COURSE OUTLINE

Introduction: displacement, velocity and acceleration

Motion of a body in a straight line

 Uniform acceleration
 Variable acceleration
 Expressed as a function of time

Motion in a plane
 Circular motion
 Projectile in 2 dimensions

Forces
 Define various forces

Newton’s laws of motion and their application

Work, energy and power

Impulse and momentum

Variable forces

Composition and resolution of forces

Moments and couples

Force in equilibrium
 Triangle of forces
 Polygon of forces

Frictional forces and their appliances

Introduction to dimensional analysis

REFERENCE
1. A shorter intermediate mechanics: By Humphreys D
2. Statistics and an introduction to dynamics: ( 3rd edition)
3. Applied mechanics: By Hannah and Hillies
4. Theoretical mechanics Schanm outline series by M.R Spiegel
5. Mechanics for A. Level: By L Bestock and S. chandler
KINEMATICS
This is the study of motion of bodies considering the forces involved. It considers the geometry of
motion. It is the study of displacement, velocity and acceleration.

Displacement
This is the position of a point relative to the origin O. It is a vector
Its S.I units are metres, centimeters or kilometres.
Distance is the magnitude of displacement. It is a scalar.

Vector
This is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time. It is a vector.
S.I unit is m/s, cm/s, km/h.
Speed is the magnitude of the velocity. It is a scalar

Uniform Velocity
This is constant speed in a fixed direction

Average Velocity
This is the change in displacement with time

Change in displacement
Average vel =
Time taken

Change in displacement
Average Speed =
Time taken

Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. It is a vector quantity.
S.I unit m/s

Negative Acceleration
Uniform acceleration is constant acceleration in a fixed direction

NB
We use positive and negative signs to show direction of a particle.

EQUATION OF UNIFORM ACCELERATION

1. v = u+at
1
2. s = ( u+v ) t
2
3. v = u 2 +2as
2

1 2
4. s = ut + at
2

Where the rotations used are

s - Displacement
u - Initial velocity
v - Final velocity
a - Acceleration
t - Time
Example 1
A particle moves in a straight line with constant acceleration. Its initial velocity is 6m/s and its
velocity after 8 seconds is 10m/s. Find the acceleration and the displacement of the particle after
16s
Solution
u=6 v = 10 t=8
v = u + at
v - u 10 - 6
a= = = 0.5 m / s 2
t 8

\ uniform acceleration is 0.5 m / s 2

1 2
To find displacement s = ut + at
2

u=6 v = 16 a = 0.5
1
\s = 6 ( 16 ) + �0.5 �162 = 160
2

\ displacement is 160 m

Example 2
A train is uniformly retarded from 35m/s ti 21m/s over a distance of 350m. Calculate,
a) the retardation
b) The total time taken under the retardation to come to rest from the speed of 35m/s

Solution
a) u = 35 v = 21 s = 350
v 2 = u 2 +2as
v 2 - u 2 352 - 212
a= = = 1.12 m / s 2
2s 2 �350

b) u = 35 v=0 a = 1.12
v = u + at
v - u 0 - 35
t= = = 31.25sec
a 1.12

Example 3
At time t = 0 a particle is projected vertically upwards from a point A with a speed of 19.6m/s.
Two seconds later, a second particle is projected vertically upwards from 0 with the same speed.
Assuming that the only force acting is that due to gravity (g = 9.8m/s).
a) Express the height above 0 of both particles in terms of t and hence, or otherwise, Find the value
of t when they collide.
b) Find the speeds of the particles at the instant of collision.
Solution
Let the height of collision be s

1st particle collision time t

u = 19.6 a = 9.8
1
s = ut + at 2
2
= 19.6 t - 4.9 t 2

2nd particle collision time t - 2

� s = 19.6 ( t - 2 ) - 4.9 ( t - 2 )
2

Equating the two equations

19.6 t - 4.9 t 2 = 19.6 ( t - 2 ) - 4.9 ( t - 2 )

2

0 = -39 - 4.9 ( -4t ) - 4.9 ( 4 )

0 = -39 - 19.6 + 19.6t
58.8 = 19.6t

58.8
�t = = 3 sec s
19.6

Exercise
1. A small ball is released from rest and falls on a horizontal platform which is descending
vertically with the constant speed of 7m/s. given that the ball is 12m above the platform at the
instant of release, calculate the time that elapses before the ball hits the platform. (take g=
10m/s2)

2. A car travelling with a constant acceleration has a velocity of 20m/s after 5seconds. Given that it
is travelling on a straight highway and its velocity after 10seconds is 32.5m/s
a) Find the initial velocity
b) Its displacement in the interval 2s < t < 12s

3. The driver of train shuts off the power and the train is then uniform retarded in the first 30s the
train covers 110m and it then comes to rest in a farther 30s.
Determine
a) The initial speed of the train before power is cut off
b) The total distance travelled in company to rest
4) A diesel train accelerates uniformly from rest to reach 60 km/h in 6 min after which the
speed is kept constant. Calculate the total time taken to travel 6 km

RELATIVE VELORCITY AND RELATIVE ACCELERATION

Two particles P1 and P2 have velocities v1 and v 2 and acceleration a1 and a2 respectively.
The velocity of P2 relative to P1 is

2 v1 = v 2 - v1
2 v1

v1
 v2

Similarly the acceleration of P2 relative to P1 is

a = a2 - a1
2 1

Example 1
A ship in distress is 6 km S 500 W of a lifeboat and drifting S 200 E at 5 km/h. in what
direction should the lifeboat travel to reach the ship as quickly as possible if the maximum
speed of the life boat is 35 km/h?

L lifeboat
6 km

Ship S

Imagine yourself in the ship, the lifeboat will appear to travel directly towards you. i.e L vS
will be in a direction S 500 W

Using the velocity triangle

L vS

vL

- vS

In the velocity triangle

L vS = v L - v S

The magnitude of v L and v L are

v L = 35km / h vS = 5km / h

By sine rule
sinq sin110
=
5 35

� q = 7.7 0
so a = 500 - 7.7 0 = 42.30

\ the lifeboat must travel S 42.30 W

Example 2
A tool is traversed across a lathe bed at 1mm/s relative to the slide. The slide is traversed at
2.5 mm/s along the lathe. What is the velocity of the tool?
 Solution
B

O A
2.5

From A draw AB perpendicular to OA to represent the velocity of the tool across the bed
relative to slide and OB represents velocity of the slide.
2.7mm/s
Speed of tool = length of OB

= 2.52 + 12 = 2.7 mm / s

Example 3
Two ships are steadily steaming towards each other. When 100m apart, ship B takes
avoiding action by turning through 30 to port .The speed of ship A is 20m/s and that of B is
30m/s.
Calculate their nearest distance apart and how long before this distance is reached after B
takes avoiding action. Neglect the time taken to after course

Solution
B A

1000 30m/s 20 m/s 30m/s

20 m/s A B

AB represents magnitude and direction the velocity of B relative A

i.e motion of B as seen from A
BC-path of B relative to A //a b
Shortest distance between A and B is found by drawing the perpendicular AC from A on BC
by measurement.
Nearest approach=AC =311m
Distance travelled by B on path BC = length BC =950m.
Velocity of B relative A on this path=a b =48.5m/s
Hence the five taken to reach to the point of shortest distance is 950/48.5=205

EXERCISE
1. An aircraft is flying due north at 1000km/h while another 400km to the east is travelling NW at
1800km/h what is their closest distance of append [84m]

2. Two trains pass each other on parallel tracks. The first is 180m long and travels 60km/h. The
second is 120m long and travels at 40km/h. Calculate the total time taken to pass each other
completely
a) If travelling in the same direction. [54s]
b) If travelling in opposite directions [10.8s]
3. Two aircraft leaves airport A and B 100 km apart at the same instant. The first flies directly from
A to B at 20km/h. The second flies on a course inclined at 600 to the line joining B to A at
300km/h fund.
a) The nearest distance of approach of the two aircraft [60km]
b) The time taken to reach the nearest distance 10min, 50s]

Variable Acceleration As A Function Of Time.

Acceleration may be given as a function of time t
dv
a=
dt
To find v in terms of t
dv
v = � dt = � a dt
dt

To find s in terms of t use v

ds
v= ds
dt s = � dt = �
v dt
dt

Example
A particle is moving in a straight line and it’s acceleration after t second is given by 24t m/s2
a) Find an expression for the displacement x m after t second in terms of t
b) Given that at t = 0 , s = 0 and that at t = 2s , s = 40 m , Find the displacement and the
velocity when t = 3

Solution
dv
a= = 24t
dt
v=� 24t dt
= 12t 2 + C1
ds
v=
dt
�s=� ( 12t 2 + C1 ) dt
= 4t 3 + C1t + C2

When t = 0 , s = 0
� 0 = 0 + 0 + C2 \C2 = 0
\s = 4t + C1t
3

t = 2s , s = 40 m
� 40 = 32 + 2C1
8 = 2C1 \C1 = 4

\ v = 12t 2 + 4
and
s = 4t 3 + 4t
 When t = 3
s = 4 �27 + 4 �3
= 120 m

v = 12 �9 + 4
= 112 m / s

Example 2
The acceleration a m/s2 of a particle moving in a straight line at t seconds is given by
a = 24t 2 - 6t . If the particle starts from rest at t= 0 determine
a) An expression for its velocity v m/s at any time is seconds
b) The other value of t for which the particle is at rest
c) The distance moved by the particle between the two times when the particle as at rest.

Solution
dv
a= = 24t 2 - 6t
dt
v=� ( 24t 2 - 6t ) dt
= 8t 3 - 3t 2 + C

t =0,v =0 �C = 0
\ v = 8t - 3t
3 2

When particle at rest v =0

� 8t 3 - 3t 2 = 0
t 2 ( 8t 3 - 3) = 0

t 2 = 0 or 8t - 3 = 0
t = 0 and t = 3 8

ds
v=
dt
�s=� ( 8t 3 - 3t 2 ) dt
= 2t 4 - t 3 + C

When t = 0 , s = 0 �C = 0
\s = 2t 4 - t 3
4 3
�3 � �3 �
s = 2 � �- � �
�8 � �8 �
=

Exercise
1. A particle money in a straight line has a displacement x metre from an origin O when its
velocity v m/s and its acceleration is given as ( 3 x - 4 ) m/s if the particle is initially at rest
2

at the origin. Find its other displacement when it is at rest [x = 4m]

 2. A particle is moving in a straight line and its acceleration t seconds after passing the origin
is given as ( 4sin 2t + 36e ) m/s2 given that the particle was at the origin when t = 0 and
-6 t

was initially at rest determine its velocity at time 11/3 seconds 9 - 6e -2p �
�
� �

TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL ACCELERATION

When a particle moves along a space C the direction of velocity is tangential to the curve.
R
C

R
r
O
C

dr dr
= lim
dt d t �0 d t
Let T be a unit tangent vector to the curve then

v = vT%
%
Example
A particle moves along a space C whose position vector at time t is given by
r = 3cos 2t i + 3sin 2t j + ( 8t - 4 ) k
% % % %
Find a unit tangent vector x to the curve
Verify that the velocity x is given by v = vT
% %
Solution
dr
a) = -6sin 2t i + 6 cos 2t j + 8 k
dt % % %

dr
= 36sin 2 2t + 36cos 2 2t + 64 = 10
dt

Unit vector geven by

dr

dr 10
(
dt = 1 -6sin 2t i + 6 cos 2t j + 8 k
% % %
)
dt
3 3 4
= - sin 2t i + cos 2t j + k
5 %5 % 5%

b) v = -6sin 2t i + 6 cos 2t j + 8 k
% % %
�3 3 4 �
= 10 �- sin 2t i + cos 2t j + k �
�5 %5 % 5 %�
 \ v = vT%
%
To get acceleration

v = vT%
%
dv% dv dT%
a= = T +v
% dt dt dt

Let S be distance covered along the curve i.e. arc length then;

dT% dT% ds ds
= � where =v
dt ds dt dt

dT%
=k and is called the radius of curvature
ds

Let N%be the unit normal also called the principal normal to the curve and it is given by
dT%
= k N%
ds
dv
\ a = T + k v 2 N%
% dt
1
= R and it is called the radius of curvature therefore acceleration may be written as
k
dv v2 %
a = T%+ N
% dt R

dv
is called the tangential acceleration
dt

k v2 is called the normal acceleration

Example
A particle moves in such a way that its position vector at any time t is given by

1
r = t i + t2 j + t k
% %2 % %

Find
a) The velocity
b) Speed
c) Acceleration
d) Magnitude of acceleration
e) Tangential acceleration
f) Normal acceleration
Solution
dr
a) v = %= i + t j + k
dt % % %
b) speed = v = 1 + t 2 + 1 = t 2 + 2

c) acc = a%= j
%
d) magnitude of a =1
%
e) Tangential acceleration

dv 1 t
= 2t ( t 2 + 2 ) 2 =
-1

dt 2 t2 + 2

v
f) v = vT% � T%= %
% v

T%=
1
(
i +t j +k
t2 + 2 % % %
)
= ( t 2 + 2) (%
i +t j + k)
-1
2

% %
dT% 1
( )
-3
= - 2t ( t 2 + 2 ) 2 i + t j + k + ( t 2 + 2 ) 2 j
-1

dt 2 % % % %
t t 1
= i- j+ k
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 1
t2 + 2 2 % t2 + 2 2 % t2 + 2 2 %
1
= -t i + ( -t 2 + t 2 + 2 ) j - t k �
�
�
(t + 2) % %�
3
2 2 %

1
= �
-t i + 2 j - t k �
� % % %�
(t + 2)
3
2 2

dT%
dT% dT% ds ds
= dt
= � where ds
dt ds dt dt
dt

dT% 1
( )
1
\ = �
-t i + 2 j - t k �
3 �
t 2
+ 2 2
�
ds
( t 2 + 2) 2 % % %
1
= �
-t i + 2 j - t k �
� % % %�
(t + 2)
2 2
 dT% 1
( t2 + 4 + t2 ) 2
1
k= =
ds ( t 2 + 2 ) 2

1
(t + 2)
1
= 2 2
2
(t + 2)
2 2

2
=
(t + 2)
3
2 2

Therefore the normal component of acceleration is

2
( 2
)
2
k v2 = � ( t 2
+ 2 ) =
( t 2 + 2) 2 ( t + 2)
3
2

Exercise
1. A particle moves along the space curve whose position vector is given by
r = 3cos t i + 3sin t j + ( 4t - 5 ) k
% % % %
a) Find the tagential and normal components of acceleration
b) Find the radius of curative of the paths

2. Show that the radius of curvature is given by

v3
R=
v �a
%%
Where v is the speed, v is velocity and a the acceleration.
% %

MOTION IN A PLANE

Circular Motion
Consider a particle moving on a circle of radius

P(x, y)
x
cos q =
a
O
y
sin q = where a is radius of circle.
a

The rate at which angle q is covered is called angular velocity denoted by w

dq
w= unit in radius/sec
dt
The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration and is denoted by a
d w d 2q
ie a = = 2
dt dt
Consider a case where w is constant
dq
= w (constant)
dt
q = wt + q 0 where q 0 is constant of integration.
When t = 0 q =0 � q0 = 0
\q = wt

In unit vector
r = xi + y j
% %
= r cos q i + r sin q j
%
But q = wt
\ r = r cos wt i + r sin wt j
% %
dr
v = %= -rw sin wt i + rw cos wt j
% dt %
Speed = v
%
v = ( - rw sin wt ) + ( rw cos wt )
2 2

%
= rw

dv
a = %= -rw 2 cos wt i + rw 2 sin wt j
% dt %

a = ( -rw 2 cos wt ) + ( rw 2 sin wt )

2 2

%
= rw 2

Example1
Find the velocity and acceleration of a particle moving in a horizontal circle radius 20 cm at
angular velocity of 30 revolutions per minute.

Solution
Angular velocity = 30 rev / min
2p
= 30 � = p rad / sec
60

v = rw
= 0.2 p = 0.628 ms -1

a = rw 2
= 0.2 p 2 = 1.97 ms -2

Example2
The radius of a bicycle wheel is 36 cm. Find the angular velocity of the wheel in the rad/sec
when the bicycle is travelling at 30 km/hr
Solution

30 �1000
v= = 8.33 ms -1
60 �60

r = 36cm = 0.36 m

v
v = rw �w =
r
8.33
= = 23.15 rad / sec
0.36

Example3
Show that the acceleration is proportional to the distance from the origin and it is towards
the origin

Solution

\ r = a cos wt i + a sin wt j
% %
dr
v = %= - aw sin wt i + aw cos wt j
% dt %
dv
a = %= -aw cos wt i + aw sin wt j
2 2

% dt %
= -aw �2
�cos wt i + sin wt j �
�
%
= -aw 2 r
%

But a = w r
2

%
\ Acceralation is proportional to the distant r and it is in the opposite direction.

Exercise
The motion of a particle is defined by the relation s = t 3 - 2t 2 - 4t + 10 where s is expressed
in radians and t in seconds

a) Angular velocity b) Angular acceleration.

A particle mixing in a circle of radius R has a constant angular acceleration a . If the

particle starts from rest show that after t seconds
a) Its angular velocity is w = a t
1
b) The length of arc covered is s = Rwt
2

2
A compact disc is read by a laser which is designed to read the disk at a rate of 1.2m/s. Find
the angular velocity required when the reading head is 5cm from the centre of the disc .
24rad/s

Simple Harmonic Motion

When a particle moves in a straight line with acceleration always directed towards a fixed
point of the line and proportional to its distance from that point . The particle is said to be in
simple harmonic motion (S H M)
This type of motion is of fundamental importance in the study of physical and engineering
problems. Many complicated vibrational problems such as the flutes of the aircraft wings
and many problems of structional stability are solved by treating the motion involved in
small displacement as being approximately simple harmonic.
Let O be the fixed point on the straight live X � OX and let X be the distance of the particle
from O at time t, X being positive if the particle is to the right of O .

X� A� X A X

dx
v=
dt
dv d �dx � d 2 x
a= = � �=
dt dt �dt � dt 2
dv dx dv
= � =v
dx dt dx
Then we may take the acceleration of the particle along OX to be -w 2 x where w 2 is a
positive constant if X is positive the direction is towards O
Equating one the theoretical expression of acceleration to -w 2 x we have

d2x dv
2
= v = -w 2 x
dt dx

Suppose the particle starts from rest at A where OA = a , then the initial conditions are
dx
x=0 v= =0 t=0
dt
Solving the differential equation we get

dv d �v 2 �
v = � �= -w 2 x
dx dx �2 �

d �v 2 �
� � �dx = �-w 2 x dx
dx �2 �
1 2 1
� v = - w 2 x2 + C
2 2

w 2a2
But v = 0 when x = a �c =
2
 1 2 1 w 2a2
\ v = - w 2 x2 +
2 2 2
v =w (a - x )
2 2 2 2

v = �w a 2 - x 2 ( 2)
Equation (2) shows v = 0 when x = a and when x = -a and velocity has greatest values
when x = 0
Velocity is positive when motion is towards A and negative when it is towards A and
negative when it is towards A� . Thus the motion is an oscillation between the value x = �a
O is the centre of oscillation and the length n is called the amplitude
dx
Using v = in (2) we have
dt

dx
v= = �w a 2 - x 2
dt

Separating variables we get

dx
�� w dt
=�
a - x2
2

Using inverse trigonometry substitution we get

x
sin -1 = wt + C
a
x
= sin ( wt + C )
a
x = a sin ( wt + C )

p
x=a t=0 �C =
2

� p�
Hence wt + �
x = a sin �
� 2�

Using addition formulae of trigonometry we get

� p p�
x = a� sin wt cos + cos w t sin �
� 2 2�
= a cos wt
=v

Since cos ( wt + 2p ) = cos wt and sin ( wt + 2p ) = sin wt

2p
Both x and v have same value when wt is increased by 2p i.e. when t is increased by
w
 2p
The quantity is called period of motion. It is the time of one complete oscillation
w
starting from any point and ending at the same direction
The frequency is the number of oscillations made in the unit time.
2p
Thus if n is the frequency and the period then
w
w
n=
2p

Simple Harmonic Motion Derived From a Circular Motion

Consider the particle rotating with constant angular velocity w in a circular path of radius
R centre O. We consider the projection or’’ shadow” of the particle on the diameter [R, R]

y
P (x, y)
h2 = R 2 - x2
h = R2 - x2
R
x

After time t angle turned in wt hence

x = R cos wt
dx
= - Rw sin wt
dt
d 2x
2
= - Rw 2 cos wt
dt
= -w 2 x

The velocity of P is tangential to the circle of rotation and its magnitude is w R

v = - Rw sin wt
h
From the diagram sin q = sin wt = or h = R sin wt
R
But h = � R 2 - x 2 � R sin wt = � R 2 - x 2

\ v = �w R 2 - x 2

UNITS
Amplitude m
Angular velocity rad/s
Period sec
Frequency H2

Example 1
A body performs S H M has a velocity is 3 m/s when it si 375 mm from the mid-position
and the acceleration of 1m/s2 when 350 mm from the mid-position
Calculate the periodic time and the ampliturdde.
 Solution
2p
a = w2x t= x = 375 - 350
w
= 25

Therefore

a 1
w= =
x 0.25
= 2 rad / sec

2p 2p
\ t= = =p
w 2

Amplitude when x = 375 m

V = 3 m/s
v = w R2 - x2
\ 3 = 2 R 2 - 0.3752
� R = 1.55 m

Example 2
A body performs SHM in a straight line. its velocity is 4m/s when the displacement is 50
mm and 3m/s when the displacement is 100 mm ,the displacement being measured from the
mid position. calculate the frequency and amplitude of the motion, what is the acceleration
when the displacement is 75mm?

Solution
When x = 0.05 m and v = 4 m/s

v = w R2 - x2
\ 4 = w R 2 - 0.052 (1)
When x = 0.1 m and v = 3 m/s

v = w R2 - x2
\ 3 = w R 2 - 0.12 (2)

Dividing (1) by equation (2)

4 w R 2 - 0.052 R 2 - 0.052
= =
3 w R 2 - 0.12 w R 2 - 0.12
16 R 2 - 0.052
= 2
9 R - 0.12
 16 R 2 - ( 16 �0.01) = 9 R 2 - ( 9 �0.0025 )
7 R 2 = 0.1375
R 2 = 0.01964
R = 0.14

To find w from (1)

4
w=
0.14 - 0.052
2

4 4 Frequency is given by
= = = 30.5 rad / sec
0.0171 0.131
w 30.5
n= = = 4.85
2p 2p
@ 4.9 Hz

Acceleration when x = 0.075

a = 30.52 �0.075 = 69.7

@ 70 m / s 2

Example
A body oscillates along a straight line with SHM. The frequency is 0.4 He and the
amplitude 300 mm. Find the displacement of the body 0.3s after leaving the position of
maximum displacement.

Solution

w = 2p n = 2p �0.4 = 2.51 rad / sec

q = wt
= 2.51�0.3 = 0.753 rad
= 43.140

x = r cos wt
= r cos q
= 300 cos 30.140
= 219 mm

Exercise
A body has SHM its velocity being 3m/s at 150 mm displacement and 2.4 m/s at 225 mm
displacement from the mid position find the period time, frequency and amplitude.
[ 0.6 s , 1.71 Hz , 316 mm]
The maximum velocity of a body moving with SHM is 2.5 m/s and its velocity when passing
through a point 300 mm from the mid position is 1.5 m/s. Find the number of oscillation per
minute, the amplitude and the maximum acceleration.
�
�63.7 , 373 mm , 16.7 m / s 2 �
�

A body moves with SHM making 20 oscillation per minute. The stroke is 300 mm. Find the
velocity and acceleration 0.4s after passing through the mid position.
�
�0.21 m / s , 0.49 m / s 2 �
�

PROJECTILES
A projectile is a particle which is given an initial velocity and then moves freely under gravity it is
assumed that gravity is the only force acting on the particle i e air resistance is negligible.
If the initial velocity is vertical then the particle will move in a straight line under gravity.
If its initial velocity is not vertical then the particle will move in a curve or parabola.

Consider an object thrown vertically upwards from the ground with a speed u we examine
a) The time taken to reach maximum height
b) The maximum height reached
c) Time taken for particle to get back to level of projection
d) The speed at which it hits the ground.

Acceleration is constant-
acc due to gravity = g

For uniform acceleration use the equation

v = u + at � v = u - gt
a) At maximum height v = 0
� 0 = u - gt
u
\t=
g

1 u
s = ut + at 2 when t =
2 g
2
u 1 �u �
b) \ H = u - g � �
g 2 �g �
u2 1 u2 u2
= - � =
g 2 g 2g

c) When back to level of projection s = 0

 1 2
\ s = ut - gt
2
1 � 1 �
� 0 = ut - g t 2 = t �
u- gt�
2 � 2 �

1
\ t =0 or u - gt = 0
2
2u
�t =
g

NB: This is twice the time if taken to reach the maximum height
d) When back to level of projection s = 0
v = u + at
= u - gt
\ v=u

Consider a particle projected with initial velocity u at an angle a to the horizontal and has velocity
v at time t

u v

0 A x

We can analyse this flight by considering horizontal and vertical motion separately
Using the equation for uniform acceleration in a straight line
1
v = u + at s = ut + at 2 v 2 = u 2 + 2as
2

Horizontal Vertical
Initial velocity (u) u x = u cos a u y = u sin a
Acceleration (a) a=0 a = -g
Find velocity (v) vx = u cos a v y = u sin a - gt
Distance (s) x = ( u sin a ) t 1
y = ( u sin a ) t - gt 2
2

For above object examine

a) Time of flight
This is the time taken from the projectile to travel along its path from O to A

Consider vertical motion at any time t

1
y = ( u sin a ) t - gt 2
2
 1
at A y = 0 � ( u sin a ) t - gt 2 = 0
2
� 1 �
t�u sin a - gt �= 0
� 2 �
1
t = 0 and u sin a - gt = 0
2
2u sin a
�t =
g

b) Range
This is the horizontal distance OA travelled by the projectile
Consider the horizontal motion
At any time t
x = ( u sin a ) t
2u sin a
x = u cos a �
g
2u sin a 2u 2 cos a sin a
When t= =
g g
u 2 sin 2a
R= ( 2 cos a sin a = sin 2a )
g

2p
NB: Range will be maximum when sin 2a = 1 i.e. a = or 450
4
u2
So the maximum range is
g

c) Angle of Projectile for a Given Range

k u2
Let the range be
g

u 2 sin 2a ku 2
=
g g
i.e. sin 2a = k � 2a = q or p - q
1 1
a = q or ( p -q )
2 2

So there are two possible angles of projection

d) Greatest Height
The projectile reaches its greatest height when the velocity is zero.
Consider vertical motion
Using v 2 = u 2 + 2as
 0 = u 2 sin 2 a - 2 gs
u 2 sin 2 a
S=
2g
u 2 sin 2 a
\ H max =
2g

e) Direction And Velocity At Any Tim

At any time the projectile is always moving along a tangent to its path

u sin a - gt

u cos a
Horizontal velocity u cos a
Vertical velocity u sin a - gt
From the diagram:

v 2 = ( u cos a ) + ( u sin a - gt )
2 2

u sin a - gt
tan f =
u cos a

f) Equation of the of the projectile

Take x and y axes through the point of projection O. If t is the time for the projectile to
travel from O to p ( x, y ) then
Horizontal distance x = ( u cos a ) t (1)
Vertical distance y = ( u sin a ) t - gt 2
(2)
Eliminating t from the two equation
(1) gives
x
t=
u cos a

Substituting in (2)

x gx 2
y = u sin a � -
u cos a 2 ( u cos a ) 2
g x 2 sec 2 a
= u tan a -
2u 2

This is the equation of the path on trajectory of the projectiles

Example 1
A particle is projected from ground level with a speed 30 m/s at an angle of 300 to the
horizontal
Calculate:
a) The time of flight
b) The range
 Solution

u = 30 a = 30 g = -10

2u sin a
t=
g
230sin 30
\ t= = 3 sec s
10

u 2 sin 2a
R=
g
302 sin 60
\ R=
10
900 3
= � = 45 3 m
10 2

Example 2
A particle p is projected from a point O on a horizontal place with speed 40 m/s at angle q
4
to the horizontal where tan q =
3
Find
a) The time for p to return to the plane
b) The maximum height attained by p
c) The range
d) The speed of p after 2.2 seconds

Solution

a) Time of flight

4 4 3
u = 40 tan a = sin a = cos a =
3 5 5

2u sin a
t=
g
2 �40 4
\ t= � = 6.4 se c s
10 5

b) The range

2u 2 sin a cos a
R=
g
2 �402 4 3
\ R= � �
10 5 5
3200 12
= � = 153.6 m
10 25
c) The maximum height H

u 2 sin 2 a
H max =
2g
2
402 �4 �
= �� �= 142.2 m
2 �10 �3 �

d) The speed

v 2 = ( u cos a ) + ( u sin a - gt )
2 2

2 2
�3 � � 3 �
= 40 � �+ �
2
40 � - 10 �2.2 �=
�5 � � 5 �

Example 3
a) What is the maximum range possible for a particle projected velocity 1.5 m/s
b) What is the height reached (take g = 9.8 m/s) [229 km , 57.34 km]

Exercise
1. A projectile is launched with a velocity of 2900 km/h at an angle of 600 with a horizontal and
lands on the same plane. Find.
a) The maximum height reached [24.8 km]
b) The time to reach the maximum height [71.11s]
c) The total time of flight (142.23s)
d) The range
e) The speed after 1 minute of flight [1502 km/h]
f) The speed at a height of 10,000m [2421km/h]

2. A particle has a maximum range given by Rmax

Prove that
1
a) The height reached in such case is Rmax
4
Rmax
b) The time of a flight is 2g

TYPES OF FORCES

1. Weight W
This is force with which the earth attracts the body. It acts at the body’s centre of gravity and is
always vertically downwards.

2. Push or pull P (Attractive force)

 These are force which act on a body at the point (S) where they are applied
P

3. Normal reaction R
This is a force which acts on the body in contact with the surface. It acts in a direction at
right angles to the surface in contact.
R

4. Friction f
Force which acts on a body in contact with a rough surface. It acts tangentially between the
two surfaces and in the direction to resist the motion of the body.
v

NB: Smooth surfaces are considered to be frictionless air resistance is ignored unless
otherwise stated

5. Tension
Tension in a string (spring or rod) is a force which acts on the body to which it is attached.

6. Thrust s
Thrust from a spring or rod is similar to tension but acts in the opposite direction.

Examples
a) Force acting on a block on a smooth horizontal plane

b) Forces acting on a block at rest on a rough included plane

R
F

W
 c) Forces acting on a block being pulled (by a string) along a rough horizontal plane

W
MASS FORCE AND WEIGHT

Mass and weight

The mass of a body is a measure of the matter contained in the body.
Mass of a body may be considered to constant whatever the position of the body provided that none
of the body is destroyed or changed.
The weight of a body is the force with which the earth attracts it. It depends upon the body’s
distance from the earth.
S.I units Newton’s N
The weight W in Newtons and mass m in kilograms of a body are connected by the relation W = mg
where g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 [g=10 m/s2 or 9.8 m/s2]

FORCE
A force is necessary to cause a body to accelerate more than one force may act on a body. If the
forces are in equilibrium, i.e balance out then the body may be at rest or moving in a straight line
with constant speed. If there is a resultant force a body, the body will accelerate. Force is a vector
its S I unit is Newton N
1Newton is the force needed to give a body of mass 1kg on acceleration of 1 m/s2.

NEWTON LAW OF MOTION

st
1 Law
A body will remain at rest or continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed unless an
external force acts on it.
a) If a body has acceleration then there may be a force acting on it.
b) If a body has no acceleration then the forces acting on it must be in equilibrium.

2nd LAW
The rate of change moment of a moving body is proportional to the external force acting on it and
takes place in the direction of that force.
If p is the moment then

dp
F�
% dt

momentum = mass �velocity = mv

%
d
F � ( mv )
% dt %
If m is a constant then
 dv
F �m %
% dt
dv
But %= a
dt %

޵ F ma
% %
\ F = Kma
% %
By definition a Newton (N) is a force that gives a mass of 1kg an acceleration of 1m/s2

F = Kma
% %
� 1N = K ��
1 1 \ K =1

\ F = ma
% %
The basic equation of motion for constant mass

b) The force and acceleration of the body are both in the same direction
c) a constant force on a constant mass gives a constant acceleration.

3rd LAW
i). If a body A exerts a force on a body B then B exerts an equal and opposite force
ii). To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

Example 1
A train of total mass 300 tonnes is travelling along a straight horizontal truck at a constant. Speed of
54km/h the resistance to the motion is 50 N per ton. The rear coach of mass 50 tonnes becomes
detached but the tractive force of engine remain the same
Calculate:
a) The acceleration of the rest or the train
b) The distance the rear coach travels after becoming detached before it stops

Solution
Force diagram

50 �300 T
Resistance
300 �103 kg

Since speed is constant

T= 50 �300 = 15000N

Force diagram for remaining train

50 �250 N 15000 N
Resistance
 300 �103 kg

Result accelerating force = T - R

= 15000 - 12500 = 2500 N
nd
Using 2 law
Force = Mass X acceleration
2500 = 250 �103 �a
� a = 0.01 m / s 2

b) Forces for rear coach

50 �50 T

50 �103 kg

Let a be the acceleration of the coach

By 2nd law

-50 �50 = 50 �103 �a

� a = -0.05 m / s 2

v 2 = u 2 + 2as

1000
a = -0.05 u = 54 � v=0
3600
2
� 5�
0=� 54 � �+ 2 �-0.05s
� 18 �
= 152 - 0.1s
225
� s= = 2250 m
0.1
Example 2
A block of mass 5kg is initially at rest on a smooth horizontal plane and a horizontal force of 20N.
is applied to it for 10s.
Find the speed of the block after this time

Solution

20 N

Using new tons 2nd law

F = Ma
20 = 5 �a
� a = 4m / s 2

Find velocity since acc is constant then use � v = u + at

� v = 0 + 4 �10 = 40 m / s
 Example 3
A car whose mass is 1tonne is travelling along a horizontal road at 180km/h. When the driver
applies the brakes, causing the car to skid to a halt under the action of a friction force of 2000N
Calculate the distance it travels while is skidding

108 km/h
Solution

2000N

Using new tons 2nd law

F = Ma
-2000 = 1000a
� a = -2 m / s 2

Acc is constant: use v 2 = u 2 + 2as

2
� 5�
0=� 108 � �+ 2 �-2 s
� 18 �
0 = 30 - 4 s
2

900
� s= = 225 m
4

Example 4
A lorry of mass 3tonnes travelling at 25m/s starts to climb a hill which is inclined at an angle a to
the horizontal where sin a = 0.2 . Assuming that the tractive force T N between its tyres and road is
constant. Find T given that the speed is reduced to 15m/s in a distance of 500m

R
T

mg

u = 25 v = 15 s = 500

v 2 = u 2 + 2as
v 2 - u 2 152 - 252
a= = = -0.4 m / s 2
2s 2 �500
T - mg sin a = 3000 �-0.4
T = -1200 + 3000 �9.8 �0.2
= 4680

Exercise

1. A crate of mass 500kg is placed in the back of a van it is known that the crack will slip if a
horizontal forces exceeding 2000N is applied to it. If the van is traveling on a horizontal road at
54km/h. Fuel the minimum stopping distance which would allow the van to stop at a uniform
rate without the crate slipping [28.1m]
2. A bead of mass 100g is free to slide on a smooth straight wire which is inclined to the
horizontal at an angle of 60°. A horizontal force of magnitude 2N is applied to the bead,
causing it to move up the wire.
Find:
a) The acceleration of the beads[1.5 m/s2]
b) The force exerted on the wire by the beads [2.22N]

3. A 60 kg mass hangs on a spring balance that is fixed on the ceiling of an elevator. As the
elevator starts moving, the spring balance reads 468N.
a) Find the acceleration of the elevator.
b) What will be the acceleration of the elevator when the spring balance reads 828N.
[-3.8m/s]
4. A car of mass 1.1 t is driven at constant speed up an incline of 10°. The rolling resistance is
170N and the air resistance is 100N. Find the tractive force.
What is the effort when the car has a uniform acceleration of 0.6m/s2.

Solution

Since the speed is constant there is no accelerating force hence:

Tractive force = component of weight down the slope + total resistance

T = 1.1�103 �9.8sin10 + ( 100 + 170 )
= 2140 N

When the car accelerates, the accelerating force is ma and the tractive effort has to be increased by
this amount hence:
T = 2140 �1.1�103 �0.6
= 2800 N

FRICTION

This is force that opposes the motion of an object when the object is in contact with another object
or surface.

If the force applied is gradually increased a point may be reached at which the object begins to slip.
The friction force at this instant is called the limiting friction.

The ratio of the limiting friction force G to the normal reaction R between the object and the surface
is called the coefficient of friction. The ratio denoted by the Greek letter
The Law’s of Friction

1. The Friction Force between two surfaces opposes the relative motion
2. There is a limit beyond which the friction force cannot increase. When this limit is reached
sliding is about to start and the corresponding friction force is termed as the limiting value
3. The limiting friction force is proportional to the normal load pressing the two surfaces
together and is independent of the area of contact
4. The ratio of the limiting frictional force F and normal reaction NR is a constant which
depends only on the nature of the pair of surface if contact

Friction on a Rough Inclined Plane

Consider a body maintained at rest on an inclined plane under the action of its own weight and the
friction force only.

R
F

W
q

R = W cos q
F = W sin q

NB: Friction force have its maximum or limiting value m R only if motion is about to take place.
F = m R = mW cos q
F = W sin q
hence:
mW cos q = W sin q
m = tan q
This angle θ is called the angle of repose or fractional angle. If θ is less than the angle of repose the
body remains at rest F < m R
If θ is greater than this critical angle, the body slides down the plane and F = m R . where m is the
coefficient of sliding motion.

Force applied parallel to the plane

Where a body is subjected to a pull parallel to the plane;

i). Body may be at rest
ii). Body may be about to move or
iii). Body may be actually moving with constant or changing speed
 1. Motion up the plane

R
P

W
q
f

R = W cos q
P = f + W sin q
f = mR

2). Motion down the plane

R
P
f

W
q

R = W cos q
P = W sin q - f
f = mR

Example 1
A car travelling along a horizontal road, skids to a halt. Given that the skid marks are 100m long
and that the coefficient of friction is 0.8 calculate the initial speed of the car. [g=10m/s2]
R

T
f
mg

Motion perpendicular to plane

R = mg = 10m
f = m R = 0.8 �10m = 8m
F = ma
� 8m = ma \a = 8 m / s

v=0 s = 100 a = -8 ( decelerating ) g = 10

v 2 = u 2 + 2as
0 = u 2 + 2 �-8 �100
u 2 = 1600 \ u = 40 m / s

Example 2
A car whose mass is 1.5 tonnes is initially moving at 30m/s while travelling along a horizontal road.
It skids to a halt from this speed in a distance 100m. Taking g to be 10m/s2
a). calculate the value of m , the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road surface.
b). using the same value of µ, calculate the distance required to skid to a halt from the same initial
speed while descending a hill inclined to the horizontal at an angle α where sin a = 0.2
Solution
v=0 s = 100 u = 30

v 2 = u 2 + 2as
0 = 900 + 2 �100 a
900
a=- \ a = -4.5 m / s 2
200

R = mg = 1500 �10
= 1000 N
F = ma = 1500 �4.5
f = mR
�=޵
1500 4.5 m 15000
1500 �4.5
m= = 0.45
15000
R

mg
α

Motion perpendicular to plane

R = mg cos a
= 1500 cos a
Forces acting down the pl;ane
F = mg sin a - m R
= 1500sin a - m R
Using 2nd law of motion fg = ma
15000sin a - m R = 1500a
1500sin a - 15000 cos a �0.45 = 1500a
\a = 10sin a - 4.5cos a
= -2.41

To find distance using v 2 = u 2 + 2as

v=0 u = 30 a = -2.41
0 = 900 - 2 �2.41
900
s=- \ s = 187 m
2 �2.41

Example 3
A 1mg load is pulled steadily up a track inclined at 30° to the horizontal by a force P inclined at 20°
h, and above the truck. Calculate the value p if µ=0.15 [take g=9.8m/s2]

R
20 P
f

W
30
f

P cos 20 = f + mg sin a
= 0.15 R + 9800sin 30
P cos 20 - 9800sin 30
R= ..........................................................................(A)
0.15
Motion perpedicular to truck
R = mg cos 30 - P sin 20
..........................................................................(B)
= 9800 cos 30 - P sin 20

Solving for P
P cos 20 - 9800sin 30
= 9800 cos 30 - P sin 20
0.15
P cos 20 - 9800sin 30 = 0.15 ( 9800 cos 30 - P sin 20 )
P ( cos 20 + 0.15sin 20 ) = 0.15 �9800 cos 30 + 9800sin 30
0.15 �9800 cos 30 + 9800sin 30
P=
cos 20 + 0.15sin 20

= 6218 N
Exercise.
1. A 1500kg boat is winched steadily up a slip inclined at 25° to the horizontal if µ=0.5 for the
surface contact of the boat and slip, find the force in the winch cable, which is parallel to the slip.
[12.9 KN]

2. A body of mass 100kg is at rest on a plane inclined at 20° to the horizontal. A force P is applied
to pull the body up the plane, directed at an angle of 20° to the plane i.e. at 40° to the horizontal. If
µ=0.2, calculate the value of P:-
a). When the body is just about to move up the plane [515N]
b). When the body is on the point of sliding down the plane {17.3N}

CONNECTED PARTICLES

Two particles connected by a light inextensible string which passes over a fixed light smooth
frictionless pulley are called connected particles. The tension in the string is the same throughout.
Its length, so each particle is acted upon by the same tension.

Consider two particles m1 and m2 with m1 > m2 are connected by a light inextensible string which
passes over a fixed light smooth frictionless pulley. Find the common acceleration a of each mass
and the tension T. in the string when the system is moving freely.

For m1 with acceleration a the equation of motion:

Force = mass x acceleration is
m1 g - T = m1a …………………………………….A

For m2 with acceleration a the equation of motion is:

T - m2 g = m2 a …………………………………….B

Eliminate T by adding A and B

m1 g - m2 g = m1a + m2 a

\ a=
( m2 - m2 ) g
m2 + m2
Substtuting in A

T = m1 g - m1a

= m1 g - m1
( m2 - m2 ) g
m2 + m2

2m2 m2 g
\T=
m2 + m2

Example 1

A car of mass 1 tonne hauls a trailer of mass 0.5 tonnes with a common acceleration of 0.15 m/s2.
Calculate the pull in the horizontal row rope and the tractive effort required.

Example 2
Masses of 1 kg and 2 kg are attached to the ends of a long light string which passes over a light
pulley supported by a frictionless horizontal axis. If the tension in the string is T Newtons write
down the equations of motion of each mass and hence find:
a). The tension in the string [T = 13.3 N]
b). The time taken for the heavier mass to fall from rest to a distance of 1.5m [t = 0.95]

Example 3
A particle A of mass 6kg lying on a rough horizontal table is connected by a string which passes
over a pulley at the edge of the table to a particle B of mass 4kg which hangs vertically when the
system is released from rest, the motion of A is resisted by a friction forces of 5N. Find the
acceleration of the particle and the tension in the string. [a = 3.5m/s2 , T = 26N]

Example 4

A particle A of mass 2kg is pulled up a plane which is inclined to the horizontal at an angle of 30°
by a string which passes over a pulley at the top of the plane. A particle B of mass 4kg is attached
to the other end of the string and the part of the string between the pulley and this particle hangs
vertically.

a). The system is released from rest and as it moves the motion of A is opposed by a friction force
of 10N. Find the acceleration and the tension. [a = 3 33m/s2 , T = 26.67N]

b) When particle B has moved 1m it strikes the floor and does not rebound. How much further does
particle A move before coming instantaneously to rest. [s = 0 33m]

Exercise

1. Two particles A and B of masses 0.4 kg and 0.3 kg respectively are connected by a light
inextensible string. The particle A is placed near the bottom of a smooth place inclined at 30° to
the horizontal. The string passes over a small smooth light pulley which is fixed at the top of
the inclined plane and B hangs freely. The system is released from rest with each motion of the
string taut and in the same vertical plane as a line of greatest slope of the inclined plane.
 Calculate
a) The common acceleration in m/s2 of the two particles [1.4m/s2]
b) The tension in N in the string [2.52N]
c) The time taken for B to fall 6.3m from rest [3s]
d) The speed that B has then acquired. [4.2m/s2]
[Take the value of g to be 9.8 m/s2]

2. Two particles A and B have masses 5kg and 3kg respectively. They are connected by a string
which passes over a fixed pulley. The parts of the string which are not in contact with the pulley
hang vertically.
a) Find the magnitude of the vertical force which must be applied to B to keep the system at
rest
b) This force is then removed and the system is allowed to move freely under gravity. Find the
acceleration of the particle and the tension in the string. [2.5m/s2] [37.5N]

FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM
Two forces can only be in equilibrium if:
i). They are equal in magnitude
ii). They are opposite in direction
iii). Act in the same straight line
If two forces F1 and F2 act upon a particle of mass m but produce zero acceleration then by
Newton’s 2nd law
F1 + F2 = m �0
F1 + F2 = 0 � F1 = F2
F1 and F2 forces have the same magnitude but in opposite direction.
1. If such forces are acting in same straight line we say they are in equilibrium
2. If they are equal in magnitude but opposite direction but do not act in a straight line they will
not produce equilibrium. They produce a turning effect and such forces are called couples.
Coplanar forces are forces in the same plane

Three Forces in Equilibrium

For three forces to be in equilibrium:
a) They must have their lines of action all passing through one point.
NB. When action passes through one port we say they are concurrent.
b) They may be represented in magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle taken in
order i.e. by a triangle of forces

Resultant of Forces
If two forces p and q are concurrent then they act at a point say O. There resultant r may be found
by vector addition using the triangle law
Taking q as the angle between the two vectors
 p r p
q q

To find the magnitude of r

r 2 = p 2 + q 2 - 2 pq cos ( 180 - q )
= p 2 + q 2 - 2 pq cos q
\ r= p 2 + q 2 - 2 pq cos q

Direrction of r. Taking a to be angle between q and the resultant vector r

p r p
a q

sin a sin ( 180 - q )

=
p r
Using sine rule
p
� sin a = sin q
r
If p and q are at right angles then q = 900

r= p 2 + q 2 - 2 pq cos 90 = p2 + q 2

p p
sin a = sin 90 = p r
r r
p
tan a = q
q

Example 1
A particle is acted upon by forces in a horizontal plane 6N in a direction NE 7N in the direction
S26°E. Find the resultant force and its direction.

N
 q = 180 - ( 45 + 26 )
6N
= 1090
R

7N
S

r= p 2 + q 2 - 2 pq cos 90
= 62 + 7 2 + 2 �6 �7 cos109
= 7.59 N

Example 2
A force of magnitude 80N acts along the positive x axis and another force of magnitude 50N is
inclined at an angle of 120° to this axis. Find their resultant and direction. [70N, 38.20]

Resolution of Forces
This is to replace a single force by two other forces in any convenient direction. The two forces are
known as the components of the single force. The process is known as resolving forces.

c c=a+b c is resolved into component a and b

b
a

F Fsin q F = F cos q iˆ + F sin q ˆj

Fcos q

RESULTANT OF A SYSTEM OF FORCES

If more than three forces act at the same point and are in equilibrium, they may be represented in
magnitude, sense and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in order. [Arrow must follow in
cyclic order].
To find the resultant of a system of coplanar concurrent forces resolve each force in a stated
direction then find the sum of the resolute.

Example 1
Find the resultant of the system of coplanar forces shown in the figure giving its magnitude and the
angle it makes with the 400N force.

300N

400N

200N

Solution
Find the resultant in the form X iˆ + Y ˆj
Resolving parallel to x – axis
X = 400 cos 0 + 300 cos 900 + 200 cos 2100
= 400 - 100 3 N

Resolving parallel to y – axis

Y = 400sin 0 + 300sin 900 + 200sin 210 0
= 300 - 200
= 200 N

( )
Resultant force R = 400 - 100 3 N iˆ + 200 ˆj

Magnitude of R

( 400 - 100 )
2
R= 3N + 2002
= 302.4 N

Y 200
tan a = =
X 400 - 100 3

a = 41.30
Example 2
Find the single force which is equivalent to the given system of forces.

14 + 3 3

14 + 3 3
600 300

( ) ( )
X = 13 + 2 3 cos 0 + 14 + 3 3 cos 90 0 + 4 cos 210 0 + 6 cos 300

= 13 + 2 3 - 2 3 + 3 = 16 N

Resolving parallel to y – axis

( ) ( )
Y = 13 + 2 3 sin 0 + 14 + 3 3 sin 90 0 + 4sin 210 0 + 6sin 300

= 14 + 3 3 - 2 - 2 3 = 12 N

Resultant force R = 16 iˆ + 12 ˆj
Magnitude of R

R = 162 + 122
= 20 N

Y 12
tan a = =
X 16

a = 35.80

Example 3
PQRS is a square. Calculate the resultant of the following forces:
5N acting along PQ
3√2N acting along PR
3N acting along PS
Find also the angle the resultant makes with PQ.

3N 3 2
 5N

Resolving parallel to x – axis

X = 5cos 0 + 3 2 cos 450 + 3cos 900

= 5+ 3+ 0 = 8 N

Resolving parallel to y – axis

Y = 5sin 0 + 3 2 sin 450 + 3sin 900

= 3+3 = 6 N

Resultant force R = 8 iˆ + 6 ˆj
Magnitude of R

R = 82 + 6 2
= 10 N

Y 6
tan a = =
X 8

a = 360

Exercise
1. A body is acted upon by forces of 1N 2N 3N and 4N. The angles between them being 60° 30°
and 60° respectively. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant forces. [6.9N, 102.3°]

2. A horizontal force R is of magnitude 12N and acts due east from a point 0. The horizontal forces
P and R act from 0 in the direction 030° and due south respectively.
Given that P+Q=R calculate the magnitude of P and Q [P=24N Q=12√3N]

3. Three cables are attached to an eye-bolt as shown.

20 kN 4 kN

θ 600 10 kN
The forces are coplanar.
Find the value of θ for which the resultant force on the eye-bolt is vertical and for this value of θ
find the resultant.
MOMENTS AND COUPLES

When a force acts on a rigid body it may cause the body to turn about an axis.
This turning effect is measured by the momentof the force about this axis
The moment of the forces about this axis is defined as the product of the magnitude of the force and
the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the axis simply refered to as
moments about a point.

X
O

The moment of force F about O is Fd

The moment of force F about X is zero
SI units of moment is the Newton- metre

Anticlockwise moments are usually taken as positive and clockwise moment as negative.

Example 1
A heavy rod AB is acted upon by the planar forces X, W, W and P as shown.
What are the moments of the forces?

X _____________
q a
_____________ G P
a

Solution
Moments about A

Forces Moments
X 0
Y 0
W -W cos q
P P.2a

Moments about B
Forces Moments
X X. 2a cos q
Y -Y. 2a sin q
W W sin q
P 0

Moments about G

Forces Moments
X X. a cos q
Y -Y. a sin q
W 0
P P.a

Principles of moments
The principles of moments states that the resultant moments of a set of coplanar forces about a
point O is equal to the moment of their resultant about the same point.

Resultant moments
When a set of coplanar forces acts on a body the resultant moment about a point in the plane forces
about that point.

[NB: clockwise moments = anticlockwise moment]

Example 2
Force S acts along the sides of a square ABCD of sides 1 m as shown. Find the resultant moment
about A.

2N

5N 3N

1N

Solution
Resultant moment about A is

( 1�0 ) + ( 3 �1) + ( -2 �1) + ( -5 �0 ) = 1Nm

Example 2
A straight uniform rod AB is the length 8m and mass 10kg. The rod is supportyed at the point X
where Ax = 5cm and when downward verticle forces of magnitude P and 4P Newtons are applied at
A and B respectiverly. The rod rests in equalibrium with AB horizontal . Calculate
The value opf P
The force in newtons exerted on the support X ( g = 9.8 m/s2 )
Solution

A B
4cm 1cm X 3cm
P 10g 4P

Taking moments about X

( 5 �P ) + ( 1�10 �9.8 ) = ( 3 �4 P )
98
7 P = 98 �P= = 14 N
7

Taking moments about A

( 5 �X ) = ( 4 �10 �9.8 ) + ( 8 �4 P )
5 X = 392 + 448
840
5 X = 840 �P= = 168 N
5

Exercise
A beam carries a dead load of 200kg and is subject to a vertical force of 2kn and to an inclined force
of 1kN acting at the point shown in figure below. The beam is built in a wall at each end and due to
the fixing there are moments of 2kNm and 1.6 kNm acting in the direction shown.

200kg 1 kN
2kNm 2 kN
1.6kNm
2m 3m 1m
R
L

[H= 0.5kN, L= 2.49kN, R = 2.4kN]

Example 2
force of magnitude 4N and 3n act along the sides AB and AD respectiverly of a square ABCD of
sides 2m. find the perpendicular distance d of the line of action of their resultant R from o the
midpoint of DC

A B

d
D O C
 Exercise
A uniform straight rod AB of mass 12kg and length 2m rest horizontally on two supports one at C
and the other at D where Ac = DC = 0.6m. A particle P of mass X kg is hung from B and the rod is
on appoint of tiling.
Find the value of X
The particle p is removed from B and hungf from A
Find in Newton’s the magnitude of the force exerted on the rod at each support. [50N and 100N]

A heavy non-uniform plank Ab whose weight is 100N rests in the horizontal position on vertical
support at A and B. the length of AB is 4m and the centre of gravity of the plank is 1.5m from A
Find the force exerted by each support. [62.5N, 37.5N]

THE LADDER PROBLEM

When ladders or poles are propped against a wall there are friction forces and normal reaction at
both the ground and the wall. Assuming the weight of the ladder is known, there are therefore four
unknown forces. By resolving forces vertically and horizontally and taking moments about a
suitable point only three equations can be obtained.
Coefficient of friction is usually given which enables us to obtain the friction force in terms of the
reaction when slip is about to take place.
If it is assumed that the wall is smooth, the friction force at the wall is eliminated.
It is assumed the ladder is in a vertical plane perpendicular to the wall so that the direction of
possible motion is known.

Example
A uniform ladder weighing 200N is propped against a smooth wall as shown. The ladder is in
equilibrium and µ = 0.4 for the ground. If a man of weight 800N. start to climb the ladder. How far
up the ladder will he reach before the ladder starts to slip.
Solution

N2

9m
200N
N1 800N
60
5.2m

Let horizontal distance reached by man be x from the foot of the ladder, N1 be the normal reaction
at the ground and N2 be normal reaction at the wall.
NB: Weight of ladder acts at mid-point i.e 2.6m from the foot of the ladder.

Therefore frictional force at the ground has a limiting value µN1

Downward forces = upward forces

so
N1 =200+800=1000N

N 2 =F = µN1 = 0.4 X 1000 = 400N

Taking moments about the foot of the ladder

N 2 �9 =200 �2.6+800 �x
400 �9=520+800x
x = 3.9m

x
Height along the ladder = = 7.8m
cos 60

Example 2
A uniform ladder 5m long weight 200N rests on rough horizontal ground and against a smooth
vertrical wall. It si inclined at an angle of 300 to the vertical. Find the normal reactiion at each end
of the ladder.

Solution
B
N2
30

N1 200N

Moments about A gives

N 2 �5cos 30 + ( -200 �2.5cos 60 ) = 0

200 �2.5cos 60
N2 = = 57.7 N
5cos 30

Resolving vertically gives

N1 - 200 = 0 � N1 = 200 N

Example 3
A uniform ladder 8m long weigh 220n rests on a rough ground and is propped against a vertical
rough wall at an angle q to the horizontal. If µ = 0.4 for the ground and wall surfaces, find the
value of q when slip is about to take place.

Solution
µN2
 N2

N1 220N
q
µN1

N1 +0.4N 2 =220
N 2 = µN1 = 0.4N1

N1 +0.4N 2 =220
N 2 =0.4N1
޵
N1 +0.4 0.4N1 =220
220
N1 +1.16N1 =220 \ N1 = = 189 N
1.16

Taking moments about A

N1 �8cos q + ( -220 �4cos q ) + ( - N 2 �8sin q ) = 0

8N1 cos q + -880 cos q - 3.2N1 sin q = 0

Or

8N1 - 880
tan q =
3.2N1
8 �189 - 880
= \q = 46.40
3.2 �189

Exercise
1. A uniform ladder weighing 200N and length 10m rests on a vertical plane with its upper
end against a smooth wall and the lower end on a rough horizontal ground. The ladder
makes an angle of 600 with the horizontal, calculate the magnitude of the normal reaction at
the top and bottom of ladder. [57.7n, 208N]

2. A uniform ladder 5m long rests on a horizontal ground and leans against a smooth vertical
wall at an angle of 700 with the horizontal. The weight of the ladder is at the point of sliding
when a man weighing 75kg stands on a rung 3.5m from the top of the ladder.

Calculate the coefficient of friction between the ladder and the floor [µ = 0.149]

WORK ENERGY AND POWER

WORK
Work may be done by or against a force (often gravity).
Work is the product of the effort or force applied to an object multiplied by the distance the force is
applied.

Work done – Force X distance

A force acting at an angle α

F
Force = F cos α

α work done = F cos α X distance

SI unit of work is Joules J it is a scalar.

1 joule is the work done by a force of 1N in moving its point of application 1m in the direction of
the force.

Example 1
Find the work done when a load of bricks whose mass is 50 kg is raised from ground level to a
height of 15m. [Take g = 9.8 m/s2]

Solution
Work = Force X Distance

F = ma = 50 X 9.8

W = 50 X 9.8 X 15 = 7357.5 J

Example 2
A force of 100N at 600 to the horizontal is used to pull a chest across a horizontal floor, for a
distance of 20m. calculate the work done by the force. [1000 J]

WORK DONE BY A FORCE OF VARIABLE MAGNITUDE

For variable force we use calculus
F varies in the course of displacement from x = a t to x = b
b

Work done = �
F dx
a

Where F acts along the x- axis

Example
A particle is moved along the x-axis by a force P acting along the x – axis given by
100
F = 2 from x = n1 to x = 5 calculate work done. [80 Joules]
x

ENERGY
This is the capacity of matter to perform work as the result of ots motion or its position in the
relation to force acting on it.
A body possessing energy can do work and looseenergy or increase its energy.
i.e.
work done = change in energy

potential energy
this is energy related to position
potential energy is stored energy possessed by a system as a result of the relative positions of the
component of that system.
Work done by an external conservative force moving a particle from poinrt a to point B is called
potential energy.

P.E. is usually measured from ground level if it is at a height of h

P.E. = mgh

Example 1
B a body of mass 2kg is suspended above a flour. What is the potential energy of the body relative
to
a. The floor [60 J]
b. A table 1m high [40 J]

Example 2
Two particles whose masses are 2kg and 5kg are connected by a light inextensible string which
passes over a pulley hang vertically. Find the overall gain in the potential energy of the system if the
2kgparticle is puuled down 50cm. [14.7 J]

KINETIC ENERGY
This is energy associated with motion. Magnitude of kinetic energy depends on both the mass and
speed of the object.
Suppose a particle of mass m accelerated from rest over a distance s by a constant force F, then
work done by F = Fs
By Newtons 2nd law of motion F = ma

Work done can be written as mas.

For constant acceleration v 2 = u 2 + 2as

u=0 � v 2 = 2as
1 2
v = as
2
1
\ work done = mas = mv 2 J
2
A variable forces acting in x – axis

For particles accelerating from x = a to x = b by

b

Work done = �
F dx
a

By newtons 2nd law of motion

 dv
F =m
dt

By using chain rule we may write

dv dv dx dx
= � but =v
dt dx dt dt

dv dv d �1 2 � 1 dv 2
� =v = � v �=
dt dx dx �2 � 2 dx

b
m dv 2
Work done �
= dx
a
2 dx
v
�m �2 1 1
= � v 2 � = mv22 - mv12
�2 � v1 2 2

Where v1 is the speed when x = a and v2 is the speed when x = b.

NB: work done is equal to the change in the kinetic ener

Example 1
A 5kg mass moving horizontally on a smooth table at 9 m/s hits a verticle plane barrier and rebound
at 4m/s. [162.5 J]

NB: work done = Net gain in energy

If there is both potential and kinetic energy, the

Work done = P.E. + K.E.

Example 2
A bullet of mass 25g is fired horizontally through a fixed block of wood its speed on entry is
800m/s and its emerges at 200m/s. Calculate the loss of kinetic energy and given that the block of
wood is 10cm thick. Find the average resistance to the motion of the bullet through the block.
[75 kN]

POWER
Power is the rate of performing work or transforming energy.
SI units of power is watts (W) = Joules/sec

Power = work done /time taken

When a body is moving in a straight line with velocity vm/s inder a tractive force F N, the power of
the force is Fv watts

Power = Force X velocity

Example 1
A pump raises water at arate of 500kg/min through a verticle distance of 3m. If the water is
delivered at 25m/s, find the power developed. [276 W]

Example 2
A man whose mass is 60kg climbs up two flights of stairs, a total height of 10m in 90s. Calculate
the power he uses.[65.4 W]

Example 3
A pump whose power is 20 watts is used to work a fountain. It can pump 30 litres per minute.
Calculate the height to which the water rises. [4.08m]

Exercise
1. A girl slides down a chute into a swimming pool. The chute is 10m long and it is inclined at
400 to the horizontal. Given that the girl is initially at rest and that the coefficient of
friction is 0.2, calculate her speed when she reaches the end of the chute. {(take g = 9.8m/s2)
[9.80m/s]

2. A car of mass 1 tonne is driven by an engine working at a constant rate of 30kW. Assuming
that force such as the air resistance may be neglected. Find the speed reached, from the
standing start in a distance of 300m [30m/s]

3. A train of total mass 200 tonnes is moving at a steady speed of 72km/hr on a straight level
track. If the non-gravitational resistance is 104 N. At what rate is the engine working.
[200kW]

4. The engine of a car is working at a constant rate of 6 kW in driving the car along a straight
horizontal road at a constant speed of 54km/h. Find in N the resistance to the motion of the
car. [400N]

IMPULSE AND MOMEMTUM

IMPULSE
Effect of a force over an interval of time.
for constant force F
Impulse = Average force X time taken

For variable force

T
I =�
F dt
0

F variable force over time intrval [0, T]

Example 1

A constant force acts on a particle of mass0.5kg changing its speed from 3m/s to 7m/s . the force
acting in the direction of motion is its impulse. [2 Ns]

Example 2
A force f Newtons increasae uniformly from zero to 20N in 5 seconds. Find its impulse. [50ns]
Momemntum
Momentum of a moving body is the product of its mass m and velocity v

P = mass X velocity = mv

It is a vector in the direction of velocity

Rewrite equation of impulse as

I = mat
V = u + at
I = m(v – u) = mv – mu

The impulse is equal to the change in momentum

Example 1
Find the momentum of a particle of mass 1.5kg moving in a straight line at 5m/s. [7.5ns]

Example 2
A golf ball of mass 0.06kg resting on a tee is given a horizontal impluse of 1.8Ns. calculate the
velocity v with which it takes off. [30m/s]

Example 3
A stunting locomotive provides an impulse of 40 kNs to set in motion a stationary 8tonnes wagon
which then moves off freely at velocity u against a track resistance of 60 N/t and finally reaches a
velocity v after 20s. Find the value of u and v [u = 5m/s, v = 3.8m/s]

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
The principle of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of a system is constant
in any direction provided that no external force acts in that direction.

Initial momentum = final momentum

Exercise

1. A truck of mass 2 tonnes moving with velocity 7m/s before impact, hits a stationary truck of
mass 0.5tonnes. find their common velocity after impact. [5.6m/s]
2. A railway engine of mass 5300kg moving on a horizontal rail at 0.4m/s strikes the buffer
and is brought to rest from this speed in 0.2s. Calculate
The impulse in Ns of the force exerted by the buffer on an engine in bringing the engine to
rest. [2120]

3. The magnitude of the force assuming it to be constant [10.6N]

4. A 1200kg mass has a net force applied to it which varies uniformly from 600N to a peak of
900n in 12s from rest and then falls uniformly to zero in the following 18s. Find the speed
attained in km/h after 30s from rest. [51.3km/h]

VARIABLE FORCES
If the force acting on a body of constant mass is variable then the acceleration of the body will also
be variable.

Force as a function of time

dv ds
a= �v =
dt dt

A particle of mass 8kg is acted upon by a force 4 1 - e ( -t

6
) N. If the body is initially at rest find the
velocity of the particle after 3s

Solution
F = ma
dv
=m
dt

(
4 1- e
-t
6
) = 8 dvdt
�
dv 1
dt 2 (-t
= 1- e 6 )
1�
t + 6 e 6 �+ C
-t
v=
2� �

1�
0 + 6 e 6 �+ C
-0
when t = 0 v = 0 0= � c = -3
2� �

1�
t + 6 e 6 �- 3
-t
v=
2� �

1�
3 + 6 e 6 �- 3
-3
after 3s v=
2� �
v ; 0.32m / s

A particle of unit meass moves from rest along a straight line under the action of a force ( 2 - 0.1v )
N. Where v is velocity in m/s2. Find the displacement when the velocity is 10m/s

Solution
dv
Use a = v in F = ma
ds
 dv
� 2 - 0.1v = mv
ds
dv
= 1�v
ds

v
ds = dv
2 - 0.1v

v
�
ds = �
2 - 0.1v
dv

� 20 �
s=�
�-10 + dv
� 2 - 0.1v �
�

= -10v - 200 ln [ 2 - 0.1v ] + c

when s = 0 v = 0 � c = 200 ln 2

Hence s = -10v - 200 ln [ 2 - 0.1v ] + 200 ln 2

� 2 �
= 200 ln � - 10v
2 - 0.1v �
� �

when v = 10 s = 200 ln 2 - 100

\ s = 38.6m

Force as a function of displacement

A particle of unit mass moving in a straight line is acted upon by a force equal to -4x N where x m
is the displacement of the particle from a fixed point O in the line. If initially the particle is at rest
when x = 3cm. Find the velocity when x = 1m.
Use
� dv �
�a=v in F = ma to get v = 4 2 m / s �
� dx �

Exercise

Particle of mass 2500kg moving on a straight course is subject to a single resisting force in the line
of motion of magnitude kv N where v m/s is the velocity and k is a constant. At 100km/h this force
is 2000N. The vihicle is slowed down from 100km/h to 50km/h. Find
The distance travelled [482m]
The time taken [24s]

VECTOR IN DYNAMICS
The position vector r of the point P ( x, y , z ) in reference to the origin O can be written as
r̂ = x iˆ + y ˆj + z kˆ in 3-dim or r̂ = x iˆ + y ˆj in 2-dim
 drˆ g dvˆ gg
Velocity vˆ = = r and accerelation aˆ = =r
dt dt

A particle moves so that its position vector rˆ = 5 iˆ + t 3 ˆj + t 2 kˆ find the velocity and acceleration of
the particle at time t and its speed after 3 seconds.

Solution

drˆ
At time t vˆ = = 3 t 2 ˆj + 2 t kˆ
dt
dvˆ
aˆ = = 6 t ˆj + 2 kˆ
dt

Speed is the magnitude of th velocity

vˆ = ( 3t ) + ( 2 t )
2 2 2
= 9t4 + 4t2

= t 9t2 + 4

At t = 3 speed =3 85
= 27.7 m/s

FORCE
Newtons laws of motion

Force = mass X accerelation

In vector form
gg
F = ma or F = mr

Example
Find the force acting on a mass of 2kg will position vector rˆ = t 3 iˆ + 2t 2 ˆj + 3 kˆ at time t
[ Fˆ = 12 t iˆ + 8 ˆj N]

Momentum
The momentum of a particle mass m, velocity v is given by
Momentum = mv

Example
Find the momentum of a particle mass 5kg and velocity vˆ = 2 iˆ - ˆj at time t
[ Pˆ = 10 iˆ - 5 ˆj Ns]

IMPULSE
The impulse I produced by a force f acting for time T is defined as
 T T
Fˆ dt = �
I =� maˆ dt
0 0

Example
Find the impulse prodused by a force given by Fˆ = sin t iˆ + cos t ˆj acting for the time interval
0 �t �p [ Iˆ = iˆ + ˆj Ns]
2

KINETIC ENERGY
The kinetic nergy K.E. of a particle mass m velocity v is
1 1
mv� v = m v2
2 2

Example
Find the K>E of a particle of mass 4kg and velocity vˆ = 3 iˆ + 2 ˆj [26 J]

WORK
The work done by a force F is defined as

W =�
F̂ �
v dt

v
dv dv
F =m � W = m� v � dt
dt u
dt

1 2 1 1
= mv - mu 2 = m ( v 2 - u 2 )
2 2 2

Example
Find the work done by a force Fˆ = 2 t iˆ + 4 ˆj on a particle with velocity vˆ = 5 iˆ - t ˆj in the time
interval 0 �t �2 [12 J]

POWER
The power exerted by a force F is the rate at which F does work

d �ˆ �
T

Power = �
� vˆ dt �= Fˆ �
F� vˆ
dT �
0 �

Example
Find the power exerted by a force Fˆ = 5 t 2 iˆ + 2 t ˆj on a particl velocity vˆ = t iˆ - 2 t 2 ˆj at time t
[t3 W]
Exercise
 1. A particle of mass 2 units moves along the space curve defined by
rˆ = ( 4 t 2 - t 3 ) iˆ - 5 t ˆj + ( t 4 - 2 ) kˆ find
a) The momentum [ 10 iˆ - 10 ˆj + 8 kˆ ]
b) The force acting on it at t = 1 [ 4 iˆ + 24 kˆ ]

2. A particle is moved by a force 20 iˆ - 30 ˆj + 15 kˆ along a straight line from point A to point B

with position vectors 2 iˆ + 7 ˆj - 3 kˆ and 5 iˆ - 3 ˆj + 6 kˆ respectively. Find the work done.
[315 W]

3. A particle moving in a force field F has its momentum given at any time t by
Pˆ = 3 e -t iˆ - 2 cos t ˆj - 3sin t kˆ . find F [ -3 e - t iˆ + 2sin t ˆj - 3cos t kˆ ]

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

SI units Length - L m mass – m kg time – t sec

By definition
Volume = L �L �L = L3

The length in metres then will be

m �m �m = m3 which is unit for volume

Velocity = rate of change of displacement

change in displacement L
= =
timetaken T

Since L is in metres m and time in sec s then vel = m/s

Acceleration = rate of change of vel

change in velocity
time taken
= L
L 1 L
=T = � = 2
T T T T

Force = mass X acc

L ML
=M � 2 = 2
T T

In units M in kg, l in m and T in s F = kgm/s2 = N

Pressure = force per unit area

=mass X acc per unit area
 L L 1 M
= M � 2 �L = M � 2 � 2 = 2
2

T T L T L

Density = Mass / volume

M
= 3
= ML-3
L

Example
If the velocity v of sound in a gas of pressure P and density r is written as v = A P x r y where A, x
and y are constants. Find x and y.

M
In units Pressure =
2 and density = ML-3 therefore velosity will be
T L
M x + y L( - x-3 y )
x
L �M �
V = = � 2 �( ML-3 ) =
y

T �T L � T 2x

Comparing coefficients of M and L gives

L : - x - 3y = 1
M x+ y =0 � x = -y

Substituting in first equation yields

- x + 3x = 1
1 1
2x = 1 �x= and y = -
2 2

Exercise
1. Assuming that the period of oscillations of a simple pendulum depends on the length l of the
string, the mass m of the bob and the acceleration g due to gravity and using dimensional
analysis determine a formula for the period.

Let period = M x Ly ( LT -2 )
z
where x, y and z are constants
But T = M 0 L0T 1

\ M 0 L0T 1 = M x Ly ( LT -2 )
z

�x=0 y + z = 0 and - 2z = 1
1 1
� y = -z z=- and y=
2 2

( LT )
1
-2 - 2
1
Hence structural symbol of period is M 0 L 2

1 2
2.Show that the equation x = x0 + v0t + at is dimensionally correct.
2