LESSON 1

Theories on the origins of the universe

1. The Big Bang Theory

Most astronomers believe that the universe began about 15 billion years ago, in a huge explosion they called the Big Bang. This
theory successfully explains the expansion of the universe and the observed abundance of helium in the universe.
a. First developed in 1927 by Georges Lemaitre (1984-1966)
b. and coined and revised by George Gamow (1904-1968)
Timeline of the Inflationary Universe
Big Bang – In an infinitely dense moment 13.82 billion years ago, the Universe is born from a singularity
Inflation – A mysterious particle or force accelerates the expansion
Cosmic Microwave Background – After 380,000 years, loose electrons cool enough to combine with protons. The Universe
becomes transparent to light.
Dark Ages – Clouds of dark hydrogen gas cool and coalesce
First Stars – Gas-clouds collapse. The fusion of stars begins
Galaxy Formation – Gravity causes galaxies to form, merge and drift. Dark energy accelerates the expansion of the Universe, but
at a much lower rate than inflation.
2. Open Universe Theory
Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) discovered the galaxies of the universe are moving farther apart. This means that the universe is
getting continually bigger or getting bigger forever. Alternatively, the galaxies may come together, until finally they will collide
and explode. This event is called the “Big Crunch”. If the Big Crunch occurred, the sky would grow as hot as the sun. Finally,
everything would vanish into a black hole.
3. Steady State Theory
Proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle in 1928, this suggests that there is neither beginning nor end to the
universe, and it has a constant mean density. This theory postulates that matter is created throughout the universe at a rate of
about 10-10 nucleon per meter cube per year as a property of space. This violates the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy.

LESSON 2
Theories of the Origin of the Solar System

1. The Solar Nebular Theory

This theory holds that our solar system is formed from a giant, swirling interstellar cloud of gas and dust.
 Original Cloud is large and diffuse with little rotation
 The cloud heats up and spins faster and faster as it contracts
 This results in a spinning, flattened disk, with mass concentrated near the center
 As the nebula collapses further, instabilities in the collapsing, rotating cloud cause local regions to begin to contract
gravitationally. These local regions of condensation will become the Sun and the planets, as well as their moons and
other debris in the Solar System.
2. Planetesimal Hypothesis
This theory states that planets form out of cosmic dust grains that collide and stick to form larger and larger bodies. When the
bodies reach sizes of approximately one kilometer, then they can attract each other directly through their mutual gravity,
enormously aiding further growth into moon-sized protoplanets.

LESSON 3
Characteristics of the Earth that support life
1. Intense magnetic field
A magnetic field protects living beings from dangerous solar radiation. Also protects us from meteors and asteroids.
2. Atmosphere
The atmosphere consists of a mixture of gases. Most abundant is Nitrogen.
3. Moderate average temperature
Average temperature of the Earth (15°C). Possible due to 2 factors: a. distance from the sun; b. composition of the
atmosphere
4. A water cycle
Water exists in three states due to temperature variations: ice, liquid, water vapor
5. A relatively large natural satellite, the Moon
The gravitational attraction of the Moon causes ocean tides
6. Geological activity
Reduces the contained heat inside the planet
7. Conditions for life exist
Life exists to support the cycle of life (Life on the planet consumes the resources to enable balance)

LESSON 4
Layers of the Atmosphere
1. Troposphere
Lowest layer of the atmosphere. 0-12 KM
 2. Stratosphere
Absorbs UV radiation. Contains the Ozone Layer. It is where weather balloons stay. 12-50 KM
3. Mesosphere
It is where meteors burn up. The coldest part of the atmosphere. 50-80 KM
4. Thermosphere
The outermost layer of the atmosphere. 80 KM  Outer space
a. Ionosphere
Lower layer of the Thermosphere. Location of the Aurora Borealis (North) and Aurora Australis (South)
b. Exosphere
Outer layer of the Thermosphere

LESSON 5
The Geosphere
Layers of the Earth by chemical composition:
1. Crust
Thin outer layer. Composed of silicic rocks, andesite and basalt at base
2. Mantle
64% of the mass of the Earth. Melting mantle produces the crust. 500°C - 900°C (upper portion). 4000°C (lower portion)
3. Core
Temperature of about 5000°C. Composed of Iron + Oxygen, Sulfur and Nickel Alloy

Layers of the Earth by physical composition:

1. Lithosphere
Most outer layer. Includes the crust and uppermost part of the mantle
2. Asthenosphere
Beneath the lithosphere. Solid layer of the mantle made of rocks that flows slowly
3. Mesosphere
Beneath the asthenosphere. Means the middle sphere.
4. Outer Core
Made of liquid nickel and iron
5. Inner Core
A sphere of solid nickel and iron at the center of the Earth

Fault – a break in the Earth’s crust

Earthquake – series of ground vibrations produced when rocks under stress suddenly break
Magma – melted rock found beneath the surface of the earth

LESSON 6
The Hydrosphere
 When there is more heat energy, the molecules move about more vigorously within their container.
 Molecules of gaseous water is known as water vapour
 The warmer the air, the more vapour molecules there are. The cooler the air, the fewer water vapour molecules there are
Evaporation – when liquid water molecules gain heat energy and become water vapour
Condensation – when water vapour molecules lose heat energy and become liquid
Transpiration – release of water vapour from leaves
Cloud – condensed tiny water droplets formed by cooled water vapour high in the atmosphere
Convection – tendency of hotter therefore lighter liquids and gases to rise, and colder, heavier liquids and gases to sink
Precipitation – when water droplets become too large for the rising air to hold up, they fall as rain
Run-off – when precipitation that falls on the ground flows over to the land to the streams and rivers and finally to the ocean
Groundwater – precipitation that infiltrates into the ground and flows underground
LESSON 7
Biosphere
Food chain – shows how each living thing gets food, and how nutrients and energy are passed from creature to creature
Food web – an interconnection of food chains. The natural interconnection of food chains.
Producers – can create their own food through photosynthesis
Consumers – cannot create own food, they must eat plants or other animals to get the energy they need
Decomposers – organisms that break down dead or decaying organisms, and in doing so, they carry out the process of
decomposition
Herbivore – an animal that gets its energy from eating plants
Carnivore – an animal that gets its energy from eating meat
Omnivore – an animal that gets its energy from eating both plants and meat

LESSON 8
Common rock forming minerals
Quartz – Hardness: 7; Color: Clear to White; Used as gemstone, mortar, scientific apparatus and in electronic industry
Feldspar – Hardness: <7; Color: White to Pink; Used as ceramics and ornamental
Mica – Hardness: 2.5; Perfect Cleavage; Color: Clear to Black; Used in electrical, fireproofing, lubricant and wallpaper
Amphibole – Hardness: 5-6; Cleavage: 56° and 124°; Color: Green to Black; Used as asbestos
Pyroxene – Hardness: 5-6; Cleavage: 87° and 93°; Color: Dark; Used as specimens, some as gemstones
Olivine – Hardness: 6.5 – 7; Vitreous look; Color: Green; Some used as gem, abrasives

Lustre – quality and intensity of reflected light by a mineral

Hardness – resistance of a mineral to abrasion / scratch
Color – a unique identifying property of certain minerals
Streak – color of a mineral in powder form
Form –It is the natural shape of the mineral before the development of any cleavage or fracture.
Cleavage – property of minerals to break along parallel repetitive planes of weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces
Hardness of finger nail: 3.0
Hardness of diamond: 10.0

LESSON 9
Types of rocks
Igneous rock – formed by the solidification of magma
Plutonic / Intrusive rocks – solidified magma underneath the earth
Characteristic: Phaneritic – gradual lowering of temperature causing slow cooling/crystallization
Volcanic / Extrusive rocks – solidified lava at or near the surface of the earth
Characteristic: Pyroclastic – fragmental rocks usually associated with violent or explosive type of eruption
Sedimentary rock – formed by the sedimentation of earth’s surface
Formed by either of the following: Weathering; Deposition; Erosion; Lithification and Compaction
Metamorphic rock – formed by metamorphism (change affected by heat/pressure)
LESSON 10
Mineral Resources
Types of mineral resource
1. Metallic mineral deposit – minerals that contain metals in their chemical composition
2. Non-metallic mineral deposit – resources that do not yield new products when melted
Ore Deposits
1. Magmatic ore deposit – Crystallization of minerals within a body of magma
2. Hydrothermal ore deposit – hot fluids released as magma cools, minerals precipitate from liquids
3. Sedimentary ore deposit – precipitation of minerals from a lake or ocean water
4. Placer ore deposit – deposition of metals in a river or stream
5. Residual ore deposit – resulted from accumulation of valuable materials through chemical weathering process

LESSON 11
Mining
1. Surface mining – utilized to extract ore minerals that are close to Earth’s surface
a. Placer mining – involves any type of mining where raw materials are deposited in sand or gravel or on the surface
and are picked up without having to drive, use dynamite or any other significant means. The most ecological way
of mining
b. Strip mining – practice of mining mineral ore by removing all of the soil and rock on top of it. This practice is
applied by removing the sides of the mountain layer by layer
c. Mountaintop removal – requires that the targeted land be first clear-cut and then levelled by explosives. The top
of the mountain is removed and used
d. Hydraulic mining – uses high pressure water to break down rocks, dislodging ore and placer deposits. This is a very
destructive way of mining and is outlawed in most areas
e. Open Pit mines – involves digging large open holes in the ground as opposed to a small shaft in hard rock mining
f. Dredging – used to bring up underwater mineral deposits by clearing or enlarging waterways for boats
2. Underground mining – utilized to extract ore minerals from the orebody that is deep under the Earth’s surface
a. Drift mining – have horizontal entries into the coal seam from a hillside
b. Slope mining – a slope access shaft travels downwards toward the coal seam
c. Shaft mining – uses a mine shaft, a vertical passageway used for access which uses an electric hoist controller
d. Hard rock mining – mining ore bodies by creating underground rooms supported by surrounding pillars of hard
rock
e. Borehole mining – remote operated method of mining through boreholes by means of high pressure water jets

Effects of mining to the environment

1. Deforestation and loss of biodiversity
2. Massive pollution downstream
3. Subsidence to natural areas
4. Serious health effects
5. Deaths
LESSON 12
Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels – fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. Fossil fuels contain high
percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum and natural gas

Coal – a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or
coal seams
Coalification – formation of coal from plant material by the process of diagenesis and metamorphism. Also known as bituminization
or carbonification
Types of Coal
1. Peat – the precursor of coal. Formed from decaying vegetation
2. Lignite – formed from compressed peat and is referred to as “brown coal”
3. Bituminous / Sub Bituminous coal – made of compressed lignite
 4. Steam coal – stepping stone between bituminous coal and anthracite
5. Anthracite – highest rank of ignitable coal. It is hard, black, glossy and natural smokeless fuel
6. Graphite – technically the highest ranking coal, difficult to ignite and rarely used as fuel

Oxidize – hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus contained in the matter combine with oxygen atoms present in the
air
Source rock – mud that contains at least 1-2% organic matter which eventually produces oil and gas deposits
Subsidence – gradual sinking of source rock further under the Earth’s crust, by a few meters to a few hundred meters every million
years or so
Kerogen – an intermediate material made up of water, carbon dioxide, carbon and hydrogen, which is then transformed into oil or
gas

If the organic debris is mostly animal origin, it will produce more oil than gas
If the organic debris is mostly plant origin, it will produce more gas than oil

Migration – slow constant movement of gas and oil away from the source rock
Structural trap – formed by changes in geological layers caused by the movement of tectonic plates
Stratigraphic trap – made up of sedimentary layers that have not yet undergone tectonic deformation

LESSON 13
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy – thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth
Types of geothermal power plant
1. Dry Steam – steam is produced directly from the geothermal reservoir to run the turbines that power the generator
2. Flash Steam – geothermally heated water under pressure is separated in a separate vessel (called steam separator) into
steam and hot water. The steam is delivered to the turbine, and the turbine powers the generator
3. Binary Cycle – the geothermal water heats another liquid, such as isobutene or other organic fluids such as
pentafluoropropane, which boils at a lower temperature. The two liquids are kept completely separate through the use of
a heat exchanger, which transfers the heat energy from geothermal water to the working liquid
4. Flash/Binary Combined Cycle – the portion of the geothermal water which “flashes” to steam under reduced pressure is
first converted to electricity with a backpressure steam turbine and the low-pressure steam exiting the backpressure
turbine is condensed in a binary system.

Advantages
1. Does not produce pollution
2. Does not contribute to the greenhouse effect
3. The power stations do not take up too much room
4. Involves low running cost since no fuel is used to generate power
5. Low dependence on fossil fuels

Disadvantages
1. There are not many places where you can build a geothermal power plant due to the need for a volcano
2. Sometimes a geothermal site may “run out of steam”
3. Hazardous gases and minerals may come up from underground
4. Requires huge one time investment
LESSON 14
Hydroelectric Energy
Hydroelectric Energy – kinetic energy gained from water in a water reservoir by falling under gravity
Types of Hydroelectric power plant
1. Water Reservoir dam – water accumulates in reservoirs by the use of dams
2. Run of the river system – hydroelectric systems that harvest the energy from flowing water in the absence of a large dam
and reservoir
3. Pumped Storage Hydroelectric System – hydroelectric systems that use two water reservoirs to transfer water from a
lower elevation to a higher elevation and vice versa

Advantages
1. No pollution and use of resources
2. Safety. No drilling of earth crust is needed which may cause tectonic movements
3. High Efficiency (90%)
4. Quiet Operation. Turbines are located down under therefore no noise is generated
5. Long life and minimal maintenance
Disadvantages
1. High initial costs
2. Need to flood a big dam
3. Big impact to environment. Need to vacate a big area to create a dam
4. Possible loss of habitat for some species

Kalayaan Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Project – Largest hydroelectric power plant in the Philippines
La Grande Complex – Largest Hydroelectric power plant in the world (Output: 16GW)
Three Gorges Dam – Largest dam in the world

LESSON 15
Human Activity and the Environment
1. Oil/Petroleum – Non-renewable, Refining and consumption produces air, water and solid waste pollutants
2. Natural Gas – Non-renewable, Produces fewer pollutants than Oil and Coal, and less CO2
3. Coal – Non-renewable, Produces CO2 and other air, water and solid pollutants
4. Biomass – wood and organic waste including societal waste, Renewable, Low energy output
5. Hydroelectric – Renewable, Clean resource with high efficiency, loss of habitat and alteration of stream flows
6. Solar Power – Renewable, unlimited resource that is clean, efficient and safe, uses large land mass
7. Geothermal – Renewable, Consumption is localized, disrupts natural geyser activity
8. Wind Power – Renewable, unlimited and very clean process, needs lots of land
9. Nuclear Fission – Non-renewable, uses Uranium, produces radioactive waste
10. Nuclear Fusion – Non-renewable, uses Tritium, possibility of high water pollution due to tritium
Priority Solutions
1. Curbing Global Warming
2. Creating the Clean Energy Future
3. Reviving the World’s oceans
4. Defending Endangered Wildlife and Wild places
5. Protecting our health by preventing pollution
6. Ensuring safe and sufficient water
7. Fostering sustainable communities

LESSON 16
Water Resources
Waters` distribution: 97% Saltwater, 3% Freshwater (68.7% icecaps/glaciers, 30.1% groundwater, 0.3% surface water, 0.9% others)
Water is available in the air, surface, underground and in the oceans
10% of the Earth’s freshwater can be found in the atmosphere

Ways to conserve and protect water resources

1. Use less water
2. Keep harmful substances out of the water
3. Drive less
4. Keep pipes and appliances in good condition
5. Use water-efficient appliances
6. Use water efficiently outdoors
LESSON 17
Soil Resources
Factors affecting the quality and quantity of soil
1. Agricultural depletion – farming can degrade the topsoil and lead to an increase in erosion
2. Overgrazing animals – grazing animals can remove large amount of the plant cover for an area
 3. Deforestation – logging kills plants that put down roots that literally help hold the soil together
4. Mining – these operations leave a large amount of loose soil that can aggravate erosion process
5. Development and Expansion – can also aggravate erosion, especially, if the developers ignore the natural state of the land
6. Recreational Activities – erosion aggravates on hiking and off-road vehicle tracks

LESSON 18
Waste Generation and Management
Solid, Liquid and Gaseous waste – by-products resulting from human biological processes, manufacturing or any other human
activity
Leachate – any liquid that in the course of passing through matter, extracts soluble or any component of the material through which
it passed
Siltation – a process by which water becomes dirty as a result of fine mineral particles in the water
Acid mine drainage – also known as acid and metalliferous drainage, acid rock drainage. Refers to the outflow of acidic water from
metal mines or coal mines

Other sources of wastes and their environmental impact

1. Industrial waste
2. Agricultural waste
3. Mining waste
4. Biomedical waste

LESSON 19
Reducing waste at home, school and around the community
Republic Act 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste Management of 2000. An act providing for an ecological solid waste management
program, creating the necessary institutional mechanisms and incentives, declaring certain acts prohibited and providing penalties,
appropriating funds therefore, and for other purposes.
EXOGENIC PROCESS: WEATHERING

Weathering is the breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface, by the action of rainwater, extremes of temperature, and biological
activity. It does not involve the removal of rock material.
1. Physical Weathering / Mechanical Weathering
The process in which rock is physically broken into smaller pieces without any alteration to its composition or rocks still retain
its original characteristics
Processes that lead to mechanical disintegration of rocks:
a. Frost wedging – when water gets into cracks, alternate freezing and thawing episodes pry the rock apart
b. Salt crystal growth – force exerted by salt crystal that formed as water evaporates from pore spaces or cracks in rocks
can cause the rock to fall apart
c. Abrasion – wearing away of rocks by constant collision of loose particles
2. Chemical Weathering
The process in which rock is broken into smaller pieces that resulted from chemical composition changes such as change in
rock-forming minerals. One effect is change in color.
Processes that lead to chemical disintegration of rocks
a. Dissolution – disassociation of molecules into ions; common example includes dissolution of calcite and salt
b. Oxidation – reaction between minerals and oxygen dissolved in water
c. Hydrolysis – change in the composition of minerals when they react with water
3. Biological Weathering
The process in which rock is broken into smaller pieces induced by plants and animals

Factors that affect weathering rate:

1. Climate / Temperature - areas that are cold and dry tend to have slow rates of chemical weathering and weathering is mostly
physical; chemical weathering is most active in areas with high temperature and rainfall
2. Rock Type - the minerals that constitute rocks have different susceptibilities to weathering. The susceptibility of minerals
(high to low) roughly follows the inverse of the order of crystallization of minerals.
3. Rock Structure - rate of weathering is affected by the presence of joints, folds, faults, bedding planes through which agents
of weathering enter a rock mass. Highly jointed/ fractured rocks disintegrate faster than a solid mass of rock of the same
dimension
4. Topography - physical weathering occurs more quickly on a steep slope than on a gentle one. On a gentle slope, water may
stay longer in contact with the rocks, hence chemical weathering is enhanced.
5. Time - length of exposure to agents of weather determines the degree of weathering of a rock

EXOGENIC PROCESS: MASS WASTING

Mass wasting is the downslope movement of rock, regolith and soil under the direct influence of gravity.
Landslide is the sudden event in which large quantities of rock and soil plunge down steep slopes.

Classification of mass wasting processes:

1. Slope failures – sudden failure of the slope resulting in transport of debris downhill by rolling, sliding and slumping
a. Slump – type of slide wherein downward rotation of rock occurs along a curved surface
b. Rock fall and debris fall – free falling of dislodged rocks or a mixture of rock, regolith and soil
c. Rock slide and debris slide – rapid displacement of masses of rock or debris along an inclined surface
2. Sediment flow – materials flow downhill mixed with water or air
a. Slurry flow – water-saturated flow which contains 20-40% water; above 40% water content, slurry flows grade into
streams
i. Solifluction – common wherever water cannot escape from the saturated surface layer by infiltrating to
deeper levels
ii. Debris flow – results from heavy rain causing soil and regolith to be saturated with water
iii. Mud flow – highly fluid, high velocity mixture of sediment and water
b. Granular flow – contains low amounts of water, 0-20% water; fluid-like behaviour is possible by mixing with air
i. Creep – slowest type of mass wasting requiring several years to have pronounced effect on slope
ii. Earth flow – involves fine-grained material such as clay and silt and usually associated with heavy rainfall
or snowmelt
iii. Grain flow – forms in dry or nearly dry granular sediment with air filling the pore spaces
iv. Debris avalanche – very high velocity flows involving huge masses of falling rock and debris that break up
and pulverize on impact; often occurs in very steep mountain ranges

Events that trigger mass wasting processes:

1. Shocks and vibrations – earthquakes and minor shocks such as those produced by heavy trucks on the road, man-made
explosions
2. Slope modification – creating artificially steep slope so it is no longer at the angle of repose (kept in a particular place)
 3. Undercutting – due to streams eroding banks or surf action undercutting a slope
4. Changes in hydrologic characteristics – heavy rains lead to water-saturated regolith increasing its weight, reducing grain to
grain contact and angle of repose
5. Changes in slope strength – weathering weakens the rock and leads to slope failure; plant and tree roots strengthen slope
by holding the ground together
6. Volcanic eruptions – produce shocks; may produce large volumes of water from melting of glaciers during eruption, resulting
to mudflows and debris flows

EXOGENIC PROCESS: EROSION AND DEPOSITION

Erosion is the incorporation and transportation of material by a mobile agent such as water, wind or ice

Agents of erosion:
1. Running water – encompass both overland flow and stream flow.
2. Ocean or sea waves – sea waves bombard shoreline and causes rock erosion and depositional features
3. Glaciers – a moving body of ice on land that moves downslope or outward from an area of accumulation. Glaciers pick up
rock fragments and use them to abrade the surfaces over which they pass
4. Wind – wind erodes by deflation (removal of loose, fine particles from the surface) and abrasion (grinding action and
sandblasting)
5. Gravity – major factor in mass movement occurrence

ENDOGENIC PROCESS: WHY THE EARTH’S INTERIOR IS HOT

Two categories of the internal heat sources of the Earth

1. Primordial heat
Specifically, the heat generated during the Earth’s formation came from the following sources: accretion energy, adiabatic
compression, core formation energy and decay of short-lived radio-isotopes.
2. Radioactive heat
The heat generated by long-term radioactive decay): main sources are the four long-lived isotopes (large half- life), namely
K40, Th232, U235 and U238 that continuously produces heat over geologic time.

Geothermal gradient or geotherm

The temperature increase with depth into Earth (the non-linear temperature/depth curve)
Temperature gradient in the crust: ~25°C/km
- Some areas exhibit a much higher gradient as a result of a greater concentration of heat at relatively shallow depths. These
areas (areas of anomalously high temperature gradient) are exploited for geothermal energy.
- If temperature was simply a linear function of depth (linear relationship), we should expect that at depths below 100 km
(the average thickness of the lithosphere), temperature could reach as much as 2500°C. Partial melting of rocks can occur at
this temperature yet we know that, except for the outer core, the rest of the Earth is essentially solid. Most of the rocks
beneath the surface of the Earth is solid due to the fact that the geothermal gradient drops sharply a short distance into the
earth and that increasing confining pressure with depth counteracts the effect of increasing temperature.

Temperature gradient at the mantle: between 0.5°C/km to 1°C/km.

- Based on the geotherm curve above, it can be deduced that the mantle is considerably hotter than the crust, and the core
is much hotter than the mantle.

Core-mantle boundary: 3,700°C

Inner-core – outer-core boundary: 5,000°C±500°C
Earth’s center: 6,400°C±600°C

How the Earth's internal heat is redistributed:

- Simultaneous conduction, convection and radiation
- Convection occurs at the mantle but not between the core and mantle or even between the asthenosphere and lithosphere
(except at sea-floor spreading zones).The only heat transfer mechanism in these transition zones is through conduction.

ENDOGENIC PROCESS: HOW MAGMA IS FORMED

Factors that affect melting point:

1. Temperature. All other things being equal, every mineral has a distinct melting point. In the mantle, heat is brought upward
by convection. As hot rocks convect upward they transfer heat to cooler rocks lying above them, which may melt.
2. Pressure: All other things being equal, the greater the pressure, the less likely materials are to melt. (This explains why the
asthenosphere is limited to a shallow region of the mantle and the inner core is solid despite being hotter than the liquid
outer core.) When rocks experience decompression without losing their heat, they can experience decompression melting.
Consider the fate of hot rocks rising through the mantle from a hot spot.
3. Volatile substances: Generally, the addition of substances like water or CO2 to a mineral lowers its melting point. In this case,
the shape of the melting curve for peridotite changes.

Special conditions required for the formation of magma

- Crust and mantle are almost entirely solid indicating that magma only forms in special places where pre-existing solid rocks
undergo melting.
1. Melting due to decrease in pressure (decompression melting): The decrease in pressure affecting a hot mantle rock at a
constant temperature permits melting forming magma. This process of hot mantle rock rising to shallower depths in the
Earth occurs in mantle plumes, beneath rifts and beneath mid-ocean ridges.
2. Melting as a result of the addition of volatiles—compounds that have low boiling points (flux melting): When volatiles mix
with hot, dry rock, the volatile decreases the rock’s melting point and they help break the chemical bonds in the rock to allow
melting.
3. Melting resulting from heat transfer from rising magma (heat transfer melting): A rising magma from the mantle brings
heat with it and transfer heat to their surrounding rocks at shallower depths which may melt.

Places where magma can form

1. Mid-oceanic ridges:the rising magma in mantle convection cell brings heat to the surface, transferring heat to the overlying
rocks. The transfer of heat due to convection is accompanied by a decrease in pressure or "decompression" associated with
the spreading of the lithospheric plates. These two work in tandem promoting the partial melting of rocks along the spreading
center.
2. Mantle plumes (hot spots): Similar to mid-oceanic ridges, the transfer of heat and decompression result to magma
generation. The source of heat for mantle plumes is much deeper.
 3. Subduction zones: Oceanic crustal rocks are formed along spreading centers, typically beneath several kilometers of
seawater. The presence of water during generation results to the formation of hydrous minerals. As the oceanic slab is down-
thrusted along subduction zones, the change in temperature and pressure conditions brings about mineral instability (e.g.
hydrous minerals) and the release of water to the surrounding hot rocks. The introduction of water effectively lowers the
melting temperature of rocks and therefore causes partial melting or magma generation.

ENDOGENIC PROCESS: WHAT HAPPENS TO MAGMA AFTER IT IS FORMED

Why and how magma rises up

1. Density contrast: magma is less dense than the surrounding country rock. Magma rises faster when the difference in density
between the magma and the surrounding rock is greater.
 At deeper levels, magma passes through mineral grain boundaries and cracks in the surrounding rock. When enough mass
and buoyancy is attained, the overlying surrounding rock is pushed aside as the magma rises. Depending on surrounding
pressure and other factors, the magma can be ejected to the Earth’s surface or rise at shallower levels underneath (Fig. 1).

 At shallower levels, magma may no longer rise because its density is almost the same as that of the country rock. The magma
starts to accumulate and slowly solidifies (Fig. 2).

2. Viscosity: a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Magmas with low viscosity flow more easily than those with high viscosity.
Temperature, silica content and volatile content control the viscosity of magma. Use the table below to clarify the effects of
different factors on magma viscosity.

Table 1. Different factors that affect magma’s viscosity.

Factor Effect to Viscosity

↑ Temperature ↓ Viscosity
↑ Silica Content (SiO2) ↑ Viscosity
↑ Dissolved water (H2O) ↓ Viscosity

Important concepts derived from the Bowen’s reaction series:

  A mafic magma will crystallize into pyroxene (with or without olivine) and calcium-rich plagioclase ̶that is, basalt or gabbro ̶if
the early formed crystals are not removed from the remaining magma. Similarly, an intermediate magma will crystallize into
diorite or andesite, ifearly formed minerals are not removed.
 If minerals are separated from magma, the remaining magma is more silicic than the original magma. For example, if olivine
and calcium-rich plagioclase are removed, the residual melt would be richer in silicon and sodium and poorer in iron and
magnesium.
 When rocks are heated in high temperatures, minerals will melt in reverse order, going up the series in the Bowen’s reaction
series diagram. Quartz and potassium feldspar would melt first. If the temperature is raised further, biotite and sodium-rich
plagioclase would contribute to the melt. Any minerals higher in the series would remain solid unless the temperature is
raised further.

Different processes by which the composition of magma may change (magmatic differentiation).
- Magmatic differentiation is the process of creating one or more secondary magmas from single parent magma
1. Crystal Fractionation – a chemical process by which the composition of a liquid, such as magma, changes due t o
crystallization. There are several mechanisms for crystal fractionation. One that is directly related to the Bowen’s reaction
series is crystal settling.
 Crystal settling - denser minerals crystallize first and settle downwhile the lighter minerals crystallize at the latter stages.
Bowen’s reaction series shows that denser minerals such as olivine and Ca-rich plagioclases form first, leaving the magma
more silicic
2. Partial Melting – as described in Bowen’s reaction series, quartz and muscovite are basically formed under low temperature
conditions, making them the first ones to melt from the parent rock once exposed in higher temperature and/or pressure.
Partial melting of an ultramafic rock in the mantle produces a basaltic magma
When solid mixtures partially melt, it is the lower melting point materials that melt first.
Separation can occur in partial melts, with the high melting point materials sinking to the bottom and the liquid from the
lower melting point materials flowing to the top. These two different materials, that have different chemical compositions
and different physical properties, may then be further separated, e.g., by the liquid rising further through overlying materials,
leaving the solid behind.
Oxygen/silicon-rich rock-forming minerals have lower melting points than iron/magnesium-rich minerals.
Each stage of partial melting produces rocks enriched in oxygen/silicon (and depleted in iron/magnesium)
3. Magma mixing – this may occur when two different magma rises up, with the more buoyant mass overtakes the more slowly
rising body. Convective flow then mixes the two magmas, generating a single, intermediate (between the two parent
magmas) magma
4. Assimilation/contamination of magma by crustal rocks – a reaction that occurs when the crust is mixed up with the rising
magma. As magma rises to the surface, the surrounding rocks which it comes in contact with may get dissolved (due to the
heat) and get mixed with the magma. This scenario produces change in the chemical composition of the magma unless the
material being added has the same chemical composition as the magma.

ENDOGENIC PROCESS: METAMORPHISM

METAMORPHISM
• As a response to heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids, minerals become unstable and change into another mineral without
necessarily changing the composition. For example, coal, which is composed entirely of carbon, will turn into a diamond (also
composed of carbon) when subjected to intense pressure.
• The mineral composition of the resulting metamorphic rock is influenced by the following:
- Mineral composition of the original or parent rock
- Composition of the fluid that was present
- Amount of pressure and temperature during metamorphism

• Factors controlling the mineral assemblage of metamorphic rocks include:

- Bulk composition of the original rock
- Attained pressure during metamorphism
- Attained temperature during metamorphism
- Composition of fluid phase that was present during metamorphism (Nelson, 2011).

• Certain minerals identified as index minerals are good indicators of the metamorphic environment or zone of regional
metamorphism in which these minerals are formed (Tarbuck and Lutgens, 2008).
Emphasize that Figure 1 is a representation of the progressive metamorphism of shale. It is not necessarily applicable to all types of
parent rocks. Pelitic rocks (e.g. shale) more faithfully preserve the effects of increasing grade of metamorphism. Some rocks, however,
such as pure quartz sandstone or limestone, provide very little clue as to the intensity of metamorphism (Monroe et al., 2007).
• Shale can be transformed into a series of metamorphic rocks (slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss, respectively) with increasing
temperature and pressure conditions. Shale can also be transformed directly into schist or even gneiss if the change in metamorphic
conditions is drastic.

Textural changes that occur to rocks when they are subjected to metamorphism.
• In general, the grain size of metamorphic rocks tends to increase with increasing metamorphic grade. With the increasing
metamorphic grade, the sheet silicates become unstable and mafic minerals, such as hornblende and pyroxene, start to grow. At the
highest grades of metamorphism, all of the hydrous minerals and sheet silicate become unstable and thus there are few minerals
present that would show preferred orientation. This is because the fluids from these hydrous minerals are expelled out due to the
high temperature and pressure.
• Most metamorphic textures involve foliation, which is generally caused by a preferred orientation of sheet silicates (silica minerals
with sheet-like structures), such as clay minerals, mica and chlorite. Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss are foliated rocks, are texturally
distinguished from each other by the degree of foliation. Hornfels and granulite are examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks. In
hornfels, the individual mineral grains are too small, whereas in granulites, the grains are large enough to be identified in hand
specimens (visible without the use of microscopes) (Nelson, 2011).

Differential stress is formed when the pressure applied to a rock at depth is not equal in all directions. If present during
metamorphism, effects of differential stress in the rock’s texture include the following (Nelson, 2012):
- Rounded grains can be flattened perpendicular to the direction of the maximum compressional force (Figure 3).
- When subjected to differential stress field, minerals may develop a preferred orientation. Sheet silicates and minerals that have an
elongated habit will grow with their sheets or direction of elongation perpendicular to the direction of maximum stress (Figure 4).

Table 1: Agents of metamorphism and the associated metamorphic processes.

Agents of Metamorphism Metamorphic Process

High Temperature Minerals convert to new high temperature minerals

Fluids are released (ex: clay = mica + water)
Crystals grow larger
Rocks become weaker and easier to deform

High Pressure Minerals may recrystallize into more compact/stable forms

Platy or elongate minerals may align in a preferred direction

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are formed when heat is the main agent of metamorphism. Generally, non-foliated rocks are
composed of a mosaic of roughly equi-dimensional and equigranular minerals.

Classification Metamorphic Parent Rock Common Minerals

Processes

Foliated Slate Shale, Mudstone Quartz, clay minerals

(Banded) (feldspars)

Schist Shale, slate, basalt, or granite Mica, chlorite, talc, quartz

Gneiss Shale, schist, granite, sandstone and other rock types Quartz, feldspars
 Non-Foliated Quartzite Sandstone Quartz
(Non-Banded)
Marble Limestone, dolomite Calcite

Anthracite coal Bituminous coal Crystalline carbon

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY AND EVIDENCES THAT SUPPORT CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

Continental Drift Theory

The idea that continents fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle has been around since the 1600s, although little significance
was given to it.
The continental drift hypothesis was first articulated by Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, in 1912. He proposed
that a single supercontinent, Pangaea, separated into the current continents and moved across Earth’s surface to their
present locations. He published his work through a book entitled ‘The Origin of Continents and Oceans’ in 1915.
Until the 1950s-60s, it was still widely held that that continents and ocean basins had fixed geographic positions. As such,
scientists were reluctant to believe that continents could drift.
In the 1960s, the post-war boom in oceanography generated a lot of new data about the ocean floor. It turned out that the
ocean floor was not as flat and featureless as they had originally thought. The ocean floor was characterized by deep
depressions called trenches and a network of ridges that encircled the globe. These topographic data, together with heat
flow measurements, led to the emergence of the Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis which revived interest in Alfred Wegener’s
idea of drifting continents.

Evidences that support Continental Drift Theory

1. Fit of the continents
Opponents of Wegener’s idea disputed his continental fit evidence, arguing that the fit of the continents’ margins
was crude, and that shorelines were continuously being modified by wave erosion and depositional processes.
The oceanographic data later on revealed that a much better approach was to fit the continents together along the
continental slope, where erosion would be minimal. In 1965, Sir Edward Bullard, an English geophysicist, and two
of his associates demonstrated that the best fit between the continents occurs at a depth of approximately 2000 m.
Even with this method, a perfect fit could not be achieved. The process of stretching and thinning of the continental
margins and sedimentary processes (e.g. erosion, delta formation, etc.) could explain some of the overlaps.

2. Similarity in geological units and structure

Wegener discovered that rocks on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean were identical in terms of type and age. He also
matched up mountain ranges with the same rock types, structures, and ages, that were now on opposite sides of
the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachians of the eastern United States and Canada, for example, were just like mountain
ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain, and Norway. Wegener concluded that they formed a single
mountain range that became separated as the continents drifted.

3. Fossil match
Similar fossils of extinct plants and animals in rocks of the same age were found on different continents, which are
now separated by large bodies of water. Wegener recognized that organisms were adapted to a specific type of
environment and their dispersal could be limited by biogeographic boundaries (e.g. oceans, mountain ranges, etc.)
Wegener argued that these organisms could not have physically crossed the oceans; rather, the continents were in
fact part of a large contiguous landmass which later on broke apart and drifted.

a) Glossopteris flora – ‘seed fern’ that grew only in a subpolar regions, fossils of which were widely distributed over
Australia, Africa, India, and South America (later on discovered in Antarctica). Seeds were too large to be blown
away by wind to different continents.
b) Mesosaurus - a freshwater reptile whose fossils were found only in black shales about 260 million years of age
(Permian) in South Africa and Brazil. This land-based reptile could not have crossed the Atlantic Ocean.
c) Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus - land reptiles whose fossils were found across South America, Africa, India, and
Antarctica. With their inability to swim and the continents’ differing climates, the organisms must have lived side
by side and that the lands drifted apart after they became extinct and fossilized.

4. Glacial and paleoclimate evidence

A glacier is a slowly moving mass or river of ice formed from the accumulation and compaction of snow on high
mountains or in polar areas. As it flows, it carries sediments of different shapes and sizes, which are then deposited
and slowly compacted into a soft sedimentary rock called till (glacial till). It also creates grooves or scratches called
striations in the underlying bedrock.
Wegener analyzed glacial tills and striations of ancient times and found out that glaciers of the same period (late
Paleozoic age, around 300 million years ago) are located in Australia, South America, Africa, India, and Antarctica.
Except for Antarctica, these countries did not have subpolar climate that allowed glaciation. Putting the continents
 together in accordance to Wegener’s Pangaea shows that the glaciation only occurred in a small region in Gondwana
(around the South Pole) which then moved outward to the aforementioned continents.

5. Paleomagnetism and polar wandering

Paleomagnetism - As magma cools down it starts forming minerals. Some minerals are strongly magnetic (e.g.
magnetite). Below a certain threshold temperature, some of these minerals attain magnetic properties. The
magnetic minerals start to align with the surrounding magnetic field. The alignment of these minerals becomes fixed
once the lava or magma solidifies. Rocks therefore can potentially preserve or record magnetic polarity (normal vs.
reverse), direction or location of magnetic poles, and the strength of the magnetic field.
Magnetism of geologically recent rocks is generally consistent with the Earth’s current magnetic field.When the
location of the Earth’s magnetic poles are plotted based on the paleomagnetism of rocks of different ages, their
positions appear to be “wandering” through time if we assume a fixed position of the continents. In reality, the
magnetic poles have a relatively fixed position, and it is actually the continents which are moving.

Rate of movement of the continents

Continent Speed
Antarctic 2 cm/yr
African 2.2 cm/yr
South American 1.5 cm/yr
North American 1.2 cm/yr

FOLDING AND FAULTING

DEFORMATION - In earth science, is an alteration of the size or shape of rocks. It is caused by stress, the scientific term for force
applied to a certain area.
STRAIN – the relative change in shape or size of an object due to externally applied forces
STRESS – the internal force per unit area associated with a strain

3 fundamental kinds of stress

1. Compressive stress – stress denoted by squeezing or pushing an object from outside towards itself
2. Tensional stress – stress denoted by pulling or stretching
3. Shear stress – stress denoted by wrenching or formed by a force vector component parallel to the cross section

3 kinds of deformation
1. Ductile – irreversible, resulting in a permanent change to the shape or size of the rock that persists even when the source
of stress stops.
2. Elastic – temporary and reversed when the source of stress is removed.
3. Brittle – also known as fracture, is irreversible and results in the breakage of rock

Elastic – returns to its original shape once the stress that deforms it is removed
Inelastic – does not return to its original shape after it is deformed

Inelastic material category

1. Brittle – respond to stress by breaking or fracturing
2. Ductile - respond to stress by bending or deform without breaking

Factors that affect deformation:

1. Confining stress
2. Temperature
3. Strain rate
4. Composition
STRIKE – direction of line formed by the intersection of a rock surface with a horizontal plane
DIP – acute angle that a rock surface makes with a horizontal plane

Features of brittle deformation:

1. Joints – a crack in a rock along which no appreciable movement has occurred.
2. Faults - a plane of dislocation where rocks on one side of the fault have moved relative to the rocks on the other side.
Types of faults:
1. Normal fault – where the crust is being pulled apart, normal fault occurs
2. Strike-slip fault – crustal blocks may also move sideways past each other, usually along nearly-vertical faults
3. Reverse fault – where the crust is being compressed, reverse fault occurs
4. Thrust fault – a dip slip fault in which the upper block, above the fault plane, moves up and over the lower block
5. Oblique slip fault – involves various combinations of these basic movements

Folds – result of ductile deformation of rocks in response to external forces

3 types of folds:
1. Anticlines - upward fold
2. Synclines - downward fold
3. Monoclines - gently dipping bends in horizontal rock layers

LAYERS OF THE EARTH

Layers of the Earth Actual Thickness (km)

Crust 25

Mantle 2, 900

Outer Core 2, 250

Inner Core 1, 196

Layers of the earth by chemical composition:
Crust  Mantle  Core
Layers of the earth by physical composition
Lithosphere  Asthenosphere  Mesosphere  Outer Core  Inner Core

Earth’s depth changes:

Crust Mantle Core

Temperature ~25 0.5–1.0 Outer:5,000°C

°C/KM °C/KM Inner: 6,400°C +/- 600°C

Pressure 0 GPa 0 GPa – 140 Gpa 141 Gpa – 365 Gpa

Density 1000 – 3500 kg/cm 4000 – 8000 kg/cm 8000 – 13000 kg/cm

Continental crust – thick part of the crust that forms the large landmasses
Oceanic crust – uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of a tectonic plate
Moho (crust-mantle boundary)
- Separates both the oceanic crust and continental crust from underlying mantle
- Discovered by Croation seismologist Andrija Mohorovičić in 1909 upon observing that shallow-focus seismograms have 2
sets of P-waves and S-waves
Tectonic plates
- Generally lightweight rock, compared to the denser, fluid layer underneath. This allows the plates to "float" on top of the
denser material.
Seismic discontinuities
- A surface within the Earth across which P-wave or S-wave velocities change rapidly, usually by +~0.2 kilometer/second
Seismic waves
- Propagating vibrations that carry energy from the source of the shaking outward in all directions
4 types of seismic waves
1. Compressional or P (primary)
2. Transverse or S (secondary)
3. Love
4. Rayleigh

Seismic wave Speed

P-waves ~1-~14 km/s

S-waves 1 - 8 km/s

Love wave 2 - 6 km/s

Rayleigh wave 1 - 5 km/s

EVOLUTION AND STRUCTURE OF OCEAN BASINS

OCEAN BATHYMETRY – measurement of ocean depth

5 MAJOR OCEAN Basins

1. Pacific Ocean
2. Atlantic Ocean
3. Indian Ocean
 4. Arctic Ocean
5. Southern (Antarctic) Ocean

Ocean Average Depth Details

Pacific Ocean 3, 940 meters • Little freshwater input

• Ring of Fire

Atlantic Ocean 3, 310 meters • Large freshwater input (Amazon, Congo, Mississippi, Niger, Orinoco rivers)

Indian Ocean 3, 840 meters • Large sediment input (Indus and Ganges River Deltas)

Arctic Ocean 1, 038 meters • Covered by sea ice

• Large sediment input from active glaciers

Southern Ocean 4, 000 meters • Continuous ring of water around Antarctica

• Coldest of all oceans (near freezing)
• Most biologically productive ocean

Methods how to measure ocean depths:

1. Sounding line – weighted rope lowered overboard until it touched the ocean bottom; this old method is time-consuming
and inaccurate
2. Echo sounding – type of sonar which measures depth by emitting a burst of high frequency sound and listening for the echo
from the seafloor. Sound is emitted from a source on the ship and the returning echo is detected by a receiver on the ship.
Deeper water means longer time for the echo to return to the receiver.
3. Satellite altimetry – Profiles the shape of the sea surface by measuring the travel time of a radar pulse from the satellite to
the ocean surface and back to the satellite receiver. The shape of the sea surface approximates the shape of the sea floor.

Continental margin – Submerged outer edge of the continent where continental crust transitions into oceanic crust
1. Passive or Atlantic type
Features a wide, gently sloping continental shelf (50-200m depth), a steeper continental slope (3000-4000m depth), and a
flatter continental rise.
2. Active or Pacific type
Characterized by a narrow shelf and slope that descends into a trench or trough

Abyssal Plains – Is an extremely flat, sediment covered stretches of the ocean floor, interrupted by occasional volcanoes, mostly
extinct, called seamounts.
Abyssal Hills – elongate hills, typically 50-300m high and common on the slopes of mid oceanic ridge. These hills have their origins as
faulted and tilted blocks of oceanic crust.

Mid-ocean ridges – a submarine mountain chain that winds for more than 65,000 km around the globe. It has a central rift valley and
rugged topography on its flanks. They are cut and offset at many places by transform faults and may extend away from either side of
the ridge as a fracture zone which is older and seismically inactive.

Deep Ocean trenches – narrow, elongated depressions on the seafloor many of which are adjacent to arcs of island with active
volcanoes; deepest features of the seafloor.

Seamounts and volcanic islands – submerged volcanoes are called seamounts while those that rise above the ocean surface are called
volcanic islands. These features may be isolated or found in clusters or chains.

SEAFLOOR SPREADING HYPOTHESIS

 In 1960, Harry Hess advanced the theory of seafloor spreading. Hess proposed that seafloor separates at mid-ocean ridges
where new crust forms by upwelling magma. Newly formed oceanic crust moves laterally away from the ridge with the
motion like that of a conveyor belt. Old oceanic crusts are dragged down at the trenches and re-incorporated back into the
mantle.
The process is driven by mantle convection currents rising at the ridges and descending at the trenches. This idea is basically
the same as that proposed by Arthur Holmes in 1920.

Proof for seafloor spreading:

1. Magnetic stripes on the seafloor: detailed mapping of magnetism recorded in rocks of the seafloor shows that these rocks
recorded reversals in direction and strength of the Earth’s magnetic field. Alternating high and low magnetic anomalies run
parallel to mid ocean ridges. Pattern of magnetic anomalies also matches the pattern of magnetic reversal already known
from studies of continental lava flows.
2. Deep sea drilling results: Age of seafloor forms a symmetric pattern across the mid-oceanic ridges, age increases with
distance from the oceanic ridge; no seafloor older than 200 million years could be found, indicating that seafloor is constantly
being created and destroyed.

TECTONIC PLATES

Tectonic Plates – pieces of the Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle, together referred to as the lithosphere.

15 Major Plates
1. Pacific plate
2. North American plate
3. Eurasian plate
4. African plate
5. Antarctic plate
6. Australian plate
7. Indian plate
8. South American plate
9. Arabian plate
10. Nazca plate
11. Caribbean plate
12. Cocos plate
13. Juan de fuca plate
14. Philippine plate
15. Scotia plate

Main principles of Plate Tectonics

1. The Earth’s outermost rigid layer (lithosphere) broken into discrete plates each moving more or less a unit.
2. Driven by mantle convection, the lithospheric plates ride over the soft, ductile asthenosphere.
3. Different types of relative motion and different types of lithosphere at plate boundaries create a distinctive sets of geologic
features.

Types of Plate Boundaries

Plate Boundary Plate Description Example

movement

Divergent Oceanic- Plates moving Forms elevated ridge with rift valley at the center; Mid-Atlantic
Oceanic away from each submarine volcanism and shallow earthquakes ridge;
other East Pacific rise

Continental- Broad elevated region with major rift valley; abundant East African Rift
Continental volcanism and shallow earthquakes valley; Red Sea

Convergent Oceanic- Plates moving Dense oceanic plate slips beneath less dense Western South
Continental toward each continental plate; trench forms on the subducting plate America
other side and extensive volcanism on the overriding
continental plate; earthquake foci becoming deeper in
the direction of subduction

Oceanic- Older, cooler, denser plate slips beneath less dense Aleutians;
Oceanic plate; trench forms on subducting plate side and island Marianas
arc on overriding plate; band of earthquakes becoming
deeper in the direction of subduction
 Continental- Neither mass is subducted; plate edges are Himalayas; Alps
Continental compressed, folded, and uplifted resulting in the
formation of major mountain range

Transform Plate sliding Lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed; most Mid-Ocean
past each other offset oceanic ridge systems while some cut through Ridge; San
continental crust; characterized by shallow earthquakes Andreas Fault

Wilson cycle
- In 1966, John Tuzo Wilson proposed a cycle that includes continental break-up, drifting, collision and re-assembly of the continent.

Main phases of the Wilson cycle

 Rifting within the supercontinent leads to the opening of new ocean basin and formation of oceanic crust
 Passive margin cools and sinks, and sediment accumulates along the edge
 Convergence begins, initiating subduction and eventual ocean closure
 Continent-continent collision forms the next supercontinent

Driving forces for plate motion

a. Convection in the mantle appears to drive plate motion
b. Gravity-driven mechanisms such as slab-pull and ridge-push are thought to be important in driving plate motion. Slab-
pull develops when cold, dense subducting slab of lithosphere pulls along the rest of the plate behind it. Ridge-push
develops as gravity pushes the lithosphere off the mid-ocean ridges and toward the subduction trenches.

STRATIFIED ROCKS
Bedding, Stratification, Lamination – Layering that occurs in sedimentary rocks. Igneous rocks can also exhibit layering if formed at
the Earth’s surface.
Stratification – General term for layering in sedimentary rocks
Beds – Layering in sedimentary rocks, which are greater than 1cm thick
Lamination – Layering in sedimentary rocks, which are less than 1cm thick

Process that leads to stratification:

1. Weathering and erosion
2. Transport
3. Deposition
4. Burial, Compaction and Lithification

When sediments accumulate, they tend to blanket the surface of accumulation. The surface of accumulation is generally
topographically low and flat. Sediments therefore tend to form tabular layers. Not only do sediments form layers, they also tend to
cover an extensive area.
If conditions on the surface do no change, only thick, homogenous, and undifferentiated sedimentary rocks will form. Bedding or
layering in sedimentary rocks is a reflection of the changing conditions during deposition. Each layer represents an interval of time
where conditions have remained uniform.
A change in color can reflect differences in grain size and/or composition.
Grain size in sedimentary rocks is common function of the energy of the environment of deposition. Fine grained sediments generally
reflect low energy quiet settings (protected from waves and strong currents).
A variety of factors influence the composition of sedimentary rocks: source rocks, length and duration of transport, climate, volcanism,
etc...

RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING USED TO DETERMINE AGE OF STRATIFIED ROCKS

Relative Dating – Science of determining the relative order of past events (age of an object in comparison to another), without
determining their absolute age.
Absolute Dating – Process of determining an age on a specified chronology in archaeology and geology.

Relative dating principles:

1. Uniformitarianism – the geologic processes observed in operation that modify the Earth’s crust at present have worked in
much the same way over geologic time
2. Intrusive relationships – When an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of sedimentary rock, it can be determined that
the igneous intrusion is younger than the rock.
3. Cross-cutting relationships – Pertains to the formation of faults and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults
are younger than the rocks they cut.
4. Inclusions and components – With sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (clasts) are found in formation, then the inclusions must
be older than the formation that contains them.
 5. Original horizontality – The deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds.
6. Superposition – states that, in an undisturbed (not folded or faulted), the bottom layer was formed before the top layer.
7. Faunal succession – Based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. The presence or absence of fossils may be able
to provide a relative age of the formations.
8. Lateral continuity – Layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all directions; in other words, they are laterally continuous.
9. Inclusions of igneous rocks – Melt inclusions are small parcels or “blobs” of molten rock that are trapped within crystals that
grow in the magmas that form igneous rocks. Using microscopic observations and a range of chemical microanalysis
techniques, geochemists and igneous petrologists can obtain a range of useful information.
10. Included fragments – States that clasts in a rock are older than the rock itself. One example of this is a xenolith, which is a
fragment of country rock that fell in passing magma

Absolute dating principles:

1. Radiometric techniques – Based on the known and constant rate of decay of radioactive isotopes into their radiogenic
daughter isotopes.
1. Radiocarbon dating – Used to date organic remains by measuring the carbon-14 in organic material. The half-life of
carbon-14 is 5,730 years.
2. Potassium-argon dating – Potassium-40 is a radioactive isotope of potassium that decays into argon-40. the half-
life of potassium-40 is 1.26 billion years.
3. Uranium-Lead Dating
Uranium-lead dating is usually performed on zircon crystals. When zircon forms in an igneous rock, the crystals
readily accept atoms of uranium but reject atoms of lead. If any lead is found in a zircon crystal, it can be assumed
that it was produced from the decay of uranium.
Two uranium isotopes are used for radiometric dating:
• Uranium-238 decays to lead-206 with a half-life of 4.47 billion years.
• Uranium-235 decays to form lead-207 with a half-life of 704 million years.
2. Luminiscence dating
1. Thermoluminiscence – This technique is based on the principle that all objects absorb radiation from the
environment. This process frees the electrons within minerals
2. Optically stimulated luminiscence – Constrains the time at which sediment was last exposed to light. Exposure to
sunlight ‘zeros’ the luminiscence signal.
3. Dendrochronology – Also known as tree-dating is the scientific method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree
rings, also known as growth rings.
4. Amino acid dating - Used to estimate the age of a specimen by checking the changes in amino acid molecules to the time
elapsed since they were formed. When an organism dies, control over the configuration of the amino acids ceases, and the
ratio D to L moves from a value near 0 to an equilibrium near 1, a process called racemization. Thus, measuring the ratio of
D to L in a sample enables one to estimate how long ago the specimen died.

GUIDE FOSSILS

Age of the Earth

The Earth has a very long history—4.6 billion years of history. The age of the Earth is based from the radioactive isotopic dating of
meteorites. The oldest dated rock from the Earth is only ~3.8 billion years old. Why?

Rocks and Fossils

1. The history of the Earth is recorded in rocks but the rock record is inherently incomplete. Some ‘events’ do not leave a record or
are not preserved. Some of the rock record may have also been lost through the recycling of rocks (recall the rock cycle).
2. Preserved in rocks are fossils or the remains and traces of plants and animals that have lived and died throughout the Earth's
history. The fossil record provides scientists with one of the most compelling evidence for Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution
(increasing complexity of life through time).

Rocks, Fossils, and the Geologic Time Scale

Geologic time is subdivided into hierarchal intervals, the largest being eon, followed by era, period, and epoch, respectively. The
subdivision of geologic time is based on the significant events in the Earth’s history as interpreted from the rock record.
The mass extinction event, which led to the extinction of the dinosaurs occurred around 66.4 million years ago, marks the boundary
between the Mesozoic era (age of the reptiles) and the Cenozoic era (age of mammals). This mass extinction event may have been
pivotal in the rise of the dominance of the mammals during the Cenozoic era.

One of the first to recognize the correspondence between rocks and time is Nicholas Steno (1638-1686). Steno’s principles, namely
superposition, original horizontality, and lateral continuity, became the foundation of stratigraphy, the study of layered rocks.
Since the geologic time scale is based on the rock record, the first order of business is to establish the correct succession of rocks.
Initially, this was done using relative dating techniques.

One of the earliest attempts to subdivide the rock record into units of time was made by Abraham Gottlob Werner, a German
geologist. Werner divided the rock record into the following rock-time units (from oldest to youngest): primary, secondary, tertiary,
and quaternary. Werner extensively used the Principle of Superposition to establish temporal relationship among the rock units.
Fossils are also useful in determining relative ages of rocks. While working in a coal mine, William ‘Strata’ Smith (1769-1839) observed
that each layer or strata of sedimentary rock contains a distinct assemblage of fossils, which can be used to establish
equivalence(correlation) between rock units separated by long distances. Moreover, he observed that these fossils succeed each
other vertically in a definite order.

In contrast to William Smith, who primarily used fossils to identify rock layers, Charles Lyell (1797-1875), a British lawyer and geologist,
recognized the utility of fossils in subdividing geologic time on the basis of fossils. He was able to subdivide the tertiary by examining
the
proportion of living vs. extinct fossils in the rocks.

The underlying reason for this definite and orderly succession of fossils in the rock record is organic evolution.

Fossils are an essential in the subdivision of the geologic time.

Biostratigraphy is a sub-discipline of stratigraphy, which deals with the use of fossils in the correlation and establishments the relative
ages of rocks.

Index fossils are marker fossils used to define periods of geologic time. Ideally, index fossils are distinctive (can easily be identified
and distinguished from other fossils), widespread (distribution is not confined to a few locality), and have limited geologic time range.

Ultimately, the geologic time scale was assigned numerical dates (absolute dating) through the radiometric dating of rocks.

EARTH THROUGH GEOLOGIC TIME

Evolutionary Events:
• First evidence of life (3,850 Ma)
• Photosynthesizing bacteria (3,700 Ma)
• Oldest fossils (3,500 Ma)
• First eukaryotes (2,700 Ma)
• Ediacaran fauna (600 Ma)
• The Cambrian explosion (530 Ma)
• First land plants and fish (480 Ma)
• Arthropods on land (420 Ma)
• First insects (407 Ma)
• First amphibians land vertebrates (375 Ma)
• First seed plants (360 Ma)
• First reptiles (350 Ma)
• First dinosaurs (220 Ma)
• Early mammals (220 Ma)
• First birds (150 Ma)
• First flowering plants (130 Ma)
• Early primates (60 Ma)
• First hominids (5.2 Ma)
• Modern humans (0.2 Ma)

Extinctions:
• Vendian - some single celled algae and soft-bodied animals went extinct (543 Ma)
• Cambrian - some reef builders and other shallow water organisms become extinct (520 Ma)
• End Ordovician - 25% of marine vertebrates families and 57% of genera become extinct (443 Ma)
• Devonian - 50-55% of marine invertebrate genera and 70-80% of species went extinct (364 Ma)
• Permian - greatest extinction event; 90% of all species became extinct (250 Ma)
• End Cretaceous - extinction of the dinosaurs; 60-80% of all species became extinct (65 Ma)
• Late Triassic - ~50% marine invertebrate genera, possibly land vertebrate went extinct (206 Ma)
• Late Eocene - 50-90% of species in certain land and marine group went extinct (33 mya)
• Miocene - many woodland plant-eating herbivores went extinct (9 Ma)
• Late Pleistocene - nearly all large mammals and birds (>45 pounds) became extinct (.01 Ma)
Geologic events:
• Formation of the great oceans (4,200 Ma)
• Continents begin shifting (3,100 Ma)
• Oxygen levels reach 3% of the atmosphere (1.9 Ma)
• Supercontinent Rodinia forms (1100 Ma)
• Protective ozone in place (600 Ma)
• Gondwana forms (500 Ma)
• Oxygen nears present day concentration (400 Ma)
• Formation of the Pangaea supercontinent (280 Ma)
• Pangaea supercontinent breaks up (200 Ma)
• Continents near present-day positions (40 Ma)
• Initiation of seafloor spreading of South China Sea (32 Ma)
• Initiation of the Philippine fault (4 Ma)
• Global ice ages begin (2 Ma)

The Geologic time scale

 The Precambrian or Cryptozoic Era (4.6 Ga - 540 Ma)
๏ Represents 80% of Earth’s history
๏ Also known as the eon of “hidden life” due to obscure fossil records.
• Hadean Eon (4.56 - 3.8 Ga)
๏ From “Haedes”, Greek god of the underworld
๏ Chaotic time because of several meteorite bombardment
๏ Atmosphere reduction (methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide)
๏ Start of the hydrologic cycle and the formation of the world oceans
๏ Life emerged in this “hostile” environment
• Archean Eon (3.8 - 2.5 Ga)
๏ Anaerobic (lack of oxygen)
๏ No ozone
๏ Photosynthetic prokaryotes (blue green algae) emerged and started releasing oxygen to the atmosphere.
๏ Life forms are still limited to single-celled organisms without nuclei (prokaryotes) until 2.7 Ga when Eukaryotes emerged.
• Proterozoic Eon (2.5 Ga - 540 Ma)
๏ Oxygen level reaches ~3% of the atmosphere
๏ Rise of multicellular organisms represented by the Vendian fauna
๏ Formation of the protective ozone layer
• Phanerozoic Eon (540 Ma - present)
๏ Eon of “visible life”
๏ Diversification of life
๏ Many life forms are represented in fossil records (with preservable hard parts).
• Paleozoic Era (540 - 245 Ma)
๏ Age of “ancient life”
๏ Rapid diversification of life as represented by the Cambrian fauna (Cambrian explosion)
๏ Dominance of marine invertebrates
๏ Plants colonize land by 480 Ma
๏ Animals colonize land by 450 Ma
๏ Oxygen level in the atmosphere approaches present day concentration
๏ Massive extinction at the end (end of Permian extinction)
• Mesozoic Era (245 - 65 Ma)
๏ Age of reptiles
๏ Dominance of reptiles and dinosaurs
๏ Pangaea starts to break-apart by 200 MA
๏ Early mammals (220 Ma)
๏ First birds (150 Ma)
๏ First flowering plants (130 Ma)
๏ Mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous (65 Ma)
• Cenozoic Era (65 Ma - present)
๏ Age of mammals
๏ Radiation of modern birds
๏ Early primates (60 Ma)
๏ Continents near present-day positions (40 Ma)
๏ First hominids (5.2 Ma)
๏ Modern humans (0.2 Ma)
๏ Global ice ages begin (2 Ma)