehydrogenase (pLDH) activity (Peter
and Amala, 1998; Makler et al., 1993) using two Plasmodium falciparum strains, D6
(chloroquine-sensitive) and W2 (chloroquine-resistant). Continuous in vitro cultures of
asexual erythrocyte stages of P. falciparum were maintained using a modified method as
described in literature (Trager and Jensen, 1976). Full dose-response curves were generated
by plotting percent growth of the P. falciparum protozoan against test concentrations to
determine concentration inhibiting 50% of parasite growth (IC50-values) relative to negative
(DMSO) and positive controls (artemisinin and chloroquine drugs).The test protocol involved
two stages, primary and secondary screening.

Primary screening involved testing the crude extracts against the D6 P. falciparum strain at
47,600 ng / mL in duplicate. Inhibitions (% inh.) were calculated relative to the negative and
positive controls. Extracts showing ≥ 50% inhibition were selected for secondary screening in
which dissolved samples (crude extracts, some column fractions and pure compounds) were
tested at 47600, 15867, and 5289 ng / mL and IC50 reported.

78
3.5.4 In vitro cytotoxicity
General cytotoxicity on animal cell viability was studied using monkey kidney fibroblasts
(VERO) obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, Rockville, MD). The
assay was performed in a 96-well tissue culture-treated micro-plate in which cells were
seeded at a density of 25000 cells / well and incubated for 24 hrs. Samples at different
concentrations were added and plates again incubated for 48 hrs. The number of viable cells
was determined using neutral red according to a modified procedure described in literature
(Barbosa et al., 2007). Doxorubicin and DMSO were used as positive and negative controls
respectively and selectivity indices (SI) ratio of VERO to D6 and W2 calculated and
expressed as IC50.

3.5.5 Mosquito larvicidal assays

Crude extracts and isolated compounds were tested against two species of mosquito larvae,
Anopheles gambiae s.s. and Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera Culicidae) according to standard
WHO bioassays for larvicidal activity (WHO, 1996). Standard w/v concentrate of each test
material in DMSO was made in three replicates. Twenty late third-instar larvae were
transferred into each of the test and control solutions (azadirachtin and DMSO). Larval
mortality was recorded after 24 hrs. Dead larvae in the three replicates were combined and
expressed as a percentage mortality of each concentration using a computerized log-probit
analysis at 95% confidence intervals. Lethal dosages (LC50 and LC95) were used to measure
the potency of test samples and < 100 ppm potencies recorded.

3.6 Extraction and isolation of compounds from Croton megalocarpoides

The air dried root bark of C. megalocarpoides (500 g) was sequentially extracted by cold
percolation at room temperature (3 x 2L solvent, 24 hrs each). The extracts were concentrated
using rotary evaporator, combined and left to dry yielding 9 g (1.8%) n-hexane, 47 g (9.4 %)
dichloromethane (DCM) and 16 g (3.2 %) methanol extracts. From the DCM extract, 30 g
were adsorbed in 30 g silica gel and subjected to CC on a silica gel column (300 g, 5×35 cm).
Fractionation of CC was done using n-hexane with gradual increase of polarity using ethyl
acetate solvent and monitored using analytical TLC plates. Purification of the fractions was
done using DCM / diethyl ether solvent system of varying ratios to afford two phytosterols,
sitosterol (4.5 mg) and stigmasterol (4.1 mg) and the compounds given in Table 3.1 below.

79
Table 3.1: Compounds isolated from the roots of Croton megalocarpoides

Code Name Mass (mg)

391 Crotocorylifuran 58.80
392 12-Epi-crotocorylifuran 13.40
393 8-Hydroxycrotocorylifuran 3.50
394 2-Ketocrotocorylifuran 3.50
395 7, 8-Dehydrocrotocorylifuran 5.10
396 Megalocarpoidolide F 38.50
397 12-Epi-megalocarpoidolide F 14.30
398 Megalocarpoidolide E 50.90
399 Megalocarpoidolide G 23.30
400 Megalocarpoidolide H 16.80
401 Megalocarpoidolide I 84.40
402 Megalocarpoidolide J 6.70
403 Megalocarpoidolide K 16.70
404 Isolophanthin A 6.10
405 Isolophanthin E 10.90
406 Abietic acid 4.30
407 3α, 18-dihydroxytrachylobane 13.0
408 Ent-trachyloban-18-ol 4.10
409 Ent-trachyloban-18-oic acid 3.80
410 Ent-3β-hydroxytrachyloban-18-al 6.50
411 Acetylaleuritolic acid 12.90
412 Lupeol 3.60

3.7 Extraction and isolation of compounds from Croton alienus

The leaves (1.3 kg) were dried under shade for 4 weeks, ground to fine powder and extracted
by cold percolation at room temperature starting with 3 × 3 L of n-hexane, dichloromethane
(DCM), 5% MeOH in DCM, and MeOH. The solvents were then removed under reduced
pressure and the extracts obtained each chromatographed on sephadex (LH-20) packed
columns using MeOH: DCM (1:1 v/v) to remove chlorophyll. The chlorophyll free extracts
were weighed and 19.6 g (0.015%) n-hexane, 61.3 g (0.047%) DCM, 36.6 g (0.028%) 5%
MeOH / DCM and 77.1 g (0.059%) MeOH extracts obtained.

80
The n-hexane and DCM extracts were combined due to similarities on their silica TLC
compound profiles and chromatographed (40 g) over silica gel packed CC using a step
gradient elution (n-hexane with increasing amounts of DCM). Fractions (75mL each) were
collected from the initial column and subsequently purified using suitable solvent systems.
The following compounds were obtained and weighed: - crotepoxide (416; 565.7 mg);
monodeacetylcrotepoxide (417; 32.4 mg); dideacetylcrotepoxide (418; 174.3 mg); α-
senepoxide (419; 36.8 mg); β-senepoxide (420; 61.7 mg) and (+)-(2S, 3R)-diacetoxy-1-
benzoyloxymethylenecyclohex-4, 6-diene (421; 10.0 mg). Extraction of the roots of C.
alienus (1.5 kg) was done using 3L of MeOH: DCM (1:1, v/v) and the solvent removed under
reduced pressure to yield 184.1 g (12%) of crude extract. The extract (50 g) was
chromatographed over silica gel and eluted in the same way as the leaves above, giving
acetylaleuritolic acid (411; 33.0 mg); alienusolin (413; 8.6 mg); julocrotine (414; 132.3 mg);
crotonimide C (415; 86.5 mg); crotepoxide (416; 174.7 mg) and D4-stigmasterone (422;
65.4 mg).

3.8 Extraction and isolation of compounds from Croton sylvaticus

The air-dried and powdered roots bark (460 g) were extracted by cold percolation at room
temperature using MeOH: DCM (1:1, v / v) solvent mixture (3 x 1L, 24 h each). The filtrates
were then concentrated under reduced pressure using a rotary evaporator and combined to
give 126.9 g (27.6%) yield of extract. The extract was re-extracted using various solvents and
% yields determined as follows: - n-hexane (15.4 g; 12.1%), DCM (31.2 g; 24.6%) and
MeOH (55.5 g; 43.7%). DCM and n-hexane extracts were combined due to their TLC
compounds profile similarity. The combined extract (50 g) was adsorbed in 50 g silica gel,
chromatographed over silica gel (500 g, 10 x 60 cm column) and step gradient eluted with n-
hexane in increasing amounts of DCM. Fractions (75 ml each) were obtained and combined
based on their TLC compound profiles. Purification of the fractions was done by re-
chromatographing them over silica gel using DCM: diethyl ether (34:1 v/v) solvent system.

Eight compounds were obtained from this column:- stigmasteroid (5 mg); hardwickiic acid
(423; 20.5 mg); ent-3,13E-clerodadiene-15-ol (424; 10.4 mg); 15-acetoxy-ent-3, 13E-
clerodadiene (425; < 2 mg); 3, 8 (17),13E-clerodatriene-16-ol (426; < 2 mg); 15-formate-ent-
3, 13E-clerodadiene (427; < 2 mg); crotohalimaneic acid (428; 5.8 mg); penduliflaworosin
(429; 12.4 mg) and labda-13E-ene-8α, 15-diol-7 (430; 10.1 mg).

81
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSIONS

4.1 Phytochemistry Investigations Results

A total of fourty one compounds was isolated from the three Kenyan Croton species
investigated in this study.

4.1.1 The Phytochemistry of Croton megalocarpoides

The compounds isolated from the roots of C. megalocarpoidesare are described in this
section. They include compounds belonging to ent-clerodane (391 – 403), abietane (404 –
406) and trachylobane (407 – 410) classes of diterpenoids. Triterpenoids (411 – 412) and
common phytosterols, sitosterol and stigmasterol were also isolated.

4.1.1.1 Ent-clerodane diterpenoids from Croton megalocarpoides

Thirteen clerodane diterpenoids whose chemical structures are shown in Figure 4.1 below
were isolated from the roots of C. megalocarpoides. Compounds 392-403 were new
clerodane derivatives. The CD spectra for compounds 401 and 402 [Appendices 11a and 12a]
showed negative Cotton effect at 240 nm that was empirically similar to that for laevinoid
reported before as „ent-clerodane‟ (Wang et al., 2013). Consequently, these clerodanes (401
and 402) and by extension all the others from this plant were assigned as „ent-clerodanes‟.

82
 O
O O
O
H H
H H
O O
O O
H O H H O
H O O O
H
H OH
H
CO2Me 393 CO2Me 394
391 392 CO2Me
CO2Me CO2Me CO2Me CO2Me
CO2Me O
O
O
O
O H
H
H O
H O
H O O
O H O
O O H
H O
O H
H
O CO2Me O
O HO
CO2Me
O CO2Me
398 HO CO CO
Me
2Me
399
CO2Me 396 CO2Me COMe 2

CO2Me 395 CO2Me

CO2Me 397 O O
O
O

H
O H COOH H O H O
O
O

401 O O
CO2Me 400 CO2Me CO2Me 402 CO2Me
CO2Me 403

Figure 4.1: Ent-clerodane derivatives Isolated from Croton megalocarpoides

4.1.1.1.1 Crotocorylifuran (391)

Compound 391 was isolated as white crystals and its mass spectrum [Appendix 1a] found to
have a quasi-molecular ion peak at m/z 425.45 for [M + Na+]. This was consistent with the
proposed molecular formula, C22H26O7 and a calculated DBE of 10.

O
15 16

H
13
O
11
20
1 H O
17
10 8
H
6
3
19 CO Me
2
18
CO 2Me 391

83
The 1H NMR spectrum [Appendix 1b] showed resonances of four olefinic protons, three of
them characteristic of a β- substituted furanyl ring at δH 6.38 d (J = 0.95 Hz), 7.44 t (J = 1.68
Hz) and 7.45 s (Tchissambou et al., 1990). The fourth olefinic proton at δH 6.84 t (J = 3.26
Hz) was taken to be of a tri-substituted carbon-carbon double bond. A doublet at δH 1.01 (J =
6.80 Hz) integrating to three protons indicated presence of a secondary methyl group.
Additional resonances of three-proton singlets were observed at δH 3.70 and 3.75 and were
taken to be of two ester methyl groups. An oxymethine proton doublet of doublet resonance
13
integrating for one proton was also observed at δH 5.39 (J = 8.14, 9.18 Hz). The C NMR
spectrum [Appendix 1c] showed resonances of 22 carbons associated with a diterpenoid.
Included were resonances of four sp2 carbons of a β-substituted furanyl ring, three of them
methine carbons at δC108.3, 144.3, 139.6 and a fully substituted carbon at δC 125.6.
Additional resonances of two sp2 carbons associated with a tri-substituted double bond were
also observed (one fully substituted at δC 136.5 and a methine one at δC140.3). Other
significant resonances observed included: - three carbonyl carbons at δC 167.0, 173.1 and
176.1; an oxymethine carbon at δC72.0; five methylene, two methine and one methyl group
carbons [Table 4.1].

Examination of DEPT spectrum together with 2D NMR experiments indicated that

compound 391 possessed a di-carbocyclic decalin ring- β-furan-γ-lactone system of an ent-
clerodane type diterpenoid (Tchissambou et al., 1990). The observed correlations in the
HMBC experiment [Appendix 1d] that helped confirm the proposed structure included a
correlation between the olefinic proton triplet at δH-3 6.84 with carbon resonances at δC-1, 2, 3
19.2, 26.5, 136.5; δH-8 1.58 with δC- 6, 7, 10, 17, 20 32.5, 28.0, 52.0, 17.2, 176.4 and an
oxymethine proton resonance at δH-12 5.39 with δC-11, 13, 14, 16, 20 42.5, 125.6, 108.3, 139.6,
176.4. Coupling in the COSY spectrum were also observed and have been summarized in
Figure 4.2.

84
 O

H
O
O

H
H
CO2CH3
CO2CH3
Figure 4.2: Bold lines showing COSY couplings in compound 391

NOESY spectrum [Appendix 1d] was used to assign the relative configuration for this
compound and included were correlations between δH-1α 1.80 m with δH-12 5.39 t; δH-10 1.76
dd with δH-11β 2.30 m; δH-10 1.76 dd with δH-8 1.56 m; δH-14 6.38 d with δ3H-17 1.01 d and δH-16
7.45 s with δ3H-17 1.01 d, confirming H-12 was α-configured. A literature search for a
compound with the above structural characteristics indicated that, compound 391 was the
known crotocorylifuran isolated previously from C. zambesicus (Ngadjui et al., 2002) and C.
haumanianus (Tchissambou et al., 1990). This compound is reported to be a derivative,
resulting from reduction of the known corylifuran (193) previously isolated from C.
coryliforious in 1976 (Tchissambou et al., 1990; Burke et al., 1976).

Table 4.1: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of crotocorylifuran (391)

δC δH HMBC COSY NOESY

Pstn Lit.5 Experi- (m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
mental
1 19.1 19.2 1.89-1.93 (m; Hα) 2, 3, 5, 10 1, 2, 10 1β, 2α, 10, 12
2.54- 2.60 (m; Hβ) 2, 3, 9, 10 1, 2 1α, 10

2 42.3 26.5 2.54-2.60 (m; Hα ) 1, 3, 4, 10 2, 3 3

2.30-2.45 (m; Hβ) 3, 4 1β, 2, 3 1β, 3
3 139.8 140.3 6.84 ( t, 3.26; H ) 1, 2,4, 5,18, 19 2α,β 2α / β

4 136.4 136.5

5 51.7 46.3

6 32.2 32.3 1.08 (m; Hα) 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 19 6β, 7β 6β, 10

2.93 (dt, 13.20, 3.20; 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 19 6α 6α, 7α, β
Hβ)

5
(Tchissambou et al., 1990)
85
 7 27.9 28.0 2.30-2.45 (m; Hα) 5, 8 8, 6α 8
1.56-1.59 (m; Hβ ) 6β

8 40.0 40.2 1.56-1.59 (m; H) 6, 7, 10, 17, 20 7, 17 7β

9 46.3 51.4

10 51.5 52.0 1.76 (dd , 10.73, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 1β, 6α, 7α, 8,

2.40; H) 11 11α / β, 17

11 26.3 42.5 2.30-2.45 (m; 2H) 9, 12, 13, 20 12 12

12 71.8 72.0 5.39 (t , 9.18, 8.41; 11, 13, 14, 16, 11α, β, 11α, β, 1α
H) 20 16

13 125.5 125.6

14 108.1 108.3 6.38 (d , 0.95; H) 12, 13, 15, 16 15 15, 17

15 144.0 144.3 7.44 (t, 1.68; H) 13, 14, 16 14 14

16 139.4 139.6 7.45 (s; H) 13, 14, 15 12

17 17.0 17.2 1.01 (d, 6.80; 3H) 7, 8, 9 8 8, 10, 14, 19-
acetoxy
18 166.7 167.0

19 172.8 173.1

20 176.0 176.4

18- 51.3 51.8 3.70 (s; 3H) 18 19-acetoxy

acetoxy
19- 51.4 51.8 3.75 (s; 3H) 19 18-acetoxy
acetoxy

4.1.1.1.2 12-epi-crotocorylifuran (392)

Compound 392 was isolated as white crystals. Just like compound 391, the MS spectrum of
compound 392 [Appendix 2a] had a quasi-molecular ion peak at m/z 425.45 for [M + Na+],
consistent with a molecular formula, C22H26O7.

86
 O
16

H
13
O
11 20
1 H O
17
10 8
H
6

19 CO Me
2
CO Me
18 2 392

The 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectroscopic data for 392 [Table 4.2; Appendix 2b] was similar
to that of 391 except for minor differences in C-1, C-8, C-9, C-10; H-8 and H-11 that did not
result to structural changes. However, there were key differences in their NOESY
correlations [Appendix 2c].

Compound 392 had NOESY cross peaks [Figure 4.3] at δH-1β 2.43 m with δH-14 6.39 br s;
δH-10 1.59 m with δH-11β / 1β / 2β 2.43 m; δH-12 5.43 t with δ3H-17 1.12 d and δH-16 7.45 s with δH-
11β/ 1β 2.43 m indicating that 392 was a C-12 epimer of 391. This compound has not been
reported before and was named 12-epi-crotocorylifuran.

Table 4.2: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 12-epi-crotocorylifuran (392)

Position δC δH HMBC COSY NOESY

(m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
1 18.7 1.59-1.72 (m; Hα) 2, 3, 5,9,10 1β 1β, 2α, β, 11
2.43-2.47 (m; Hβ) 2, 3, 5, 9,10 1α, 10 1α, 11, 14

2 27.0 2.26-2.35(m; Hα) 1, 3, 4,10 2β, 3 1α, 2β

2.43-2.47 (m; Hβ) 1, 3, 4,10 2α, 3 1α, 2α, 10

3 140.7 6.80 (t, 2.78, 4.17; H) 1, 2, 4, 5, 18, 19 2α, β

4 137.4

5 46.4

6 32.3 1.07-1.13 (m; Hα) 4, 7, 8,10, 19 7β, 6β 6β, 7α, 8

2.95 (dt, 12.99, 3.25; Hβ) 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 19 7α, β, 6α 6α, 7
7 28.4 1.56 (m; Hα) 6 α,β, 7α 6α, β, 8
2.26-2.35 (m; Hβ) 6, 8, 10 7β

8 43.0 2.43-2.47 (m; H) 6α,7β

87
 9 52.1

10 49.9 1.59-1.72 (m; H) 1, 2, 4, 5, 11, 19, 1β 1β, 12, 17

20

11 42.7 1.67 (s; Hα) 11β 1, 11β

2.43-2.47 (m; Hβ) 8, 12, 13, 20 11α, 12 11α, 12

12 72.1 5.43 (t, 8.27, 8.50; H) 11, 13, 14, 16, 11β, 16 11β, 16, 17
20
13 126.0

14 108.2 6.39 (br s; H) 12, 13, 15, 16 15 1α

15 144.3 7.45 (d , 0.92; H) 13, 14, 16 14

16 139.3 7.45 (s; H) 15 12 1, 12, 17

17 17.6 1.12 (d ,7.48; 3H) 10, 12, 16

18 167.0

19 173.5

20 176.7
18-acetoxy 51.9 3.70 (s; 3H) 4

19-acetoxy 51.6 3.78 (s; 3H) 5

Figure 4.3: Key NOESY correlation illustrations for compounds (391) and (392)

88
 4.1.1.1.3 8-Hydroxycrotocorylifuran (393)
Compound 393 was isolated as white crystals. Its MS spectrum [Appendix 3a] had a
molecular ion peak at m/z 441.45 for [M + Na+] consistent with the proposed molecular
formula, C22H26O8 and a calculated DBE of 10.
15
O

16
13
H
O
11 20
1 H O
17
10
3
OH
7
CO2Me
18 CO2Me 393

The NMR spectroscopic data of 393 [Table 4.3] was similar to that of 391 except for a
resonance associated with an oxygenated sp3carbon at δC 72.7 that was assigned to C-8 based
on observed correlations in 2D NMR experiments. The 1H NMR spectrum [Appendix 3b] had
a doublet of a doublet at δH 4.82 (J = 6.94, 7.20 Hz) leading to a deduction that, a hydroxyl
group, that was proposed to be a substituent at C-8 was α-configured.

A three proton singlet observed at δH 1.27 was deduced to be of a tertiary methyl group
13
substituent and was taken to be 3H-17. C NMR spectrum [Appendix3b] showed a
resonance at δC 26.4 taken to be of a methyl carbon assigned to C-17. HMBC spectrum
[Appendix 3c] showed cross peaks between the δ3H-17 1.27 s and the oxygenated quaternary
carbon at δC-8 72.5. COSY spectrum had the hydroxy proton of 8-OH sharing cross peaks
with the three proton singlet at δ3H-17 1.27. Key NOESY correlations observed [Appendix 3c]
were cross peaks of the proton at δH-12 5.42 t with the one at δH-1α 2.60 m implying that the
configuration at C-12 of 393 was similar to that in 391. Additional NOESY correlation that
supported the above deduction was observed at δ3H-17 1.27 s with δH-7β, 6β, 19-acetoxy 1.57 dt,
2.85 dt and 3.76 s. Other correlations in 2D NMR experiments that confirmed the proposed
structure are shown in Table 4.13. Compound 393 was subsequently deduced to be a new
derivative of crotocorylifuran (391) and was given the name 8-hydroxycrotocorylifuran.

89
Table 4.3: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 8-hydroxycrotocorylifuran (393)

Position δC δH HMBC COSY NOESY

(m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
1 19.0 2.60 (m; Hα) 10 1β, 10, 2 1β,3, 12
1.87 (t , 9.38, 7.83; Hβ) 10, 1α, 10, 2 1α, 2β

2 26.5 2.60 (m; Hα) 10, 1 3, 1, 2β

2.42 (m; Hβ ) 10 3, 1, 2α 1β

3 140.8 6.88 (t, 4.29, 3.03; H) 18, 5 2α,β 1α

4 136.0
5 46.2

6 27.1 1.48 (m; Hα) 7, 10 7

2.85 (dt,3.21, 3.33, 13.29; Hβ) 5, 10 17

7 34.2 2.93 (dd, 3.90, 0.68; Hα) 7β, 6α,β

1.57 (dt, 3.39, 14.77; Hβ) 19, 5 7α 17

8 72.7
8-OH 4.82 (dd, 6.94, 7.29; H) 17
9 55.8

10 46.6 2.27 (dd, 2.43,10.65; H) 1α, β

11 39.3 2.42 (m; Hα) 20, 9, 10, 11β, 12 12

2.72 (m; Hβ ) 13, 12, 9 10, 11α, 12

12 72.2 5.42 (t, 8.62; H) 16, 13, 11 α, β 1α, 11α

14, 14

13 125.5
14 108.4 6.42 (d, 0.98; H) 15, 16 15
15 144.3 7.46 (t, 1.68; H) 16, 13, 14
16 139.7 7.48 (d, 0.75; H) 15, 14

17 26.6 1.27 (s; 3H) 8, 9, 7, 6 8 -OH 6β,7β,

19-
acetoxy

18 166.8
19 172.0
20 176.4
18- 52.0 3.72 (s; 3H) 18
acetoxy
19- 51.8 3.76 (s; 3H) 19 17
acetoxy

90
 4.1.1.1.4 2-Ketocrotocorylifuran (394)
Compound 394 was isolated as white crystals. Its mass spectrum [Appendix 4a] had a quasi-
molecular ion peak at m/z 439.43 for [M + Na+] consistent with the proposed molecular
formula, C22H24O8 and a calculated DBE of 11.
15
O

16
13
H
O
11
20
1 H O
O
10 17
H
3
7
CO2Me
394
18 CO2Me

The 1H NMR and 13C NMR data of 394 [Table 4.4; Appendix 4b] was similar to that of 391
except for a resonance of a ketone carbon at δC198.0 that was placed at position 2 based on
correlations observed in 2D NMR experiments. The ketone carbon had an HMBC correlation
[Appendix 4c] with a proton at δH 2.72 assigned to H-1β which in turn correlated with
carbons at δC 50.3 and 131.9 assigned to C-10 and C-3 respectively. NOESY cross peaks
[Appendix 4c] were observed between δH-12 5.41 with δH-10 2.40 implying that the relative
configuration at C-12 of 394 and the known crotocorylifuran (391) were the same. Other
NOESY correlations supporting the deduced structure were observed at δH-1α 2.72 with δH-1β
3.37; δH-1α 2.72 with δC-10 2.40; δH-1α 2.72 with δH-12 5.41 and δH-10 2.40 with δH-7α 1.68 and
δH-8 1.65. Compound 394 was proposed to be another new derivative of crotocorylifuran
(391) and was named 2-ketocrotocorylifuran.

91
Table 4.4: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 2-ketocrotocorylifuran (394)

Position δC δH HMBC COSY

(m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
1 36.7 2.72 (dd , 4.70, 15.96; Hα) 2, 10 1β
3.37 (t, 15.92; Hβ) 3, 10 1α

2 198.0

3 131.9 6.48 (s; H) 1, 5, 19

4 153.3

5 47.8

6 31.3 2.88 (d ,1 3.15; Hα ) 6β

1.31 (m; Hβ ) 19 6α, 7α

7 27.3 1.68 (m; Hα) 7β, 8, 10

2.47 (m; Hβ ) 6β, 7α, 8

8 39.3 1.65(m; H) 7, 10, 17

9 51.2

10 50.3 2.40 (d, 4.12; H) 1, 4, 5, 8, 9, 19 7α, 8

11 41.5 2.43 (m; 2H) 8, 9, 10, 12, 13 12

12 72.0 5.41 (t, 8.79; H) 13, 14, 16 11

13 125.0

14 108.0 6.40 (s; H) 13, 15, 16 15

15 144.5 7.46 (s; H) 13, 14, 16 14

16 140.0 7.47 (s; H) 15

17 16.9 1.06 (d, 6.19; 3H) 7, 8, 9

18 166.1
19 170.0
20 175.7

18-acetoxy 52.8 3.78 (s; 3H) 19

19-acetoxy 52.8 3.83 (s; 3H) 18

92
 4.1.1.1.5 7, 8-Dehydrocrotocorylifuran (395)
Compound 395 was isolated as white crystals. Its mass spectrum [Appendix 5a] had a quasi-
molecular ion peak at m/z 423.43 for [M + Na+] consistent with the proposed molecular
formula, C22H24O7 and a calculated DBE of 11.

15
O
16
13
H O
20
11
O
1 H
17
10
3 7
CO2Me
CO2Me 395
18

The NMR spectroscopic data for compound 395 [Table 4.5; Appendix 5b] was similar to the
one of compound 391 except for a resonance associated with an extra carbon-carbon double
bond in 395 (δH 6.98 dd (J = 2.04, 2.63 Hz); δC 140.7 and 135.3) that was placed at position 7
using correlations observed in the 2D NMR experiments. HMBC correlations [Appendix 5c]
were observed between the olefinic proton at δH-7 6.98 with sp3 carbons at δC-5 45.6
(quaternary) and δC-17 19.6 (a tertiary methyl group). More HMBC correlations were
observed between the two methylene protons at δH-6 1.59 / 1.77 and 2.35 / 249 with δC-8, 7
135.3, 140.2. COSY spectrum showed coupling between δ2H-6 1.59 / 1.77 and 2.35 / 249 with
δH-7 6.98 further confirming the proposed chemical structure. Key NOESY cross peaks
[Appendix 5c] were observed at δH-12 5.50 with δH-1α 2.24; δH-1β 2.24 with δH-11β 2.69; δH-12
5.50 with δH-11 2.24 / 2.69; δH-12 5.50 with δH-16 7.45 indicating that compound 395 had
similar relative configuration at C-12 with crotocorylifran (391). Compound 395 was
subsequently identified as a new derivative of crotocorylifuran (391) and was given the name
7, 8-dehydrocrotocorylifuran.

93
Table 4.5: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 7, 8-dehydrocrotocorylifuran (395)

Position δC δH HMBC COSY

(m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
1 19.2 2.24-2.44 (m; Hα) 10 1β, 2 α, 10
1.59-1.77 (m; Hβ ) 9 , 3, 4 2β, 1α

2 26.5 2.56 (t, 5.21,4.89; Hα ) 4, 10 1α, 3

1.59-1.77 (m; Hβ ) 1, 3, 4 3

3 127.1 5.83 (d, 6.41; H) 1, 5

4 130.4

5 45.6

6 33.2 1.59-1.77 (m; Hα) 7,19,4 6β,7

2.24-2.44 (m; Hβ) 4, 8, 7 6α, 7, 19-acetoxy

7 140.2 6.98 (dd, 2.44, 2.84; H) 17, 5 6β

8 135.3

9 52.8
10 50.3 2.00 (dd, 2.28, 10.26; H) 20, 19, 9, 5, 2, 1 1α, 11α

11 42.2 2.24-2.44 (m; Hα) 13, 12, 9, 10, 20 10, 11β, 12

2.69 (dd, 7.82, 6.52; Hβ) 20, 12, 9, 10, 13 11α

12 72.0 5.50 (t, 8.05; H) 11, 16, 13, 14 11α, β

13 125.6

14 108.0 6.39 (d, 1.31; H) 15, 16, 13 15

15 144.2 7.44 (t,1.90, 1.63; H) 16, 13, 14

16 139.5 7.45 (s; H) 14, 15

17 19.6 1.25 (s; 3H)

18 166.5
19 172.0
20 175.9

18-acetoxy 51.7 3.70 (s; 3H) 18

19-acetoxy 52.2 3.71 (s; 3H) 19 6β

94
 4.1.1.1.6 Megalocarpoidolide F (396)
Compound 396 was isolated as white crystals. Its LC-MS spectrum [Appendix 6a] had a
molecular ion peak at m/z 439.43 for [M + Na+] supporting the proposed molecular formula,
C22H24O8. The FTIR spectrum [Appendix 6a] had peaks at 1720.0 and 1748 cm-1 representing
carbonyl and lactone functionalities. Other peaks observed at 2364.0, 2917.8 and 1174 cm-1
were associated with carbon-carbon double bond, ester carbonyl and carbon-oxygen atom
stretches respectively.

O
14
16

O
11 20
1 O
17
H 10
7
O
H CO2Me
CO2Me 396
18

The NMR spectroscopic data of 396 [Table 4.6] was similar to that of crotocorylifuran except
for a resonances of a keto carbonyl at δC 200.9 that was observed in 396, absent in 391. 1H
NMR spectrum [Appendix 6b] had a doublet of an olefinic proton at δH 5.81(J = 5.82 Hz)
assigned to H-7 and a three proton singlet at δH 1.69 assigned to a tertiary methyl group, 3H-
17. 13C NMR spectrum [Appendix 6b] had resonances of a keto carbonyl carbon at δC 200.9
assigned to C-3 and sp2 carbons at δC 127.4 and 131.0 assigned to C-7 and C-8 respectively.
A down field shifted carbon resonance at δC 67.0 was assigned to C-4. HMBC spectrum
[Appendix 6c] had 1H-13C cross peaks between δH-1β, 2δ, 2β, 4 2.20, 2.78, 2.54, 3.26 and δC-3
200.9; δH-7 5.81 and δC-5, 6, 9, 17 49.5, 33.7, 53.0, 20; δH-2α, 6α, 6β, 10 2.78, 2.78, 1.96, 2.37 and δC-
4 67.0. COSY spectrum [Appendix 6c] had 1H-1H cross peaks at δH-7 5.76 with δH-6α, β 2.78,
1.96 further confirming the proposed chemical structure. NOESY spectrum [Appendix 7c]
had cross peaks at δH-1α 2.45 with δH-12 5.50 confirming the α-configuration of H-12 as in
crotocorylifuran. Other NOESY correlations were at δH-4 3.26 with δH-10 2.37 and δH-14 6.41
with δ3H-17 1.69 that alongside correlations in other 2D NMR experiments led to the
confirmation of the proposed structure. Compound 396 was deduced to be a new compound
and was given the IUPAC name 18, 19-dimethoxycarbonyl-3-keto-15, 16-epoxy-cleroda-7,
13 (16), 14-triene-12, 20-olide and trivial name, megalocarpoidolide F.

95
Table 4.6: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide F (396)

Postn δC δH HMBC COSY NOESY

(m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
1 24.6 2.45 (m; Hα) 10 2 α, 12
2.20 (m; Hβ) 2, 3, 10,9 10

2 39.7 2.78 (m; Hα) 3, 4, 1, 10 1α, 2β

2.54 (m; Hβ) 3,1,10 2α

3 200.9

4 67.0 3.26 (br s; H) 19,18,3,5,6 10

5 49.5

6 33.7 2.78 (m; Hα) 4,19,8,10 7, 6β 7, 6β

1.96 (m; Hβ) 4,19, 5,8, 10 7, 6α 6α

7 127.4 5.81 (d, 5.82; H) 5, 6, 9, 17, 6α, β, 17 6α

8 131.0

9 53.0

10 49.5 2.37 (m; H) 20, 4, 9, 19,20,5,6, 1α, β 4

2,11

11 42.1 2.74 (m; Hα) 20, 9, 13, 8,12, 10 12 11β

2.53 (m; Hβ) 8,10, 20, 13, 12, 9 12 12, 11α

12 72.4 5.50 (t, 8.15; H) 20,11, 13, 16,14 11α / β, 16 1α, 11β

13 125.5

14 108.1 6.41 (s; H) 12, 13, 16, 15 15 17

15 144.5 7.46 (d,1.33; H) 16, 13 14

16 139.8 7.48 (s; H) 15, 13 12

17 20.0 1.69 (s; 3H) 8, 9, 7 7 14

18 168.0
19 171.1
20 176.0

18-acetoxy 52.5 3.75 (s; 3H) 18, 4

19-acetoxy 52.5 3.76 (s; 3H) 19, 4

96
 4.1.1.1.7 12-Epi-megalocarpoidolide F (397)
Compound 397 was isolated as white crystals. Its LC-MS spectrum [Appendix 7a] had a
quasi-molecular ion peak at m/z 439.43 for [M + Na+] as compound 396, consistent with the
proposed molecular formula, C22H24O8. The FTIR spectrum [Appendix 7a] had absorption
bands similar to those observed in 396 implying that they had similar functional groups.

15
O

16
H
O
11 20
1 H O
17
10

O 7
H CO2Me
CO2Me 397
18

The 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopic data for 397 [Table 4.7; Appendix 7b] was similar to that
of compound 396 except for slight variations at positions 1 and 10 that did not result to
structural changes. NOESY spectrum of 397 [Appendix 7c] was used to assign relative
configuration at positions 4 and 12. NOESY correlations were observed at δH-1α 2.02 with δH-
14 6.42 and δH-12 5.53 with δ3H-17 1.87 leading to the deduction that, H-12 was β-configured
[Figure 4.4]. The α-configuration of δH-4 3.21 was deduced from its NOESY correlation with
δH-10 2.18. Compound 397 was therefore deduced to be a C-12 epimer of compound 396 that
has not been reported before. It was given the IUPAC name 12-epi-18, 19-
dimethoxycarbonyl-3-keto-15, 16-epoxy-cleroda-7, 13 (16), 14-triene-12, 20-olide and trivial
name 12-epi-megalocarpoidolide F.

97
Table 4.7: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 12-epi-megalocarpoidolide F (397)

Position δC δH HMBC COSY NOESY

(m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
1 23.5 2.02 (m; Hα) 3, 5 1β, 2α 1β, 2α, 10, 14
2.41 (m; Hβ) 2, 3 1α 1α

2 40.0 2.41 (m; Hα) 1, 3 1α 1α,

2.74 (m; Hβ) 1, 3, 4

3 201.0

4 67.3 3.21 (s; H) 3, 6, 10, 18 2α, 6α, 10

5 49.5

6 33.7 1.94 (m; Hα) 17, 19 7 7, 10

2.78 (m; Hβ) 4, 7, 8, 10, 19 7 7

7 124.5 5.76 (d, 6.71; H) 5, 6, 9, 17 6α, β 6α, β

8 131.0
9 52.4

10 47.4 2.18 (m; H) 1, 5, 9, 11, 19 1α, 4, 6α, 11α, 17

11 42.4 2.79 (m; Hα) 8, 9, 20 11β, 12 12

2.35 (m; Hβ) 7, 8, 9,10, 12 11α, 12 12

12 72.4 5.53 ( t, 8.69; H) 11, 13, 14, 16 11α, β,16 11α, β, 17

13 125.2

14 108.1 6.42 (s; H) 13, 15, 16 15 1β

15 144.6 7.48 (t, 1.76; H) 13, 14, 16 14

16 139.5 7.50 (br s; H) 13, 14, 15 12 1β, 10, 12

17 20.0 1.87 (s; 3H) 7, 8, 9 12

18 167.9
19 171.0
20 175.4
18-acetoxy 52.6 3.77 (s; 3H) 18

19-acetoxy 52.6 3.77 (s; 3H) 19

98
Figure 4.4: Key NOSEY correlation illustrations for megalocarpoidolide F (396) and 12-
epi-megalocarpoidolide F (397)

4.1.1.1.8 Megalocarpoidolides E (398)

Compound 398 was isolated as white crystals. Its LC-MS spectrum [Appendix 8a] had a
quasi-base peak at m/z 499.43 for [M + Na+] consistent with a proposed molecular formula of
C24H28O10.
15
O

16
H
O
11 20
1 H O
17
10
MeOC
7
O
HO CO2Me
CO2Me 398
18

The 1H and 13
C NMR spectroscopic data for 398 [Table 4.8; Appendices 8c and 8d] was
similar to that of compound 397 except for resonances of an oxymethine at C-3 (δH 5.10 br s;
δC 70.5) in place of a ketone at C-3 as was the case in 397. An oxygenated quaternary sp3
carbon was observed at δC 76.1 and was placed at position 4. In addition, resonances
attributed to an acetate methyl group substituent (-OOCCH3; δH 2.03 s; δC 173.2 and 21.3)
were observed and placed at position 3.

99
HMBC spectrum [Appendix 8e] had correlations that helped confirm the proposed structure
at δH-3 5.10 with δC-2, 4, 5, 18 21.0, 76.1, 52.1, 173.2; δH-7 with δC-5, 6, 9, 17 52.1, 29.9, 53.4, 19.6;
the three proton singlets at δH 3.74 and 3.72 with the carbonyls at δC-19 170.3 and δC-18 173.2
respectively; methylene protons at δH-2α, β 2.64, 2.03 with δC-3, 4 70.5, 76.1 and the hydroxyl
proton at δH-4-OH 5.00 with δC-4 76.1. Compound 398 was deduced to be a new derivative of
compound 397 that was named megalocarpoidolide E.

Table 4.8: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide E (398)

Position δC δH HMBC NOESY

(m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
1 27.3 2.22(m; 2H) 3, 9 12

2 21.0 2.64(m; Hα) 3, 4, 10

2.03(br s; Hβ) 3, 4 3

3 70.5 5.10 (br s; H) 2, 4, 5, 18 2β

4 76.1
4-OH 5.00 (br s; H) 4

5 52.1

6 29.9 2.36 (m; Hα) 7, 4, 8, 9, 10

1.26 (m; Hβ)

7 125.3 5.67 (d, 6.87; H) 5, 6, 9, 17

8 132.2

9 53.4

10 46.3 2.62 (m; H) 20

11 45.1 2.55 (m; Hα) 8, 10, 20 11β, 12

2. 52 (m; Hβ) 8, 10, 20 11α, 12

12 71.7 5.47 (t, 8.16; H) 11, 13, 14, 16 1α, 11α,

11β

13 125.6

14 108.3 6.41 (s; H) 12, 13, 15, 16

15 144.3 7.44 (s; H) 13, 14, 16

100
 16 139.9 7.48 (s; H) 13, 14, 15

17 19.6 1.67 (s; 3H) 7, 8, 9

18 173.2

19 170.3

20 175.4

18-acetoxy 53.4 3.72 (s; 3H) 18

19-acetoxy 53.7 3.74(s; 3H) 19

3-OOCMe 171.3

3-OOCCH3 21.3 2.03 (s; 3H) 3-OOCMe, 3

4.1.1.1.9 Megalocarpoidolide G (399)

Compound 399 was isolated as white crystals. Its LC- MS spectrum [Appendix 9a] had a
molecular ion peak at m/z 455.43 for [M + Na+] supporting a proposed molecular formula,
C22H24O9. The FTIR spectrum [Appendix 9a] had a peak at 3353.0 cm-1 associated with a
hydroxyl group stretch that was the only peak missing in the FTIR of 396 and 397.

O
14
16

O
11 20
1 O
17
10
H
O 7

HO CO CO
Me
2
Me
2 399
18

The NMR spectroscopic data [Table 4.9; Appendix 9b] was similar to that of 396 and
397except for resonances of an oxygenated quaternary sp3 carbon at δC 82.0 and an
exchangeable proton at δH 4.20 s that were assigned to position 4 of an ent-clerodane
molecule.

101
HMBC correlations [Appendix 9c] supporting the proposed chemical structure were observed
between the proposed hydroxyl group proton at δOH-4 4.20 with δC-5, 4, 18, 3 53.1, 82.0, 171.1,
201.8; olefinic proton at δH-7 5.80 with δC-5, 9, 19 53.1, 53.5, 170.5 and the methyl singlet at
δ3H-17 1.69 with δC-9, 7, 8 53.5, 125.5, 130.1. NOESY spectrum [Appendix 9c] had 1H-1H cross
peaks at δH-1α 2.14 with δH-12 5.49 supporting a relative α- configuration of H-12. Compound
399 was consequently identified as a new derivative of the new megalocarpoidolide F (396).
It was subsequently given the IUPAC name 18, 19-dimethoxycarbonyl-4hydroxy-3-keto-15,
16-epoxy-cleroda-7, 13 (16), 14-triene-12, 20-olide and trivial name, megalocarpoidolide G.

Table 4.9: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide G (399)

Position δC δH HMBC COSY NOESY

(m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
1 23.6 2.14 (d, 2.45; Hα ) 3,2 10, 2, 1β 12
2.35 (d, 6.00; Hβ) 2 2α,10, 1α

2 34.9 2.59 (m; Hα ) 3,10 10

3.00 (m; Hβ ) 3,1 1α,β, 2β

3 201.8

4 82.0

4-OH 4.20 (s; H) 3,18,4, 5

5 53.1

6 26.4 2.38 (m; Hα ) 5,7,8,10 17 10, 17

2.17 (m; Hβ ) 5,7,8,10 7, 17

7 125.5 5.80 (d, 6.80; H) 9,5,19 17, 6 17

8 130.1

9 53.5

10 43.1 2.81 (dd, 4.59, 8.71; H) 20, 19, 4,5,9,11,2 1α,β 2α, 6α,
11α

11 41.8 2.59 (m; Hα ) 8, 9, 10, 12,13 12 12

2.75 (d, 8.36; Hβ) 8, 9,10, 12, 13, 20 12 12, 17

12 72.3 5.49 (t, 8.53; H) 16,13,11 11, 16 1α, 11α, β

13 125.3

102
 14 108.0 6.42 (d, 0.98; H) 15,16, 13 15 17

15 144.3 7.47 (t, 1.72,1.66; H) 16,13 14

16 139.6 7.48 (d, 0.57; H) 15,13 12

17 19.9 1.69 (t , 1.20,1.15; 3H) 8, 7, 9 7 6α, 7, 11β,

14

18 171.1
19 170.5
20 176.3

18-acetoxy 54.0 3.88 (s; 3H) 18

19-acetoxy 52.1 3.74 (s; 3H) 19

4.1.1.1.10 Megalocarpoidolide H (400)

Compound 400 was isolated as white crystals. Its LC-MS spectrum [Appendix 10a] had a
quasi-molecular ion peak at m/z 437.43 for [M + Na+], supporting the proposed molecular
formula, C22H22O8. FTIR spectrum [Appendix 10a] had bands at 2917.9, 1769.7, 1730.0,
1663.3, 1246.5 and 1156.55 cm-1.

O
16
14

O
20
11 O
1
O 17
10

CO2Me
CO2Me 400
18

The NMR data of compound 400 [Table 4. 10] had very minor variations to that of
crotocorylifuran (391). The 1H NMR spectrum [Appendix 10b] had resonances showing
13
singlets of olefinic protons at δH 6.78 and δH 6.88 assigned to H-1 and H-3. The C NMR
spectrum [Appendix 10b] had resonances associated with sp2 carbons at δC 128.0, 131.6,
150.7 and 155.5 that were assigned to C-1, C-3, C-4 and C-10 respectively.

103
A resonance of a carbonyl carbon was observed at δC 185.9 and assigned to C-2 based on
correlations observed in the 2D NMR experiments [Table 4.10]. HMBC spectrum [Appendix
10c] had 1H-13C cross peaks at δH-1 6.78 with δC-9, 3, 20 55.1, 131.4, 172.0 and δH-3 6.88 with
δC-5, 1, 18 53.6, 128.0, 165.4 further supporting the proposed chemical structure. NOESY
spectrum [Appendix 10c] had 1H-1H cross peaks at δH-1α 6.78 with δH-12 5.55 supporting α-
configuration of H-12. Compound 400 was deduced to be a new clerodane derivative of
crotocorylifuran and was given the IUPAC name 18, 19-dimethoxycarbonyl-4-hydroxy-3-
keto-15, 16-epoxy-cleroda-7, 13 (16), 14-triene-12, 20-olide and the trivial name
megalocarpoidolide H.

Table 4.10: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide H (400)

Postn δC δH HMBC COSY NOESY

(m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
1 128.0 6.78 (s; H) 3, 9, 20 11α, 12

2 185.9

3 131.6 6.88 (s; H) 1, 5, 18

4 150.7

5 53.6

6 33.2 1.45 (d, 4.25; Hα ) 6β, 7β 6β, 8

3.12 (dd, 13.50, 3.05; 7, 8, 10 6α 6α, 7β
Hβ )

7 26.4 2.66 (d, 2.66; Hα) 8, 9 7β 7β

2.80 (d, 5.18; Hβ) 8, 9 6α, 7α, 8 6β, 7α

8 39.4 1.73(m; H) 7, 9, 20 7, 17 6α, 11α

9 55.1

10 155.5

11 39.1 2.77 (d, 4.94; Hα) 9, 10, 20 11β,12 1, 8, 11β, 12

2.68 (s; Hβ ) 8, 9, 10, 12, 13 11α 11α

12 71.4 5.55 (dd, 5.46, 4.96; 13, 14, 16 11α, β 1, 11α

H)

13 123.6

14 108.2 6.45 (s; H) 13, 15, 16 15

104
 15 144.5 7.48 (s; H) 13, 14, 16 14

16 140.6 7.55 (s; H) 13, 14, 15

17 17.1 1.18 (d, 6.34; 3H) 7, 8, 9 8

18 165.4

19 166.4

20 172.4

18- 53.1 3.85 (s; 3H) 18

acetoxy

19- 53.3 3.66(s; 3H) 19

acetoxy

4.1.1.1.11 Megalocarpoidolide I (401)

Compound 401was isolated as colourless oil and a molecular formula, C21H28O5 proposed for
it. The FTIR spectrum [Appendix 11a] displayed absorption bands for carbonyl and free
carboxylic acid stretches at 1713 and 1695 cm-1 respectively. A peak observed at 1251.06
cm-1 was attributed to carbon - oxygen bond stretch. Other peaks were seen at 2923.4, 2853
and 2400 cm-1. CD spectrum [Appendix 11a] showed negative Cotton effect at 240 nm,
similar to one shown by laevinoid that has been reported to be an ent-clerodane (Wang et al.,
2013) and therefore, by extension the clerodane molecules deduced were assigned „ent‟
series.

O
14 16

11
20
1 H COOH
17
10

19
18 CO2Me 401

105
The 1H NMR spectrum [Appendix 11b] had resonances integrating for three protons at δH
1.18 d and 1.24 s that were associated with secondary and tertiary methyl groups
respectively. Another three proton singlet was observed down field at δH 3.70 indicative of a
methoxy group functionality. Resonances of four olefinic protons were also observed at δH
6.29 d, 6.70 q, 7.25 br s and 7.37 t in addition to other resonances associated with methylene
13
and methine protons. The CNMR [Appendix 11b] had resonances of twenty one carbons
indicating that 401 was a diterpenoid molecule. Observed were resonances associated with
two carbonyl carbons at δC167.9 and 182.9 and six olefinic carbons, four of them taken to be
of a furan ring (δC111.0, 138.9 and 143.1 for methine carbons and δC 124.7 for a fully
substituted carbon) and two for a tri-substituted carbon-carbon double bond (δC 137.6 and
141.5 for a methine and a quaternary carbon respectively). Resonances of three methyl
carbons were observed, two of them up field at δC 16.7 and 18.3 and the remaining one, down
field at δC 51.4 associated with a methoxy group. The remaining resonances were of six
methylene and two methine carbons.

HMBC spectrum [Appendix 11c] had 1H-13C cross peaks at δH-14 6.29 with a methylene
carbon at δC-12 18.1 and three furan ring carbons at δC-13, 16, 15 124.7, 138.8 and 143.1. The
methines of the furan ring were mutually coupled [Table 4.11]. The olefinic proton at δH-3
6.70 had cross peaks with the carbonyl carbon at δC-18167.9 which was in addition correlated
by the three proton singlet at δ3H-18-acetoxy 3.70. The other carbonyl carbon at δC-20 182.9 had a
correlation with a multiplet at δH-10 1.61/1.63. The methyl carbon at δC-19 18.3 correlated with
the methylene protons at δ2H-6 1.94- 2.00 and 2.25-2.38.

From the above spectral data features and other correlations from other 2D NMR experiments
[Table 4.11], 401 was deduced to be a clerodane molecule having a tri-substituted C=C at
position 3 of the bi-carbocyclic ring, an acetoxy group substituent at position 4, a carboxylic
acid functionality at position 20 and a β-substituted furan ring at position 13. NOESY
spectrum [Appendix 11c] showed 1H-1H cross peaks between δH-8, 10 1.61/1.63 with δH-11α, 12α
1.21-1.23 and no correlation between H-10 and 3H-19 indicating that, 401 was an ent-
clerodane molecule. The proposed chemical structure were deduced to be of a new compound
given the IUPAC name18-methoxycarbonyl-15, 16-epoxycleroda-3, 13 (16), 14-trien-20-oic
acid and trivial name megalocarpoidolide I.

106
Table 4.11: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide I (401)

Position δC δH HMBC COSY NOESY

(m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
1 19.6 1.80 (m; Hα ) 12α
1.94-2.00 (m; Hβ ) 3, 4, 10 2β

2 27.3 1.45 (dd, 2.68, 10.73; Hα)

2.25-2.38 (m; Hβ ) 3, 4 1β, 3 3

3 137.6 6.70 (q 2.82, 2.35; H) 1, 2, 4, 5, 18 2β 2β

4 141.5

5 38.5

6 34.1 1.94-2.00 (m; Hα) 7, 8, 10, 19, 17 6β 6β

2.25-2.38 (m; Hβ) 7, 8, 19 6α 6α

7 27.7 2.15 (m; Hα) 8

2.25-2.38 (m; Hβ) 6, 8

8 37.3 1.61-1.63 (m; H) 10, 17 7α, 11α,

12α

9 50.0
10 48.7 1.61-1.63 (m; H) 2, 8, 20 11α, 12α

11 36.7 1.21-1.23 (m; Hα) 10, 12 8, 10

2.25-2.38 (m; Hβ) 14

12 18.1 1.21-1.23 (m; Hα) 1α, 10

2.25-2.38 (m; Hβ) 9,13, 14, 14, 16 16

13 124.7

14 111.0 6.29 (d, 0.80; H) 12, 13, 15, 16 12β, 15 15

15 143.1 7.37 (t, 1.55, 1.66; H) 13, 14, 16 14 14

16 138.8 7.25 (br s; H) 13, 14, 15 12β 12β

17 16.7 1.18 (d, 6.88; 3H) 8, 9

18 167.9

19 18.3 1.24 (s; 3H)

20 182.9

18- 51.4 3.70 (s; 3H) 18

acetoxy

107
 4.1.1.1.12 Megalocarpoidolide J (402)
Compound 402 was isolated as white crystals and a molecular formula, C21H26O5 proposed
for it and therefore a calculated DBE of 9. The FTIR [Appendix 12a] had stretches at 2927.9,
2867.8, 2381.3, 1700 and 1200 cm-1 as was observed in the FTIR of compound 391 except
for free carboxylic acid bond stretch at 1695 cm-1 that was notably absent.

H O

O
CO2Me
402

The spectroscopic data of compound 402 [Table 4.12; Appendix 12b] was similar to that of
401 except for resonances of an oxymethylene group at δH 4.40 dd, 4.84 d and δC 75.7 which
was placed at position 19 in place of a methyl group as was the case in 401. HMBC spectrum
[Appendix 12c] had 1H-13C cross peaks for the methylene protons at δH-19 4.40, 4.84 with δC-
6, 10, 4, 20 35.4, 43.7, 136.4, 173.2 and the methine proton at δH-101.80 with δC-19, 20 73.2, 173.2
confirming the proposed structure. COSY spectrum [Appendix 12c] had 1H-1H cross peaks
between the methylene proton at δH-19α 4.40 and δH-6α 1.37 further confirming the proposed
chemical structure. NOESY cross peaks [Appendix 12d] at δH-8 1.93 with δH-10 1.80 and δH-6α,
β 1.37, 2.53 with δH-19α, β 4.40, 4.84 were also supportive of the proposed structure. It was
opined that, compound 402 formed when hydrolysis occurred between the requisite
substituents at positions 19 and 20 of an ent-clerodane molecule that was very similar in
structure to compound 401. Consequently, compound 402 was deduced to be a derivative of
401 that is also new and was given the IUPAC name 18-methoxycarbonyl-15, 16-epoxy-
cleroda-3, 13 (16), 14-triene-19, 20-olide and trivial name megalocarpoidolide J.

108
Table 4.12: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide J (402)

Position δC δH HMBC COSY NOESY

(m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
1 19.6 1.40 (m; Hα) 2, 5 1β , 2α,β, 10 1β, 10
1.93 (m; Hβ) 3 1α 1α

2 26.4 2.27(m; Hα) 3, 1β

2.40(m; Hβ) 3, 4, 10 3, 1α

3 139.6 6.86 (dd, 2.35, 2.82; H) 1, 5, 18 2α, β

4 136.4
5 36.5

6 35.6 1.37 (m; Hα) 7, 19α 19α, 6α

2.53 (m; Hβ) 5, 8 7 19β, 6β

7 29.7 1.28 (s; Hα) 11 6α, β

1.60 (s; Hβ) 8, 17 6α, β

8 37.2 1.93 (m; H) 17 17

9 48.9

10 43.7 1.80 (m; H) 1, 2, 5, 9, 19, 1α 1α

20

11 29.4 1.79 (m; Hα) 8, 9, 12, 13 12α

2.48 (m; Hβ) 9, 10, 13

12 17.5 2.20 (m; Hα) 11, 13, 14, 16 11α

2.38 (m; Hβ) 11, 13, 14
13 124.4

14 111.0 6.30 (d, 0.84; H) 13, 15, 16 15

15 143.2 7.39 (t ,1.65; H) 13, 14, 16 14

16 138.8 7.28 (s; H) 13, 14, 15

17 16.6 0.98 (d, 6.92; 3H) 7, 8, 9 8 8

18 167.3

19 75.7 4.40 (dd, 2.40, 10.40; Hα) 4, 6, 20 19β, 6α 6α, 19β

4.84 ( d ,12.00; Hβ) 6, 10, 20 19α 6β, 19α

20 173.2

18- 51.9 3.75 (s; 3H) 18

acetoxy

109
 4.1.1.1.13 Megalocarpoidolide K (403)
Compound 403 was isolated as white crystals and a molecular formula, C21H24O5 proposed
for it and therefore a calculated DBE of 10.

H O

O
CO2Me
403

The NMR spectroscopic data of compound 403 [Table 4.13; Appendix 13a] was similar to
that of 402 except for observed resonances of an additional carbon-carbon double bond at δH
6.21 m and 6.24 m and δC 125.7 and 130.3 that was placed at position 1. HMBC spectrum
[Appendix 13c] had 1H-13C cross peaks at δH-1 6.21 with δC-5, 10, 9, 3 36.5, 43.9, 48.0, 133.2 and
δH-2 6.24 with δC-10, 3, 4 43.9, 133.2, 135.4 confirming the proposed assignments.

COSY spectrum [Appendix 13c] had 1H-1H cross peaks at δH-2 6.24 with δH-3 6.86 and δH-1
6.21 with δH-10 2.77 further confirming the proposed chemical structure as that of a derivative
of 402 that was formed through oxidation process by H-loss at C-1 and C-2. Compound 403
was consequently identified as a new compound that was given the IUPAC name 18-
methoxycarbonyl-15, 16-epoxy-cleroda-1, 3, 13 (16), 14-tetraen-19, 20-olide and trivial name
megalocarpoidolide K.

110
Table 4.13: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of megalocarpoidolide K (403)

Position δC δH HMBC COSY NOESY

(m, J Hz; (HC)
Integral)
1 125.7 6.21 (m; H) 3, 5, 9, 10 10 10

2 130.3 6.23(m; H) 3, 4, 10 3 3

3 133.2 6.85(m; H) 1, 2, 5, 18, 19 2 2

4 135.4
5 36.5

6 34.0 1.60 (m; Hα) 7 6α, 19α 19α,β; 6β

2.81 (m; Hβ) 6β, 7α, β, 6α
19β

7 29.9 1.60 (m; Hα) 5, 6, 9, 17, 19 6β

2.55 (m; Hβ) 6β

8 37.3 1.95 (m; H) 17

9 48.0

10 43.9 2.77(s; H) 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 19, 1 1

20

11 29.3 1.60(m; Hα) 11β,12α, β

2.55 (m; Hβ) 9, 10, 12, 13 11α, 12α, β

12 17.6 2.20(m; Hα) 11, 13, 14, 16 11α, β; 12β

2.36 (m; Hβ) 11, 13, 14, 16 11α, β; 12α
13 124.3
14 111.0 6.30 (s; H) 13, 15, 16 15

15 143.2 7.38 13, 16 14

(t,1.55/1.62; H)

16 138.9 7.30(s; H) 14, 15

17 16.4 0.98 (s; 3H) 8
18 167.4
19 73.2 4.24 (dd, 1.59, 4, 5, 6 6α, 19β 6α, β
10.09; Hα)
4.48 (d , 11.68; 5, 6, 10, 20 6β, 19α
Hβ )
20 173.0
18- 51.9 3.80 (s; 3H) 4, 18
acetoxy

111
4.1.1.2 Abietane diterpenoids from Croton megalocarpoides
Three abietane diterpenoids were isolated from the roots of C. megalocarpoides [Figure 4.5]
two of them, 404 and 406 are known compounds while 405 is new. Their structural
elucidation will be discussed in the sections that follow here in.

OH
OH

HO

HO H
H
HO
404 H 405 H
CO2H
406

Figure 4.5: Abietane diterpenoids from Croton megalocarpoides

4.1.1.2.1 Isolophanthin A (404)

Compound 404 was isolated as white crystals and a molecular formula, C20H30O2 proposed.

OH

HO
H
19 18 404

The 1H NMR spectrum of compound 404 [Appendix 14a] showed three aromatic protons at
δH 7.19 br s, 7.21 s and 7.23 d (J = 4.44 Hz). Also observed were five methyl group singlets
at δH 0.91, 1.09, 1.21, 1.58 and 1.58 and other resonances associated with methine and
13
methylene groups. The C NMR spectrum [Appendix 14b] had 20 peaks of a diterpene
having a tri-substituted aromatic ring as evidenced by presence of three protonated carbons at
δC 122.2, 124.6, 125.0 and three fully substituted ones at δC 135.0, 146.2, 148.1. Resonances
of oxygenated quaternary and methine carbons at δC 72.5 and 79.0 were among resonances of
sp3 carbons observed including five methyl groups at δC 15.4, 24.9, 28.4, 31.8 and 31.8.
These obserations were supported by DEPT spectrum [Appendix 14c].

112
HMBC correlations [Appendix 14d] displayed evidence of an isopropyl group attached to an
aromatic ring due to observed 1H-13C cross peaks between δ3H-16 / 17 1.58 with δC-13 146.2.
The hydroxyl group substitution at position 15 was supported by 1H-13C cross peaks between
the three proton singlets at δ3H-16 / 17 1.58 with an oxygenated quaternary carbon at δC-15 72.5.
More 1H-13C cross peaks were observed between methyl proton singlets at δ3H-19, 18 0.91 and
1.09 with the oxymethine carbon at δC-3 79.0. The aforementioned structural features were
consistent with an abietane diterpenoid with ring C being aromatic. A methine proton doublet
of a doublet at δH-3 3.32 led to a deduction of a 3β-OH configuration. Among the observed
NOESY correlations [Appendix 14d] were 1H-1H cross peaks at δ3H-19 1.07 with δ3H-20 1.21
and δ3H-18 0.91 with δH-5 1.31 as expected of a natural abietane (Hirasawa et al., 2007).

Literature survey showed compound 404 was the known (3β)-abieta-8, 11, 13-triene-3,15-
diol, trivial name, isolophanthinA, isolated previously from Isodon lophanthoides var.
gerardianus (Yang et al., 2011) and Vitex rotundifolia (Lee et al., 2013). This is therefore the
first report of its isolation from Croton genus. Isolophanthin A has been reported to be
ineffective against four human tumor cell lines (Yang et al., 2011) and not a potential anti-
inflammatory agent (Lee et al., 2013).

Table 4.14: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of isolophanthin A (404)

Postn δC δH HMBC NOESY

Yang et al., Experimental (m, J Hz; Integral) (HC) (H H)
2011
1 31.4t 18.9 1.89 (m; Hα)
1.75 (m; Hβ)

2 25.8t 28.2 1.09 (s; Hα) 20, 3 19

1.27 (s; Hβ) 18, 19

3 75.6d 79.0 3.32 (dd , 4.53, 6.80; H) 18

3-OH 5.32 (s; H)

4 37.2s 39.2

5 43.2d 50.0 1.31 (m; H) 18

6 18.6t 37.1 2.34 (m; Hα)

1.58 (s; Hβ) 5, 7

7 30.4t 31.1 1.27 (s; Hα) 5, 6

1.09 (s; Hβ)

113
 8 134.8s 135.0

9 148.2s 148.1

10 37.7s 38.2

11 124.7d 125.0 7.23 (d, 4.44; H)

12 121.9d 122.2 7.19 (br s; H)

13 145.8s 146.2

14 124.2d 124.6 7.21 (s; H)

15 72.3s 72.5

16 31.6q 31.8 1.58 (s; 3H) 13, 15, 17

17 31.6q 31.8 1.58 (s; 3H) 13, 15, 16

18 22.1q 15.4 0.91 (s; 3H) 3, 5, 2β, 3, 5, 19

19 28.1q 28.4 1.09 (s; 3H) 5, 18 2α, 2β, 18, 20

20 24.6q 24.9 1.21 (s; 3H)

4.1.1.2.2 Isolophanthin E (405)

Compound 405 was isolated as white crystals and a molecular formula, C20H30O3 proposed
for it.

OH

HO

HO
H
19 18 405

The NMR spectroscopic data for compound 405 [Table 4.15; Appendix 15a] was similar to
that of 404 except for an extra hydroxyl group and a proton at δ H 4.25 dd (J = 3.16, 3.48 Hz)
that were placed at position 2 based on correlations observed in 2D NMR experiments
[Figure 4.6]. The 13C NMR spectrum [Appendix 15a] had a resonance at δC 71.5 confirming
the oxymethine carbon proposed to be at position 2.

114
An HMBC correlation [Appendix 15b] was observed between δH-1 2.72 and δC-2 71.5 in
addition to COSY correlation observed between H-1 and H-2 further supporting the proposed
structure. Key NOESY correlations [Appendix 15b] included 1H-1H cross peaks between the
methylene protons at δH-1α, β 2.72 and 1.75 with the oxymethine proton at δH-2 4.25 dd (J =
3.16, 3.48 Hz) implying that H-2 was β-configured and the hydroxyl group α-configured. H-2
in addition had a NOESY correlation with the oxymethine proton at δH-3 3.26 br s which had
a correlation with the three proton singlet at δ3H-18 1.13 indicating that the hydroxyl group at
C-3 must be β-configured. The three proton singlets at δ3H-19 1.10 and δ3H-20 1.46 had a
NOESY correlation with one another thus justifying the proposed configuration at C-4. Other
long range correlations were similar to those observed of isolophanthin A (404). Compound
405 was therefore deduced to be a new derivative of 404 and was given the IUPAC name 2α,
3β-abietan-8, 11, 13-triene-2,3,15 triol and trivial name isolophanthin E following the naming
of isolophanthin A-D (Yang et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2013).

Table 4.15: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of isolophanthin E (405)

Position δC δH HMBC COSY NOESY

(m, J Hz; Integral) (H C)
1 42.8 2.72 (dd, 2.94, 11.16; Hα) 2, 3, 5, 10, 20 1β, 2, 10 2
1.75 (dd, 3.69, 11.02; Hβ) 9, 10, 20 1α, 2 2

2 71.5 4.25(dd, 3.16, 3.48; H) 1, 3, 10 1α / β, 3 1α, β, 3

3 78.4 3.26 (br s; H) 2 2, 18

4 38.5

5 50.0 1.42 (dd, 2.82, 8.45; H) 9, 10, 18, 19, 20

6 18.9 1.93 (m; 2H) 7α 7

7 31.1 2.90 (m; Hα) 6, 8, 9, 14 7β, 6 6

2.98 (m; Hβ) 5, 6, 8, 9, 14 7α

8 134.8

9 148.6

10 37.0

11 125.1 7.25 (d, 1.16; H) 7, 8, 9, 13, 15 10, 1β

12 122.3 7.25 (d, 1.16; H) 9, 13, 11, 15, 10 16

115
 13 146.2

14 124.8 7.20 (br s; H) 7, 9, 12, 15, 17

15 72.5

16 31.8 1.58 (s; 3H) 13, 14, 15, 17 12

17 31.8 1.58(s; 3H) 13, 14, 15, 16 14

18 17.2 1.13(s; 3H) 3, 4, 5, 19 3

19 29.8 1.10 (s; 3H) 2, 3, 4, 5, 18 20

20 26.8 1.46 (s; 3H) 1, 5, 9, 10 19

Figure 4.6: Key NOESY correlations of compound 405

4.1.1.2.3 Abietic acid (406)

Compound 406 was isolated as white crystals and a molecular formula, C20H30O2 proposed
for it. The FTIR spectrum [Appendix 16a] had a peak at 1705.0 cm-1 attributed to a free
carboxylic acid group. Other peaks were observed at 2926.2, 2871.1, 2382.0, 2342.0, 1253.4
and 1143.8 cm-1.

H
CO2H 406

116
The 1H NMR spectrum [Appendix 16b] had resonances of two olefinic singlets integrating
for one proton each at δH 5.78 and 5.37. Resonances of an isopropyl group (two three-proton
doublets at δH 1.01 and 1.06 and a septet at δH 2.21 (J = 6.8 Hz) and two methyl singlets at δH
0.83 and 1.27 were also observed. The 13C NMR spectrum [Appendix 16b] had resonances of
20 carbons of a diterpenoid that included resonance of an isopropyl group at δC 20.9, 21.4 and
34.8 and two methyl group carbons at δC14.0 and 16.7. Resonances of four sp2 carbons, two
of them methines at δC 120.5 and 122.4 and the other two quaternary at δC 135.6 and 145.1
and a carbonyl carbon at δC 187.2 were observed.

Correlations observed in 2D NMR experiments and literature survey showed that, the
spectroscopic data of compound 406 [Table 4.16] was similar to that of the known syn-abietic
acid (Spessard et al., 1995). Abietic acid, also known as rosin acid, is a major component of
gum rosin, and is used in the paints and varnishes industry (Atta et al., 2004; Zinkel and
Landucci, 1991). It is also reported as having anti-allergic (Ulusu et al., 2002), anti-
inflammatory (Kim et al., 2010), phyto alexin-like and anti-convulsant activities (Spessard et
al., 1995; Talevi et al., 2007).

Table 4.16: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of abietic acid (406)

Position δC δH
(m, J Hz; Integral)
Spessard et al., 1995 Experimental Experimental Spessard et al., 1995
1 38.3 38.3 0.92 (m; 2H) 0.93 dd

2 18.1 18.1 1.35 (m; 2H) 1.40 m

3 37.2 37.2 1.59 (m; 2H) 1.60 m

4 46.3 50.9

5 44.9 45.0 2.22 (t; H) 2.25 dd

6 25.6 25.6 2.08 (s; 2H) 2.06 s

7 120.5 120.5 5.37 (s; H) 5.37 s

8 135.5 135.6

9 51.0 46.2 1.83 (s; H) 1.83 s

10 34.5 34.5
11 22.5 22.5 1.22 (m; Hα) 1.22 m
1.57 (m; Hβ) 1.61 m

117
 12 27.5 27.5 2.22 (m; 2H) 2.19

13 145.1 145.4

14 122.5 122.4 5.78 (s; H) 5.77 s

15 34.8 34.9 2.21 (sept; H) 2.18 q

16 20.9 20.9 1.01 (d; 3H) 1.02 d

17 21.4 21.4 1.06 (d; 3H) 1.04 d

18 185.4 187.2

19 16.7 16.8 1.27 (s; 3H) 1.24 s

20 14.0 14.0 0.83 (s; 3H) 0.81 s

4.1.1.3 Trachylobane diterpenoids from Croton megalocarpoides

Four known trachylobane diterpenoids [Figure 4.7] were isolated from the roots of
C. megalocarpoides.

HO HO
H H
HO HO H H O
HOOC
407 408 409 410
H

Figure 4.7: Trachylobane diterpenoids from Croton megalocarpoides

4.1.1.3.1 3α, 18-Dihydroxytrachylobane (407)

Compound 407 was isolated as white crystals. The LC-MS of compound 407 [Appendix 17a]
had a quasi-molecular ion peak at 327.48 for [M + Na+] consistent with the proposed
molecular formula, C20H32O2 .

118
 17
11
16
1 13
15
10

7
HO
HO H
18
407

The 1H NMR spectrum [Appendix 17b] had five methine protons, two of them up field at δH
0.60 d and 0.80 m which is characteristic of a cyclopropane ring of a tricyclo [3.2.1.0] octane
ring system as found in a trachylobane structure (Kapingu et al., 2000; Fraga, 1994).
Resonances of singlets by three methyl group protons at δH 0.90, 1.00 and 1.15 were also
13
observed and in addition, eight methylene proton resonances. The C NMR spectrum
[Appendix 17b] had resonances of 20 carbons of a diterpenoid. Included were resonances of a
cyclopropane of a tricyclo [3.2.1.0] octane ring system at δC 20.7, 24.4 and 23.8 (Kapingu et
al., 2000). Resonances of three methyl group carbons at δC 11.5, 15.2 and 20.7 and four sp3
quaternary carbons at δC 22.7, 38.1, 40.7 and 42.1 were also observed. The only resonances
observed that are associated to functionalities where of two oxygenated sp3 carbons, a
methine and a methylene carbons at δC 77.3 and 72.4 respectively.

From the aforementioned and in consultation with 2D NMR experiments and literature data
[Table 4.17], a pentacyclic diterpene, having a carbon skeleton with a tricyclo [3.2.1.0]
octane ring system for rings C, D and E (Kapingu et al., 2000) and a 2O and 1O alcohol
substituent on ring A was deduced. HMBC spectrum [Appendix 17c] had 1H-13C cross peaks
at δ3H-17 1.15 with δC-12, 16, 13 20.7, 22.7, 24.4; δH-3 3.63 with δC-19 11.5 and δ2H-18 3.72, 3.42
with δC-19, 4, 5, 3 11.3, 42.1, 49.9, 77.3. Key NOESY correlations [Appendix 17c] were
observed at δ3H-19 0.90 with δ3H-20 1.00 and δH-3 3.63 with δH-2α, β 1.58.

Literature searches indicated that, compound 407 was the known 3α, 18-
dihydroxytrachylobane, previously isolated from the roots of C. macrostachys (Kapingu et
al., 2000) and Mitrephora alba (Annonaceae) where it is named as ent-trachyloban-3β, 18-
diol in the report (Rayanil et al., 2013). Ent-trachyloban-3β, 18-diol was found to have
moderate anticancer activity against human small cell lung carcinoma (IC50 49.8 µM) and
human carcinoma of the nasopharynx (IC5062.1 µM) but weak activity against human breast
adenocarcinoma (IC50106.4 µM).

119
Its C-4 epimer, ent-trachyloban-3β, 19-diol was relatively weaker in activity against the same
anti-cancer cell lines (IC50 > 150, 92.3 and > 150 µM respectively (Rayanil et al., 2013)).

Table 4.17: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 3α, 18-dihydroxytrachylobane (407)

Position δC δH HMBC
Kapingu et Experimental (m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
al., 2000
1 36.9 37.3 1.55 (m; H α)
0.90 (s; H β)

2 26.6 26.8 1.58 (m; H α) 1, 3, 4

1.58(m; H β)

3 80.1 77.3 3.63 (t , 7.81, 8.33; H) 18

4 40.2 42.1

5 55.3 49.9 0.85(m; H)

6 19.7 19.9 1.38 (m; H α) 8, 10
1.38 (m; H β)

7 38.8 33.6 2.06 (d, 11.81; Hα ) 13, 15, 16

1.16 (m; Hβ)
8 41.8 40.7

9 52.8 53.3 1.11(m; H)

10 37.4 38.1

11 19.7 20.3 1.87 (dt, 3.63, 11.81; Hα) 9, 13

1.67 (m; Hβ)

12 20.2 20.7 0.60 (d, 7.27; H)

13 23.8 24.4 0.80 (m; H)

14 33.0 38.8 1.38 (m; Hα) 8, 9, 10, 12, 16

1.38 (m; Hβ)

15 49.9 50.4 1.24 (s; Hα) 7, 8, 9, 13, 16

1.40 (s; Hβ)
16 23.8 22.7
17 20.2 20.7 1.15 (s; 3H) 12, 13, 16

18 64.1 72.4 3.72 (d,10.41; Hα) 3, 4, 5

3.42 (d, 10.41; Hβ) 3, 19

19 22.1 11.5 0.90 (s; 3H) 3, 4, 5, 18

20 14.9 15.2 1.00 (s; 3H) 1, 5, 9

120
4.1.1.3.2 Ent-trachyloban-18-ol (408)
Compound 408 was isolated as white crystals and a molecular formula, C20H32O proposed for
it.
17
11

1 13
15
10

HO H
18 408

The spectroscopic data of compound 408 was similar to that of compound 407 less the
substitution at C-3 [Table 4.18; Appendices 18a and 18b] confirmed by resonance of only
one functionality at δC72.5 in the sp3 region. Correlations observed in the 2D NMR
experiments and literature search showed 408 was the known ent-trachyloban-19-ol.

Table 4.18: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of ent-trachyloban-19-ol (408)

Position δC δH
Kapingu et al., Experimental (m, J Hz; Integral)
20006
1 36.9 39.0 0.75 (m; Hα)
1.44 (m; Hβ)

2 26.6 19.7 1.46 (m; Hα)

1.34 (m; Hβ)

3 80.1 38.9 1.29 (m; Hα)

1.62 (m; Hβ)

4 40.2 40.9

5 55.3 49.5 1.00 (m; H)

6 19.7 29.2 1.20 (m; Hα)

1.62 (m; Hβ)

7 38.8 33.8 1.34 (m; Hα)

1.33 (m; Hβ)

8 41.8 40.8

6
Literature data for 3α, 18-dihydroxytrachylobane (407)

121
 9 52.8 53.5 1.16 (m; H)

10 37.4 37.6

11 19.7 20.2 1.83 (m; Hα)

1.61 (m; Hβ)

12 20.2 20.8 0.50 (m; H)

13 23.8 24.5 0.90 (s; H)

14 33.0 38.7 2.00 (d,11.65; Hα)

1.17 (m; Hβ)

15 49.9 50.8 1.34 (m; Hα)

1.20 (m; Hβ)

16 23.8 22.8

17 20.2 17.7 1.18 (s; 3H)

18 64.1 72.5 5.23 (s; 2H)

19 22.1 17.7 1.05 (s; 3H)

20 14.9 15.3 0.67 s; 3H)

4.1.1.3.3 Tachyloban-18-oic acid (409)

Compound 409 was isolated as white crystals. The LC-MS of compound 409 [Appendix 19a]
had a quasi-molecular ion peak at 321.1 for [M + Na+] consistent with the proposed
molecular formula, C20H30O2 .

17
11
1 13
15
10

H
HOOC 409

122
The NMR spectroscopic data of compound 409 [Table 4.19; Appendix 19b] was similar to
that of compound 407 except for absence of resonance of hydroxyl groups at C-3 and C-18.
A resonance of a carboxyllic acid functionality, δC 184.0 was observed and placed at position
18 based on correlations seen in the 2D NMR experiments. Comparison of the spectroscopic
data with literature values identified compound 409 as the known ent-trachyloban-18-oic
acid. Ent-trachyloban-18-oic acid is reported alongside its C-4 epimer, ent-trachyloban-19-
oic acid as having been previously isolated from the Malaysian liverwort, Mustigophora
diclados (Leong and Harrison, 1997) and C. macrostachyus (Kapingu et al., 2000).

Ent-trachyloban-19-oic acid has been found to have larval development inhibition of

Homeosoma electullum (sunflower moth) and the three Lepidoptera species Heliotis virscens,
H. zea and Pectinophera gossypiella (pink bollworm) (Alliger et al., 1976). It has also been
found to have antimicrobial activity against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus and
Mycobacterium smegmatis (Zgoda-Pols et al., 2002). Both ent-trachyloban-19-oic acid and
its derivative, ent-trachyloban-19-oic methyl ester inhibited the growth of Streptococcus
mutans (associated with caries) at 8.9 and 70.5 µg/mL respectively and had biofilm formation
by the same bacteria at 32.5 and 125.0 µg/mL respectively (Hernández et al., 2012). They
were however inactive against Porphyromonas gingivalis (associated with periodontal
disease (Hernández et al., 2012).

Table 4.19: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of ent-trachyloban-18-oic acid (409)

Postn δC δH HMBC COSY

Leong and Experimental (m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
Harrison,
1997
1 39.5 37.2 1.78 (m; Hα)
1.60 (m; Hβ)

2 18.7 22.7 1.43 (m; Hα) 1β, 2β

1.12 (m; Hβ) 2α

3 37.8 38.5 1.37 (m; Hα) 2, 4, 5

1.14 (m; Hβ) 1,2,4,5,18

4 43.7 41.1
5 57.0 50.4 1.62 (m; H) 9, 10

6 21.8 17.3 1.58 (m; Hα) 4, 5, 7, 10, 20

1.47 (m; Hβ)

123
 7 39.2 33.7 2.04 (m; Hα) 5, 13, 16 7β
1.16 (m; Hβ) 7α

8 40.8 47.4
9 52.2 53.4 1.23 (m; H) 14

10 39.8 37.8

11 19.7 19.7 1.89 (m; Hα) 9

1.67 (m; Hβ)

12 20.5 20.7 0.57 (m; H) 9, 17 13

13 24.2 24.4 0.83 (m; H) 7, 12 11β, 12

14 33.1 38.6 1.37 (m; Hα) 9, 10, 12 13, 14β

1.14 (m; H β) 8, 12, 13 14α

15 50.3 50.4 1.38 (m; Hα) 14β

1.26 (m; H β) 7, 12, 13

16 22.4 23.2
17 20.6 20.8 1.12 (m; 3H)

18 28.9 184.0
19 184.7 16.5 1.15 (s; 3H) 18

20 12.5 15.2 0.97 (s; 3H) 5, 9, 10

4.1.1.3.4 3α-Hydroxytrachyloban-18-al (410)

Compound 410 was isolated as white crystals and a molecular formula, C20H30O2 proposed
for it.
17
11

1 13
15
10
H H
7
HO H
O 18 410
H

124
Comparison of the NMR spectroscopic data of compound 410 [Table 4.19; Appendix20a]
with that of 409 showed that their chemical structures were mostly identical. In 410 however,
there were resonances of a formyl group at δH 9.25 s and δC 207.1 and an hydroxyl group
substituent at δC 75.6 with an oxymethine proton at δH 3.51 t (J = 2.80 Hz) unlike in 409
where the only functionality was that of a carboxylic acid group at δC 184.0. The formyl
group and hydroxyl group in 410 were subsequently placed on C-18 and C-3 respectively
using correlations in 2D NMR experiments.

HMBC spectrum [Appendix 20c] had correlations by the formyl hydrogen at δH-18 9.25 with
δC-19, 5 14.2, 39.4; the oxymethine proton at δH-3 3.51 with δC-1, 2, 5 32.8, 32.5, 39.4 and δH-2β
1.95 with δC-19, 10, 4, 3, 18 14.2, 29.9, 49.1, 75.6, 207.1. NOESY spectrum [Appendix 20c]
showed correlations between 3H-19 and 2H-6 and a COSY between 3H-19 and H-3.
Literature search showed that 410 was the known ent-3β-hydroxytrachyloban-18-al
previously reported from Mitrephora alba (Rayanil et al., 2013) making this the first report
of its isolation from Croton genus. In the same report (Rayanil et al., 2013), its anti-cancer
activities were recorded as moderate activity (IC 50 55.9 µM) against human small cell lung
carcinoma and weak activity against human breast adenocarcinoma (92.0µM) and human
carcinoma of the nasopharynx (69.4 µM).

Table 4.20: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of 3α-ent-hydroxytrachyloban-18-al

(410)

δC δH HMBC
Position Rayanil et al., 2013 Experimental (m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)
1 37.1 32.8 1.23-1.43 (m; Hα)
1.23-1.43 (m; Hβ)

2 25.8 32.5 1.23-1.43 (m; Hα)

1.95 (dd, 2.00, 11.14; Hβ) 3, 4, 10, 18, 19

3 72.0 75.6 3.51 (t, 2.80; H) 1, 2, 5

3-OH 5.23 (s; H)

4 55.2 49.1

5 48.0 39.4 2.06 (m; H)

6 22.2 19.4 1.95 (dd, 2.00, 11.14; Hα) 4, 8

1.95 (dd, 2.00, 11.14; Hβ)

125
 7 38.1 38.2 1.85-1.89 (m; H) 9, 15, 16
8 40.7 37.2 -

9 53.0 47.5 1.57-1.63 (m; H) 1, 8, 15, 20

10 36.9 29.9

11 19.6 16.7 1.57-1.63 (m; Hα) 8, 9, 12, 16

1.57-1.63 (m; Hβ)

12 20.4 20.6 0.62 (d; H)

13 24.2 24.3 0.88-0.95 (m; H)

14 33.4 30.5 1.57-1.63 (m; Hα) 8, 9, 12, 16

1.19 (s; Hβ) 9, 10

15 50.3 45.5 1.43-1.48 (m; Hα) 9, 16

1.43-1.48 (m; Hβ)

16 22.5 23.3

17 20.5 20.6 1.36 (s; 3H) 12, 15, 16

18 207.1 207.1 9.25 (s; H) 5, 19

19 8.8 14.2 0.95 (s; 3H) 18
20 14.9 15.0 0.95 (s; 3H)

4.1.1.4 Triterpenoids from Croton megalocarpoides

Two known pentacyclic triterpenoids, acetylaleuritolic acid (411) and lupeol (412) were
isolated from the roots of C. megalocarpoides.

4.1.1.4.1 Acetylaleuritolicacid (411)

Compound 411 was isolated as white crystals and a molecular formula, C32H50O4 proposed
for it.

29 30

27 19 21

17 22
11
25 26 13
1 H COOH
28
O 10 8 15
3 5 H

O 6 411
H
23 24

126
The 1H-NMR [Appendix 21] had seven singlets integrating for three protons each at δH 0.86,
0.87, 0.88, 0.91, 0.92, 0.94 and 0.95 representing seven methyl groups instead of the expected
eight methyl groups of a triterpene. Another singlet integrating for three protons, that was
observed down field at δH 2.04 was taken to be of an acetate methyl group substituent. A
broad singlet observed at δH 11.6 was taken to be of a carbinol proton in a carboxylic acid
group substituent. It was then deduced that, a methyl group of a triterpene must have been
oxidized to a carboxylic acid during the biosynthetic process. Resonances of an olefinic
proton at δH 5.52 (dd, J = 4.0, 8.0 Hz) and an oxymethine proton at δH 4.46 (dd, J = 5.5, 10.0
Hz) were also observed. The 13C NMR spectrum [Appendix 21] had resonances of thirty two
carbons including two carbonyl carbons at δC 171.2 and 184.3 and two sp2 carbons at δC
117.1 and 160.8.

Comparison of the adduced spectroscopic data with literature identified compound 411 as the
acetylated pentacyclic triterpenoid, acetylaleuritolic acid (Carpenter et al., 1980) previously
isolated from C. cajucara (Maciel et al., 2000; Pertino et al., 2007), C. urucurane (Peres et
al., 1997 and 1998a,b), C. lacciferus (Bandara et al., 1988) and C. pseudopulchellus (Langat
et al., 2012). Biological activities of acetylaleuritolic acid that are reported include activity
against Salmonella aureus and Salmonella typhimurium (MIC, 0.1 mg / mL (Peres et al.,
1998a, b), anti-nociceptive effect (analgesic activity, ID50 = 21.63 mg / Kg (Peres et al.,
1998a, b), and gastroprotective effect at 25 mg / Kg (Pertino et al., 2007).

Table 4.21: NMR (500 MHz) spectroscopic data of acetylaleuritolic acid (411)

Position δC δH
Carpenter et al., 1980 Experimental (m, J Hz; Integral)

1 37.4 37.5 1.59 (m; Hα)

1.03 (m; Hβ)

2 23.4 23.7 1.62 (m; Hα)

1.62 (m; Hβ)

3 80.8 81.1 4.46 (dd, 5.5, 10.0; H)

4 37.6 37.9

5 55.6 55.8 0.86 (s; H)

6 18.7 19.0 1.78 (m; 2H)

7 35.3 35.6 1.22 (m; Hα)

1.09 (m; Hβ)

127
8 39.0 39.3

9 49.0 41.0 1.41 (m; H)

10 37.3 37.6

11 17.3 17.5 1.62 (m; Hα)

1.44 (m; Hβ)

12 31.2 31.5 2.37 (q, 7.33; Hα)

1.91 (m; Hβ)

13 37.9 38.2
14 160.5 160.8

15 116.8 117.1 5.52 (dd, 4.0, 8.0; H)

16 30.9 30.9 1.67 (t, 14; Hα)

1.41 (m; Hβ)

17 51.5 51.7

18 41.6 41.6 2.28 (m; H)

19 40.7 41.0 1.96 (m; Hα)

1.27 (m; Hβ)

20 29.3 29.5
21 33.6 33.9 1.74 (m; Hα)
1.06 (m; Hβ)

22 31.8 32.1 1.06 (m; 2H)

23 27.9 28.2 0.86 (s; 3H)

24 16.6 16.8 0.88 (s; 3H)

25 15.7 15.9 0.94 (s; 3H)

26 28.6 28.9 0.88 (s; 3H)

27 26.2 26.4 0.95 (s; 3H)

28 184.4 184.3

29 33.3 33.5 0.92 (s; 3H)

30 22.4 22.7 0.91 (s; 3H)

3-OOCCH3 171.3 171.2

3-OOCCH3 21.6 21.5 2.04 (s; 3H)

-COOH 184.3 11.6 (br s; H)

128
4.1.1.4.2 Lupeol (412)
Compound (412) was isolated as a white crystals and a molecular formula, C30H50O proposed
for it.

29

20
30 21
19
H
11
25 26 13 17
1 28

10 8
H 15
27
HO 6
H 412
23
24

The 1H NMR spectrum [Appendix 22a] had resonances of seven methyl proton singlets at δH
0.79, 0.83, 0.88, 0.94, 0.96, 1.08 and 1.68 that corresponded to δC 15.4, 18.0, 16.1, 14.6, 28.0,
13
16.0 and 19.3 in the C NMR spectrum [Appendix 22b]. The proton resonance at δH 3.19
was taken to be the oxymethine proton at C-3 because it corresponded to a carbon resonating
at δC 79.1 in the HSQC spectrum. Methylene protons singlets observed in the olefinic region
at δH 4.57 and 4.69 were taken to belong to the carbon of the terminal C=C. A methine proton
resonating at δH 2.40 was attached to a carbon adjacent to the C=C, C-19. 13C NMR spectrum
had resonances of 30 carbons that were classified using DEPT spectrum into seven methyl,
eleven methylene, six methine and six quaternary carbons. The sp2 carbons were observed at
δC 151.0 and 109.3.

The physical and spectral data obtained [Table 4.22] corresponded to that reported for the
known 3β-hydroxylup-20(29)-ene commonly known as lupeol ( Burns et al., 2000; Sutomo et
al., 2013). Lupeol is a very common triterpenoid that has been isolated from many different
plant families. It has been reported as having varying biological activities including dead cell
stimulant of human leukemic cells (HL-60), an aggressive inhibitor of human metastatic
melanoma cells, anti-arthritic, anti-malarial, anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory
(Aratanechemuge et al., 2004; Agarwal and Rangari, 2003; Gallo and Sarachine 2009; Fotie
et al., 2006).

129
Table 4.22: NMR (300 MHz) spectroscopic data of lupeol (412)

Pstn δC δH (m, J Hz; Integral)

Sutomo et al., 2013 Experimental Experimental Sutomo et al., 2013
1 40.1 38.8 0.96 (m; Hα) 0.96 s
1.65 (m; Hβ) 1.70 m
2 28.7 27.5 1.65 (m; 2H) 1.63 m
3 79.7 79.1 3.19 (dd, 11.4, 3.14 (dd, 11.0,
4.9; H) 5.3)
4 40.0 38.7
5 56.9 55.3 0.69 (d, 9.25; H) 0.69 d
6 19.5 18.3 1.39 (m; Hα) 1.42 m
1.58 (m; Hβ) 1.56 m
7 35.6 34.3 1.37 (m; Hα) -
1.63 (m; Hβ)
8 42.1 40.8
9 51.9 50.4 1.36 (m; H) 1.34 m
10 38.3 37.2
11 22.1 20.9 1.34 (m; Hα) 1.31 m
1.49 (m; Hβ) 1.47 m
12 26.5 25.1 1.25 (m; Hα) 1.20 m
1.74 (m; Hβ) 1.72 m
13 39.7 38.1 1.72 (m; H) 1.68 m
14 44.0 42.8
15 28.1 27.4 1.03 (m; Hα) 1.01 m
1.61 (m; Hβ) 1.60 m
16 35.6 35.6 1.53 (m; 2H) 1.51 m
17 44.2 43.0
18 49.5 48.3 1.46 (m; H) 1.43 m
19 49.3 48.0 2.40 (m; H) 2.40 m
20 152.0 151.0
21 30.8 29.7 1.32 (m; 2H) 1.28 m
22 41.1 40.0 1.43 (m; 2H) 1.43 m
23 28.7 28.0 0.96 (s; 3H) 0.98 s
24 16.2 15.4 0.79 (s; 3H) 0.76 s
25 16.8 16.1 0.88 (s; 3H) 0.86 s
26 16.7 16.0 1.08 (s; 3H) 1.07 s
27 15.1 14.6 0.94 (s; 3H) 0.96 s
28 18.5 18.0 0.83 (s; 3H) 0.83 s
29 110.2 109.3 4.57 (s; Hα) 4.56 s
4.69 (s; Hβ) 4.68 s
30 19.7 19.3 1.68 (s; 3H) 1.69 s

130
4.1.2 The Phytochemistry of Kenyan Croton alienus
Eleven compounds were isolated from the roots and the leaves of C. alienus. Two of these
compounds were new (a 4α-deoxyphorbolester, 12,20-O-[n-didecanoyl]-4α-deoxyphorbol-
13-acetate, given trivial name, alienusolin (413) and a glutarimide alkaloid, N-[1,3-dioxo-2-
(2-phenylethyl)-6-piperidinyl]-phenylanamide, given a trivial name, crotonimide C (415)).
The other compounds included the known glutarimide alkaloid (julocrotine (414)), six
methylcyclohexane derivatives including the common crotepoxide (416) and five of its
derivatives (monodeacetylcrotepoxide (417) , dideacetylcrotepoxide (418), α-senepoxide
(419) , β-senepoxide (420) and (+)-(2S,3R-diacetoxy-1-benzoyloxymethylenecyclohex-4,6-
diene (421)), the common pentacyclic triterpenoid (acetylaleuritolic acid (411) and an
α, β-unsaturated phytosterol (24-ethylcholesta-4, 22-dien-3-one (422). The work reported in
this section / plant has been published and the paper is presented as Appendix 41.

4.1.2.1 A Phorbol ester derivative, alienusolin (413)

A new phorbol ester derivative was isolated as yellow oil from the roots of C. alienus. The
molecular formula of 413 was deduced to be C42H66O8 from the HRESIMS [Appendix 23a]
that had a m/z 721.4641 for a quasi-ion [M+Na]+, calc. 721.4650 and [α]D + 36.1 (CHCl3, c
0.003). This compound displayed diagnostic IR absorptions at 3412 (OH group stretch), 1735
(br, 1690-1740) for ester and α, β-unsaturated carbonyl groups.
R
O
1'
O R'
18 O
O
11 13
1 HO
19 16
14 H
10
H
3 H 7
R -(CH2)8CH3
O H 5
20 R' -CH3
O 1''
R 413
O

The 1H NMR spectrum [Appendix 23b] showed a broad singlet at δH 1.25 indicative of the
presence of a long chain fatty acid moiety. Resonances of protons associated with six methyl
groups at δH 2.05s, 1.75s, 1.20s, 1.16s, 1.05d (J = 6.3 Hz), and 0.87t (J = 1.23 Hz), two
olefinic protons at δH 6.97s and 5.47d (J = 10.4 Hz) and two oxymethylene protons at δH
4.46d (J = 12.5 Hz) and 4.32d (J =12.5 Hz) were observed.

131
The 13C NMR spectrum [Appendix 23b] indicated presence of a carbonyl carbon at δC 211.2,
three ester carbonyls at δC 173.9, 173.7 and 173.6, four Sp2 carbons at δC 155.4, 143.5, 133.0
and 128.6 and four oxygenated sp3 carbons at δC 78.0, 75.5, 70.7 and 65.4. Analysis of COSY
and HMBC spectra [Appendix 23c] led to a deduction that compound 413 had a tigliane
diterpenoid skeleton. However, the presence of only one doublet of a methyl group in its 1H -
NMR spectrum pointed to a likely modification at positions of C-1 and C-6. The upfield
methine proton doublet at δH 0.80 (J = 5.1 Hz) was assigned to H-14 with its carbon, C-14
resonating at δC 37.0. HMBC correlation between C-14 and the two methyl proton singlets at
δH 1.16 and 1.20 enabled their assignments as 3H-17 (δC-17 24.3) and 3H-16 (δC-16 16.6)
respectively. The two 3H-16 and 3H-17 methyl group protons further showed correlations in
the HMBC spectrum with carbons at δC 25.2 and 65.9 assigned to C-15 and C-13 respectively
[Figure 4.8]. C-15 and C-13 had additional HMBC correlations with a methine proton at δH
5.47d (J = 10.4 Hz) assigned to H-12. This H-12 was coupled to another methine proton at δH
1.66m assigned to H-11. H-11 was additionally coupled to a proton at δH 1.06d (J = 6.3 Hz)
that was assigned to 3H-18 [Figure 4.8]. The 3H-18 further had an HMBC correlation with
C-9 which also had 1H-13C cross peaks with H-1, H-4, H-7, H-8 and H-10. The olefinic
proton resonance at δH 6.97 (s) was assigned to H-1 and showed HMBC correlations with C-
3, C-4 and C-19. Another key HMBC correlation was observed for H-7 with C-5, C-6 and C-
20.

An acetate group and two acyl groups were attached via oxygen to C-13, C-12 and C-20
respectively.The acetate group was deduced to be on C-13 due from correlations observed in
the NOESY spectrum between δ3H-16 1.20s and acetoxy methyl protons at δH 0.87t [Figure
4.8]. The second acetate group was placed at position 12 from observance of a resonance of a
methine proton downfield at δH-12 5.47s which is characteristic of esters that exhibit presence
of an acyl group at C-12 and an acetate group at C-13 (Taylor et al., 1981; Thebpatiphat et
al., 1988). Acid hydrolysis of compound 413 and subsequent analysis of the resulting
products using GC / MS indicated that, the acyl groups attached to C-12 and C-20 were the
same and were identified to be decanoyl moieties. The suggested relative configuration at
positions 4, 8, 11 and 15 was supported by correlations observed in the NOESY spectrum
between H-4 with H-10 and H-5β / H-5β with H-4 and H-20; H-8 with H -5α and 3H-17;
3H-18 with H-10 / H-11 with 3H-17 and H-14 with 3H-16 and H-7 respectively [Figure 4.8].
Compound 413 was identified to be a new phorbol ester derivative that was given the IUPAC
name, 12, 20-O-[n-didecanoyl]-4α-deoxyphorbol-13-acetate and trivial name alienusolin.

132
Table 4.23: NMR spectroscopic data of alienusolin (413)

Position δC δH (500 MHz) HMBC COSY

(125 MHz) (m, J Hz; Integral) (HC)

1 155.3 6.97 (s; H) 2, 10, 3, 4, 9, 19 10

2 143.5
3 211.2
4 49.0 2.71 (m; H) 6 5, 10
5 26.6 2.46 (m; Hα) 6, 10 4, 5β
3.35 (m; Hβ) 5α
6 133.0
7 128.6 5.14 (br s, 6, 5, 9, 14, 20 8
W1/2 = 7.5Hz; H)
8 41.0 1.96 (m; H) 9, 14 7
9 78.0
10 47.0 3.45 (m; H) 1, 9, 2, 8 1, 4
11 43.0 1.66 (m; H) 12 12, 18
12 75.4 5.45 (d, 10.4; H) 11, 13, 15,18,-OOCR‫׳‬ 11
13 65.4
14 37.0 0.80 (d, 5.1; H) 13, 15, 7
15 25.2
16 16.6 1.20 (s; 3H)
17 24.2 1.16 (s; 3H)
18 12.1 1.05 (d, 6.3; 3H) 11, 9, 12
19 10.7 1.75 (s; 3H) 2, 1, 3
20 70.7 4.34, 4.46 6, 5, 7, -OOCR
(d, 12.5; 2H)
-OOCR 173.8
-OOC-R- 14.4 0.87 (t, 1.23; 3H)
CH3
-OOCCH2- 22.8- 2.00-2.42 (m; 2H) -OOCR
(CH2)n-R‫׳‬ 34.7
(-OOCR‫)׳‬ 173.6
-OOCCH3 21.2 2.05 (s; 3H)

133
 Figure 4.8: COSY, HMBC and NOESY correlations observed in alienusolin (413)

4.1.2.2 Glutarimide alkaloids from Croton alienus

Two glutarimide alkaloids [Figure 4.9] were isolated from the roots of C. alienus as white
crystalline. They were identified as the known julocrotine [414] (Aboagye et al., 2000;
Suarez et al., 2004) and crotonimide C [415], a new natural product.

4 R Code
3 7"
5 N R
4"
1 2
O
-CH(CH3 )CH2CH3 414
O 6 N O 1" 2" 3"

1"
8' 7'
2"
1' 415
2'
3"
4"
3'

4'

Figure 4.9: Glutarimide Alkaloids from C. alienus

4.1.2.2.1 Julocrotine (414)

The MS spectrum of compound 414 had a molecular ion peak at m/z 316.20 confirming the
proposed molecular formula of C18H24N2O3. The 1H NMR spectrum [Appendix 24] had
resonances of methine protons associated with an aromatic ring at δH 7.19 m (integrating for
three protons) and δH 7.26 m (integrating for two protons).

134
Other significant proton resonances observed were of two methyl groups at δH 0.92 t (J = 7.5
Hz) and 1.14 d (J = 7.0 Hz) respectively and down field shifted protons, a doublet integrating
for one at δH 6.25 (J = 4.5) and a doublet of a triplet of a doublet at δH 4.45 (J = 2.0, 5.5, 12.5
13
Hz). The C NMR spectrum of 2 [Appendix 24] had eighteen carbons. Included were
resonances associated with a mono-substituted aromatic ring (five methine carbons at δC
126.5, 128.3 and 128.8 and a fully substituted carbon at δC 138.0). Three carbonyl carbon
resonances were observed at δC 171.2, 172.1 and 177.0 and two methyl carbons at δC 12.0
and 17.5. From these spectral data and in consultation with literature, an alkaloid with a
phenylethyl-glutarimide ring system and a 2-methylbutanoyl group substituent was deduced
(Aboagye et al., 2000; Cuong et al., 2002). HMBC spectrum had 1H-13C cross peaks at δH-3
4.45 with δC-4, 2, 7‫ ״‬24.3, 172.1 and 177.0; δH-NH 6.25 with δC-7‫ ״‬177.0 and δH-4 2.50 with δC-5,
3, 6, 2 31.9, 51.4, 171.2 and 172.1 thus confirming the proposed chemical structure. Other
spectral data related to this compound are given in. Compound 414 was subsequently
identified to be the known N-[1, 3-dioxo-2-(2-phenylethyl)-6-piperidinyl]-2-N-(2-
methylbutanoylanamide), trivial name, julocrotine. Julocrotine was previously isolated from
the dichloromethane extract of the roots of C. membranaceus (Aboagye et al., 2000), C.
cascarilloides (Cuong et al., 2002) and the stem of C. pullei (Suarez et al., 2004).

Table 4.24: NMR spectroscopic data of julocrotine (414)

δC (125 MHz)
Position Aboagye et al., Experimental δH (500 MHz)
2000 (m, J Hz; Integral)
2 171.7 172.1

3 51.0 51.4 4.45 (dtd, 12.5, 5.5, 2.0; H)

4 24.3 24.6 2.50 (dtd, 12.0, 5.5, 2.0, Hα); 1.65 (m; Hβ)

5 31.6 31.9 2.70 (m; 2H)

NH - - 6.25 (d, 4.5; H)

6 170.9 171.2

1‫׳׳‬ 42.8 43.2 2.18 (m; H)

2‫׳׳‬ 27.1 27.4 1.45 (m; Hα)

1.65 (m; Hβ)

3‫׳׳‬ 11.7 12.0 0.92 (t, 7.5; 3H)

135
 4‫׳׳‬ 17.1 17.5 1.14 (d, 7.0; 3H)

7‫״‬ 178.9 177.0

1‫׳‬ 138.0 138.3

6‫ ׳‬/ 2‫׳‬ 128.8 129.2 7.19 (m; 2H)

5 ‫ ׳‬/ 3‫׳‬ 128.3 128.7 7.26 (m; 2H)

4‫׳‬ 126.5 126.8 7.19 (m; H)

7‫׳‬ 33.6 34.2 2.78 (t, 7.0; 2H)

8‫׳‬ 41.4 41.8 3.98 m; 2H)

4.1.2.2.2 Crotonamide C (415)

Compound 415 was isolated as a white crystalline and identified to be a new form of
glutarimide alkaloid that was given the trivial name, crotonamide C. Its HRESIMS
[Appendix 25a] had a quasi-molecular ion peak at 359.1354 [M + Na]+ (calcd for
C20H20N2NaO3, 359.1366) supporting the proposed molecular formula, C20H20N3O3. The
optical rotation was established to be, [α]D - 13.0 (CHCl3, c 0.0009). FTIR vmax cm-1 (neat):
3392, 3066, 3028, 2962, 2928, 1729, 1680, and 1641.

The NMR spectroscopic data of 415 [Table 4.25; Appendix 25b] was similar to that of
julocrotine (414) except for resonances of a phenyl ketone / benzamide group substituent
observed at δC 167.5 for a ketonic carbon and aromatic ring chemical shifts of methine
carbons at δC 127.3, 128.6 and 132.2 and a fully substituted one at δC 133.9 alongside their
resonances in the 1H NMR spectrum at δH7.48 dd (J = 1.4, 7.5 Hz), 7.55 tt ( J = 1.5, 7.2 Hz)
and 7.83 td (J = 1.5, 6.9) in place of a 2-methylbutanoyl group substituent as in 414.
Similarity in the configuration of 415 at C-3 with 414 was supported by the coupling constant
for both H-3 and H-4β (J = 12.5 Hz) indicating a pseudo-axial position for the H-3. Apart
from the coupling of the phenyl group carbons and protons that was observed in the HMBC
spectrum of 415, there was coupling between the aromatic protons at δH 7.83 with the ketone
carbon at δC 167.5. This alongside with other 2D NMR correlations supported the proposed
structure of 415 which was of a new derivative of julocrotine (414). It was also closely
related to other reported glutarimide alkaloids, crotonimide A and B that were isolated
previously from the Amazonian C. pullei var. glabrior Lanj (Barbosa et al., 2007).

136
Subsequently, compound 415 was given the IUPAC name, 3-[N-benzamide]-N-phenylethyl-
glutarimide (N-[1, 3-dioxo-2-(2-phenylethyl)-6-piperidinyl]-phenylanamide), and trivial
name, crotonamide C.

Table 4.25: NMR spectroscopic data of crotonamide C (415)

Position δC δH (300 MHz) HMBC COSY

(75 MHz) (m, J Hz; Integral) (H C)
2 171.1

3 52.1 4.63 (dt, 5.4, 12.9; H) 2, 4, 7‫׳׳‬ 4α, 4β

4 24.6 2.75 (m; Hα) 3 4β

1.78 (dq, 5.4, 12.9; Hβ) 5, 3, 2, 6

5 31.8 2.84 (m; 2H) 4, 3 4α

6 172.0

NH 7.03 (d, 4.5; H) 7‫׳׳‬ 3

1‫׳׳‬ 133.9

2‫׳׳‬ 127.3 7.83 (td, 6.9, 1.5; 2H) 3‫ ׳׳‬, 7‫׳׳‬, 4‫׳׳‬ 3‫׳׳‬

3‫׳׳‬ 128.6 7.48 (dd, 7.5, 1.4; 2H) 2‫׳׳‬, 4‫׳׳‬

4‫׳׳‬ 132.2 7.55 (tt, 7.2, 1.5; H) 3‫׳׳‬, 2‫׳׳‬ 3‫׳׳‬

7‫״‬ 167.5

1‫׳‬ 138.2

2‫׳‬ 129.1 7.26 (d, 6.0; 2H) 3‫׳‬

3‫׳‬ 128.8 7.22 (t, 1.5; 2H) 2‫׳‬, 4‫׳‬

4‫׳‬ 126.8 7.30 (dt, 6.9,1.5; H) 3‫׳‬, 2‫׳‬ 3‫׳‬

7‫׳‬ 34.1 2.84 (m; 2H) 8‫׳‬

8‫׳‬ 41.9 4.05 (m; 2H) 7‫׳‬ 7‫׳‬

137
4.1.2.3 Methylcyclohexane derivatives from Croton alienus
Seven known methylcyclohexane derivatives, including the rampant crotepoxide (416) were
isolated as white crystals from both the leaves and roots of C. alienus. Three of them were
methycyclohexane diepoxide derivatives (416-418) [Figure 4.10] and the other three were
methylcyclohexene epoxide derivatives (419-421) [Figure 4.11].

3'

Rx Substituent Structure
1'
O 1, 2 -OCOCH3
a
416
6'
O 1 OH
7
417
O 1 2 -OCOCH3
R1
1, 2 OH 418
5
3 R2
O
Figure 4.10: Methylcyclohexane diepoxide derivatives from Croton alienus

4.1.2.3.1 Crotepoxide (416) and other methylcyclohexanediepoxide derivatives

(417 and 418)

The 1H NMR spectrum of compound 416 [Appendix 26] had three resonances that
corresponded to five protons of a mono substituted benzene ring at δH 7.52, 7.65 and 8.02.
Others were of two one proton doublets of an AA‫ ׳‬spin system at δH 4.30 and 4.53 (J = 12.3
Hz), two chemically equivalent three proton singlets at δH 2.02 and 2.03 and five doublets of
methine protons [Table 4.26]. The 13C NMR spectrum of compound 416 [Appendix 26] had
eighteen carbon resonances including those of a mono substituted benzene ring at δC 128.6,
129.5 and 133.4 for methine carbons and δC 129.6 for a fully substituted carbon. Also noted
were three ester carbonyls at δC 166.0, 169.9 and 170.3; two methyl carbons at δC 20.8 and
20.9 and seven sp3 oxymethine carbons at δC 48.2 – 70.6 [Table 4.27]. Consequently, a
methylcyclohexane system having two epoxide rings, two acetate residues and a benzoate
group substituent was deduced for compound 416. Comparison of these spectral features with
literature identified compound 416 to be the naturally occurring oxirane that is wide spread in
the plant kingdom, 4-benzoyloxymethyl-3, 8-dioxatricyclo-octane-5, 6-diyl diacetate, trivial
name, crotepoxide.

138
Crotepoxide is previously been reported from the fruits of Croton macrostachys (Kupchan et
al., 1969), several species of Piperaceae family (P. clarkia (Pancharoen et al., 1989), P.
futokadzura (Takahashi, 1969) and P. cubeb Cass DC (Nighat et al., 2009), two genera of the
Zingiberaceae family (Kaempferia angustifolia (Pai et al., 1970) , K. rotunda (Boll et al.,
1992) and a Boesenbergia species (Tantiwachwuttikul et al., 1987)) and the Annonaceae
family from two Monanthotaxis species, M. caffra and M. congoensis (Mulholland et al.,
2000). Crotepoxide has been reported as having significant inhibitory activity against Lewis
Lung carcinoma in mice (LL), walker intramuscular carcinosarcoma in rats (WM) (Kupchan
et al., 1969), binding of [3H] platelet-activating factor to human platelets and leukocytes
(Shen et al., 1989). It has also been shown to have no effect to platelet aggregation induced
by collagen and ADP (Ganem and Holbert, 1977).

Compound 417 had similar spectral data with 416 except for resonance of only one methyl
proton singlet at δH 1.89 and a methyl carbon resonance at δC 20.7 [Table 4.26 and 4.27;
Appendix 27a]. Since the number of oxymethine carbons was the same for both 416 and 417,
it was deduced that, ester hydrolysis occurred to one of the acetate residues in 416 to produce
417 during the biosynthesis. Using correlations in 2D NMR experiments, the lone acetate
residue was placed at position 3 and a hydroxyl group at position 2. Acetylation of 417
yielded crotepoxide [Appendix 27b]. This implied that, the relative configuration at stereo-
centers of 417 was similar to that in crotepoxide (416). 417 was subsequently identified as the
known monodeacetylcrotepoxide, reported previously from the rhizomes of Kaempferia
rotunda (Pancharoen et al., 1996). This is however, its first report from a Croton species.

Just like 417, compound 418 had spectral data that was similar to that of crotepoxide [Table
4.26 and 4.27; Appendix 28]. It however had no methyl proton singlets that could be
associated with acetate substituents unlike in 416 and 417. 418 had the same number of
oxymethine carbon resonances as 416 and 417 pointing to the likelihood of ester hydrolysis
having occurred in them during the biosynthesis of 418. Acetylation of 418, just like that of
417 produced crotepoxide. The relative configuration at the stereo-centers of these three
methylcyclohexane derivatives was therefore deduced to be similar. Compound 418 was
subsequently identified to be the known dideacetylcrotepoxide, reported from a synthetic
process alongside its anti-tumor activity (Kupchan and Sunshine, 1978). This is the first time
the compound has been isolated from a natural source.

139
Table 4.26: 1H NMR spectroscopic data of cyclohexane diepoxides from Croton alienus
(416-418)

Position 416 416 417 418

Lit.7 (600 MHz, (CD3)2CO) (300 MHz, CDCl3) (500 MHz, CDCl3)
2 5.73 5.82 (d, 9.6, H) 4.12(d, 4.18, H) 4.03 (t, 8.0, H)

3 5.01 4.87 (dd, 1.2, 9.6, H) 5.16 (dd, 2.6, 5.0, H) 4.07 (m, H)

4 3.09 3.09 (dd, 1.2, 4.2, H ) 3.30 (dd, 1.1, 4.2, H) 3.23 (dd, 2.0, 4.0, H)

5 3.45 3.53 (dd, 1.2, 4.2, H) 3.54 (dd, 1.7, 3.3, H) 3.48 (dd, 3.25, 6.5, H)

6 3.67 3.82 (d, 2.4, H) 3.69 (d, 3.0, H) 3.61 (d, 3.0, H)

7 4.58 4.53 (d,12.6, Hα) 4.54 (d, 12.3, Hα) 4.74 (d, 12.5, Hα)
4.23 4.30 (d,12, Hβ) 4.4 (d, 12.3, Hβ) 4.28 (d, 12.0, Hβ)

2‟, 6‟ 8.04 8.02 (dd, 1.2,8.4, 2H) 8.05 (dd, 1.4, 8.1, 2H) 8.05 (dd, 1.25, 8.0, 2H)

3‟,5‟ 7.46 7.52 (t, 7.8, 2H) 7.46 (t, 8.0, 2H) 7.47 (t, 7.8, 2H)

4‟ 7.61 7.65 (t, 8.1, H) 7.59 (tt, 1.2, 7.2, H) 7.60 (t, 7.5, 2H)

CH3 2.03∆8 2.03∆ (s, 3H)

CH3 2.12∆ 2.02∆ (s, 3H) 1.89(s, 3H)

2-OH 4.85 br s 2.89 (d, 8.0, H)

3-OH 2.25 (d, 4.5, H)

Table 4.27: 13C NMR spectroscopic data of cyclohexane diepoxide from Croton alienus
(416-418)

416 416 417 418

Position Lit.9 Experimental
(75 MHz)
1 59.3 60.1 56.2 58.0
2 69.4 69.9 66.8 70.1
3 70.1 70.5 70.0 69.2
4 52.3 52.6 51.2 53.5

7
Thebpatiphat et al., 1988
8
The pair of resonance marked ▲ and ∆ is arbitrary and could be interchanged
9
Thebpatiphat et al., 1988

140
5 47.7 48.1 48.2 48.2
6 53.3 53.5 53.9 53.7
7 62.1 62.1 64.8 65.0
1‫׳‬ 129.0 129.6 129.5 129.0
2 ‫׳‬/ 6‫׳‬ 128.2 129.5 130.0 130.1
3‫ ׳‬/ 5‫׳‬ 129.4 128.6 128.8 128.8
4‫׳‬ 133.1 133.4 133.8 133.9
a, C 168.3 165.2 166.3 167.9
b, C 169.6▲ 169.6▲
c, C 169.3▲ 169.5▲ 170.1
CH3 20.2∆ 19.8∆
CH3 20.1∆ 19.7∆ 20.7

4.1.2.3.2 Methylcyclohexane monoepoxide derivatives (419 - 421)

Two methylcyclohexene monoepoxide derivatives that were C-1 epimers (419 and 420) and
their pre-cursor molecule (421) were isolated as white crystals from C. alienus leaves [Figure
4.11].

4'
1'
O O
a O
2'
O O
7
O O
O
1 b
O O
6 OCOCH3
O O
O O OCOCH3
4 c

419 420 421

O O

Figure 4.11: Methylcyclohexane monoepoxide derivatives from Croton alienus

Compound 419 had a molecular ion peak at m/z 347.23 supporting the proposed molecular
formula, C18H18O7. Its spectroscopic data [Table 4.28 and 4.29; Appendix 29] was similar to
that of crotepoxide (416) except for resonances associated to a C=C bond at δH 6.37dd and δC
129.2. Based on correlations observed in 2D NMR experiments, the C=C bond was placed on
the cyclohexane ring at position 4.

141
There was a COSY correlation between protons at δH 5.19 and 3.46 that had been assigned to
H-2 and H-6 respectively hence the deduction that these two protons were α-configured and
the epoxide ring at C-6/C-1 was β-positioned. Literature search identified compound 419 as
the known senepoxide (Ogawa and Takagaki, 1987).

Compound 420 had a molecular ion peak at m / z 346.23 consistent with the proposed
molecular formula C18H18O7. Its spectroscopic data was similar to that of compound 7 [Table
4.28 and 4.29; Appendix 30]. However, there was no COSY correlation observed between H-
2 and H-6 as was the case with compound 419. It was therefore deduced that, the
configuration of the epoxide ring at C-6/C-1 was as found in crotepoxide (α-positioned) and
hence, compounds 419 and 420 were epimers at C-1. Compound 420 was subsequently
identified to be the known β-senepoxide.These monoepoxide epimers (419 and 420) have
previously been reported from Uvaria species (Annonaceae), senepoxide from U. catocarpa
(Hollands et al., 1968) and β-senepoxide from U. pandensis and U. ferruginea (Nkunya et
al., 1987). This is however the first report on their isolation from Croton species. They have
also been reported as having tumor-inhibitory, antileukemic and antibiotic activity properties
(Shing and Tam, 1998).

.
Compound 421 had a molecular ion peak, [M-2]+ At m / z 228.43 that was in agreement with
the proposed molecular formula, C18H18O6 . The spectroscopic data of 421 [Table 4.28 and
4.29; Appendix 31] was similar to that of the monoepoxide epimers 419 and 420 but, in place
of the epoxide ring at C-6/C-1, there were resonances of a C=C bond (δH-6 6.28d; δC-6, 1 125.4,
131.1) in compound 421. Just like compound 420, compound 421 did not have COSY
correlation between H-2 and H-6. It was therefore deduced that, their configuration at C-1
was the same. Literature search identified compound 421 as a diene precursor of β-
senepoxide, (+)-(2S, 3R)-diacetoxy-1-benzoyloxymethylenecyclohex-4, 6-diene (trans-5, 6-
di-acetoxy-1-benzoyloxymethyl-1, 3-cyclohexadiene). This compound 421 is previously
reported as an intermediate in the total synthesis of the optically active natural (+)-
crotepoxide (Ogawa and Takagaki, 1987). This is the first report of its isolation from natural
sources. No biological activity reports on it have been reported.

142
Table 4.28: 1H NMR data (300 MHz) of methylcyclohexene monoepoxides (419 and 420)
and the diene precursor of β- Senepoxide (421)

Postn 419 420 421

2 5.19 (dd, 2.1,2.7) 5.57 (dd, 2.3, 6.0) 5.80 (d, 6.0)
3 5.58 (dd, 0.75, 1.35) 5.67 (d, 8.4) 5.49 (t, 5.0)
4 6.37 (dd,4.2,9.9) 6.06(d, 10.0) 6.16 (dd, 1.0, 9.0)
5 6.10 (dd, uncalculatable) 5.79(d, 10.0) 5.92 (dd, 4.5, 9.8)
6 3.46 (d, 3.9) 3.57 (dd, 1.8,3.8) 6.28 (d, 5.5)
7 4.84 (d, 12.6) 4.24 (d, 12.6) 4.62,4.37 (d,12.0) 4.90 (s)
2‟, 6‟ 8.06 (dd, 1.2,7.5) 8.03 (d, 7.5) 8.04 (d, 7.5)
3‟, 5‟ 7.46 (t, 6.9) 7.45 (t, 7.8) 7.45 (t, 7.8)
4‟ 7.57 (t, 7.5) 7.57 (t, 7.5) 7.57 (t, 7.5)
OOCCH3 2.08 (s) 2.13 (br s) 2.05 (s)
OOCCH3 2.06 (s) 2.05 (s) 2.02 (s)

Table 4.29: 13C NMR data (75 Hz) for methylcyclohexane monoepoxide derivatives (419
and 420) and the diene precursor of β- Senepoxide (421)

Pstn 419 420 421

1 61.8 58.5 131.1
2 67.5 71.5 70.0
3 67.1 71.5 70.8
4 129.2 124.3 126.0
5 128.9 133.6 125.5
6 49.8 54.7 125.4
7 64.2 62.4 64.9
1‫׳‬ 129.6 129.5 137.6
2‫׳‬, 6‫׳‬ 130.0 130.0 129.9
3‫׳‬, 5‫׳‬ 128.7 128.7 128.7
4‫׳‬ 133.6 133.6 133.4
a 166.2 166.0 170.2
b 170.3 170.4 170.4
c 169.5 170.5 170.4
OOCCH3 21.3 21.1 21.2
OOCCH3 20.1 21.0 21.1

143
4.1.2.4 A triterpenoid and a phytosterol from Croton alienus
The known triterpenoid, acetylaleuritolic acid (411), also isolated from the roots of C.
megalocarpoides and the known phytosterol, D4-stigmasterone (422) were isolated from the
roots of C. alienus. The structural elucidation of the phytosterol is the one going to be
discussed in the next section since that of acetylaleuritolic acid was done in Section 4.1.1.4.1.

4.1.2.4.1 D4-stigmasterone (422)

Compound 422 was isolated as a white crystalline from the hexane extract of the leaves of C.
alienus and its molecular formula proposed to be C29H46O.
29
28

24
H
21
20
18 22 26
25
12
27
11 17
19
1 9 H 14

15
3
H H
422
7
O 5

The 1H NMR spectrum of compound 422 [Table 4.30; Appendix 32] showed resonances of
six methyl groups, two of which were doublets at δH 0.83 d (J = 4.5 Hz) and 0.88 d (J = 4.5
Hz), associated to an isopropyl group substituent. Three double bond resonances of methine
protons were observed at δH 5.72 br s, 5.15 dd (J = 8.4, 15.2 Hz) and 5.02 dd (J = 8.4, 15.2
Hz). This is characteristic of H-4, H-22 and H-23 in 24-ethylcholest-4, 22-dien-3-one. The
13
C NMR spectrum [Table 4.30; Appendix 32] showed resonances of a ketone carbon at δC
199.8 and four olefinic carbons at δC 171.9, 138.3, 129.6 and 123.9. Other carbon chemical
shifts were found to be similar to those reported of the known 24-ethylcholest-4-en-3-one
(Georges et al., 2006) and 24-ethylcholest-4, 22-dien-3-one (Chen et al., 2008). Compound
422 was subsequently deduced to be the widely known D4-stigmasterone.

144
Table 4.30: NMR spectroscopic data of D4-stigmasterone (422)

δC (75 MHz)
Position Georges et al., 2006 Experimental
δH (300 MHz)
(m, J Hz; Integral)

1 35.9 36.3 2.01(m; Hα)

1.69 (m; Hβ)

2 34.2 34.1 2.28 (m; Hα )

2.41 (m; Hβ)

3 200.6 199.8

4 124.0 123.9 5.72 (s; H)

5 171.9 171.9

6 32.8 33.1 2.28 (m; Hα )

2.35 (m; Hβ)

7 35.8 32.2 1.85 (m; Hα )

1.01(m; Hβ)

8 35.8 35.8 1.51(m; H)

9 54.0 54.0 0.92(m; H)

10 39.7 39.7

11 21.2 21.3 1.50 (m; Hα)

1.51 (m; Hβ)

12 39.8 39.8 1.15 (m; Hα)

2.04 (m; Hβ )

13 42.6 42.5

14 56.1 56.0 1.11 (m; H)

15 24.4 24.3 1.22 (m; Hα)

1.28 (m; Hβ)

16 28.4 28.3 1.10 (m; Hα)

1.60 (m; Hβ)

17 56.2 56.0 1.02 (m; H)

18 12.2 12.3 0.73 (s; 3H)

19 18.1 17.5 0.83 (s; 3H)

145
 20 46.1 46.0 2.27 (m; H)

21 20.0 21.3 1.04 (s; 3H)

22 138.2 138.3 5.15(dd, 8.4, 15.2; H)

23 130.0 129.6 5.02 (dd, 8.4, 15.2; H)

24 51.5 51.4 1.53 (s; H)

25 32.1 32.2 1.60 (s; H)

26 19.2 19.2 0.81 (d, 4.5; 3H)

27 21.2 21.2 0.88 (d, 4.5; 3H)

28 26.3 26.2 1.20 (m; Hα )
1.50 (m; Hβ )

29 12.2 12.1 0.82 t, 4.5; 3H)

4.1.3 The Phytochemistry of Kenyan Croton sylvaticus

Nine compounds were isolated from the roots of Kenyan C. sylvaticus. They included five
clerodane (423- 427), two halimane (428 and 429) and one labdane (430) diterpenoids. Also
isolated was a phytosterol, sitosterol that had been isolated from C. megalocarpoides. The
clerodanes had negative specific rotation values and were therefore assigned as ent-
clerodanes.

4.1.3.1 Ent-clerodane diterpenoids from Croton sylvaticus

Hardwickiic acid (423), a very rampant compound in Croton genus and kolavenol and its
three derivatives (424-427) were the five ent-clerodane diterpenoids isolated from the roots of
C. sylvaticus.

4.1.3.1.1 Hardwickiic acid (423)

Compound 423 was isolated as white crystals and had a molecular ion peak at m/z 316.44
supporting the proposed molecular formula, C20H28O3.

146
 15
O
16

13

11
20
1 17

10

18 COOH 423

The 1H NMR spectrum [Appendix 33] had resonances of three olefinic protons that are
characteristic of a furan ring at δH 7.37 t (J = 1.63 and 1.65 Hz); δH 6.88 t (J = 3.02 and 4.34
Hz) and δH 6.28 d (J = 0.91 Hz) and another one of a carbon-carbon double bond at δH 7.22.
Resonances of three methyl protons were also observed at δH 1.28 s, 0.85 d (J = 6.4 Hz) and
13
0.78 s. The C NMR spectrum [Appendix 33] had resonances of twenty carbons implying
that compound 423 was a diterpene. Resonances characteristic of a β- substituted furan ring
were observed at δC 143.1, 140.6, 126.0 and 111.4 and a carbonyl carbon at δC 171.9. There
were additionally resonances of two sp2 carbons at δC 138.8 and 141.7 and three methyl group
carbons at δC 20.9, 17.8 and 16.4. The remaining resonances were of sp3 carbons of
methylene and methine groups [Table 4.31].

The chemical shifts alluded above were consistent with those reported in literature for 15, 16-
epoxy-3, 13(16), 14-clerodatrien-18-oic acid also called, hardwickiic acid (McChesney et al.,
1991). Hardwickiic acid is reported to have been first isolated from Hardwickia pinnata
(Misra et al., 1979) and later from an Asteraceae species, Solidago rugosa (Henderson 1973).
It is also reported from several Croton species among them, C. aromaticus of Sri Lanka
(Bandara et al., 1987), the entire plant of C. californicus of U.S.A. (Luzbetak et al., 1979),
the stem bark of C. lechleri of Brazil (Cai et al., 1993b) and the roots of C. sonderianus of
Brazil (McChesney et al., 1991; McChesney and Silveira, 1990).

The reported biological activities of hardwickiic acid include:- inactivity against

Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium at 100 µg/ml (Lu Tiansheng et al.,
1995); weak cytotoxic activity against in vitro cell culture with a LD50 21.90 µg/ml (Chen et
al., 1994) and 62% mortality of adult female aphids after 24 hours post-treatment (Bandara et
al., 1987).

147
Table 4.31: NMR spectroscopic data of hardwickiic acid (423)

Position δC (75 MHz) δH (300 MHz)

(m, J Hz; Integral)
(McChesney et al., 1991) Experimental

1 18.6 18.7 (2H)*10

2 28.0 27.9 (2H)*
3 138.1 138.8 7.22 (br s; H)
4 142.8 141.7
5 38.3 38.0
6 37.0 36.7 (2H)*
7 27.1 27.7 (2H)*
8 36.6 36.2 2.19-2.48 (m; H)
9 39.7 39.2
10 47.6 47.0 1.42 (s; H)
11 39.5 39.0 1.38-1.74 (m; 2H)
12 18.6 18.6 (2H)*
13 126.5 126.0
14 111.8 111.4 6.28 (d, 0.91; H)
15 139.4 140.6 6.88 (t, 3.02, 4.34; H)
16 143.1 143.1 7.37 (t, 1.63, 1.65; H)
17 16.2 16.4 0.85 (d, 6.4; 3H)
18 173.1 171.9
19 20.9 20.9 1.28 (s; 3H)
20 18.2 17.9 0.78
; 3H)

4.1.3.1.2 Kolavenol and its derivatives

Kolavenol (424) and three of its derivatives, among them a novel formate derivative, 15-
formate-ent-3,13E-clerodadiene (427) were isolated from the root bark of C. sylvaticus as
white crystalline compounds [Figure 4.12]. Their optical rotations were negative values
indicating that they were ent-clerodanes.

10
*  Protons superimposed on each other

148
 O OH
OH 15 O H
16
O
O
13

11 20
1 17

10

3 7

425 19 426 427

424 18

Figure 4.12: Kolavenol and its derivatives from Croton sylvaticus

The 1H NMR spectrum of compound 424 [Appendix 34] had resonances of five three proton
singlets at δH 0.80, 1.00, 1.58, 1.58 and 1.69. Two olefinic protons were observed at δH 5.19
br s and δH 5.40 t (J = 6.90 Hz) and a doublet that integrated for two protons was observed at
13
δH 4.14. The C NMR spectrum [Appendix 34] had resonances of twenty carbons, four of
them olefinic at δC 120.7, 123.0, 141.2 and 144.8; an oxymethylene carbon at δC 59.7 and
five methyl group carbons at δC 20.2, 18.2, 18.2, 16.8 and 16.2. Correlations in 2D NMR
experiments and comparison of the spectral data for compound 424 [Tables 4.32 and 4.33]
with literature identified it as the known ent-3, 13E-clerodadien-15-ol, trivial name
kolavenol.

Compound 425 had spectroscopic data [Appendix 35] that was similar to that of kolavenol
except for resonances of an acetoxy group (a carbonyl carbon at δC 171.4 and a methyl group
at δC 20.3 and δ3H 1.00s) that was placed as a substituent at C-15 using 2D NMR experiments
correlations. Compound 425 was subsequently identified to be the known 15-acetoxy-ent-
3,13E-clerodadiene. Both kolavenol and compound 425 have been isolated previously from
Solidago canadensis, S. elongata, S. rugosa, Hardwickia pinnata and many other plant
families including Aristolochiaceae, Compositae and Leguminosae (Lu Tiansheng et al.,
1993 and 1995). This report is therefore the first of their isolation from Croton genus.
Kolavenol has been found to have anti-feedant activity against the leaf cutter ants, Atta
cephalotes (Hubert and Wiemer, 1985). Kolavenic acid, a derivative of kolavenol which is
reported from Polyalthia longifolia var. pendulla (Annaceae) and many other plant families
including Aristolochiaceae, Caesalpiriaceae and Compositae has been showed to possess
anti-microbial activity to most bacteria and anti-fungal activity against kanamycin resistant
fungal strains, Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans (Krebs and Ramiarantosa, 1996).

149
The spectroscopic data of compound 426 [Table 4.32 and 4.33; Appendix 36] differed from
that one of kolavenol by a C=C bond placed at C-8 (17). It was subsequently identified to be
a derivative of kolavenol named 3, 8(17), 13E-clerodatriene-15-ol. Similarly, the
spectroscopic data of compound 427 was very similar to that of kolavenol except for
resonances of a formate group (a carbonyl at δC 161.3 and an aldehydic proton singlet at δH
8.07) [Appendix 37a]. HMBC spectrum [Appendix 37b] showed 1H-13C NMR cross peaks of
the allylic methyl group proton at δ3H-16 1.72 s with the carbons at δC-12, 14, 13 32.9, 117.1,
127.0; oxymethylene protons at δ2H-15 4.69 with the sp2 carbon and the formate carbonyl at
δC-14, OCOH 117.1 and 161.3 respectively; the allylic methyl group protons at δ3H-18 1.57 s with
δC-3, 4, 5 120.5, 144.5, 38.4. Additionally, δC-5 38.4 had HMBC correlation with δ3H-19 0.98 s
further supporting the proposed molecular formula of C21H34O2 and a calculated double bond
equivalence of 5. The relative configuration for this compound was assigned using NOESY
experiment [Appendix 37c] where H-10 showed correlations with H-8 and 2H-11. Other
correlations observed in the NOESY were between 3H-19 with 3H-20 and 3H-19 with 3H-
17. A specific rotation of -39.2° which was similar to that of kolavenol allowed for the
identification of compound 427 as a new formate derivative of kolavenol, 15-formate-ent-
3,13E-clerodadiene.

Table 4.32: 1H NMR spectroscopic data of kolavenol and its derivatives (424-427)

Cpd 424 425 426 427

HMBC for
Pstn δH (300MHz) 427
(HC)
1 0.70 (m; Hα) 1.58 (d, 1.3; 0.76 (m, 2H) 0.72 (s; Hα) 10, 9
1.47 (m; Hβ) Hα) 1.75 (m; Hβ)
1.42(s; Hβ)

2 1.16 (m; 2H) 1.35(s; Hα) 1.16 (m; 2H) 1.17 (m; Hα)
1.40(s; Hβ ) 1.17(m; Hβ)

3 5.19 (br s; H) 5.20 (br s; H) 5.17 (br s; H) 5.19 (br s; H)

6 1.70 (m; Hα) 1.70 (m; 2H) 1.72 (m, 2H) 1.69(m; Hα) 4, 10
1.35 (m; Hβ) 1.35(m; Hβ)

7 2.02(m; 2H) 2.05(m; 2H) 2.02 (m; 2H) 2.04(m; 2H)

8 1.45 (m; H) 1.69 (m; H) 1.45 (m; H)

10 1.36 (m; H) 1.35(m; H) 1.34 (m; H) 1.33 (m; H)

150
 11 1.70 (m; 2H ) 1.70 (m; 2H) 1.69 (m; 2H) 1.70 (m; 2H) 12, 4

12 1.90 (m; 2H) 1.85 (m; 2H) 1.83 (m; 2H) 1.90 (m; 2H)

14 5.40 (t, 6.90; 5.32 (t, 1.05; 5.68 (t, 2.12; H) 5.35 (t,7.10; H)
H) H)
15 4.14 (d, 6.85; 4.57(d, 7.1; 4.36 (d, 6.34; H) 4.69(d; 6.65; H) 14,
2H) 2H) (C=O)

16 1.69(s; 3H) 1.69(s; 3H) 1.70 (s; 3H) 1.72(s; 3H) 13, 12, 14

17 0.80 0.80 4.56 0.87 9

(d, 6.30; 3H) (d, 6.20; 3H) (br s; 2H) (d, 3.45; 3H)

18 1.58 (s; 3H) 1.58 (s; 3H) 1.58 (s; 3H) 1.57 (s; 3H) 4, 5

19 1.00 (s; 3H) 1.05 (s; 3H) 1.00 (s; 3H) 0.98 (s; 3H) 4

20 1.58 (s; 3H) 1.58 (s; 3H) 0.74 (s; 3H) 1.57 (br s; 3H)

OCOH 8.07 (s; H)

OCOCH3 1.00 (s; 3H)

Table 4.33: 13C NMR spectroscopic data of kolavenol and its derivatives from
Croton sylvaticus

Position 424 425 426 427

Lu Tiansheng et Experimental
al., (75 MHz)
1993 / 95
1 36.7 18.5 18.5 18.2 18.3

2 26.9 27.7 27.5 26.8 27.6

3 120.4 120.7 120.7 120.4 120.5

4 144.5 144.8 144.8 144.4 144.6

5 38.2 38.4 38.4 38.1 38.4

6 36.8 38.4 36.8 36.8 36.8

7 27.5 27.1 26.9 27.4 26.9

8 36.2 36.5 36.3 143.4 36.3

151
 9 38.6 38.8 38.8 38.7 38.8

10 46.4 46.5 46.7 46.4 46.5

11 18.2 38.1 36.5 36.3 38.1

12 32.8 33.0 33.0 33.0 32.9

13 140.9 141.2 143.6 163.8 127.0

14 122.8 123.0 118.0 115.0 117.1

15 59.4 59.7 61.5 59.8 60.9

16 16.5 16.8 17.0 16.5 16.8

17 16.0 16.2 16.2 112.8 16.0

18 18.3 18.2 18.6 18.3 18.9

19 19.9 20.2 21.3 19.9 20.2

20 18.0 18.2 18.2 18.0 18.2

OCOH 161.3
OCOCH3 171.4
OCOCH3 20.3

4.1.3.2 Halimane diterpenoids from Croton sylvaticus

Two halimane diterpenoids, crotohalimaneic acid (428) and penduliflaworosin (429) were
isolated from the root bark of C. sylvaticus.

4.1.3.2.1 Crotohalimaneic acid (428)

Crotohalimaneic acid (428) was isolated as a semi-crystalline mixture with hardwickiic acid
from the root bark of C. sylvaticus.

152
 O
14
16

12
20
1
17

10

COOH 428
19
18

When the mixture of the two compounds, hardwickiic acid and crotohalimaneic acid (428)
was purified, hardwickiic acid was the only one that was obtained in a pure form. The
remaining sample mixture was insufficient for a further successful purification process in an
attempt to get a pure form of the crotohalimaneic acid (428). However, using literature data,
it was possible to pick out the resonances representing each compound from the spectra of the
mixture that had been obtained before the first purification attempt.

The 1H NMR spectrum of the mixture [Appendix 38a] had resonances characteristic of two β-
substituted furan rings appearing as un-split doublets at δH 6.26 (6.25), 7.35 (7.33) and a
singlet at δH 7.20 (7.20). Resonances of two singlets each integrating for three protons were
observed at δH 0.86 (0.86) and 1.28 (1.30) and two doublets each integrating for also three
protons at δH 0.86 (0.87), taken to represent 3H-20, 3H-19 and 3H-17 respectively in each of
the two compounds of the mixture. A triplet observed at δH 6.86 was taken to be the olefinic
proton at position 3 of the hardwickiic acid (423) in the mixture.

The 13C NMR spectrum [Appendix 38b] had 20 carbon resonances which included four furan
ring carbons at δC 111.0 (111.1), 125.6 (125.9), 138.4 (138.4) and 142.6 (142.7) for C-14, C-
13, C-16 and C-15 in each of the two compounds and three methyl carbons at δC 16.0 (16.0),
20.5 (18.3) and 22.9 (20.9) representing C-16, C-20 and C-19. Two sp2 carbons observed at
δC 131.0 and 137.0 were taken to be C-5 and C-10 respectively of the crotohalimaneic acid
(428) and at δC 140.3 and 141.4 for C-3 and C-4 respectively of the hardwickiic acid (423). A
resonance of a carbonyl carbon in both compounds was observed at δC 183.7 (172.2) and was
taken to be for C-18.

153
 13
All the above observed resonances in the C NMR spectrum were confirmed by reported
data [Table 4.34] of ent-halim-5(10), 13, 14-trien-15, 16-olide-18-oic acid, trivial name,
crotohalimaneic acid (428) (Kanlayavattanakul et al., 2005) and hardwickiic acid (423)
(McChesney et al., 1991). DEPT experiment of the mixture confirmed the chemical shift
assignments of five quaternary carbons (two sp3 and three sp2 types) for crotohalimaneic acid
(428) at δC-9, 4, 13, 5, 10 40.9, 47.4, 125.6, 131.0 and 136.0 and four quaternary carbons (two sp3
and two sp2 types) for the hardwickiic acid (423) at δC-5, 9, 13, 4 37.6, 38.8, 125.9 and 141.4.
Correlations in the HMBC spectrum between the carbonyl carbon at δC-18 183.7 of
crotohalimaneic acid (428) with δ3H-19 1.30 s and the multiplet at δH-3 1.64-2.02 was
observed. There was no HMBC correlation observed between the carbonyl carbon at δC-18
172.2 of hardwickiic acid (423) and the methyl proton singlet at δ3H-19 1.28 further
confirming the proposed identities of the two compounds in the sample mixture.

Table 4.34: NMR spectroscopic data of crotohalimaneic acid (428) and hardwickiic acid
(423)

Crotohalimaneic acid (428) Hardwickiic acid (423)

δH (m, J Hz; Integral) δC (300 MHz)
Pstn Kanlayavattanakul Experimental McChesney Experimental
et al., 2005 et al., 1991
1 1.89-2.02 (m; Ha) 25.1 25.1 17.9 17.5
2.07-2.17 (m; Hb)

2 1.74-1.81 (m; 2H) 19.5 19.5 27.9 27.5

3 1.64-1.69 (m; Ha) 35.4 35.4 138.8 138.4

1.89-2.02 (m; Hb)

4 47.4 47.4 141.7 141.4

5 131.0 131.0 38.0 37.6

6 1.34-1.44 (m; Ha) 25.9 25.9 36.7 36.5

1.89-2.02 (m; Hb)

7 1.50-1.56 (m; 2H) 26.8 26.8 27.7 27.3

8 1.74-1.81 (m; H) 33.8 33.3 36.2 36.2

9 40.9 40.9 39.2 38.8

10 136.0 136.0 47.0 46.7

11 1.64-1.69 (m; 2H) 36.5 35.8 39.0 38.6

154
 12 2.07-2.17 (m; Ha) 19.5 19.5 18.6 18.2
2.33-2.40 (m; Hb)

13 125.8 125.6 126.0 125.9

14 6.26 (dd, 0.8, 0.8; H) 111.0 111.0 111.4 111.1

15 7.34 (dd, 1.5, 1.5; H) 142.6 142.6 143.1 142.7

16 7.20 (s; H) 138.4 138.4

138.4 140.6
140.6 140.3140.3

17 0.87 (d, 7.0; 3H) 16.0 16.0 16.4 16.0

18 183.1 183.7 171.9 172.2

19 1.30 (s; 3H) 22.9 22.9 20.9 20.9

20 0.86 (s; 3H) 20.8 20.5 18.7 18.3

4.1.3.2.2 Penduliflaworosin (429)

Penduliflaworosin (429) was obtained as a white crystalline compound from the root bark of
C. sylvaticus. The MS had a molecular ion peak at m/z 359.64 for [M++1]+ supporting the
proposed molecular formula, C21H26O5.

O
14 16

11 O
1 20
O
10 17

18
COOMe 429
19

The 1H NMR and 13

C NMR [Appendices 39a and 39b] had typical resonances of a β-
substituted furan moiety (δH 6.40 br s, 7.48 br s, 7.47 br s; methine carbons at δC 108.2,
139.4, 144.1 and a quaternary carbon at δC 125.9). A total of 21 resonances were observed in
the 13C NMR spectrum indicating that compound 429 was a diterpenoid. The DEPT spectrum
showed presence of three methyl groups, one of them, a methoxy functionality at δH 3.63 s
and δC 51.7. Resonances of two carbonyl carbons at δC 177.8 and 177.1 and a C=C bond at δC
128.7 and 134.7 were also observed.

155
The spectroscopic data adduced [Table 4.35] was identical to that reported for the known
furanoid diterpene, ent- (12R)-methyl-15, 16-epoxy-9, 10-friedolabda-5 (10), 13 (16), 14-
trien-19-oate 20, 12-lactone also called, penduliflaworosin, previously isolated from C.
penduliflorus (Adesogan, 1981) and C. jatrophoides (Mbwambo et al., 2009).

Table 4.35: NMR (600 MHz) spectroscopic data of penduliflaworosin (429)

δC δH
Position Mbwambo et al., 2009 Experimental (m, J Hz; Integral)
1 24.6 24.6 2.06 (m; Hα)
1.80 (m; Hβ)

2 19.0 18.9 1.70 (m; 2H)

3 26.5 26.4 2.21 (dd, 6.0, 7.8; Hα )

1.94 (d, 2.4; Hβ)
4 47.5 47.3
5 134.8 134.7

6 26.6 26.6 1.82 (m; Hα )

1.54 (m; Hβ)
7 34.9 34.7 1.97 (m; Hα )
1.62 (m; Hβ)

8 37.7 37.7 1.71 (m; H)

9 53.2 53.2
10 128.6 128.7

11 41.3 41.1 2.78 (dd, 8.4, 9.0; Hα)

2.21 (dd, 6.0, 7.8; Hβ)

12 72.1 72.0 5.44 (t, 8.1; H)

13 125.8 125.9

14 108.2 108.2 6.40 (br s; H)

15 144.0 144.1 7.47 (br s; H)

16 139.2 139.4 7.48 (br s; H)

17 16.2 16.1 1.00 (br s; 3H)

18 22.8 22.5 1.31 (s; 3H)

19 178.1 177.8
20 177.4 177.1
19- 51.9 51.7 3.63 (s; 3H)
acetoxy

156
4.1.3.3 A labdane diterpenoid from Croton sylvaticus
A known labdane type diterpenoid, labd-13E- ene - 8α, 15-diol (430) was isolated from the
root bark of C. sylvaticus.

OH
15

16
H 13

11
20 17
1 9
OH

5
H
3 7

H
18 19 430

The molecular formula of compound 430 was proposed to be C20H36O2 from its 1H and 13C
NMR data. 1H NMR spectrum [Appendix 40a] had resonances of five methyl proton singlets
at δH 1.69, 1.13, 0.86, 0.79 and 0.78 and an olefinic proton at δH 5.43 t (J = 3.96 Hz). A
quintet (double doublet) integrating for two protons was observed down field at δH 4.14 (J =
13
3.86, 7.24 Hz). The C NMR spectrum [Appendix 40b] had 20 carbon resonances that
included two sp2 carbons at δC 141.0 and 123.2 and two oxygenated sp3 carbons at δC 74.1
and 61.2. Correlations observed in the 2D NMR experiments [Table 4.36] and comparison of
the experimental spectral data with literature showed that compound 430 had a labdan-8-
hydroxylabdan-13-ene skeleton (Ngadjui et al., 1999).

Correlations observed in the NOESY spectrum between 3H-17 and H-7a led to a deduction
that the methyl group at position 8 was α-configured while that between H-5 and both 3H-18
and 3H-19 enabled assignment of the relative configuration at C-5. The E-geometry of the
substituents of the C (13) / C (14) double bond was deduced from the up field resonance of
the methyl group at δC-16 16.5. Compound 430 was subsequently identified to be the known
labd-13E-ene-8α, 15-diol reported previously from Cistus creticus subsp. Creticus
(Koukoulitsa et al., 2008). This is the first report of its isolation from a Croton species. Its
potential cytotoxicity and cytostatic effects against human cancer cell lines have too been
reported (Koukoulitsa et al., 2008).

157
Table 4.36: NMR spectroscopic data of labda-13E-ene-8α, 15- diol (430)

Pstn δC (75 MHz) δH (300 MHz) HMBC COSY NOES

Koukoulitsa Experimental (m, J Hz; Integral) (H C) Y
et al., 2008
1 40.0 39.8 1.64 (br s; Hα) 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 1β, 2 20
0.95 (d,1.86; Hβ) 20 1α

2 18.7 18.5 1.59 (m; Hα) 1, 3, 4, 10 1, 2β, 3

1.43 (m; Hβ) 2α

3 42.2 42.0 1.14 (m; Hα) 1, 2, 4, 5, 18, 2, 3β 18, 19

1.37 (m; Hβ) 19 3α
4 33.5 33.3

5 56.3 56.1 0.92 (br s; H) 1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 6 18, 19

10, 18, 19, 20

6 20.8 20.6 1.26 (m; Hα) 4, 5, 7, 8, 10 6β, 7α,β

1.64 (m; Hβ) 6α

7 44.8 44.6 1.86 (dt, 1.62; Hα) 5, 6, 8, 9, 17 6, 7β 17

1.38 (m; Hβ) 7α
8 74.3 74.1

9 61.5 59.3 1.05 1, 5, 7, 8, 11, 11

(t, 2.01; H) 12, 17, 20
10 39.5 39.3

11 23.8 23.6 1.54 (m; Hα) 8, 9, 10, 12, 13 9, 11β, 12

1.38 (m; Hβ) 11α

12 43.1 42.9 2.09 9, 11, 13, 14, 11 16

(t, 4.41; 2H) 16
13 141.2 141.0

14 123.4 123.2 5.43 (t, 3.96; H) 12, 16 15 15

15 59.5 61.2 4.14 (q, 3.86, 7.24; 13, 14 14 14

2H)

16 16.7 16.5 1.69 (s; 3H) 12, 13, 14, 15

17 24.2 24.0 1.13 (s; 3H) 7, 8, 9 7

18 36.6 33.4 0.86 (s; 3H) 3, 5, 19 3, 5

19 21.2 21.5 0.78 (s; 3H) 3, 4, 5, 18 3, 5

20 15.7 15.5 0.79 (s; 3H) 1, 5, 9, 10 1

158
4.2 Preliminary phytochemical screening results
Phytochemical screening of the aqueous and methanol extracts of C. alienus, C.
megalocarpoides and C. sylvaticus showed predominance of terpenoids and sterols.
Alkaloids, anthraquinones, tannins, phenolics and flavanoids were found in trace amounts.
The methanol extracts of the stem barks of C. megalocarpoides and C. sylvaticus were found
to have very low total phenolic content (TPC; 1.89 + 0.02% - 1.14 + 0.01% w/w equivalent of
gallic acid). These two extracts were additionally found to have low antioxidant potential
(IC50 > 1000 µg / ml compared to ascorbic acid, IC50 = 9.51 + 0.22 µg/ml).

The above observations were consistent with reports of plant species belonging to Croton
genus. Asian and African Croton species yielded mainly diterpenoids while American Croton
species tended to yield mainly alkaloids (Salatino et al., 2007; Chapter 2 in this thesis).
Results of the phytochemical investigations in this study [Section 4.1] did not show isolation
of flavonoids and phenolics. Plant phenolics in general are highly effective in free radical
scavenging hence good anti-oxidants (Atanassova et al., 2011).

4.3 Biological activity screening results

Anti-microbial activity tests were done using different strains of bacteria and fungi [Table
4.37 and 4.38]. Candida albicans was the most susceptible microorganism to the crude plant
extracts. The root and stem bark aqueous extracts of C. alienus and C. sylvaticus were active
towards C. albicans at the lowest concentration tested (25 mg / mL). Harwickiic acid (423),
that was isolated from the roots of C. sylvaticus was found to inhibit the growth of C.
albicans (MIC < 12.5 µg / mL). Methanol extract of the stem bark of C. sylvaticus was the
only crude extract that inhibited the growth of a bacteria strain, Bacillus subtillis at 10 mg /
mL. Penduliflaworosin (429) that was isolated from the roots of C. sylvaticus showed some
anti-bacterial activities towards B. subtillis (MIC < 12.5 µg / mL). The compounds that were
isolated from C. alienus and C. megalocarpoides and and subjected to anti-microbial activity
tests were found be inactive (IC50 > 20 µg / mL) when compared to control drugs whose
activity is given in Table 4.38.

159
Table 4.37: Anti-microbial activity test results of crude plant extracts

Extracts Exhibiting Activity Lowest concentration Micro-organism(s) with

showing activity Inhibited growth
(mg/mL)
C. alienus roots
 Aqueous 25 C. albicans
 Methanol 50

C. alienus stem bark

 Aqueous 25 C. albicans
 Methanol 50 C. albicans
100 A. niger

C. megalocarpoides root bark

 Aqueous and Methanol 50 C. albicans

C. megalocarpoides stem bark

 Aqueous 50 C. albicans

C. sylvaticus root bark

 Aqueous 25 C. albicans
 Methanol 50 B. subtillis

C. sylvaticus stem bark

 Aqueous 25 C. albicans
 Methanol 10 B. subtillis

Gentamycin 3.0 B. subtillis

Nystatin 3.0 C. albicans

3.0 A. niger

DMSO - -

160
Table 4.38: Anti-microbial test results of control drugs used in secondary screening

Micro-organism Drug Control IC5011 MIC MFC/MBC

(µg/ml)* (µg/ml)** (µg/ml)***

Candida albicans Amphotericin B 0.428 2.500 2.500

ATCC 90028 (Ca)

Candida glabrata Amphotericin B 1.040 2.500 2.500

ATCC 90030 (Cg)

Candida krusei Amphotericin B 1.599 2.500 2.500

ATCC 6258 (Ck)

Aspergillus fumigatus Amphotericin B 0.293 0.625 2.500

ATCC 90906 (Afu)

Cryptococcus neoformans Amphotericin B 0.695 1.250 1.250

ATCC 90113 (Cn)

Staphylococcus aureus Ciprofloxacin 0.082 0.250 0.500

ATCC 29213 (Sa)

Methicillin-resistant S. aureus Ciprofloxacin 0.091 0.250 0.500

ATCC 33591 (MRS)

Escherichia coli Ciprofloxacin 0.003 0.008 0.031

ATCC 35218 (Ec)

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Ciprofloxacin 0.053 0.250 0.500

ATCC 27853 (Pa)

Mycobacterium intracellulare Ciprofloxacin 0.485 1.000 -

ATCC 23068 (Mi)

*IC50 (Inhibitory Concentration), the concentration (µg/ml) that affords 50% inhibition of growth

**MIC (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration), the lowest test concentration (µg/ml) that allows no
detectable growth

*** MFC/MBC (Minimum Fungicidal / Bactericidal Concentration), the lowest test concentration
(µg/ml) that kills the organism

161
Other biological activity tests the crude plant extracts and compounds isolated were subjected
to included anti-leishmanial, anti-plasmodial and larvicidal activity tests. C. alienus leaves
MeOH: DCM (1:1 v/v) is the only extract that showed activity against Leishmania donovani
(IC50 = 80µg/mL). However, the compounds isolated from both its leaves and roots were
inactive against the same microbe (L. donovani; IC50 and IC90 > 40µg / mL). The control
drugs used, pentamidine and amphotericine B had IC50 / IC90 0.85 / 1.75 and 0.12 / 0.15 µg /
mL respectively.

All the crude plant extracts were inactive towards D6 and W2 strains of Plasmodium
falciparum (IC50 > 4760 ng/mL). The compounds isolated from the leaves and roots of C.
alienus and roots of C. megalocarpoides that were tested for activity towards D6 and W2
strains of P. falciparum were also found to be inactive (IC50 > 4760 ng/mL). The crude plant
extracts and the compounds subjected to P. falciparum were also tested for their cytotoxicity
activity. They were all found to be inactive against VERO cells (IC50 > 4760 ng/mL). All the
crude plant extracts and compounds isolated from C. alienus that were subjected to anti-
plasmodial assays were additionally tested for their mosquito larvicidal activity. They were
all found to be inactive against Aedes aegypti and Anopheles gambiae larvae (LC50 and LC95
>100 ppm) compared to azadirachtin, the larvicide control drug used (LC50 = 60 ppm).

162
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion
The root and stem bark extracts of C. alienus and C. megalocarpoides were active against
Candida albicans at the lowest concentration tested (25 mg / mL). Methanol extract of the
root and stem bark of C. sylvaticus showed anti-microbial activity against C. albicans and
Bacillus subtillis (MIC < 12.5 µg / mL and 10.0 mg / mL respectively). Two compounds
isolated from the roots of C. sylvaticus, hardwickiic acid (423) and penduliflaworosin (429)
had activity against C. albicans and B. subtillis respectively (MIC < 12.5 µg / mL). The leave
extracts of C. alienus showed activity against Leishmania donovani at IC50 80 µg / mL. These
results support conservation for medicinal value of the three plant species investigated. Loss
of synergistic activity by the isolated compounds and trace others in the crude extracts upon
purification [Chapter 4; Section 4.3] can be used to explain the apparent lack of bio-activity
by the compounds isolated and subjected to biolocigal activity tests.

A wide range of phytochemicals including glutarimide alkaloids, methyl cyclohexane

derivatives, diterpenoids (ent-clerodanes, abietanes, trachylobanes, halimanes, labdane and a
phorbol ester), triterpenoids and phytosterols were isolated from the three plants investigated.
Some of the compounds (417-421, 424-426 and 430) were being reported for the first time
from Croton genus, others had not been isolated before from any plant (392-403, 405, 415
and 415) while a lot others (391, 404, 406-414, 414, 416, 422, 423 and 427-429) have been
previously isolated from other Croton species. Although many of the compounds isolated
were not screened for their bio-activity because of sample limitations, the medicinal potential
of the plants investigated is supported by the reported bio-activities of some of the
compounds previously isolated.

This study generated the first phytochemical report of C. alienus and C. megalocarpoides that
are endemic to Kenya. C. alienus did not produce any „ent-clerodane‟, compounds that have
been widely reported from many African Croton species. Additionally, it produced both
alkaloids and diterpenoids, a not so common finding in many plants. It also produced a
phorbol ester derivative, a class of phytochemicals that are not very commonly found in
African Croton species and that have been reported as having notably reported interesting
biological activities.

163
C. megalocarpoides is the second African Croton species after C. zambesicus to have
produced abietane diterpenoids. The ent-clerodane derivatives it produced are highly
oxygenated like those reported from C. zambesicus (see compounds 190-192 in Chapter 2
and compare them with compounds 391-400 in Chapter 4). Additionally, the phytochemical
similarity of C. megalocarpoides with C. zambesicus is further evidenced by their production
of ent-trachylobanes which are reported from only one other African Croton species, C.
macrostachyus. A report on the Southern Africa C. sylvaticus had none of the compounds
isolated from the Kenyan species investigated in this study. The phyto-constituents of C.
sylvaticus are therefore likely to be region specific.

5.2 Recommendations
I. Based on the number of new compounds isolated in this study, there is a possibility of
Kenyan Croton species having interesting phyto-constituents‟ behaviour and by
extension un-reported pharmacological-toxicological values. All the Kenyan Croton
species should therefore be evaluated for their phyto-pharmacological relevancies.
II. C. megaloacrpoides and C. zambesicus were observed to have similar phyto-
constituents. They should therefore be investigated further to establish whether the
two names refer to the same species.
III. A repeat isolation in large quantities of the compounds obtained in this study should
be done to enable:-
(i) Evaluation of all the isolated compounds for their bio-activity potential because
sample limitations made some of the compounds isolated in this study not be
assayed.
(ii) Structural modification studies of all compounds isolated with an aim of
enhancing their bio-activity properties.
IV. Future studies involving Croton plant species should:-
(i) Follow all protocols for isolating special classes of phytochemicals such as
phorbol ester diterpenoids and alkaloids
(ii) Adhere to bioassay guided fractionation approach and aim at documenting
active fractions that can further be developed into useful products rather than
the pure isolates that possess no activity
(iii) Investigate synergism, antagonism and additive interactions as a contributor to
bio-activity of crude plant extracts.

164
 REFERENCES

Aboagye, F., A., Sam, G., H., Massiot, G., and Lavaud, C. (2000) Julocrotine, A Glutarimide
Alkaloid from Croton membranaceus. Fitoterapia 71 (4): 461 – 462

Addae-mensah, I., Waibel, R., Achenbach, H., Muriuki, G.,Pearce, C., Sanders, J., K. (1989)
A Clerodane Diterpene and other Constituents of Croton megalocarpus. Phytochemistry 28
(10): 2759 – 2761

Adelekan, A., M., Prozesky, E., A., Hussein, A., A., Urena, L., D., Rooyen, P., H., Liles, D.,
C., Meyer, J., M., and Rodriguez, B. (2008) Bioactive Diterpenes and Other Constituents of
Croton steenkampianus. Journal of Natural Products 71 (11): 1919-1922

Adesogan, E., K. (1981) The Structure of Penduliflaworosin, a new Furanoid Diterpene from
Croton penduliflorus. The Journal of Chemical Society, Perkins Transaction 1: 1151 – 1153

Agarwal, R.B., Rangari V.D., (2003) “Anti-inflammatory and antiarthritic activities of lupeol
and 19a-h lupeol isolated from strobilanthus callosus and strobilanthus ixiocephala roots.”
Indian Journal of Pharmacology 35: 384-387

Agner, A., R., Maciel, M., A., Pinto, A., C., and Colus, I., M. (2001) Antigenotoxicity of
trans-dehydrocrotonin, a clerodane diterpene from Croton cajucara. Planta Medica 67 (9):
815-819

Aguilar-guadarrama, A., B. and Rios, M., Y. (2004) Three New Sesquiterpenes from Croton
arboreous: Journal Natural Products 67: 914-917

Aiyar, V., N., and Seshadri, T., R. (1970) Components of Croton oblongifolius – III:
Constitution of Oblongifolic acid. Tetrahedron 26 (22): 5275 – 5279

Akendengue, B., and Louis, A., M. (1994) Medicinal Plants used by the Masango People in
Gabon. Journal of Ethno Pharmacology 41 (3):193-200

Amaral, A., C., and Barness, R., A. (1998) A Tetrahydroprotoberberine Alkaloid from
Croton hemiargyreus. Phytochemistry 47 (7): 1445 – 1447

Amaral, F., A., and Barnes, R., A. (1997) Alkaloids of Croton celtidifolius. Botanical
Journal of the Linnean Society 141: 399-436; 485-489

165
Andersen, N., R., and Rasmussen, P., R. (1984) The Constitution of Clerocidin, A New
Antibiotic Isolated from Oidiodendron truncatum. Tetrahedron Letters 25 (4): 465 – 468

Anika, S., M. and Shetty, S., N. (1983) Investigations on Croton penduliflorus Hutch.: II. A
Study on the Mechanism of the Hypotensive Activity in Pentobarbital-Anesthetized Dogs.
Pharmaceutical Biology 21 (2): 59-65

Aratanechemuge Y., Hibasami H., Sanpin K., Katsuzaki H., Imai K., Komiya T.,
(2004) “Induction of apoptosis by lupeol isolated from mokumen (Gossampinus
malabarica L. Merr) in human promyelotic leukemia HL-60 cells.” Oncol, Rep., 11: 289-292

Asare, G., A., Sittie, A., Bugyei, K., Gyan, B., A., Adjei, S., Addo, P., Wiredu, E., K., Nyark,
Otu-Nyarko, A., K., L., S., and Adjei, D., N. (2011) Acute Toxicity Studies of Croton
membranaceus root extract. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 134 (3): 938-943

Asprey, G., F., and Thornton, P. (1955) Medicinal Plants of Jamaica. West Indian Medical
Journal 4: 69-82

Atanassova, M., Georgieva, S., Ivancheva, K. (2011) Total Phenolic and Total Flavanoid
Contents, Antioxidant Capacity and Biological Contaminants in Medicinal Plants. Journal of
the University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy 46 (1): 81

Atta, A., M., Mansour, R., Abdou, M., I., Sayed. A., I. (2004) “Epoxy Resins from Rosin
Acids: Synthesis and Characterization” Polymers for Advanced Technologies 15: 514–522

Attioua, B., Weniger, B., and Chabert, P. (2007) Anti-plasmodial Activities of Compounds
Isolated from Croton lobatus. Pharmaceutical biology 45 (4): 263-266

Babili, F., E., Bon, C., M., Respaud, M., J. and Fouraste, I. (1998) Three Furanoditerpenes
from the bark of Croton campestris. Phytochemistry 48: 165 – 169

Babu, R.,S., Yadav, J., S., Sabitha, G. (2003) Total synthesis of (+) artemisinin. Organic
Chemical Sciences. Indian Institute of Chemical Technology 1: 1

Baccelli, C., Navarro, I., Block, S., Abad, A., Morel, N., and Quetin-Leclercq, J. (2007)
Vasorelaxant Activity of Diterpenes from Croton zambesicus and Synthetic Trachylobannes
and their Structure Activity Relationships. Journal of Natural Products 70 (6): 910 – 917

166
Bahl, A., Bahl, B., S. (2011) A Text Book of Organic Chemistry. S. Chand and Company
Ltd. 20th Revised Edition, 921-923

Balick, M., J., and Cox, P., A. (1997). Plants, People, and Culture: The Science of
Ethnobotany. W.H. Freeman and Co. New York

Balunas, M., J., and Kinghorn, D., A. (2005) Drug Discovery from Medicinal Plants. Review
Article. Life Science 58 (5): 431-441

Bandara, B., M., Wimalasiri, W., R., and Macleod, J., K. (1988) Ent-Kauranes and
oleananes from Croton lacciferus. Phytochemistry 27 (3): 869-71

Bandara, B., M., Wimalasiri, W., R., and Bandara, K., A. (1987) Isolation and
Insecticidal Activity of (-) – Hardwickiic acid from Croton aromaticus. Planta Medica 53:
575

Bandoni, A., L., Mendiondo, M., E., Rondina, R., V., D., and Coussio, J., D. (1976) Survey
of Argentine Medicinal Plants.Folklore and Phytochemical Screening. Econ Botany 30:161-
185

Banerji, A., Nandi, C., and Kundu, A., B. (1988) Investigation of Croton candatus Geisel-
Isolation of Stigmastan-3, 6-dion, 5-α-.Journal of Indian Chemical Society 65 (6): 459

Barbosa, P., R., Fascio, M., Martins, D., Guedes, M., L., and Roque, N., F. (2003).
Triterpenes of Croton betulaster (Euphorbiaceae). Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 31:
307 – 308

Barbosa, P., S., Abreu, A., S., Batista, E., F., Guilhon, G., M., Muller, A., H., Arruda, M., S.,
Santos, L., S., Arruda, A., C., and Secco, R., S. (2007) Glutarimide alkaloids and terpenoids
from Croton pullei var glabrior Lanj. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 35: 887-890

Barnes, R., A., and Soeiro, O., M. (1981) The Alkaloids of Croton salutaris. Phytochemistry
20: 543-544

Barrett, B. (1994) Medicinal Plants of Nicaragua‟s Atlantic Coast. Econ Botany 48 (1): 8-20

167
Batatinha, M., J., DeSouza-Spinosa, H., and Bernardi, M., M. (1995) Croton Zehntneri:
Possible Central Nervous System Effects of the Essential Oil in Rodents. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology 45 (1): 53-57

Bayor, M., T., Gbedema, S., Y., and Annan, K. (2009) The Antimicrobial Activity of Croton
membranaceus, A Species used in Formulations for Measles in Ghana. Journal of
Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy 1 (4): 47-51

Beentje, H., J. (1994) Kenyan Trees, Shrubs and Lianas. Majestic Printing Works Ltd.
Nairobi, Kenya: 190-192

Beissert, S., and Swartz, T. (2002) Role of Immunomodulation in Diseases Responsive to

Phototherapy. Methods 28 (1): 138-144

Berry, P. E., Hipp, A. L., Wurdack, K. J., Van, E. B., & Riina, R. (2005). Molecular
phylogenetics of the giant genus Croton and tribe Crotoneae (Euphorbiaceae sensu stricto)
using ITS and trnL-trnF DNA sequence data. American Journal of Botany 92 (9) : 1520-
1534.

Bhakuni, D., S., and Dhar, M., M. (1968) Crotsparine, A New Proaporphine Alkaloid from
Croton sparsiflorus. Experientia 24: 10-11

Bhakuni, D., S., and Dhar, M., M. (1969) Crotsparinine, a Dihydro-proaporphine Alkaloid
from Croton sparsiflorus. Experientia 25: 354

Bhakuni, D., S., Jain, S., and Chaturvedi, R. (1979) The Biosynthesis of Nornuciferine-1(2-
methoxy-6aa-aporphine-1-ol). Tetrahedron 35 (19): 2323 – 2326

Bhakuni, D., S., Satish, S., and Dhar, M., M. (1970) Alkaloids of Croton sparsiflorus
Phytochemistry 9 : 2573-2580

Bittner, M., Silva, M., Aqueveque, P., Kufer, J., Jakupovic, J., and Murillo, R. (1997)
Alkaloids and other Constituents of Croton chilensis. Boletin de la Sosiedad Chilena de
Quimica 42: 223-228

Block, S., Baccelli, C., Tinant, B., Meervelt, L., C., Rozenberg, R., Jiwan, H., J., llabres, G,
Pauw, Gillet, D., M., and Quetib – Leclercq, J. (2004) Diterpenes from the Leaves of
Croton zambesicus. Phytochemistry 65: 1165 – 1171

168
Boll, P., M., Hald, M., Parmar, V., S., Tyagi, O., D., and Bisht, K., S., Sharma, N., K. and
Hansen, S. (1992). A wax ester from Piper clarkii. Phytochemistry 31 (3): 729-1092

Borenfreund, E., Babich, H., Martin-Alguacil, N. (1990) Rapid Chemosensitivity Assay with
Human Normal and Tumor Cells in vitro. In vitro Cellular and Developmental Biology. 26
(11): 1030-1034

Bossard, E. (1993) Angolan Medicinal Plants used also as Pesticides and/or Soaps. Journal
of Ethnopharmacology 41 (3): 1-19

Bouquet, A., and Debray, M. (1974) Medicinal Plants of the Ivory Coast. Trav Doc Orstom
32: 1

Boyom, F., F., Keumedjio, F., Dongmo, P., M., Ngadjui, B., T., Zollo, P., H., Menut, C., and
Bessiere. (2002) Essential Oils from Croton zambesicus Muell. Arg. Growing in Cameroon.
Flavour and Fragrance Journal 17 (3): 215 – 217

Bracher, F., Eisenreich, W., J., Muehlbacher, J., Dreyer, M., and Bringmann, G. (2004)
Saludimerines A and B, Novel-type Dimeric Alkaloids with Stereogenic Centers and
Configurationally Semistable Biaryl Axes. Journal of Organic Chemistry 69: 8602-8608

Brandao M, Botelho M and Krettli E. (1985) Antimalarial Experimental Chemotheraphy

using Natural Products. Cienc cult. 37 (7): 1152-1163

Breitmaier, E. (2006) Terpenes: Flavors, Fragrances, Pharmaca, Pheromones, Wiley-VCH

Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, Germany. doi: 10.1002 / 9783527609949:
Diterpenes (Chapter 4)

Burke, B., Chan, W., Prince, E., and Manchand, P. (1976) The Structure of Corylifuran, A
clerodane-type diterpene from Croton corylifolius. Tetrahedron 32 (15): 1881-1884

Butler, M., S., Buss, A., D. (2009) Natural Product Chemistry for Drug Discovery 1st edition
RSC Publishing

Cai, Y., Chen, Z., P. and Phillipson, J., D. (1993a) Diterpenes from Croton lechleri.
Phytochemistry 32 (3): 755-760

169
Cai, Y., Chen, Z., P., and Philiphson, J., D., (1993b) Clerodane Diterpenoids from Croton
lechleri. Phytochemistry 34 (1): 265 – 268b

Cai, Y., Evans, F., Roberts, M., Phillipson, J., D., Zenk, M., and Gleba, Y. (1991)
Polyphenolic compounds from Croton lechleri. Phytochemistry 30 (6): 2033-2040

Campos, A., R., Albuquerque, F., A., A., Rao, V., S., Maciel, M., A., and Pinto, A., C. (2002)
Investigations on the antinociceptive activity of crude extracts from Croton cajucara leaves
in mice. Fitoterapia 73 (2): 116-120

Capasso, A., Piacente, S., Cumanda, J., De Tommasi, N., Ragucci, M., and Pizza, C. (1998)
Flavonol glycosides from Croton menthodorus reduced in vitro porphine withdrawal.
Pharmaceutical Biology 36: 310-314

Capasso, A., Piacente, S., Sonia, D., T., Ragucci, M., and Pizza, C. (2000) Constituents of
Croton menthodorus and their Effects on Electrically Induced Contractions of the Guinea-pig
Isolated Ileum. Phytotherapy Research 14 (3): 156-159

Carlin, L., Vaisberg, A., J., and Hammond, G., B. (1995) Isolation of Sinoacutine from the
Leaves of Croton lechleri. Planta Medica 62: 90 – 91

Carpenter, R., C., Sotheeswaran, S., and Sultanbawa, M., U. (1980)13C NMR studies of
somelupine and taraxerane triterpenes. Organic Magazine Respondents 14: 462

Caruzo, M. B., van, E. B. W., Cordeiro, I., Berry, P. E., & Riina, R. ( 2011). Molecular
phylogenetics and character evolution of the "sacaca" clade: novel relationships of Croton
section Cleodora (Euphorbiaceae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 60 (2): 193-206.

Casagrande, C., Canonica, L., and Severini-Ricca, G. (1975) Proaporphine and Aporphine
Alkaloids. VII. Stereochemistry of Reduced Proaporphines of Croton sparsiflorus and Croton
linearis. Journal of Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 1: Organic and Bio-Organic
Chemistry 17: 1659 – 1653

Catalan, C., A., De Heluani, C., S., Kotowicz, C., Gedris, T., E., and Herz, W. (2003) A
Linear Sesterterpene, two Squalene Derivatives and two Peptide Derivatives from Croton
hieronymi. Phytochemistry 64 (2): 625 – 629

170
CDCa web site: http://www.cdc.gov/ /leishmaniasis/. and Dr. Martins Picture. Accessed on
16th October 2013

CDCb web site: http://www.who.int/parasites: CDC 24/7: Saving Lives, Protecting People.
Accessed on 17th October 2013

CFA (2005). Our Common Interest. Report of the Commission for Africa:1

Chabert, P., Attioua, B., and Brouillard, R. (2006) Croton lobatus, An African Medicinal
Plant: Spectroscopic and Chemical Elucidation of its many Constituents. BioFactors 27 (1-4):
69-78

Chaichantipyuth, C., Petsom, A., Taweechotipatr, P., Muangsin, N., Chaichit, N., Puthong,
S., Roengsumran, S., Kawahata, M., Watanabe, T., and Ishikawa., T. (2005) New Labdane-
type Diterpenoids from Croton oblongifolius and their Cytotoxicity Activity. Heterocycles 65
(4): 809 – 822

Chambers, C., and Stuart, K., L. (1968) Flavinantine and Flavinine, Novel Morphinandienone
from Croton flavens. Chemical Communications 6: 328 – 329

Chang, S., L., Dung, S., Y., and Zi, W., M. (1981) Recent Progress in the Treatment of Acute
Appendicitis Complicated with Peritonitis by the Combined Method of Traditional Chinese
and Western medicine. Chung I Tsa Chih 22 (1): 76-78

Charris, J., Dominguez, J., De la Rosa, C., and Caro, C. (2000) (-) - Amuronine from the
Leaves of Croton flavens L. (Euphorbiaceae). Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 28 (10):
795 – 797

Chatterjee, A., and Majumder, P., L. (1968) Structure of Crotoflorine, An

Isoquinolinedienone Alkaloid of Croton sparsiflorus Morong. Journal of Indian Chemical
Society 45: 1087-1090

Chavez, P., I., Jolad, S., D., Hoffmann, J., J., and Cole, J., R. (1982) Four New 12-
Deoxyphorbol Diesters From Croton californicus. Journal of Natural Prodroducts 45 (6):
745-749

Chen, C., I., Wu, Y., K., Liu, H., J., and Zhu, J., L. (2008) Total synthesis of (±) – Montanin
A and (±) – Teuscorolide. Chemical Communications: 4720 – 4722

171
Chen, W., Yang, X., D., Zhao, J., Zhang, H., and Li, L. (2007) Two New, 1-oxygenated ent-
kaurane-type diterpenes from Croton kongensis. Helvetica Chimica Acta 90:1554-1558

Chen, Z., P., Cai, Y., Phillipson, J., D. (1994) Wound-healing Properties of Dragon‟s blood.
Planta medica 60: 541-545

Chhabra, S., C., Thoruwa, C., L., Thiong‟o, G., T., Akenga, T., A., Wambua, P., Ndunda, B.,
Onyango I., O. (2007) Phytochemical and biological studies of the Genus Croton for the
development of agrochemicals and pharmaceutical products. Journal of Kenya Chemical
Society 4 (1):33-45

Coelho-de-souza, A., N., Criddle, D., N., and Leal-Cardoso, J., H. (1998) Selective and
modulatory effects of the essential oil of Croton zehntneri on isolated smooth muscle
preparations of the guinea pig. Phytotheraphy Research 12: 189-194

Coelho-de-souza, A., N., Barata, E., L., Magalhães, P., J., Lima, C., C., and Leal-Cardoso, J.,
H.(1997) Effects of the essential oil of Croton zehntneri, and its constituent estragole on
intestinal smooth muscle. Phytotherapy Research 11: 299-304

Coon, N. (1974) The Dictionary of Useful Plants. Rodale Press Book Division, Emmaus,
PA:18049

Cragg, G., M., and Newman, D., J. (2005) Plants as a Source of Anti-cancer Agents. Journal
of Ethnopharmacology 100 (1-2):72-79

Cuong, N., M., Sung, T., V. and Ahn, B., Z. (2002) Cytotoxic compounds from Croton
cascarilloides. Saengyak Hakhoechi 33: 207–210

De Araujo-Junior, V., T., Da Silva, M., S., Leitao da-Cunha, E., V., Agra, M., De Athayde-
Filho, P., F., Vieira, I., J., Braz-Filho, R., and Barbosa-Filho, J., M. (2005) Muscicapines, A
New Class of Guaiane-type Sesquiterpene Alkaloids from Croton muscicapa. Journal of the
Brazilian Chemical Society 16: 553-557

De Araujo-Junior, V., T., Da Silva, M., S., Leitao da-Cunha, E., V., Emidio, V., Agra, M.,
Nonato, D., R., Barbosa-Filho, J., M., and Braz-Filho, R. (2004) Alkaloids and Diterpenes
from Croton moritibensis. Pharmaceutical Biology 42: 62-67

172
De Garcia, L., Guarin, D., L., and Tobar, M., C. (1986) Isolation of Ayanin from Croton
glabellus leaves. Revista Colombiana de Ciencias Quimico-Farmaceuticas 15: 95-98

De Heluani, C., S., Catalan, C., A., Hernandez, L., R., Burgueno-Tapia, E., and Joseph-
Nathan, P. (2000a) Three New Diterpenoids Based on the Novel Sarcopetalane skeleton from
Croton sarcopetalus. Journal of Natural Products 63: 222 – 225

De Heluani, C., S., Catalan, C., A., Hernandez, L., R., Burgueno-Tapia, E., and Joseph-
13
Nathan, P. (2000b) C NMR Assignments and Conformational Evaluation of Diterpenes
from Croton sarcopetalus Muell. Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry 36: 947 – 950

Dewick, P., M. (2002) Medicinal Natural Products, A Biosynthetic Approach, 2nd edition.
John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, England. 203 – 212

DNP (2007). Dictionary of Natural Products on CD-ROM. Chapman Hall/CRC

Press/Hampden data services Ltd.

Dominguez, X., A., and Alcorn., J., B. (1985) Screening of Medicinal Plants used by Huastec
Mayans of North Eastern Mexico . Journal of Ethno pharmacology 13 (2):139-156

Dos, Santos, P., D., O., Amaral, A., C., De, Araujo, S., M., and De Aquino Neto, F. (2001)
Seasonal Variation of the Chemical Constituents from Croton species.Journal of Biosciences
56: 357-36

Drugs. Com- Online drug information Copy Right @ 2000-2013

Duke, J., A. (1984) CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs. CRC Press. Boca Raton.

Duke, J., A. (1994) Amazonian ethno botanical dictionary:181

Eisenreich, W., J., Hoefner, G., and Bracher, F. (2003) Alkaloids from Croton flavens L. and
their Affinities to GABA-receptors. Natural Product Research 17: 437-440

El-hamidi A. (1970) Drug Plants of the Sudan Republic in Native Medicine. Planta medica
18: 278-280

Elisabetsky, E., Figueiredo, W., and Oliveria, G. (1992) Traditional Amazonian Nerve
Tonics as Antidepressant Agents: Chaunochiton Kappleri: Journal of Herbs Spices and
Medicinal Plants 1 1/2:125-162

173
El-mekkawy, S., Meselly, M., R., Nakamura, N., Hattori, M., Kawahata, T., Otake, T. (2000)
Anti-HIV-1 Phorbol Esters from Seeds of Croton tiglium. Phytochemistry 53: 457

Fabricant, D., S., and Farnsworth, N., R. (2001). The Value of Plants used in Traditional
Medicine for Drug Discovery. Environmental Health Perspective 109: 63-75

Farnsworth, N., R, Blomster, R., N., Messmer, W., M., King, J., C., Persinos, G., J., and
Wilkens, J., D. (1969) A Phytochemical and Biological Review of the Genus Croton.Lloydia
32: 1-28

Fernandes DE AM, Lyra, FD De A., Francisco De M., J., Goncalves De LO, Delle MF, Diu
MB De S., and Morreira L., C.(1974) Anti-microbial Substances of Higher Plants.
Communication XLIV. Isolation of a Diterpenic acid from Crotonargyrophylloides Muel.
Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). Revisto do Instituto de Anti-bioticos (Recife) 14: 83 – 89

Flores, J., S., and Ricalde, R., V. (1996) The Secretions and Exudates of Plants used in
Mayan Traditional Medicine. Journal of Herbs Spices and Medicinal Plants 4 (1):53-59

Fotie, J., Bohle D.S., Leimanis M.L., Georges E., Rukunga G., Nkengfack A.E., (2006)
“Lupeol long-chain fatty acid esters with antimalarial activity from Holarrhena floribunda.”
Journal of Natural Products 69: 62-67

Fraga, B., M. (1994) The Trachylobane Diterpenes. Phytochemical Analysis 5: 49–56

Franssen, F., Simeijsters, L., Berger, I., and Aladan, B. (1997) In vivo and in vitro Anti-
plasmodial Activities of some Plants Traditionally used in Guatemala against Malaria.
Antimicrobial Agents Chemotherapy 41 (7): 1500-1503

Frum, Y., Viljoen, A., M. (2005) In vitro 5–lipoxygenase and anti-oxidant activities of
South African medicinal plants commonly used topically for skin diseases. Skin
Pharmacology and Physiology 19: 329 – 335

Fryers, G. (1982) Aspirin Foundation Symposium in New Orleans. “New Perspectives on

Aspirin Therapy

Gachathi, M. (2007) A Guide to Plant Names, Uses and Cultural Values. Kikuyu Botanical
Dictionary. Revised Second Edition: 83

174
Gallo, M.B.C., Sarachine M. J., (2009) “Biological activities of Lupeol.” Int. J. Biomed.
Pharm. Sci 3: 46-66

Ganem, B., and Holbert, G., W. (1977) Arene oxides in biosynthesis. On the origin of
crotepoxide, senepoxide and pipoxide. Bioorganic Chemistry 6 (3): 393-396

Garcia, A., Ramirez-Apan, T., Cogordan, J., A., and Delgado, G. (2006) Absolute
Configuration Assignments by Experimental and Theoretical Approaches of ent-labdane and
cis-ent-clerodane-type Diterpenes Isolated from Croton glabellus. Canadian Journal of
Chemistry 84: 1593 – 1602

Georges, P., Sylvestre, M., Ruegger, H., and Bourgeois, P. (2006) Ketosteroids and
hydroxyketosteroids, minor metabolites of sugarcane wax. Steroids 71:1016–1021

Giang, P., M,, Son, P., T., Hamada, Y., and Otsuka, H. (2004) Four ent-kaurane-type
Diterpenoids from Croton tonkinensis Gagnep. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 52:
879 – 882

Giang, P., M., Jin, H., Z., Son, P., T., Lee, J., H., Hong, Y., S., and Lee, J., J. (2003) Ent-
Kaurane Diterpenoids from Croton tonkinensis Inhibit LPS-Induced NF-κB Activation and
NO Production. Journal of Natural Products 66 (9): 1217-1220

Giang, P., M., Son, P., T., Hamada, Y., and Otsuka, H. (2005) Cytotoxic Diterpenoids from
Vietnamese Medicinal plant Croton tonkinensis Gagnep. Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Bulletin 53: 296 – 300

Gimlette, J., D. (1929) Malay Poisons and Charms Cures. J & A Churchill, London, 3 RD
Edition: 1-2

Glaser, S., Sorg, B., and Hecker, E., A. (1988) A Method for Quantitative Determination of
Polyfunctional Diterpene Esters of the Tigliane Type in Croton tiglium. Planta Medica 54
(6): 580

Goodson, J., A., and Clewer, H., W. (1919) LXXVIII.Examination of the Bark of Croton
gubouga. Isolation of 4-hydroxyhygric acid. Journal of the Chemical Society, Transactions
115: 923-933

175
Govaerts, R., Frodin, D., G., and Radcliffe-Smith, A. (2000) World Checklist and
Bibliography of Euphorbiaceae. Royal Botanic Gardens. Kew Publishing

Grassi-kassisse, D., M., Wolf-Nunes, V., Miotto, A., M., Farias-Silva, E., Souza-Brito, A.,
R., Nunes, D., S., and Spadari-Bratfisch, R., C. ( 2003) Sensitivity to β-adrenoceptor
agonists of adipocytes from rats treated with an aqueous extract of Croton cajucara Benth.
Journal of Pharmacology 55 (2): 253-257

Green, G., M., and Sussman, R., W. (1990). Deforestation History of the Eastern Rain Forest
of Madagascar from Satellite Image. Science 248 (4952):212-215

Grynberg, N., F., Echevarria, A., Lima, J., E., Pamplona, S., S., Pinto, A., C., and Maciel, M.,
A. (1999) Anti-tumour Activity of two 19-nor Clerodane Diterpenes, trans-dehydrocrotonin
and trans-crotonin from Croton cajucara. Planta Medica 65: 687 - 689

Guerrero, M., F., Carrón, R., Martin, M., L., San, Román, L., and Reguero, M., T. (2001)
Antihypertensive and vasorelaxant effects of aqueous extract from Croton schiedeanus
Schlecht in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 75 (1): 33-36

Guerrero, M., F., Puebla, P., Carrón, R., Martin, M., L., and Román, L., S. (2004)
Vasorelaxant effect of new neo-Clerodane Diterpenoids Isolated From Croton schiedeanus.
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 94: 185-189

Guerrero, M., F., Puebla, P., Carrón, R., Martin, M., L., and Román, L., S. (2002) Quercetin
3, 7-dimethyl ether: a vasorelaxant flavonoid isolated from Croton schiedeanus Schlecht.
Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 54 (10): 1373-1378

Gupta, M., P., Monge, A., Karikas, G., A., Lopez De Cerain, A., Solis, P., N., De Leon E,
Trujillo, M., Suarez, O., Wilson, F., Montenegro, G., Noriega, Y., Santana, A., I., Correa, M.,
and Sanchez, C. (1996) Screening of Panamanian Medicinal Plants for Brine Shrimp
Toxicity, Crown Gall Tumor Inhibition, Cytotoxicity and DNA Intercalation. International
Journal of Pharmacognosy 34 (1): 19-27

Gurib-Fakim, A. (2006) Medicinal Plants: Tradition of Yesterday and Drugs of Tomorrow.

Review Article. Molecular Aspects Medicine 27 (1): 1-93

176
Hanuman, J., B., Bhatt, R., K., and Sabata, B., K. (1988) A Clerodane Furano-diterpene from
Tinospora cordifolia. Journal of Natural Products 51: 197 – 201

Harborne, J., B. (1984) Phytochemical methods. A Guide to Modern Techniques of Plant

Analysis. The Chaucer Press Ltd. Bungay: 54: 110, 196

Haynes LJ, Stuart KL, BartonDHand Kirby GW. (1966) Alkaloids from Croton species. Part
III. The Constitution of the Proaporphines Crotonosine, Homolinearisine, Base A and the
Dihydro-proaporphine Linearisine. Journal of the Chemical Society 19: 1676 – 1685

Haynes, L., J., Husbands, G., E., and Stuart, K., L. (1968) Alkaloids from Croton species
VIII. Mophinandienone Derivatives from Croton linearis. Journal of the Chemical Society
C. 8: 951 – 957

Hecker, E. (1984) Co-carcinogenic Diterpene Esters as Principal Risk Factors in Local Life
Style Esophageal Cancer in Curacao. Acta Pharmacology and Toxicology 55 (52):148-153

Hedberg, I., Hedberg, O., Madati, P., J., Mshigeni, K., E., Mshiu, E., N., and Samuelsson,
G., (1983) Inventory of Plants used in Traditional Medicine in Tanzania. II. Plants of the
Families Dilleniaceae-Opiliaceae. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 9 (1): 105-127

Heinrich, M., Rimpler, H., and Barrera, N., A. (1992) Indigenous Phytotherapy of
Gastrointestinal Disorders in a Lowland Mixed Community (Oaxaca, Mexico):
Ethnopharmacologic Evaluation. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 36 (1):63-80

Hernández, D., M., Díaz-Ruiz, G., Rivero-Cruz, B., E., Robert, A., Bye, R., A., María,
Isabel, Aguilar, M., I., and Rivero-Cruz, J., F. (2012) Ent-trachyloban-19-oic acid isolated
from Iostephane heterophylla as a promising antibacterial agent against Streptococcus
mutans biofilms. Fitoterapia 83: 527-531

Hirasawa, Y., Izawa, E., Matsuno, Y., Kahawara, N., Goda, Y. and Morita, H. (2007).
Taxodistines A and B, abietane-type diterpenes from Taxodium distichum. Bioorganic &
Medicinal Chemistry Letters 17, 5868-5871

Hollands, R., Becher, D., Gaudemer, A., and Polonsky., J. (1968) Etude des constituents des
fruits d‟Uvaria catocarpa (Annonacee): Structure du senepoxyde et du seneol. Tetrahedron
24: 1633

177
Horgen, F., D., Edrada, R., A., De Los Reyes, G., Agcaoili, F., Maudulid, D., A.,
Wongpanich, V., Angerhofer, C., K., Pezzuto, J., M., Soejarto, D., D., Farnsworth., N., R.
(2001) Biological screening of rain forest plot trees from Palawan Island (Philippines).
Phytomedicine 8 (1): 71-81

Hubert, T., D., and Wiemer, D., F. (1985) Ant-Repellent Terpenoids from Melampodium
divaricatum. Phytochemistry 24: 1197 – 1198

Hutch. Observations on Pharmacognostic, Physicochemical and Pharmacological

Characteristics. International Journal of Crude Drug Reports 21 (2): 49-58

Ilham, M., Yaday, M., and Norhanom, A., W. (1995) Tumour Promoting Activity of Plants
Used on Malaysian Traditional Medicine. Natural Products Science 1 1: 31-42

IUCN (I993) International Union of Conservation of Nature Report

Isshiki, K., Tamamura, T., Takahashi, Y., Sawa, T., Naganawa, H., Takeuchi, T., and
Umezewa, H. (1985) The Structure of A New Anti-biotic, Terpenticin. Journal of Antibiotics
38: 1819 – 1821

Itokawa, H., Totsuka, N., Takeya, N., Watanabe, K., and Obata, E. (1988) Anti-tumor
Principles from Casearia sylvestris Sw. (Flacourtiaceae), Structure Elucidation of New
Clerodane Diterpenes by 2D NMR Spectroscopy. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 36:
1585–1588

James, W., D., Berger, T., G. (2006) Andrews' Diseases of the Skin. Clinical Dermatology-
Saunders Elsevier. ISBN 0-7216-2921-0: 422-428

Jeruto, P., Mutai, C., Ouma, G., and Lukhoba, C. (2011) An Inventory of Medicinal Plants
that the People of Nandi use to Treat Malaria. Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences 9 (3):
1192-1200

Jogia M, Andersen R, Parkanyi L, Dublin H, Sinclair A. (1989) Crotofolane diterpenoids

from the African shrub Croton dichogamus Pax. Journal of Organic Chemistry 54 (7): 1654-
1657

178
John, T., Mhoro, E., B., Sanaya, P., and Kimanani, E., K. (1994) Herbal remedies of the
Batemi of Ngorongoro District, Tanzania. A quantitative appraisal. Econ. Botany 48 (1): 8-
20

Kanlayavattanakul, M., Ruangrungsi, N., Watanabe, T., Kawahata, M., Therrien, B.,
Yamaguchi, K., and Ishikawa, T. (2005) Ent-Halimane Diterpenes and a Guaiane
Sesquiterpene from Cladogynos orientalis. Journal of Natural Products 68:7-10

Kapingu, M., C., Guillaume, D., Mbwambo, Z., H., Moshi, M., J., Uliso, F., C., and
Mahunnah, R., L. (2000) Diterpenoids from the roots of Croton macrostachys.
Phytochemistry 54: 767 – 770

Kapoor, L., D. (1990) CRC Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, USA.

Kaur, K., Jain, M., Kaur, T., Jain, R. (2009). Antimalarials from Nature. Bioorganic &
Medicinal Chemistry 17: 3229–3256

Kawai, K., Tsuno, N.,H., Kitayama, J., Okaji, Y., Yazawa, K., Asakage, M., Yamashita, H.,
Watanabe T, Takahashi K, Nagawa H. (2005) Anti-angiogenic Properties of Plaunotol.
Anticancer Drugs 16: 401

Kew Plant Data Base 2012 and 2013

Kim, N., Son, Y., Jeong, S., Hur, J., M., Bang, H., S., Lee, K., Kim, E., Chung, H., Pae, H.
(2010) Tetrahydroabietic acid, a Reduced Abietic Acid, Inhibits the Production of
Inflammatory Mediators in RAW264.7 Macrophages Activated with Lipopolysaccharide”
Journal of Clinical Biochemical Nutrition 46 (2): 119-125

Kitazawa, E., and Ogiso, A. (1981) Two Diterpene Alcohols from Croton sublyratus.
Phytochemistry 20: 287 – 289

Kitazawa, E., Sato, A., Takahash,i S., Kuwano, H., Ogiso, A. (1980) Novel Diterpene
Lactones with Anti-Peptic Ulcer Activity from Croton sublyratus. Chemical &
Pharmaceutical bulletin 28 (1): 227-234

Klauss, Vand, Adala, H., S. (1994) Traditional Herbal Eye Medicine in Kenya. World Health
Forum 15: 138-143

179
Kokate CK, Purohit AP, Gokhale SB. (2013) Pharmacognosy. Published by Nirali
Prakashan, Abhyudaya Pragati-Pune-India. 8th Edition, 6.

Kokwaro, J., O. (1993) Medicinal Plants of East Africa. Africa Literature Bureau, Nairobi-
Kenya: 100-101

Kokwaro, J., O. (2009) Medicinal Plants of East Africa. 3rd Edition. University of Nairobi
Press

Koukoulitsa, C., Zervou, M., Demetzos, C., and Mavromoustakos, T. (2008) Comparative
Docking Studies of Labdane-type Diterpenes with Forskolin at The Active Site of Adenylyl
Cyclase. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry 16: 8237-8243

Krebs, H., C., and Ramiarantosa, H. (1996) Clerodane Diterpenes and other Constituents of
Croton hovarum. Phytochemistry 41 (2): 561-563

Krebs, H., C., and Ramiarantsoa, H. (1997) Clerodane diterpenes of Croton hovarum.
Phytochemistry 45 (2): 379 – 381

Kubo, I., Hanke, F., J., Asaka, Y., and Matsumoto., T. (1990) Insect Anti-feedant from
Tropical Plants I. Structure of Dumsin. Tetrahedron 46: 1515 – 1522

Kubo, I., Klocke, J., A., Miura, I., and Fukuyama, Y. (1982) Structure of Ajugarin IV.
Journal of Chemical Society, Chemical Communications 24: 618 – 619

Kumar S, Shukla YN, Lavani UC, Sharma A, Singh AK. (1997) Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants.Prospects for India. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Science. 19 (2), 361-365

Kuo, P., C., Shen, Y., C., Yang, M., L., Wang, S., H., Thang, T., D., Dung, W., X., Chiang,
P., C., Lee, K., H., Lee, E., J. and Wu, T., S. (2007) Crotonkinins A and B and related
Diterpenoids from Croton tonkinensis as Anti-inflammatory and Anti-tumor agents. Journal
of Natural Products 70: 1906 – 1909Kuo i108

Kupchan, S., M., and Sunshine, W., L. (1978) Thiol addition to crotepoxide and
dideacetylcrotepoxide. Journal of Organic Chemistry 43: 171-173

180
Kupchan, S., M., Hemingway, R., J., and Smithth, R., M. (1969) Tumour inhibitors. XLV.
Crotepoxide, a novel cyclohexane diepoxide tumor inhibitor from Croton macrostachys.
Journal of Organic Chemistry 34: 3898

Lahlou, S., Leal-Cardoso, J. H. and Magalhães, P.J. (2000) Essential oil of Croton
nepetaefolius decreases blood pressure through an action upon vascular smooth muscle:
studies in DOCA-salt hypertensive rats. Planta Medica 66:138–143

Langat M.K., (2009) The Phytochemistry of three African Croton species. A Thesis
submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry at Surrey University- UK.
Chapter 3

Langat, M., K., Crouch, N., R., Pohjala, L., Tammela, P., Smith, P., J., and Mulholland, D.,
A. (2012) Ent-kaure-19-oic acid derivatives from the stem bark of Croton pseudopulchellus
Pax. Phytochemistry Letters 5 (3): 414 – 418

Langat, M., K., Crouch, N., R., Smith, P., J., and Mulholland, D., A. (2011) Cembranolides
from the leaves of Croton gratissimus. Journal of Natural Products 74: (11) 2349 –2355

Lee, C., Lee, J., W., Jin, Q., Lee, H., J., Lee S-J., Lee, D., Lee, M., K., Lee, C., K., Hong J.,
T., Lee, M., K. and Hwang, B., Y. (2013) Anti-inflammator Constituents from the Fruits of
Vitex rotundifolia. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters 23: 6010-6014.

Lemos, T., L., G., Monte, F., J., Q., Matos, F., J., A., Alencar, J., W., Craveiro, A., A.,
Barbosa, R., C., S., and Lima, E., O.(1992) Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial
Activity of Essentials oils from Brazilian Plants. Fitoterapia 63 (3): 266-268

Leong, Y., W., and Harrison, L., J. (1997) Ent-trachylobane diterpenoids from the liverwort
Mastigophora diclados. Phytochemistry 45 (7): 1457 1459

Li, C., Wu, S., Tao, G., and Sun, H. (1990) Chemical Constituents from the Stembark of
Croton hutchinsonianus. Yunnan Zhiwu Yanjiu 12: 457-9

Lu, Tiansheng, Menelaou, M., A., Vargas, D., Fronczek, F., R. and Fischer, N., H. (1993)
Polyacetylenes and Diterpenes from Solidago canadensis. Phytochemistry 32 (6): 1483 -1488

Lu, Tiansheng, S., Vargas, D., Franzblau, S., G., and Fischer, N., H. (1995) Diterpenes from
Solidago rugosa. Phytochemistry 38: 451–456

181
Luzbetak, D. J., Torrance, S., J., Hoffmann, J., J. and Cole, J., R. (1979) Isolation of (-)-
Hardwickiic acid and 1-triacontanol from Croton californicus. Journal of Natural Products
42: 315

Mabberley, D., J. (2009) Mabberley‟s Plant-Book. A Portal Dictionary of Plants, their

Classification and Uses.3rd Edition. Cambridge

Maciel, M., A., Cortez, J., K., and Gomes, F., E. (2006) Croton genus and Relevant Aspects
of Clerodane Diterpenes. Revista Fitos 2: 54 – 73

Maciel, M., A., Pinto, A., C., Arruda, A., C., Pamplona, S., Vanderlinde, F., A., Lapa, A., J.,
Echevarria, A, Grynberg NF, Colus IM, Farias RA, Luna Costa AM and Rao VS. (2000)
Ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and pharmacology: A successful combination in the
study of Croton cajucara. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 70: 41-55

Maciel, M., M., Pinto, C., A., Brabo, S., N., and Da Silva, M., N. (1997) Terpenoids from
Croton cajacura. Phytochemistry 49: 823 – 828

Magner LN (1992). A History of Medicine. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York

Maher, P. (1999). A Review of Traditional Aboriginal Health Beliefs. Australian Journal of

Rural Health 7: 229-236

Makler, M., T., Ries, J., M., Williams, J., A., Bancroft, J., E., Piper, R., C., Gibbins, B., L.,
Hinriches, D., J. (1993) Parasite Lactate Dehydrogenase as an Assay for Plasmodium
falciparum Drug Sensitivity. American Journal of Tropical Medicine Hygiene 48: 739-741

Marko, I., E., Wiaux, M., Warriner, S., M., Giles, P., R., Eustace, P., Dean, D., and Bailey,
M. (1999) Towards the Total Synthesis of Clerocidin.Efficient Assembly of the Decalin Unit.
Tetrahedron Letters 40: 5629 – 5632

Martins, A., P., Salgueiro, L., R., Goncalves, M., J., Vila, R., Tomii, F., Adzet, T., da Cunha,
A., P., Canigueral, S., and Casanova, J. (2000) Antimicrobial Activity and Chemical
Composition of the Bark Oil of Croton stellulifer, an Endemic Species from Sao Tome
Principe. Planta Medica 66 (7): 647 – 650

Mathias, M., E. (1982) Some Medicinal Plants of the Hehe (Southern Highlands Province,
Tanzania). Taxon 31 (3): 488-494

182
Mazzanti, G., Bolle, P., Martinoli, L., Piccinelli, D, Grgurina, I., Animati, F., and Mugne, Y.,
(1987) Croton macrostachys, a Plant used in Traditional Medicine: Purgative and
Inflammatory Activity 19: 213-219

Mbwambo, Z., H., Foubert, K.,Chacha, M., Kapingu, M., C., Magadula, J., J., Moshi, M., M.,
Lemiere, F., Goubitz, K., Fraanje, J., Penschar, R., Vlietinck, A., Apers, S., and Pieters, L.
(2009) New Furanoditerpenoids from Croton jatrophoides. Planta medica 75: 262-267

Mc Gaw, L., J., Jager, A., K., and Staden, J., V. (2000) Antibacterial, Anthelmintic and Anti-
amoebic Activity in South African Medicinal Plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72: 247-
263

McChesney, J., and Silveira, R., E. (1990) Ent-clerodanes of Croton sonderianus. Fitoterapia
61: 172-175

McChesney, J., Clark, A., Silveira, R., E. (1991) Antimicrobial Diterpenes of Croton
sonderianus I Hardwickiic acid and 3, 4- Secotrachylobanoic acids. Journal of Natural
Products 54: 1625-1633

MedicinNet.com: http://www.medicinenet.com/leishmaniasis. Accessed on 16th October

2013

Menut, C., Lamaty, G., Bessiere, J., M., Seuleiman, A., M., Fendero, P., Maidou, E., and
Denamganii, J. (995) Aromatic plants of tropical Central Africa. XXII. Volatile constituents
of Croton aubrevillei J. Leonard and C. zambesicus Muell. Arg. Journal of Essential Oil
Research 7: 419-422

Merritt, A., T., and Levy, S., V. (1992) Clerodane Diterpenoids. Natural Product Reports 9:
243 – 287

Milanowski, D., J., Winter, R., E., Elvin-Lewis, M., P. and Lewis, W., H. (2002) Geographic
Distribution of Three Alkaloid Chemotypes of Croton lechleri. Journal of Natural Products
65: 814 – 819

Minh PT, Ngoc PH, Quang DN, Hashimoto T, Takaoka S and Asakawa Y. (2003) A Novel
ent-Kaurane Diterpenoid from Croton tonkinensis Gagnep. Chemical and Pharmaceutical 51:
590 – 591

183
Misra, R., Pandey, R., and Dev, S. (1979) Ancient-modern concordance in Ayurvedic plants.
Tetrahedron Letters 35: 2301-2310

Mohamed, I., E., E., l., Nur., E., E., Choudhary, M., I., and Khan, S., N. (2009) Bioactive
Natural Products from Two Sudanese Medicinal Plants Diospyros mespiliformis and Croton
zambesicus. Rec. Nat. Prod. 3 (4): 198-203

Mokkhasmit, M., Swatdimongkol, K., and Satrawaha, P. (1971) Study on Toxicity of Thai
Medicinal Plants. Bullettin of the Department of Medical Science 12 2/4:36-65

Monte, F., J,, Dantas, E., M., and Braz, F., R. (1988) New Diterpenoids from Croton
argyrophylloides. Phytochemistry 27: 3209 – 3212

Morales-Flores, F., Maria, I., A., King-Diaz, B., Santiago-Gomez, J., and Lotina-Hennsen, B.
(2007) Natural Diterpenes from Croton ciliatoglanduliferus as Photosystem II and
Photosystem I Inhibitors in Spinach Chloroplasts. Photosynthesis Research 91: 71-80

Mulholland, D., A., Langat, M., K., Crouch, N., R., Coley, H., M., Mutambi, E., M., and
Nuzillard, J., M. (2010) Cembranolides from the stem bark of the Southern African
Medicinal Plant, Croton gratissimus (Euphorbiaceae). Phytochemistry 71: 1381–1386

Mulholland, D., Naidoo, N., Hutchings, A., Lavaud, C., and Massiot, G. (2000) Crotepoxide,
a cyclohexane diepoxide from Monanthotaxis caffra. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology
28: 596

Murillo, R., M., Jakupovic, J., Rivera, J., and Castro, V., H. (2001) Diterpenes and other
constituents from Croton draco (Euphorbiaceae). Rev. Biol. Trop. 49 (1): 259-264

Mwangi, J., W., Thoithi, G., N., Addae-Mensah, I., Achenbach, H., Lwande, W. and
Hassanali, H. (1998) “Aromatic plants of Kenya III: Volatile and some non-volatile
constituents of Croton sylvaticus” East & Central Africa Journal of Pharmaceuical Sciences
1: 41-43

Nabeta, K., Ishikawa, T., and Okuyama, H. (1995) Sesqui- and Di-terpene Biosynthesis
from13C- Labelled Acetate and Mevalonate in Cultured Cells of Heteroscyphus planus.
Journal of Chemical Society Perkin Transactions 1: 3111 – 3115

184
Nardi, G., M., Felippi, R., Dalbó, S., Siqueira-Junior, J., M., Arruda, D., C., Delle-Monache,
F., Timbola, A., K., Pizzolatti, M., G., Ckless, K., and Ribeiro-do-Vale, R., M. (2003) Anti-
inflammatory and antioxidant effects of Croton celtidifolius bark. Phytomedicine 10 (2-3):
176

Neuwinger, H., D. (1996). African Ethnobotany. Poisons and Drugs. Chapman and Hall
Gmbh, D-69469 Weinheim

Neuwinger, H., D. (2000). African Traditional Medicine: A Dictionary of Plant Use and
Applications. Medpharm Scientific Publishers. Stuttgart. 157

Newman, D., J., Cragg, G., M., Snader, K., M. (2000) “The influence of natural products
upon drug discovery” Natural Products Reports 17: 215-234

Ngadjui, B., T., Abegaz, B., M., Keumedjio, F., Folefoc, G., N., and Kapche, G., W., (2002)
Diterpenoids from the Stem Bark of Croton zambesicus. Phytochemistry 60:345-349

Ngadjui, B., T., Folefoc, G., G., Keumedjio, F., Dongo, E., Sondengam, B., L., and Connolly
J., D. (1999) Crotonadiol, a Labdane Diterpenoid from the Stem bark of Croton zambesicus.
Phytochemistry 51 (1): 171-174

Ngamrojnavanich, N., Sirimongkon, S., Roengsumran, S., Petsom, A., and Kamimura, H.
(2003) Inhibition of Na+,K+-ATPase activity by (-)-ent-Kaur-16-en-19-oic acid and its
derivatives. Planta Medica 69 (6): 555-556

Nighat, N., Koul, S., Qurishi, M., A., Taneja, S., C., and Qazi, G., N. (2009) Lipase
Catalyzed Regioselective Hydrolysis of Crotepoxide isolated from Piper cubeb Cass DC:
Journal of Molecular Catalysis 59 (1-3): 121-125

Nihei, K., Asaka, Y., Mine, Y., and Kubo, I. (2005) Insect Anti-feedants from Croton
jatrophoides: Structure of Zumketol, Zumsenin and Zumsenol. Journal of Natural Products
68:244 – 247

Nihei, K., Asaka, Y., Mine, Y., Ito, C., Furukuwa, H., Ju-Ichi, M., and Kubo, I. (2004) Insect
Anti-feedants from Tropical Plants: Structures of dumnin and dumsenin. Journal of
Agricultural Food Chemistry 52: 3325 – 3328

185
Nihei, K., Asaka, Y., Mine, Y., Yamada, Y., Iigo, M., Yanasigawa, T., and Kubo, I. (2006)
Musidunin and Musiduol, Insect Anti-feedants from Croton jatrophoides. Journal of Natural
Products 69: 975 – 977

Nihei, K., Hanke, F., J., Asaka, Y., Matsumuto, T., and Kubo, I. (2002) Insect Anti- feedants
from Tropical Plants II: Structure of Zumsin. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry 50:
5048 – 5052

Nishino, C., Manabe, C., Kazui, M., and Matsuzaki, T. (1984) Piscicidal Cis-clerodane
Diterpenes from Solidago altissima I: Absolute Configurations of 5α, 10α-cis - clerodanes.
Tetrahedron Letters 25: 2809 – 2812

Nkunya, M., Weenen, H., Koyi, N., Thijs, L., and Zwanenburg, B. (1987) Cyclohexene
epoxides, (+)-pandoxide, (+)-β-senepoxide and (−)-pipoxide, from Uvaria pandensis.
Phytochemistry 26: 2563

Novoa, B., E., Cespedes, A., C., De Garcia, L., A., Olarte, C., and Jorge, E. (1985)
Quercitrin: A Flavonoid with Hypotensive Activity obtained from Croton glabellus. Revista
Colombiana de Ciencias Quimico-Farmaceuticas 4: 7-13

Nyazema, N., Z. (1984) Poisoning due to Traditional Remedies. Central Africa Journal of
Medicine 30 (5): 80-83

Ogawa, S., and Takagaki, T. (1987) Conversion of β-senepoxide to crotepoxide: Total

synthesis of (+)-crotepoxide. Chemical Society of Japan 60: 800

Ogiso, A., Kitazawa, E., Mukuriya, I. and Promdej, C. (1981) Original Plant of a Thai Crude
Drug, Plau-noi. Shoyakugaku Zasshi 35 (4):287-290

Ojokuku, S., A., Odesanmi, O., S., and Magbagbeola, O., A. (2011) The effects of Oral
Administration of Croton penduliflorus Seed Oil and Medroxy Progesterone Acetate on
Fasting Blood Sugar, Lipid and Haematology of Pregnant Rabbits. International journal of
Tropical Medicine 6 (2) 35-38

Okokon, J., E. and Nwafor, P., A. (2009) Antiulcer and Anticonvulsant Activity of Croton
zambesicus. Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 22 (4): 384 – 390

186
Okokon, J., E., Dar, A., and Choudhary, M., I. (2013) Immunomodulatory, Cytotoxic and
Antileishmanial Activity of Phytoconstituents of Croton zambesicus. Phytopharmacology 4
(1): 31 – 40

Okokon, J., E., Ofodum, K., C., Ajibesin, K., K., Danladi, B., and Gamaniel, K., S. (2005)
Pharmacological Screening and Evaluation of Antiplasmodial Activity of Croton zambesicus
against Plasmodium berghei Infection in Mice. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 37 (4): 243
– 246

Otshudi, A., L., Vercruysse, A., and Foriers, A. (2000) Contribution to the Ethno-botanical,
Phytochemical and Pharmacological Studies of Traditionally used Medicinal Plants in the
Treatment of Dysentery and Diarrhea in Lomela area, Democratic Republic of Congo.
Journal of Ethnopharmacology 71 (3): 411-423

Padua, de L., S., Bunyapraphatsara, N., and Lemmens, R., H. (1999) Plant Resources of
South-East Asia No. 12 (1). Medicinal and Poisonous Plant 1. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden,
The Netherlands.

Pai, B., R., Rao, N., N., and Wariyar, N., S. (1970) Occurrence of crotepoxide in Kaempferia
rotunda linn. Indian Journal of Chemistry 8: 468

Palazzino, G., Federici, E., Rasoanaivo, P., Galeffi, C., and Monache, F., D. (1997) 3,4-Seco-
Diterpenes of Croton geayi. Gazzeta Chimica Italiana 127 (6): 311-314

Palgrave, K. (1990 and 2002) Trees of Southern Africa (2ndand 3rdeditions). Struick, Cape
Town, South Africa: 415-420

Pancharoen, O., Tuntiwachwattikul, P., and Taylor, W., C. (1989) Cyclohexane oxide
derivatives from Kaempferia angustifolia and Kaempferia species. Phytochemistry 28 (4):
1143-1148

Pancharoen, O., Tuntiwachwattikul, P., and Taylor, W., C. (1996) Cyclohexane diepoxides
from Kaempferia rotunda. Phytochemistry 43: 305-308

Pei, S, J. (1985) Preliminary Study of Ethnobotany in Xishuang Banna, People‟s Republic of

China. Journal of Ethno pharmacology 13 (2): 121-137

187
Perez C. and Anesini C. (1994) Inhibition of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by Argentinean
Medicinal Plants. Fitoterapia 65 (2): 169-172

Perez, M., T., Monache, F., D., Cruz, A., B., Pizzolatti, M., G., and Yunes, R., A. (1997)
Chemical Composition and Anti-microbial Activity of Croton urucurana baillon.
(Euphorbiaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 56 (3): 223-226

Peres, M., T., Pizzolatti, M., G., Yunes, R., A., and Monache, D., F. (1998a) Clerodane
Diterpenes of Croton ururucana. Phytochemistry 49: 171 – 174

Perez, M., Monache, F., Pizzolatti, M., Sontos, A., Beirith, A., Calixto, J., and Yunes, R.
(1998b) Analgesic Compounds of Croton urucurana Baillion. Pharmaco-Chemical Criteria
used in their Isolation. Phyto-therapy research 12 (3): 209-211

Pertino, M., Schmeda-Hirschmann, G., Rodriguez, J., A., and Theoduloz, C. (2007)
Gastroprotective effect and cytotoxicity of terpenes from the Paraguayan crude drug “yagua
rova” (Jatropha isabelli). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 111: 553-559

Peter, H., J., and Amala, R. (1998) Laboratory Handbook for the Fractionation of Natural
Extracts. Chapman and Hall. UK Press. 154-162

Pham, H., N., Le M, Pham, T. , H., Do, H., N. , and Chu, D. ,K. (2004) Biological Effects
and Cytotoxic Possibilities of Substances Isolated from Croton tonkinensis Gagnep.in
Vietnam. Tap Chi Duoc Hoc. 44: 25-27

Pham, T., H., and Pham, H., N. (2002) Isolation and Identification of some Triterpenoid
Compounds in Croton tonkinensis Gagnep (Euphorbiaceae). Tap Chi Duoc Hoc 12: 8-9

Pham, T., H., Pham, H., N., and Chu, D., K. (2004) Isolation and Identification of some
Flavonoids from the Aerial part of Croton tonkinensis Gagnep. Growing in Vietnam. Tap Chi
Hoa Hoc. 42: 187 – 190

Phan, M., G., Lee, J., J., and Phan, T., S. (2004) Flavonoid Glucosides from the Leaves of
Croton tonkinensis Gagnep. Euphorbiaceae. Tap Chi Hoa Hoc. 42: 125-128

Piacente, S., Belisario, M., A., Del Castillo, H, Pizza Cand De Feo V. (1998) Croton
ruizianus: Platelet Proaggregating Activity of two new Pregnane Glycoides. Journal of
Natural Products 61 (3): 318-322

188
Piacente, S., Belisario, M., A., Del Castillo, H., Pizza, C., and De Feo, V. (1998) Croton
ruizianus: Platelet Proaggregating Activity of two new Pregnane glycoides. Journal of
Natural Products 61 (3):318-322

Pieroni, A. (2000) Medicinal Plants and Food Medicines in the Folk Traditions of the Lucca
Province, Italy. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 70: 235-273

Pudhom, K., Vilaivan, T., Ngamrojanavanich, N., Dechangvipart, S., Sommit, D.,
Petsomand, Roengsumran, S. (2007) Furano-cembranoids from the stem bark of Croton
oblongifolius. Journal of Natural Products 70: 659-661

Puebla, P., Correa, S., X., Guerrero, M., Carron, R., and San, Feliciano. (2005) A New Cis-
Clerodane Diterpenoids from Croton schiedeanus. Chemical and Pharmaceutic Bulletin 53:
328-329

Puebla, P., Lopez, J., L., Guerrero, M., F., Carron, R., Martin, M., L., Roman, L., S., and
Feliciano, A., S., (2003) Neo-clerodane Diterpenoids from Croton schiedeanus.
Phytochemistry 62: 551 – 555

Pushpangadan, P., and Atal, C., K. (1984) Ethno-medico-botanical Investigations in Kerala in

some Primitive Tribals of Western Ghats and their Herbal Medicine. Journal of Ethno
Pharmacology 11 (1): 59-77

Radulovic, N., Mananjarasoa, E., Harinantenaina, L., and Yoshinori, A. (2006) Essential oil
composition of four Croton species from Madagascar and their Chemotaxonomy.
Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 34: 648 – 653

Rageau, J. (1973) Les Plantes Medicinales de la Nouvelle-caledonie. Trav & Doc Lorstom
No.23. Paris : 1

Ralison, C., Creppy, E., E., Boulanger, Y., and Dirheimer, G. (1986) Purification and
Characterization of a Toxin Inhibiting Protein Synthesis from Croton mongue, a Madagascar
Euphorbiaceae. Biochimie. 68: 1225 – 1230

Rakotonandrasana, O., L., Raharinjato, F., H., Rajaonarivelo, M., Dumontet, V., Martin, M.,
T., Bignon, J. and Rasoanaivo, P. (2010) Cytotoxic 3, 4-seco-Atisane Diterpenoids from
Croton barorum and Croton goudotii. Journal of Natural Products 73: 1730 – 1733

189
Rashid, M., A., Hossain, M., A., Hasan, C., M. and Reza, M., S. (1996) Anti-microbial
Diterpenes from Polyalthia longifolia var. Pendulla (Annonaceae). Phytotherapy Research
10: 79 – 81

Rasoanaivo, P., Ratsimamangaurverg, S., Ramanitrahasimbola, D., Rafatro, H., Rakoto,

Rates, S., M., K. (2001) Plants as Sources of Drugs. Toxicon 39: 603-613

Rayanil, K., Limpanawisut, S., Tuntiwachwuttikul, P. (2013) Ent-pimarane and ent-

trachylobane diterpenoids from Mitrephora alba and their cytotoxicity against three human
cancer cell lines. Phytochemistry 89: 125-130

Ribeiro, Prata, E., M., Paulo, M., Q., and Souza, Brito, A., R., M. (1993) Isolation of Active
Substances from Croton campestris St. Hil. (Euphorbiaceae) Leaves. Revista Brasileira de
Farmacia 74: 36-4141

Rios, M., Y., and Aguilar-Guadarrama, A., B. (2006) Nitrogen-containing phorbol esters
from Croton ciliatoglandulifer and their effects on cyclooxygenases-1 and -2. Journal of
Natural Products 69: 887–890

Risco, E., Ghia, F., Villa, R., Iglesias, J., Alvarez. E., and Canigueral, S. (2003) Immuno-
modulatory Activity and Chemical Characterisation of Sangre de Drago (Dragon‟s blood)
from Croton lechleri. Planta Medica 69: 785 – 794

Rodriguez, J., A., Hiruma-Lima, A., and Brito, A., R. (2004) Anti-ulcer Activity and Sub-
acute Toxicity of trans-dehydrocrotonin from Croton cajucara. Human and Experimental
Toxicology 23: 455 – 461

Roengsumran, S., Singtothong, P., Pudhom, K., Ngamrochanavanich, N., Petsom, A., and
Chaichantipyuth, C. (1999) Neocrotocembranal from Croton oblongifolius. Journal of
Natural Products 62: 1163 – 1164

Roengsumran, S., Sookkongwaree, K., Singtothong, P., Surachai, P., Sangvanich, P., and
Peckwang, J. (2002) Inhibitory Activity on cAMP phosphodiesterase of some cembranoids.
Journal of Scientific Research of Chulalongkorn University 27: 9-14

Salatino, A., Salatino, M., L., F., Negri, G. (2007) Traditional uses, Chemistry and
Pharmacology of Croton species (Euphorbiaceae). Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society
Sao Paulo.18 (1)

190
Samoylenko, V., Jacob, M., R., Khan, S., I., Zhao, J., Tekwani, B., L., Midiwo, J., O.,
Walker, L., A., Muhammad, I. (2009) Antimicrobial, antiparasitic and cytotoxic spermine
alkaloids from Albizia schimperiana. Natural Product Communications 4: 791-796

Samuelsson, G. (2004). Drugs of Natural Origin: A text book of Pharmacognosy. 5th

Swedish Pharmaceutical Press, Stockholm.

Sanchez, V., and Sandoval, D. (1982) Alkaloids in Cuban species of Croton genus II.
Chemical Study of Croton stenophyllus Griseb. Revista Cubana de Farmacia 16: 45-55

Santos, H., S., Mesquita, F., M., R. Lemos, T., L., G., Monte, F., J., Q., and Braz-Filho, R.,
(2008) Diterpenos Casbanos e Acetofenonas de Croton nepetaefolius (Euphorbiaceae). Quím.
Nova 31: 601-604

Sato, A., Kurabayashi, M., Ogiso, A., and Kuwano, H. (1981) Poilaneic acid, a cembranoid
diterpene from Croton poilanei. Phytochemistry 20: 1915-1918

Schmelzer, G., H., and Gurib-Fakim, A. (2008) Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 11 (1).
Medicinal Plants 1. PROTA Foundation, Wageningen, Netherlands/Backhuys Publishers,
Leiden, Netherlands / CTA, Wageningen, Netherlands: 791

Schneider, C., Breitmaier, E., Bayma, J., de C., De Franca, L., F., Kneifel, H., and Krebs, H.,
C. (1995) Maravuic acid, a new seco-Labdane Diterpene from Croton matourensis. Liebegs
Annals. 709 – 710

Selvanayahgam, Z., E., Gnanevendhan, S., G., Balakrishna, K., and Rao, R., B. (1994)
Antisnake Venom Botanicals from Ethnomedicine. Journal of Herbs Spices and Medicinal
Plants 2 (4): 45-100

Shen, T., Y., Hussaini, I., Hwang, S., B., and Chang, M., N. (1989) Adv. Prostaglandin,
Thromboxane, Leukotriene Res. 19: 359

Shing, K., and Tam, K. (1998) Enantiospecific syntheses of (+)-Crotepoxide, (+)-

Boesenoxide, (+)-β-Senepoxide, and (-)-Tingtanoxide from (-)-Quinic Acid. Journal of
Organic Chemistry 63: 1547

191
Sommit, D., Petsom, A., Ishikawa, T., and Roengsumran, S. ( 2003) Cytotoxic Activityof
Natural Labdanes and their Semisynthetic Modified Derivatives from Crotonoblongifolius.
Planta Medica 69: 167 – 170

Spencer, C., F., Koniuszy, F., R., Rogers, E., F., Shavel, Junior, J., Easton, N., R., Kaczka,
E., A., Kuehl Junior F., A., Phillips, R., F., Walti, A., Folkers, K., Malanga, C., Seeler, A., O.
(1947) Survey of Plants for Antimalarial Activity. Lloydia 10:145-174

Spessard, G., O., Matthews, D., R., Nelson, M., D., Rajtora, T., C., Fossum M.J.,Giannini JL.
(1995) “Phytoalexin-like Activity of Abietic Acid and Its Derivatives” Journal of
Agricultural Food Chemistry 43: 1690–1694

Staniszewska, I., Krolicka, A., Malinski, E., Tojkowska, E., and Szafranek, J. (2003).
Elicitation of Secondary Metabolites in In vitro Cultures of Ammi majus L. Enzymes
Microbiol Technology 33: 565-568

Steenkamp, V., Grimmer, H., Semano, M., and Gulumian, M. (2005) Anti-oxidant and
genetoxic Properties of Southern African Herbal Extracts. Mutation Research 581: 35-42

Stuart, K. (1970) Chemical and Biochemical Investigations of the Croton genus. Revista
Latinoamericana de Quimica1: 140-143

Stuart, K., L., and Byfield, D. (1971) Alkaloids from Croton humilis. Phytochemistry 10:
460 – 462

Stuart, K., L., Chambers, C., and Byfield, D. (1969) Morphinandienone Alkaloids from
Croton flavens. Journal of Chemical Society C: Organic. 13: 1681-1684

Stuart, K., L., Haynes, L., J., Barrett, M., and Husbands, G., E., M. (1968) Jacularine, A
New Reduced Proaporphine from Croton linearis. Tetrahedron Letters 42: 4473-4474

Stuart, K., Land, Chambers, C. (1967) New Aporphine Alkaloids from Croton wilsonii
Griseb. Tetrahedron Letters 41: 4135 – 4138

Suarez, A., I., Blanco, Z., Delle, Monache, F., Compagnone, R., S., and Arvelo, F. (2004)
Three New Glutarimide Alkaloids from Croton cuneatus. Natural Product Research 18: 421-
426

192
Suárez, A., I., Compagnone, R., S., Salazar-Bookaman, M., M., Tillet, S., Delle, Monache,
F., Di Giulio, Cand, Bruges, G.( 2003) Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of
Croton malambo bark aqueous extract. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 88 (1): 11-14

Sutomo , Wahyuono S., Rianto S., Setyowati E.P., (2013) “Isolation and Identification of
Active Compound of n-hexane Fraction from Kasturi (Mangifera casturi Konsterm.) against
Antioxidant and Immunomodulatory Activity.” Journal of Biological Sciences, 13: 596-604

Sutthivaiyakit, S., Nareeboon, P., Ruangrangsi, N., Ruchirawat, S., Pisutjaroenpong, S., and
Mahidol, C. (2001) Labdane and Pimarane Diterpenes from Croton joufra. Phytochemistry
56: 811 – 814

Takahashi, S. (1969) The presence of the tumor inhibitor crotepoxide (Futoxide) in Piper
futokadzura. Phytochemistry 8: 321-322

Talevi A, Cravero MS, Castro EA, Bruno-Blanch LE, (2007) “Discovery of Anticonvulsant
Activity of Abietic acid through Application of Linear Discriminant Analysis” Bioorg. Med.
Chem.17: 1684–1690

Taniguchi, M., and Kubo, I. (1993) Ethnobotanical Drug Discovery Based on Medicine
Men‟s trials in the African Savanna: Screening of East African Plants for Antimicrobial
Activity (Part II). Journal of Natural Products 56: 1539

Tansakul, P., and De-Eknamkul, W. (1998) Geranylgeraniol-18-hydroxylase: The Last

Enzyme on the Plaunotol Biosynthetic Pathway in Croton sublyratus. Phytochemistry 47:
1241 – 1246

Tantiwachwuttikul, P., Pancharoen, O., Bubb ,W., A., Hambley, T., W., Taylor, W., C.,
Reutrakul, V. (1987) Constituents of the Zingiberaceae. XI: Structures of (+)-(1 R,2 S,3 R,4
S)-2-benzoyloxymethylcyclohex-5-ene-1,2,3,4-tetrol 4-benzoate [(+)-zeylenol] and (+)-(1
R,2 R,4 R,5 S,6 R,7 R)-4-benzoyloxymethyl-3,8-dioxatricyclo[5.1.0.0 2,4]octane-5,6-diol 5-
acetate 6-benzoate (boesenboxide) isolated from a new Boesenbergia species. Australian
Journal of Chemistry 40 (12):2049–2061

Taylor, S., E., Gafur, M., A., Choudhury, A., K., Evans, F., J. (1981) 4-Deoxyphorbol and
4α-deoxyphorbol aldehydes new diterpenes and their esters. Tetrahedron Letters 22: 3321 –
3324

193
Taylor, S., E., Gafur, M., A., Choudhury, A., K., and Evans, F., J. (1982) Sapatoxins,
aliphatic ester tigliane diterpenes from Sapium indicum. Phytochemistry 21 (2): 405-407

Tchissambou, L., Chiarioni, A., Riche, C. and Khoung-huuf. (1990) Crotocorylifuran and
Crotohaumanoxide, new Diterpenes from Croton haumanianus J Leornard. Tetrahedron
letters 46 (15): 5199-5202

Thebpatiphat, S., Pengprecha, S., and Ternai, B. (1988) Some Constituents of the Stems of
Piper interruptum Opiz. Journal of Sci. Soc. Thailand 14: 225-231

Tiwari, K., P., Choudharry, R., N., and Pandey, G., D. (1981) 3-Methoxy-4,6-
dihydroxymorphinandien-7-one, an Alkaloid from Croton bonplandianum. Phytochemistry
20: 863 – 864

Torres, M., C., Braz-Filho, R., Silveira, E., R., Diniz, J., C., Viana, F., A. and Pessoa, O., D.
(2010) Terpenoids from Croton regelianus. Helvetica Chimica Acta AG, Zürich, Switzerland
93 (2): 375–381

Trager, W., and Jensen, J., B. (1976) Human Malaria Parasites in Continuous Culture.
Science 193: 673-675

Tsacheva, I., Rostan, J., Lossifova, T., Vogler, B., Odjakova, M., Navas, H., Kostova, I.,
Kojouharova, M., and Kraus, W. (2004) Complement Inhibiting Propertries of Dragon‟s
Blood from Croton draco. Journal of Biosciences 59: 528-532

Ulusu, N., N., Ercil, D, Sakar, M., K., Tezcan, E., F. (2002) “Abietic acid Inhibits
Lipoxygenase activity.”Phytotherapy Research 16: 88–90

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2001) Stockholm Convention on

Persistent Organic Pollutants. New York

Valdes III, L., J, Butler, N., M., Hatfield, G., M., Paul, A., G., and Koreeda, M. (1984)
Divinorin A, A Pyscotropic Terpenoid, and Divinorin B from the Hallucinogenic Mexica
mint, Salvia divinorum. Journal of Organic Chemistry 49: 4716 – 4720

Venter, F., and Venter, J., A. (1996) Making the Most of the Indigenous Trees. Briza
Publications. Pretoria. 92 – 93

194
Vera, R., Smadja, J., and Conan, J. (1990) Preliminary Assay of some Plants with Alkaloids
from Reunion Island. Plant Medica Phytotheraphy 24 (1): 50-65

Verpoorte, R., Choi, Y. H., & Kim, H. K. (2005). Ethnopharmacology and systems biology: a
perfect holistic match. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100: 53-56.

Vigor, C., Fabre, N., Fourasté, I., and Moulis, C.(2001) Three Clerodane Diterpenoids from
Croton eluteria Bennett. Phytochemistry 57: 1209-1212

Vongchareonsathit, A., and De-Eknamkul, W. (1998) Rapid TLC-densitometric analysis of

plaunotol from Croton sublyratus leaves. Planta Medica 64: 279-280

Wagner, H., Horhammer, L., and Kiraly, I., C. (1970) Flavon-C-glykoside in Croton
zambesicus. Phytochemistry 9: 897

Wang, G., Zhang, H., Liu, H. and Yue, J. (2013) Laevinoids A and B: Two Diterpenoids with
an Unprecedented Backbone from Croton laevigatus. Organic Letters 15 (18): 4880-4883

Watt, J., M., and Breyer-Brandwijk, M., G. (1962) The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of
Southern and Eastern Africa. E. & S. Livingstone LTD

Wen-han, L., Hong-zheng, F., Jun, L., Gang, C., and Roderick, A., B. (2003) The Alkaloids
from Leaves of Croton hemiargyreus var. gymnodiscus. Journal of Chinese Pharmaceutical
Sciences 12: 117-122

WHO (1996). Investing in Health Research and Development. Document TDR/Gen/96.1.

Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of Health Research Relating to Future Intervention Options.
WHO, Geneva: 1-4

WHO (2003) The Africa Malaria Report by WHO and UNICEF-Geneva Conference

WHO Position Statement (2011) The Use of DDT in Malaria Vector Control. Global Malaria
Programme.WHO/HTM/GMP/2011.WHO web site. (http://www.who.int/malaria. Accessed
on 16th October 2013) WHO, 2011

WHO web site: http://www.who.int/leishmaniasis . Accessed on 16th October 2013

195
WHO. (2008) Proceedings of the Founding Forum for African Network for Drugs and
Diagonistics Innovation (AND 1) by WHO on Behalf of the Special Programme for Research
and Training in Tropical Diseases.

Williams, L., Evans, P., E., and Bowers, W., S. (2001) Defensive Chemistry of an
Aposematic Bug, Pachycoris stallii Uhler and Volatile Compounds of Its Host Plant Croton
californicus Muell.-Arg. Journal of Chemical Ecology 27 (2): 203-206

Wilson, S., R., Neubert, L., A., and Huffman, J., C. (1976) The Chemistry of Euphorbiaceae.
A new Diterpene from Croton californicus. Journal of American Chemical Society 98: 3669

Wu, D., Roskilly, A., P. and Yu, H. (2013) Croton megalocarpus Oil-fired Micro-
trigeneration Prototype for Remote and Self-contained Applications: Experimental
Assessment of its Performace and Gaseous and Particulate Emissions. Interface Focus 3: 1-
11

Wungsintaweekul, J., and De-Eknamkul, W. (2005) Biosynthesis of Plaunotol in Croton

stellatopilosus proceeds via the Deoxyxylulose Phosphate Pathway. Tetrahedron Letters 46:
2125 – 2128

Wurdack, K., J., Hoffmann, P., and Chase, M., W. (2005) “Molecular Phylogenetic Analysis
of Uniovulate Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbiaceae sensu stricto) using Plastid RBCL and TRNL-
F DNA sequences” American Journal of Botany 92:1397

Yamale, S., C., Koudou, J., Samb, A., Heitz, A., and Teulade, J., C. (2009) Structural
Elucidation of a new Furoclerodane from Stem Barks of Croton mayumbensis J. Leonard
Extracts. International Journal of Physical Sciences 4 (3): 96-100

Yang, L-B., Li, L., Huang, S-X., Pu, J-C., Zhao, Y., Ma, Y-B., Chen, J-J., Leng, C-H., Tao,
Z-M. and Sun, H-D. (2011) Anti-hepatitis B Virus and Cytotoxic Diterpenoids from Isodon
lophanthoides var. gerardianus. Chemical Pharmaceutical Bulletin 59 (9): 1102-1105

Zamora-martinez, M., C., and Pola, C., N. (1992) Medicinal Plants used in some Rural
Populations of Oaxaca, Puebla and Veracruz, Mexico. Journal of Ethno pharmacology 35
(3): 229-257

196
Zgoda-Pols, J., R., Freyer, A., J., Killmer, L., B., Porter, J., R. (2002) Antimicrobial diterpene
from the stem bark of Mitrephora celebica. Fitoterapia 73:434–438

Zinkel, D., F., Landucci, L., L. (1991) “1H and 13C NMR Spectra of the Abietadienoic Resin
Acids” Holzforschung 45:341-346

197
Appendix 1 a: Mass spectrum for crotocorylifuran (391)

BMR 10 2mg University of Surrey 12-Jun-2014

Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 12:17:01
BMR 10 2mg 217 (4.022) Cm (213:222) 1: Scan ES+
425.3 2.96e7
100
%

426.4
423.3

466.4 623.6
311.2 422.4
237.1 265.2 283.2 312.3 393.1 427.5 467.5 624.4 827.5 889.6 906.6
144.8 169.0 528.4 593.1 622.9 697.0 947.2
209.2 488.5 671.0 795.1 826.8 888.7 991.6
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

198
Appendix 1 b: 1H NMR spectrum for crotocorylifuran (391)

199
Appendix 1 c: 13C NMR spectrum for crotocorylifuran (391)

200
Appendix 1 d: NOESY and HMBC spectra for crotocorylifuran (391)

201
Appendix 2 a: Mass spectrum of 12-epi-crotocorylifuran (392)
BMR 11 University of Surrey 02-Jul-2014
Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 18:04:46
BMR 11 215 (3.986) Cm (212:224) 1: Scan ES+
425.4 6.46e7
100
%

426.4

311.3
422.5
237.2 265.2 283.3 393.2 623.7
427.5 875.6 889.7
154.1 169.1
219.2
312.3 457.4 624.5 827.6 859.7
384.5 487.3 563.4 593.7607.5 655.6 761.8 791.7 921.6 953.6
701.6
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

202
Appendix 2 b: 1H and 13C NMR spectra of 12-epi-crotocorylifuran (392)

203
Appendix 2 c: NOESY and HMBC spectra of 12-epi-crotocorylifuran (392)

204
Appendix 3 a: Mass spectrum of 8-hydroxycrotocorylifuran (393)
BMR 5 University of Surrey 02-Jul-2014
Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 17:07:46
BMR 5 201 (3.727) Cm (199:208) 1: Scan ES+
441.4 5.58e7
100
%

455.3
439.3

499.4

456.4 647.7
397.4
128.1 169.1 235.2 263.3 309.3 355.4 500.5
648.3
369.1 398.5 843.6 859.6 891.6 921.6
482.4 502.6 581.7 625.9 672.0 733.6 769.5817.4 930.0 959.5 989.9
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

205
Appendix 3 b: 1H and 13C NMR spectra of 8-hydroxycrotocorylifuran (393)

206
Appendix 3 c: HMBC and NOESY spectra 8-hydroxycrotocorylifuran (393)

207
Appendix 4 a: Mass spectrum of 2-ketocrotocorylifuran (394)
BMR 7 2mg University of Surrey 12-Jun-2014
Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 12:01:03
BMR 7 2mg 203 (3.763) Cm (202:205) 1: Scan ES+
439.3 6.20e7
100
%

436.4

440.4

251.1 428.3 441.5 501.2 857.4871.4

131.0 175.0 202.9 325.1
279.2 376.3 517.2 541.9 599.1 617.0 643.5 667.2 703.3 768.9 797.3 839.5 917.5 934.4 984.9992.9
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

208
Appendix 4 b: 1H and 13C NMR spectra of 2-ketocrotocorylifuran (394)

209
Appendix 4 c: HMBC and NOESY spectra of 2-ketocrotocorylifuran (394)

210
Appendix 5 a: Mass spectrum of 7, 8-dehydrocrotocorylifuran (395)
BMR 3 University of Surrey 02-Jul-2014
Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 16:51:31
BMR 3 212 (3.930) Cm (210:220) 1: Scan ES+
423.4 3.64e7
100
%

425.3
420.6

128.1 169.1 426.5

379.3 398.6
187.2 229.2 265.2 309.3 485.3 501.2 541.5 679.8 715.6 773.5 807.4 823.8 855.6 885.7 902.0 996.1
591.6 620.6 697.5 924.4 957.7
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

211
Appendix 5 b: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of 7, 8-dehydrocrotocorylifuran (395)

212
Appendix 5 c: HMBC and NOESY spectra of 7, 8-dehydrocrotocorylifuran (395)

213
Appendix 6 a: Mass and FTIR spectra of megalocarpoidolide F (396)
BMR 7 2mg University of Surrey 12-Jun-2014
Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 12:01:03
BMR 7 2mg 203 (3.763) Cm (202:205) 1: Scan ES+
439.3 6.20e7
100
%

436.4

440.4

251.1 428.3 441.5 501.2 857.4 871.4

131.0 175.0 202.9 325.1
279.2 376.3 517.2 541.9 599.1
617.0
643.5
667.2
703.3
768.9 797.3 839.5 917.5 934.4 984.9 992.9
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

214
Appendix 6 b: 1H and 13C NMR spectra megalocarpoidolide F (396)

215
Appendix 6 c: HMBC and COSY spectra for megalocarpoidolide F (396)

216
Appendix 7 a: Mass and FTIR spectra of 12-Epi-megalocarpoidolide F (397)
BMR 16 University of Surrey 02-Jul-2014
Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 17:48:30
BMR 16 201 (3.727) Cm (199:207) 1: Scan ES+
439.4 1.01e8
100
%

440.4

436.6

441.4
251.3 279.3 325.3 871.6
131.1 165.1 195.1 223.2 376.5 384.4 414.6 455.4 501.4 517.3 714.0 839.6 857.6 934.5 971.1998.8
581.3 617.3 651.8 700.1 763.8 797.8 917.4
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

0.29

19

09

98

88

78

68

58

48

85.0441 38

28

54.9492 18
45.4201 T%
08
16.1292

97

87

77

41.1271 65.3471
67

57

47

37

27

17

0.07
0.004 006 008 0001 0021 0041 0061 0081 0002 0042 0082 0023 0063 0.0004
1-m c

217
Appendix 7 b: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra 12-Epi-megalocarpoidolide F (397)

218
Appendix 7 c: NOESY spectra of megalocarpoidolide F (396) its C-12 epimer (397)

396

397

219
Appendix 8 a: Mass spectrum of megalocarpoidolide E (398)
BMR 17 University of Surrey 02-Jul-2014
Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 17:32:15
BMR 17 204 (3.782) Cm (202:206) 1: Scan ES+
499.4 1.48e8
100
%

500.5

251.2

357.3 501.6
253.3 311.3 439.4 455.4
235.2 358.4
129.1 165.1 195.2 223.2 417.4 515.4 561.3 575.4 591.5 632.0 767.5 901.8 959.6 975.7 991.7
701.7 742.0 811.4 859.0 887.9
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

BMR 17 University of Surrey 02-Jul-2014

Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 17:32:15
BMR 17 204 (3.782) Cm (202:206) 1: Scan ES+
100 3.56e7

251.2
%

357.3

439.4
253.3 311.3
263.3 279.3
223.2 235.2 293.3 329.3
269.3
195.2 205.1 339.3 358.4 455.4
159.1 165.1 440.5 483.4
312.3 417.4
187.2 241.2 340.4 411.3 484.4
131.1 153.1 359.4 385.3 471.3
423.2
0 m/z
120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480

220
Appendix 8 b: 1H NMR spectrum of megalocarpoidolide E (398)

221
Appendix 8 c: 13C NMR spectrum of megalocarpoidolide E (398)

222
Appendix 8 d: HMBC and NOESY spectra of megalocarpoidolide E (398)

223
Appendix 9 a: Mass spectrum and FTIR spectra of megalocarpoidolide G (399)
BMR-8 University of Surrey 05-Jun-2014
Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 14:35:18
BMR-8 202 (3.744) Cm (202:206) 1: Scan ES+
455.2 1.32e8
100
%

439.2

456.3 499.2

221.0 251.1
277.0
208.9 500.3
177.9 309.1 323.1 357.1 436.3 457.3
154.9 668.4 769.4 813.4 871.2 887.4 903.6 931.2
401.1 501.4 531.0 561.4 613.7 684.0 692.7 753.3 993.2
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

224
Appendix 9 b: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of megalocarpoidolide G (399)

225
Appendix 9 c: HMBC and NOESY spectra of megalocarpoidolide G (399)

226
Appendix 10 a: Mass and FTIR spectra of megalocarpoidolide H (400)
BMR 12 University of Surrey 02-Jul-2014
Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 18:12:53
BMR 12 212 (3.930) 1: Scan ES+
437.4 3.35e7
100

211.2
%

279.3
183.1
243.2 371.3
438.4
311.3 429.3
155.1 339.3 615.6
212.2
372.4 913.5
153.1 280.3 439.5 616.6 883.5 893.4 947.7
353.3 485.1 499.3 603.7 677.5 691.7 725.4 791.2 801.6 851.4
555.6 970.0
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

90.0

89

88

87

86

85

84

83

82

81

3446.15
80
%T 2953.84
2848.35
79
1245.62

78

77 2916.84 1730.41
1770.81
1662.41
76

75

74

2359.79
73

72

71

70.0
4000.0 3600 3200 2800 2400 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400.0
cm-1

227
Appendix 10 b: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of megalocarpoidolide H (400)

228
Appendix 10 c: HMBC and NOESY Spectra of Megalocarpoidolide H (400)

229
Appendix 11 a: FTIR and CD spectra of megalocarpoidolide I (401)
92.0
91
90
89
88
87
86
85
84

83
82
81
80
79
78
1251.06
2852.74
77
76
%T 2949.45
75
74
1713.35
73 1695.34

72
2923.44
71
70
69
68

67
66
65
64
63
62
61
60.0
4000.0 3600 3200 2800 2400 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400.0
cm-1

230
Appendix 11 b: 1H and 13C NMR spectra of megalocarpoidolide I (401)

231
Appendix 11 c: HMBC and NOESY spectra of megalocarpoidolide I (401)

232
Appendix 12 a: FTIR and CD spectra of megalocarpoidolide J (402)

233
Appendix 12 b: 1H and 13C NMR spectra of megalocarpoidolide J (402)

234
Appendix 12 c: HMBC and NOESY spectra of megalocarpoidolide J (402)

235
Appendix 13 a: 1H and 13C NMR spectra of megalocarpoidolide K (403)

236
Appendix 13 b: HMBC and COSY spectra of megalocarpoidolide K (403)

237
Appendix 14 a: 1H NMR spectrum of isolophanthin A (404)

238
Appendix 14 b: 13C NMR spectrum of isolophanthin A (404)

239
Appendix 14 c: DEPT spectrum of isolophanthin A (404)

240
Appendix 14 d: NOESY and HMBC spectra of isolophanthin A (404)

241
Appendix 15 a: 1H and 13C NMR spectra of isolophanthin E (405)

242
Appendix 15 b: HMBC and NOESY spectra of isolophanthin E (405)

243
Appendix 16 a: Mass and FTIR spectra of abietic acid (406)

244
Appendix 16 b: 1H and 13C spectra of abietic acid (406)

245
Appendix 17 a: Mass spectrum of 3α, 18-dihydroxytrachylobane (407)
BMR 2 University of Surrey 02-Jul-2014
Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 16:43:24
BMR 2 238 (4.411) Cm (237:241) 1: Scan ES+
269.4 1.62e7
100

287.4

229.3
%

173.1 227.3 288.5 327.4 476.9

159.2 230.4 371.5
175.2
145.1 311.4 415.6 459.6
503.6
131.2 547.7 591.7 635.7
328.4 389.4 416.5 504.7
561.8 605.7
679.8 723.8 757.4 793.7 816.1
860.7 928.1 935.9 947.9 993.4
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000

246
Appendix 17 b: 1H NMR spectrum of 3α, 18-dihydroxytrachylobane (407)

247
Appendix 17 c: DEPT and 13C NMR spectra of 3α, 18-dihydroxytrachylobane (407)

248
Appendix 17 d: HMBC and NOESY spectra of 3α, 18-dihydroxytrachylobane (407)

249
Appendix 18 a: 1H NMR spectrum of Ent-trachyloban-19-ol (408)

250
Appendix 18 b: DEPT and 13C NMR spectra of ent-trachyloban-19-ol (408)

251
Appendix 19 a: Mass and FTIR spectra for ent-trachyloban-18-oic acid (409)

252
Appendix 19 b: 1H and 13C NMR spectra of ent-trachyloban-18-oic acid (409)

253
Appendix 20 a: 1H NMR spectrum of 3α-ent-hydroxytrachyloban-18-al (410)

254
Appendix 20 b: 13C NMR spectrum of 3α-ent-hydroxytrachyloban-18-al (410)

255
Appendix 20 c: HMBC and NOESY spectra of 3α-ent-hydroxytrachyloban-18-al (410)

256
Appendix 21: 1H NMR and 13 C NMR spectra of acetylaleuritolic acid (411)

257
Appendix 22 a: 1H NMR spectrum of lupeol (412)

258
Appendix 22 b: 13C and DEPT NMR spectra of lupeol (412)

259
Appendix 23 a: Mass spectrum of alienusolin (413)

260
Appendix 23 b: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of alienusolin (413)

261
Appendix 23 c: COSY and HMBC spectra for alienusolin (413)

262
Appendix 23 d: NOESY spectrum of alienusolin (413)

263
Appendix 24 1: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of julocrotine (414)

264
Appendix 25 a: HRESIMS spectrum of crotonamide C (415)

265
Appendix 25 b: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra for crotonimide C (415)

266
Appendix 26 1: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of crotepoxide (416)

267
Appendix 27 a: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of monodeacetylcrotepoxide (417)

268
Appendix 27 b: Overlaid 1H spectra of 416 & acetylated 417

269
Appendix 28 1: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of dideacetylcrotepoxide (418)

270
Appendix 29 1: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of senepoxide (419)

271
Appendix 30 1: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra for β-Senepoxide (420)

272
Appendix 31 1: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of diacetyldiene molecule (421)

273
Appendix 32 1: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of D4-stigmasterone (422)

274
 275
BMR 10 2mg University of Surrey 12-Jun-2014
Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 12:17:01
BMR 10 2mg 217 (4.022) Cm (213:222) 1: Scan ES+
425.3 2.96e7
100

%
426.4
423.3
466.4 623.6
311.2 422.4
237.1 265.2 283.2 312.3 393.1 427.5 467.5 624.4 827.5
144.8 169.0 528.4 593.1 622.9 697.0
889.6 906.6
947.2
209.2 488.5 671.0 795.1 826.8 888.7 991.6
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
Appendix 33 1: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of hardwickiic acid (423)
Appendix 34 1: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of kolavenol (424)

276
Appendix 35 1: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of 15-acetoxy-ent-3,13E-clerodadiene
(425)

277
 278
BMR 10 2mg University of Surrey 12-Jun-2014
Quattro Ultima, Electrospray 12:17:01
BMR 10 2mg 217 (4.022) Cm (213:222) 1: Scan ES+
425.3 2.96e7
100

%
426.4
423.3
466.4 623.6
311.2 422.4
237.1 265.2 283.2 312.3 393.1 427.5 467.5 624.4 827.5
144.8 169.0 528.4 593.1 622.9 697.0
889.6 906.6
947.2
209.2 488.5 671.0 795.1 826.8 888.7 991.6
0 m/z
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
Appendix 36 1: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of 3, 8(17), 13E-clerodatriene-15-ol (426)
Appendix 37 a: 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra of 15-formate-ent-3,13E-clerodadiene
(427)

279
Appendix 37 b: HMBC spectrum of 15-formate-ent-3,13E-clerodadiene (427)

280
Appendix 37 c: NOESY spectrum of 15-formate-ent-3,13E-clerodadiene (427)

281
Appendix 38 a: 1H NMR spectra of hardwickiic acid (423) and crotohalimaneic acid
(428)

282
Appendix 38 b: 13 C NMR spectra of hardwickiic acid (423) & crotohalimaneic acid
(428)

283
Appendix 39 a: 1H NMR spectrum of penduliflaworosin (429)

284
Appendix 39 b: 13C NMR spectrum of penduliflaworosin (429)

285
Appendix 40 a: 1H NMR spectrum of Labd-13E- ene -8α, 15-diol (430)

286
Appendix 40 b: 13 C NMR spectrum of labd-13E- ene -8α, 15-diol (430)

287
Appendix 41 : Ndunda, B., Langat, M., K., Wanjohi, J., M., Midiwo, J., O. and Kerubo, L.,
O. (2013) Alienusolin, a New 4α-Deoxyphorbol Ester Derivative, and Crotonimide C, a New
Glutarimide Alkaloid from the Kenyan Croton alienus. Planta medica 79: 1762-1766

288