432 THEbook

from the HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

by Kleppner and Kolenkow

Multiplying Eq. (2)Damped oscillator

by i and adding it to Eq. (1) yields

z̈ + γż + ω0 2 z = 0. (3)

Note that either the real or imaginary part of z is an acceptable solution

for the equation of motion.
All the coefficients of the derivatives of z are constants and so a natural
choice for the solution of Eq. (3) is

ly
z = z0 eαt , (4)

on
where z0 and α are constants. With this trial solution Eq. (3) yields

α2 z0 eαt + αγz0 eαt + ωo 2 z0 eαt = 0.

Cancelling the common factor z0 eαt , we have

n
α2 + αγ + ω0 2 = 0, (5)

tio
which has the solution


γ γ 2
α=− ± − ω0 2 . (6)

a
2 2
Let the two roots be α1 and α2 . The solution can be written as
ul
z = zA eα1 t + zB eα2 t ,
rc
where zA and zB are constants.
There are three possible forms of the solution, depending on whether
ci

α is real or complex. We consider these solutions in turn.

Case 1: lightdamping: (γ/2)2 ω0 2 .
In this case (γ/2)2 − ω20 is imaginary and we can write
e

 γ

γ
at

α = − ± ı̇ ω20 − 2
(7)
2 2
γ
= − ± ı̇ω1
riv

2
where

rp

ω1 = ω0 2 − (γ/2)2 .

The solution is
z = e−(γ/2)t (z1 eı̇ω1 t + z2 e−ı̇ω1 t ),
fo

(8)

where z1 and z2 are complex constants. In order to find the real part of z
we write the complex numbers in Cartesian form

x + ı̇y = e−(γ/2)t [(x1 + ı̇y1 )(cos ω1 t + ı̇ sin ω1 t)

+ (x2 + ı̇y2 )(cos ω1 t − ı̇ sin ω1 t)].
NOTES 433

The real part can be rearranged

x = Ae−(γ/2)t cos (ω1 t + φ)
where A and φ are new arbitrary constants. This is the result quoted in
Eq. (11.10). The imaginary part of z, which is also an acceptable solu-
tion, has the same form.
 damping: (γ/2) > ω0 .
2 2
Case 2: heavy
In this case, (γ/2) − ω0 is real and Eq. (5) has the solution

ly
2 2


γ γ ω0 2

on
α=− ± 1− .
2 2 (γ/2)2

Both roots are negative, and we can write

z = z1 e−|α1 |t + z2 e−|α2 |t .

n
(9)

tio
The exponentials are real. The real part of z is
x = Ae−|α1 |t + Be−|α2 |t . (10)

a
This solution has no oscillatory behavior and is known as overdamped.
Case 3: critical damping: γ2 /4 = ω0 2 .
ul
If γ2 /4 = ωo 2 we have only the single root
γ
α=− .
rc
2
The corresponding solution is
ci

x = Ae−(γ/2)t . (11)
However, this solution is incomplete. Mathematically, the solution of a
e

second-order linear differential equation must always involve two arbi-

trary constants. Physically, the solution must have two constants to allow
at

us to specify the initial position and initial velocity of the oscillator. As

described in texts on differential equations, the second solution can be
riv

found by using a “variation of parameters” trial solution.

x = u(t)e(−γ/2)t .
rp

Substituting in Eq. (1) and recalling that γ = 2ωo for this case, we find
that u(t) must satisfy the equation
ü = 0.
fo

Hence
u = a + bt
and the general solution for critical damping is therefore
x = (A + Bt)e−(γ/2)t . (11.43)
 434 THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

Driven,
Note 11.3 damped
Solving oscillator
the Equation of Motion for the Driven
Harmonic Oscillator
The equation of motion is
F0
ẍ + γ ẋ + ω0 2 x = cos ωt. (1)
m
The companion equation is

ly
F0
ÿ + γẏ + ω0 2 y = sin ωt. (2)
m

on
Multiplying Eq. (2) by i and adding to Eq. (1) yields
F0 ı̇ωt
z̈ + γż + ω0 2 z = e . (3)
m
z must vary as eı̇ωt , so we try

n
z = z0 eı̇ωt .

tio
Inserting this in Eq. (3) gives

a
F0 ı̇ωt
(−ω2 + ı̇ωγ + ω0 2 )z0 eı̇ωt = e
m
or
ul
⎛ ⎞
F0 ⎜⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟⎟
z0 = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ .
rc
m ω0 − ω + ı̇ωγ
2 2

We can put z0 into Cartesian form by multiplying numerator and denom-

ci

inator by the complex conjugate of the denominator. This gives

⎛ ⎞
F0 ⎜⎜⎜ (ω20 − ω2 ) − ı̇ωγ ⎟⎟⎟
z0 = ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ .
e

m (ω0 − ω2 )2 + (ωγ)2
at

In polar form, z0 = Reı̇φ , where


R = z0 z∗0
riv


F0 1
= (4)
m (ω0 2 − ω2 )2 + (ωγ)2
rp

and


ωγ
φ = arctan 2 . (5)
ω − ω0 2
fo

The complete solution is

z = Reıφ eı̇ωt ,
˙

which has the real part

x = R cos(ωt + φ).