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 THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
 SELECTED REFERE N C E MATERIA L

UNITED STATES ATOMIC ENERGY PROGRAM

Reactor Handbook: Engineering

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 SELECTED REFERENCE MATERIAL

ON ATOMIC ENERGY

Volume ONE Research Reactors

VolumE Two Reactor Handbook: Physics
VolumE THREE Reactor Handbook: Engineering
VolumE FOUR Reactor Handbook: Materials
VOLUME FIVE Neutron Cross Sections
Volume six Chemical Processing and Equipment
VolumE SEVEN Eight-year Isotope Summary
VolumE EIGHT Information Sources
 VOLUME THREE

Reactor Handbook: Engineering

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

GENEVA: AUGUST 1955
 +&c
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Foreword

Interchange of scientific and technical knowledge will greatly facilitate the

work of the scientists and engineers whose skills will be devoted to the
future development of the peaceful uses of atomic energy.
The United States has made available to the world's scientific com
munity a large body of such data. In honor of this historic Conference
and to stimulate further exploration and development of the beneficial
applications of nuclear energy, the United States Atomic Energy Commis
sion has prepared this special collection of technical data for the use of
the delegates and the nations represented.
The purpose of this collection is to provide information concerning the
ways that we have found in which fissionable materials can be put to
work in nuclear reactors for research purposes and for the production of
power and radioisotopes.
It is our sincere hope that this material will be of practical value to the
men and women of science and engineering in whose hands the great
power of the atom is becoming a benign force for world peace.

&££zo,
Chairman, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

SS2360
 Acknowledgment

This series of volumes was sponsored by the United States Atomic Energy
Commission for presentation by the United States of America to the coun
tries represented at the International Conference on Peaceful Uses of
Atomic Energy.
The organizations which contributed material presented in these vol
unnes are:

Argonne National Laboratory (University of Chicago)

Battelle Memorial Institute
Brookhaven National Laboratory (Associated Universities, Inc.)
Hanford Works (General Electric Company)
Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory (General Electric Company)
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (University of California)
Mound Laboratory (Monsanto Chemical Company)
National Reactor Test Station (Phillips Petroleum Company)
North American Aviation, Inc.
Nuclear Development Associates
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Carbide and Carbon Chemicals
Company)
Savannah River Laboratory (E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.)
University of California Radiation Laboratory
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
 THE REACTOR HANDBOOK

VOLUME 2 ENGINEERING

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DECLASSIFIED EDITION
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. . . 2 Published by . º,
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Contributors to the first edition:

ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY BATTELLE MEMORIAL INSTITUTE

BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY

KNOLLS ATOMIC POWER LABORATORY NORTH AMERICAN AVIATION, INC.

NUCLEAR DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATES

OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY VITRO CORPORATION OF AMERICA

 Reviewed on behalf of the Atomic Energy Commission by a
Review Board consisting of:

HARVEY BROOKS S. LAWROSKI

Harvard University Argonne National Laboratory

P. F. GAST M. C. LEVERETT
Nucleonics Division ANP Project
General Electric Company General Electric Company

J. P. HOWE W. H. ZINN, Chairman

North American Aviation, Inc. Argonne National Laboratory

Program managed on behalf of the Division of Reactor

Development and the Technical Information Service by:

D. F. MASTICK
Division of Military Application*

Coordination and editing by:

J. F. HOGERTON and R. C. GRASS
Vitro Corporation of America

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office

Washington 25, D. C. - Price $5.50 (Paper cover)

•Present address General Precision Equipment Corporation.

ii
 FOREWORD

With the rapid maturity of reactor technology and its growing application
to industrial power reactors, there has developed an urgent need for a com
prehensive and critical compilation of nuclear engineering data. At the re
quest of Dr. L. R. Hafstad, Director of Reactor Development, and in accord
with an over-all program for the organization and consolidation of AEC
developed technical information, the Commission’s Technical Information
Service has issued this Reactor Handbook for convenient reference use by
scientists and engineers engaged on AEC reactor projects.
The material presented in this first edition of the Handbook represents
the efforts of specialists in the various areas of reactor science and tech
nology, and summarizes the accomplishments of the Commission's nuclear
reactor program to date. Future editions are planned as continuing advances
in this field may require.
The Commission extends its appreciation to all participants in the Re
actor Program for the time and effort expended in the completion of this
Handbook.

Lewis L. Strauss
Chairman
United States Atomic Energy Commission

iii
 REVIEW BOARD PREFACE

The Review Board was appointed by the Director of the Reactor Devel
opment Division in December of 1951. The Board found itself in agreement
with the objective of preparing a reactor handbook at an early date, although
it was recognized that this placed the effort under a considerable handicap as
did the necessity of combining the efforts of numerous author groups.
The Board instituted a mechanism for review of the material as pre
pared by the author groups. In the work of review the members of the Board
called upon many individuals in the various Laboratories for critical com
ments. Without this assistance the review could not have been performed in
the two or three weeks usually available, and the members of the Board ex
press their indebtedness and thanks to these reviewers.
The general format of the Handbook received consideration and the re
sult is recognized as a compromise of what is most desirable in a handbook
and what is practical under the present circumstances.
The ultimate success of the Handbook will depend a great deal upon the
refinements in subject matter and presentation which will come about in sub
sequent revisions. It is expected that such revisions will profit enormously
from suggestions from the users of the Handbook.
To the Editorial Coordinator, John F. Hogerton, to Donald F. Mastick
who represented the Technical Information Service, and to William W. Gal
breath who served as secretary, the Board expresses its appreciation for a
cordial working relationship. Above all, thanks are due to the various author
groups who made the task of review easier by their patience in receiving
criticism and suggestions.

THE REVIEW BOARD

Harvey Brooks Stephen Lawroski

Paul F. Gast Miles C. Leverett
John P. Howe W. H. Zinn, Chairman
！ ！！ ！! ••• ！ā === = == ~ ~ ~ ！
 EDITORIAL PREFACE

The purpose of the Reactor Handbook is to provide a condensed source of

reliable data and reference information for those working in the reactor field.
Work on this first edition, jointly sponsored by the Division of Reactor Devel
opment and the Technical Information Service, started in January 1952, with
a fifteen-month publishing target. The authors, most of whom had heavy proj
ect commitments, had one month in which to plan their work, and three months
to a year in which to survey the field and prepare their compilation. Those
preparing large sections were called upon to submit their material in parts
and were allowed on the average of one month for reworking a given part after
review. The Review Board had the difficult task of reviewing the Handbook
material in random increments, with two to three weeks in which to review a
given increment. The schedule did not permit a second review following the
author’s reworking. The editors had from one to three weeks in which to pre
pare Handbook material for the publisher. To distribute the publisher’s load
at Oak Ridge, parts of sections were put into the publishing machinery while
other parts were still in preparation by the authors.
To meet the schedule, it was necessary to make certain compromises
which should be noted here:

1. A somewhat arbitrary approach has necessarily been taken on the problem of

coverage, not only with respect to the subjects treated but also the data presented on a
given subject. Before using a particular section for the first time, the reader should
consult the author's preface which brings out any major limitations in the scope or
treatment of the data presented.
2. The policy was adopted early in the program not to attempt a detailed docu
mentation of the source of the data presented. Some specific references are given;
however, source identification is restricted primarily to tables or figures which have
been taken intact from project reports or the open literature.
3. It has not been possible to achieve the consistency one would like in the use
of units. In general, the metric system is used where the data are considered to be of
interest primarily to “scientists,” and the English system is used where the data are
considered to be of interest primarily to “engineers.” An attempt has been made to
include conversion factors in the body of tables and charts, and in some cases data are
expressed in dual units.
4. To simplify page make-up and printing problems, the decision was made
early in the program to eliminate the background grid from graphs. Data were to have
been presented in tabular form in cases where it was considered important to retain
accurate values. In actual practice some graphs have been reproduced with grid and it
is felt that this practice can and should be extended in the next edition of the Handbook.
In the present edition of the Handbook, each volume is indexed sepa
rately. The organization is the same throughout. Sections are numbered
consecutively within a volume; chapters consecutively within a section; and
figures, tables, and formulae consecutively within a chapter.

vii
viii EDITORIAL PREFACE

The first edition combines elements of a “Handbook of Chemistry and

Physics,” a Marks’ “Mechanical Engineer’s Handbook,” a Mellor’s “Treatise
on Inorganic Chemistry,” and an industrial data book. This result is in some
degree inherent in a work that cuts across a number of scientific and engi
neering disciplines; however, greater unity of presentation should be possi
ble in future editions.
The editors are most appreciative of the attention their problems have
received from the Review Board and the author groups, and from Alberto F.
Thompson and Donald F. Mastick of the AEC staff. They are most apprecia
tive, also, of the cooperation of William W. Galbreath of ANL, W. H. Sullivan
of ORNL and Dennis Puleston of BNL, who did much to advance the Handbook
effort at their respective sites, and of R. L. Cummins, E. C. Schulte, and their
publishing personnel in the Technical Information Service at Oak Ridge.

John F. Hogerton and Robert C. Grass

VITRO CORPORATION OF AMERICA

A NOTE ON PREPARATION OF THE DECLASSIFIED EDITION

This declassified edition of the Reactor Handbook has been issued not
only as a convenience to workers in the reactor field but also to help acquaint
science and industry generally with techniques, processes and equipment which
may find wider application.
In preparing the volumes of the declassified edition, deletions were made
in the classified volumes according to security requirements. The remaining
material was then assembled with the minimum editorial attention necessary
for coherent presentation. Since this procedure has not, in general, provided
for bringing the data up to date, users of these declassified volumes should
consult section prefaces to determine how old the data is in each section.

TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE

 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 2-ENGINEERING

SECTION 1 - LIGHT - AND HEAVY-WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Authors’ Preface
Chapter 1.1 General Reactor Characteristics
1.2 Heat Dissipation and Thermal Cycles
1.3 Physical and Thermodynamic Properties
of Light and Heavy Water
1.4 Heat Transfer
1.5 Hydrodynamics
1.6 Spatial Distribution of Heat Generation
1.7 Steady-state Heat Removal
1.8 Transient Generation and Removal of Heat
1.9 Thermal-stress Analysis
1.10 Water Decomposition
1.11 Corrosion
1.12 Calculation of Water Activity
1.13 Fuel-element Design

SECTION 2 – LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS 245

Authors’ Preface 247

Chapter 2.1 Liquid-metal Coolants for Nuclear Reactors 249
2.2 Properties of Liquid Metal Coolants 253
2.3 Heat-transfer Correlations for Liquid Metals 277
2.4 Handling of Liquid-metal Coolants 287
2.5 Reactor Cooling and Power Conversion Cycles 311
2.6 Mechanical Components and Design Considerations 321
2.7 Design and Construction of External
Heat-transfer System 337

SECTION 3 - GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS 367

Authors’ Preface 369

Chapter 3.1 General Reactor Characteristics 371
3.2 Thermal Cycles 375
3.3 Properties of Gas Coolants 381
3.4 Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow for Gases 409
3.5 Fuel Elements 451
3.6 Circulating Systems 461
3.7 Economic Comparison of Gas Coolants 477
3.8 Radioactivity in Coolants 483
x CONTENTS

SECTION 4 - AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS 503

Authors’ Preface 505

Chapter 4.1 General Reactor Characteristics 507
4.2. Neutron Chain Reactions in Aqueous
Homogeneous Systems 511
4.3 Properties of Aqueous Solution Systems 555
4.4 Properties of Aqueous Slurry Systems 659
4.5 Properties of Aqueous Moderators 673
4.6 Nuclear Design Data 679
4.7 Engineering Design Information 691

SECTION 5 – LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS 74.1

Author’s Preface 743

Chapter 5.1 General Reactor Characteristics 745
5.2 Composition and Properties of Liquid Metal Fuels 749
5.3 Engineering Design 771

SECTION 6 - FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS 799

Author’s Preface - 801

Chapter 6.1 General Reactor Characteristics 803

6.2 Composition of Fused-salt Systems 809

6.3 Properties of Fused-salt Systems 835

SECTION 7 - HANDLING AND CONTROL 851

Authors’ Preface 853

Chapter 7.1 Remote Handling 855
7.2 Remote Viewing 875
7.3 Hot Laboratories 909
7.4 Nuclear Reactor Instrumentation and Control 925

SECTION 8 - REACTOR DESIGNS 983

Author’s Preface 985

Chapter 8.1 Introduction 987
8.2 Graphite-moderated Heterogeneous Reactors 991
8.3 Beryllium-oxide-moderated Heterogeneous Reactors 1001
8.4 Light-water-moderated Heterogeneous Reactors 1005
8.5 Heavy-water-moderated Heterogeneous Reactors 1015
8.6 Miscellaneous Heterogeneous Reactors 1021
8.7 Unmoderated Heterogeneous Reactors 1023
8.8 Graphite-moderated Homogeneous Reactors 1029
8.9 Light-water-moderated Homogeneous Reactors 1033

APPENDIX 1039

INDEX 1049
 Section l

LIGHT - AND HEAVY-WATER-COO LED SYSTEMS

Prepared by
REACTOR ENGINEERING DIVISION

ARG ONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY

 AUTHORS’ PREFACE

Considerable experience has been gained during the past ten years in the design and
operation of reactors for service at slightly elevated temperatures. More recently many
designs have been directed toward higher water temperatures.
This section contains much information applicable to the engineering of high-tempera
ture reactors; in addition it contains pertinent engineering information on water-cooled
reactors. Primary emphasis is placed on problems of heat transfer; conventional formulae
and correlations for water, as well as discussions of two-phase flow, are presented in a
form found useful by this author group. Discussions of the spatial distribution of heat
generation are included (1) to characterize the power distribution found in these reactors,
(2) to point out factors affecting the power distribution, (3) to present the usual methods
used in computing distribution, and (4) to list design procedures followed to give optimum
distributions. Methods of analyzing transient effects, both nuclear and thermodynamic,
are included for simple cases.
Problems of thermal stress, water decomposition, and corrosion are discussed; formu
lae and data useful in reactor design are given. Typical fuel-element designs and a method
of calculating water activity are included.
The author group recognized during the early stages of preparation that much of the
available information was not readily amenable to a handbook style of presentation. In ad
dition, the difficulties of organizing the many variables in reactor engineering into a con
cise but comprehensive formulation made some departure from usual handbook style nec
essary. Consequently, much of the information is presented in the form of general dis
cussions or general design procedures, rather than as tabulated data or formulae.
The cutoff date for completion of data in this Section was July 1952. In some instances,
however, additional data through February 1953 were included.
Individual chapters were prepared by and are the prime responsibility of the authors
listed under each chapter heading. Over-all technical guidance was under the direction of
A. Amorosi, J. R. Dietrich, H. Etherington, W. W. Galbreath, Jr., W. C. Gumprich, A. S.
Jameson, and J. M. West.
Many members of the Reactor Engineering Division and the staff of Argonne National
Laboratory have contributed in the preparation of this section; their help is gratefully
acknowledged.
The help of the following people in obtaining and forwarding data on rather short notice
or in reviewing the chapters aided greatly in the preparation of this section: W. L. Sibbitt,
Purdue University, Chapter 1.3; H. S. Isben, University of Minnesota, Chapters 1.4 and
1.5; S. Krasik, Westinghouse Atomic Power Division and Paul H. Reinker, General Elec
tric, Hanford Works, Chapter 1.6; D. J. DePaul, K. M. Goldman, A. Squire, and D. E.
Thomas, Westinghouse Atomic Power Division, Chapter 1.11.

For the Reactor Engineering Author Group

H. Etherington*
W. W. Galbreath, Jr.f

*Present address, American Car & Foundry Industries, Inc., New York, N. Y.
fPresent address, Vitro Engineering Division, New York, N. Y.
 CHAPTER 1.]

Gene ral Reactor Characteristics

H. Etherington

Two general types of water-cooled reactors have been developed and are in operation or
under construction: in the first, water is used as both coolant and moderator; in the sec
ond, water is used primarily as the coolant, and graphite serves as the moderator (Hanford
production reactors). A distinction is made in the first type between lumped reactors, in
which natural or slightly enriched uranium is placed on lattice points, and reactors (here
called quasi-homogeneous reactors) in which the coolant-moderator is rather uniformly
interdispersed between fuel elements. Other types of reactors operating with boiling or at
supercritical temperatures and pressures are being studied, but insufficient information is
available for comprehensive treatment.
Both light and heavy water have good heat-transfer properties. The combination of high
specific heat and good heat-transfer rates at design conditions make water a satisfactory
heat-transfer media for thermal reactors. The specific heat of light water ranges from
1.0 to about 1.2 Btu/(1b)(*F) from 32° to 500°F; the specific heat of heavy water is slightly
higher (about 1 percent) over the range 50° to 120°F. Heat-transfer coefficients (h) up to
10,000 Btu/ſhr)(sq ft)(*F) are obtained with liquid water. Heat-transfer coefficients for
heavy water calculated for the same mass velocity are about 10 percent higher.
The choice between light water and heavy water as a coolant-moderator is based pri
marily on physics and economic considerations rather than on heat transfer. Both are ef
ſective moderators. Light water is more effective in slowing down fast neutrons (i.e., it
has a shorter slowing-down length), but it also has a much higher neutron absorption cross
section. Heavy water is therefore more advantageous as a moderator where a very low
thermal absorption cross section is of great importance, e.g., in natural-uranium reactors
where neutron economy is important from the plutonium production standpoint (Savannah
River Reactors) and in research reactors (CP-5) where it is desirable to produce a reac
tor of reasonably large size with very low critical mass to achieve a high ratio of thermal
neutron flux to total power generation. Light-water moderation would be advantageous
where very small reactors are desired or where there are strong limitations on the mass
of water which may be contained in the reactor, e.g., water-cooled reactors which operate
above the critical temperature. In general, if the application is one for which either light
water or heavy-water moderation is feasible, the superior nuclear performance of heavy
water must be balanced against its higher cost. Clearly, the low absorption cross section
of heavy water constitutes no particular advantage in reactors that contain high-cross
section materials, e.g., a highly enriched power reactor utilizing fuel elements clad with
stainless steel. It has not been found possible to design light-water-moderated, natural
uranium reactors with sufficiently high reactivity to be of practical interest. In uranium
plutonium converter reactors, the choice between light- and heavy-water moderation de
pends upon an economic balance of the cost of enriching the uranium if light water is used
vs the cost of heavy water, itself
WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS CHAP. 1.1

A simple comparison of light water and heavy water as coolant-moderator is made in

the following generalization in which an idealized core is assumed with a given coolant
moderator/metal ratio utilizing the same constructional materials: Light water, by virtue
of its large scattering cross section and relatively small leakage, reduces the amount of
uranium necessary for criticality in small-radii, enriched reactors. This permits design
ing smaller reactors of the quasi-homogeneous type. On the other hand, as the size of the
reactor is increased and the neutron leakage is correspondingly reduced, the critical mass
of the D2O reactor becomes less than that of the H2O reactor.
The general advantages of water-cooled reactors are:
(1) The use of water as a moderator permits the use of non-moderating construction
materials.
(2) The non-combustibility of water reduces handling problems.
(3) Water has good heat-transfer properties.
(4) Light water is cheap and readily available.
(5) Reactors moderated and cooled by heavy water have a negative temperature coeffi
cient.
(6) Water-moderated reactors can be designed to have large negative temperature co
efficients.
(7) Radiation damage to water is relatively unimportant.
(8) Water presents no freezing problems at normal temperatures.
(9) Water is relatively easy to pump.
(10) Water offers some lubrication.
(11) Water offers the possibility of direct steam-generation in a boiling reactor.
(12) Water technology is generally well known.
The general limitations for water reactors are:
(1) Water corrodes uranium at low temperature and reacts vigorously with it at ele
vated temperature.
(2) It is necessary to select materials that have adequate corrosion resistance at oper
ating temperatures.
(3) Pressurizing is necessary if the liquid phase is required above .212°F, and the criti
cal temperature must not be exceeded.
(4) The primary coolant circuit must be shielded to prevent activity produced by neu
tron reaction with oxygen.
(5) Water may react with clad or constructional materials at very high temperatures.
(6) The initial cost of heavy water and the economic necessity of reducing leakage and
loss of heavy water to a minimum.
The over-all reactor design is a balance between many factors, some of which are dis
cussed in the following chapters. Perhaps the most important, however, is the interrela
tion between good engineering design, the most advantageous utilization of fuel material,
the cost and availability of fuel, and the cost of reprocessing spent fuel. Some of these fac
tors, such as data on the cost and availability of fuels, are not included because of the ob
vious relationship with production figures; no attempt has thus been made to integrate
these various factors. It is apparent, however, that, over and above the particular design
of the machine, good reactor design must consider the feed material available, the cost of
preparing the fuel into suitable elements, the cost of construction and operation of the re
actor, the cost of reprocessing spent fuel, and the amount of strategic material held up
during the various processes. A critical evaluation of the success of the operation and per
formance of a reactor must include the cost and supply of fuel material.
 CHAPTER 1.2

He at Dissipation and Thermal Cycles

E. K. Falls

Thermal energy generated in existing low-temperature water-cooled reactors, both pro

duction and research types, is dissipated to air or river water because the temperatures
are too low for production of power. Reactors that heat the coolant to a temperature suffi
ciently above ambient temperature are able, if they can be operated in combination with ap
propriate thermodynamic cycles, to produce useful power. Although external heat dissipa
tion can be accomplished in various ways, the manner in which the primary coolant ab
sorbs the heat generated within the core is independent of the external systems. Accord
ingly, the problem of removing heat from the core is considered separately from that of
disposing of or using the thermal energy. The power cycle is considered as a special ap
plication of heat dissipation.

HEAT REMOVAL FROM REACTOR

From heat-transfer considerations only, several water-cooling methods are available

for removing thermal energy from the heat-generation section (core) of reactors, namely,
(1) by sensible heat gain, (2) by boiling, and (3) by supercritical evaporation.

SENSIBLE HEAT GAIN

This water-cooling method utilizes an increase in temperature of the liquid coolant to

remove the thermal energy generated within the core. The maximum permissible tempera
ture of the water leaving the core is less than the saturation temperature corresponding to
the absolute pressure of the primary-coolant system. Core cooling by sensible heat gain is
a characteristic of the NRX, MTR, CP-3; STR, and Hanford water-cooled reactors. The
method may utilize heavy or light water, forced or natural circulation, and atmospheric or
pressurized systems.

BOILING

Compared with water-cooling by sensible heat gain, the two-phase boiling method offers,
except in the region at and near the critical pressure, the advantages of higher heat-absorp
tion rates per unit mass of cooling water and a lower circulation rate. Either natural or
forced convection appears feasible. The use of forced circulation will provide closer con
trol over the fluid-film temperature difference than can be obtained with natural convection
but will of course require circulation pumps.
TSteam generated in the core is separated from liquid water in the space above the core
and can be disposed of in several ways: (1) condensation in an upper section of the reactor
pressure vessel by an evaporative type of heat exchanger (shielded from the core) which
evaporates water in a secondary-coolant circuit; (2) condensation in an external condenser
which thus eliminates the need for shielding; and (3) utilization in a steam turbine as the
thermodynamic fluid.
CHAP. 1.2 WATER-COOLED REACTORS

SUPERCRITICAL PRESSURE

Boiling-water reactors, owing to the large density changes accompanying evaporation,

involve nuclear problems not encountered with reactors cooled by heating a liquid. To ob
viate these problems, reactors may be designed to operate at supercritical pressures and
are therefore subject only to temperature changes of density.

HEAT DISSIPATION

ATMOSPHERIC OR LOW-PRESSURE SYSTEMS

At installations where the water supply is of high purity, the coolant may be pumped di
rectly from the source, usually a river, through the reactor or heat exchanger, and dis
charged into the river downstream of the intake. Cooling water supplies that contain sus
pended solids can be clarified by the use of settling basins alone or in conjunction with co
agulants. If the activity of the effluent is above accepted tolerance levels, retention basins
must be provided to permit radioactive decay.
Elimination of all radioactive contamination from the effluent of a reactor installation
requires an intermediate heat transfer; this can be accomplished in a closed-cycle primary
system. Final dissipation of heat to the surroundings could then be accomplished with a
water-to-air or water-to-water surface-type heat exchanger. Both heavy and light water
reactor-coolants are used with this system. If it were not for losses by leakage followed
by evaporation and release of radioactivity, a contact type of heat exchanger (such as a
cooling tower) could be used to dissipate heat directly from the reactor coolant.
Light water in a secondary-coolant system can be utilized to dissipate the thermal en
ergy (1) directly to the air by circulation through a cooling tower or (2) by an open cycle
with no recirculation.

PRESSURIZED SYSTEMS WITH STEAM GENERATION

Regardless of the manner in which steam is generated when it is used in a turbine, a por
tion of the thermal energy of the steam is converted into mechanical energy in the turbine,
and the remainder is rejected in the condenser and dissipated to the surroundings. Typical
steam-generation installations are illustrated by the schematic line diagrams below.
A two-fluid coolant system with forced circulation of liquid primary coolant is illustrated
by Fig. 1.2.1. An external heat exchanger is used to partially evaporate the secondary
coolant. Steam separation occurs in the steam drum.
Two natural-circulation boiling-type reactors are illustrated by Fig. 1.2.2, which has an
external heat exchanger, and Fig. 1.2.3, which has an internal heat exchanger. The condens
ing coil of Fig. 1.2.3 must be shielded from neutron activity which originates in the core.
Both installations use a steam drum for steam separation in the secondary system.
Figure 1.2.4 illustrates a flooded-pressure-vessel, boiling, primary-coolant system with
forced circulation and external steam space. The secondary-coolant system is similar to
that of the two preceding illustrations.
Elimination of the temperature difference between the primary and secondary coolants in
the water-to-water heat exchanger represents a thermodynamic gain. This can be accom
plished by using the reactor coolant as the thermodynamic fluid. Dry steam (Fig. 1.2.5) is
supplied directly to the turbine from the steam space of the reactor pressure vessel. The
external part of the system is similar to typical steam plants except for problems of shield
ing and elimination of leakage.
HEAT DISSIPATION AND THERMAL CYCLES CHAP. 1.2

TO SEPARATOR
--

VAPOR [T AND TURBINE

STEAM
L|QUID DRUM
-º-

EXCHANGER Ll QUID
REACTOR

LIQUID
--

CIRCULATING
PUMP

Fig. 1.2.1— Forced Circulation of Liquid Primary Coolant External Heat Ex

changer. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, Dec. 15, 1952.

TO SEPARATOR
--

| AND TURB | NE

STEAM
DRUM

LIQUID |- -

LEVEL CONDENSER

REACTOR

Fig. 1.2.2— Natural-circulation, Boiling, Primary Coolant with External

Evaporative Condenser. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, Dec. 15,
1952.
CHAP. 1.2 WATER-COOLED REACTORS

TO SEPARATOR
--

AND TURBINE
CONDENSING
COIL STEAM
DRUM
--

REACTOR

Fig. 1.2.3— Boiling Primary Coolant with Internal Evaporative Condenser.

Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, Dec. 15, 1952.

TO SEPARATOR
--

-- ſ AND TURBINE

/T STEAM
DRUM

REACTOR
HEAT
ExCHANGER

--

cº
CIRCULATION
--

PUMP

Fig. 1.2.4— Forced-circulation, Mixed-flow, Reactor Cooling with External

Separation of Primary Coolant and Separate Evaporative Condenser. Submitted
by Argonne National Laboratory, Dec. 15, 1952.

10
HEAT DISSIPATION AND THERMAL CYCLES CHAP. 1.2

TURBINE

GENERATOR

CONDENSER
REACTOR

BOILER FEED PUMP

Fig. 1.2.5- Rankine Thermodynamic Cycle with Heat Exchanger Replaced by

Reactor. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, Dec. 15, 1952.

STEAM CYCLES

Until the advent of regeneration and reheat practices, the Rankine cycle was considered
the basic comparison for steam plants. This cycle consists of two is entropic work proc
esses and two constant-pressure heat processes. The first work process increases the
pressure on the fluid to that of the steam generator. The second process, that of constant
pressure heat addition, includes the sensible heat gain of the liquid, the latent heat, and (if
used) the superheat of the vapor. The third process, isentropic expansion converts the
available thermal energy into external work. The last process, rejects the unavailable
thermal energy at constant pressure to a condenser. A discussion of the individual proc
esses follows.

COMPRESSION PROCESS

The compression (pump) process increases the pressure on the liquid from atmospheric
(or that pressure existing within the condenser) to the pressure within the steam generator.
It may be accomplished in one step if feedwater is not heated, or in several steps as is
common with the regenerative cycle.
The work input of the pumping process is obtained from the gross work output of the ex
pansion process.

HEAT-ADDITION PROCESS

The heat-addition process of the several steam cycles includes the sensible heat gain of
the liquid, evaporation of the liquid, and (if used) initial superheating of the steam. The
sensible heat gain of the Rankine cycle process increases the liquid temperature to that of
saturation; the thermal energy is supplied entirely by the heat source.
The modern central-station steam plant operates (1) on a regenerative steam cycle if the
steam pressure is moderate or (2) on a regenerative-reheat steam cycle if the pressure is
high (this assumes that initial superheat alone is insufficient to prevent a low-quality steam
at the last stage of the turbine). In practice, steam withdrawn from the turbine at predeter
mined pressures serves as the heat source for the feedwater heaters.

11
CHAP. 1.2 WATER-COOLED REACTORS

EXPANSION PROCESS

The conversion from thermal energy to external work occurs during the expansion proc
ess. (Of the gross output of the turbine or engine, a portion is required to operate the
auxiliary equipment). A Rankine cycle expansion process expands all the steam supplied at
the turbine throttle from boiler pressure down to condenser pressure. With regard to the º
regenerative cycle, at each stage of extraction a portion of the initial supply to the turbine 7.
is removed from the turbine.
From practical considerations, the expansion process within the steam turbine is subject
to limitations imposed upon the terminal state of the steam; the final temperature and
pressure are established by the condenser, and the quality of the steam at the last row of tur
bine blades must be sufficiently high to prevent erosion of the blades; (a minimum of 86
to 90 percent should be maintained). These two limitations fix the state of the steam at the
last turbine stage.
When initial superheating is used, it is not usually possible to maintain the minimum
quality at the last turbine stage for straight-through expansion of steam initially at a high
pressure. Proper operation is obtained, however, by removal of steam from the turbine at
an intermediate pressure followed by drying and superheating (reheating) and reintroduc
tion into the expansion process.

HEAT-REJECTION PROCESS

Only a part of the thermal energy added to the water and steam is utilized in a steam
cycle. The heat-rejection process discards the remainder from the system. If a closed
cycle is used, the condenser serves this purpose and returns the fluid to its initial state.
Condenser operation is a function primarily of coolant temperature and good design. In
large condenser installations, the temperature of the cooling water may increase only 5° to
15°F with a temperature difference of 10° to 20°F between the condensing steam and the exit
cooling water.

PLANT EFFICIENCIES

Plant efficiencies based on the Rankine cycle will not be considered here as this cycle
has been largely displaced by the more efficient regenerative cycle. The ideal regenera
tive cycle assumes an infinite number of feedwater heaters; without superheating of the
steam, it has the same thermal efficiency as a Carnot cycle operating between the same
temperature limits. Although in practice, a finite number of feedwater heaters plus super
heating is used, the ideal cycle serves as a basis for comparison. Efficiencies can be ob
tained from diagrams such as Fig. 1.2.6. Actual over-all plant efficiencies of representa
tive steam plants are considerably lower than those shown but reflect the inherently higher
efficiency of the regenerative cycle.
When the reactor and the cooling system of a nuclear-powered steam plant are consid—
ered simply as a source of heat and no allowance is made for the power required to control
and cool the reactor, the over-all efficiency is practically that of conventional plants that
operate on the same steam cycle. Allowance for the pumping requirements, however, de
creases the over-all efficiency of the unit. Separate computation of the steam-plant effi
ciency permits the pumping-power requirements for one or more types of reactor and
coolant system to be considered in combination with the steam plant.
A typical study which illustrates the effects of steam pressure, steam temperature, and
temperature rise of the coolant through the reactor is illustrated by Figs. 1.2.7 through
1.2.10. Until the temperature rise drops to approximately 20°F, which corresponds to a
relatively high circulation rate, the combined over-all efficiency of the reactor and steam
plant is affected only slightly by changes of the coolant water differential temperature.

12
HEAT DISSIPATION AND THERMAL CYCLES CHAP. 1.2

REACTOR APPLICATIONS

The feasibility and efficiency of a nuclear power plant are limited by the available tem
perature extremes. The lower temperature limit is the surrounding environment or the
temperature of the cooling water supplied to the condenser. The upper temperature limit
is set by stability of fuel elements, cladding, coolant, and other design limitations. The
over-all temperature difference is a summation of temperature differentials throughout the
system as shown in Fig. 1.2.11.
Inasmuch as a high over-all plant efficiency is desired, several conflicting factors must
be compromised to obtain an optimum design: (1) a high differential temperature is de
sirable across the steam system in order to obtain a high thermal efficiency for the sys
tem; (2) a high differential temperature is desirable across the primary coolant-system
elements; and (3) a large differential temperature across the heat exchanger keeps its size
and cost to a minimum.

85OO \ – 6OO*F

: N 700 °F

#. WN
ă N
; 7OOO S

6500 sSSS
Sis
O 500 | OOO 15OO 2OOO 25OO 3OOO

THROTTLE STEAM PRESSURE, psid

Fig. 1.2.6– Theoretical Regenerative Steam-cycle Heat Rates. Reprinted
from A. M. Selvey and P. H. Knowlton, Theoretical Regenerative Steam-cycle
Heat Rates, Trans. ASME 66, No. 6, Aug. 1944.
CHAP. 1.2 WATER-COOLED REACTORS

90

MOISTURE IN TURBINE

ExHAUST,”,

THROTTLE STEAM
TEMPERATURE, F T
L700
N sy
50
5C) | OO 2OO 3OO 40O 500 |OOO 2OOO 3OOO

THROTTLE STEAM PRESSURE, psig

Fig. 1.2.7— Reactor Heat Release vs Turbine Steam Conditions. Redrawn

from ORNL-133, 1948. Calculations based on reactor producing 70 x 10°kw with
50 Btu/lb heat rise. Steam leaving boiler must be 8 to 10% higher in pressure
and 1% higher in temperature than steam at turbine throttle.

14
HEAT DISSIPATION AND THERMAL CYCLES CHAP. 1.2

90

8O

4OO

S.

70 & 4.YS
|
500 § MOISTURE IN TURBINE
3. ExHAUST,”, |
6 OO /
6O 2

7OO
THROTTLE
STEAM

50 Fºresarumºr
|
5O |OO 2OO 3OO 40O 500 |OOO 2OOO 3OOO

THROTTLE STEAM PRESSURE, psig

Fig. 1.2.8— Reactor Heat Release vs Turbine Steam Conditions. Redrawn

from ORNL-133, 1948. Calculations based on reactor producing 70 x 10°kw
with 40 Btu/lb heat rise. Steam leaving boiler must be 8 to 10% higher in pres–
sure and 1% higher in temperature than steam at turbine throttle.

15
CHAP. 1.2 WATER-COOLED REACTORS

90
40O

8O

7O |

MOISTURE IN TURBINE |
ExHAUST,”,
60 O S |
N
6O
7OO SS
THRottle STEAM / N-T
TEMPERATURE,”F

5O |
50 | OO 2OO 3OO 4 OO 500 IOOO 2OOO 3OOO

THROTTLE STEAM PRESSURE, psig

Fig. 1.2.9—Reactor Heat Release vs Turbine Steam Conditions. Redrawn

from ORNL-133, 1948. Calculations based on reactor producing 70 x 10° kw
with 30 Btu/lb heat rise. Steam leaving boiler must be 8 to 10% higher in pres
sure and 1% higher in temperature than steam at turbine throttle.

16
HEAT DISSIPATION AND THERMAL CYCLES i CHAP. 1.2

I OO
4oo.W

|| \
. 8O
5 OO

6 OO

N
7O N MOISTURE IN TURBINE
N
7OO EXHAUST,”, |
2. S 2O
THROTTLE STEAM

6O
TEMPERATURE *F S
S
50 IOO 2OO 3OO 400 500 | OOO 2OOO 3OOO

THROTTLE STEAM PRESSURE, psig

Fig. 1.2.10—Reactor Heat Release vs Turbine Steam Conditions. Redrawn

from ORNL-133, 1948. Calculations based on reactor producing 70 x 10° kw
with 20 Btu/lb heat rise. Steam leaving boiler must be 8 to 10% higher in pres
sure and 1% higher in temperature than steam at turbine throttle.

17
CHAP. 1.2 \ WATER-COOLED REACTORS

16OO Z MAX. SURFACE TEMP

%66
º

14OO--

1200
º 56O >
º TEMP DIFF. BETMEEN SURFACE
AND WATER OUTLET TEMP, IN
HOTT EST CHANNEL

IOOO-ºs
%
* 54. O .4

%
% 5 2O WATER T E M P LEAVING REC CTOR

s
N
*500 N

N 480 -

N
> WATER T E MP, RISE IN REACTOR

N * 460

N
-N R840s
* J WATER TEMP ENTERING REACTOR

% AT - TEMP DIFF. BETWEEN WATER

3OO- %
*420,
LEAVING BOILE R AND TE M P STEAM
|N BOILE R DRUM

29% BOILER TEMP.

200
|- 380–

| 360

Fig. 1.2.11— Representative Temperature Distribution in a Reactor-heated

Power Cycle Showing Relationship with Pressure. Redrawn from ORNL-133,
1948.

18
HEAT DISSIPATION AND THERMAL CYCLES CHAP. 1.2

SELECTED READING LIST

THERMODYNAMICS, H. E. Obert, 1st ed, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1948.
STEAM POWER STATIONS, G. A. Gaffert, 3rd ed, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1946.
APPLIED ENERGY CONVERSION, B.G.A. Skrotzki and W. A. Vopat, 1st ed, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1945.
THEORETICAL REGENERATIVE-STEAM-CYCLE HEAT RATES, A. M. Selvey and P. H. Knowlton, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs. 66,
No. 6, Aug. 1944.
THE STEAM-TURBINE REGENERATIVE CYCLE-AN ANALYTICAL APPROACH, J. Kenneth Salisbury, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.
64, April, 1942, p 231.
THERMODYNAMICS, J. H. Keenan, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1941.

I9
 CHA PTER 1.3

Physical and Thermodynamic Properties

of Light and Heavy Water

P. A. Lottes

The properties of light and heavy liquid water and light-water vapor frequently used in
heat transfer calculations are presented in tabular and/or graphic form. Heavy-water
properties are available for relatively low temperatures only and are generally similar to
those of light water. For most engineering calculations concerning heavy water at higher
temperatures, the corresponding property of light water, with the exception of density, has
been used since data are not available above approximately 100°F.
The data are presented by individual property. Critical properties, constant-pressure
specific heat, thermal conductivity, dynamic viscosity, Prandtl number, density and latent
heat values are included when available; exception is made for the specific heat of light
water vapor and the latent heat of light liquid water because data presented in Keenan and
Keyes' are the best available. In general, tabular compilations of the physical and ther
modynamic properties for light and heavy liquid water are presented. Whenever possible,
a graphical comparison of these properties is included. Graphs of frequently used proper
ties of light-water vapor are included. Thermal conductivity data for heavy water are not
available; consequently, thermal conductivity and the Prandtl number calculation, which
includes the value of thermal conductivity, have been omitted.
A recent study by Wellman' presents a review of available data on the thermodynamic
and physical properties of light liquid water in the form of tables of values; the study in
cludes an evaluation of the accuracy of the values reported. These data were used in the
preparation of this chapter with the exception that graphical data for the density and vapor
pressure of light liquid water were taken from Keenan and Keyes."
The data of Kirshenbaum" for heavy water have been recalculated into units used pre
dominately in engineering heat transfer calculations.
Values for the properties of light-water vapor were provided by Sibbitt" from an evalua
tion currently being made by Purdue University.

‘References appear at end of chapter.

21
CHAP. 1.3 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.3.1—Critical Properties of Light Water

Critical temperature 705.40 °F

374.2 °C

Critical pressure 3206 psia

218.2 atm

Critical density 19.9 lb/cu ft

0.320 gm/ml

Table 1.3.2— Critical Properties of Heavy Water

Critical temperature 700.7 °F

371.5 °C

Critical pressure 3212 psia

218.6 atm

Critical density 22.7 lb/cu ft

0.363 gm/ml

Table 1.3.3—Constant-pressure Specific Heat (cp) of Liquid Light Water

(Conversion Factor: From Btu/(lb)(*F) to cal/(gm)(C) multiply by 1)

cp, Btu/(lb)("F)
Temperature, Saturated
Pressure, psia, compressed liquid
°F liquid 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

32 1.0083 1.0032 1.0004 0.9979 0.9948 0.992 0.989

40 1.0048 1.0014 0.9986 .9959 .9926 ..991 .988
50 1.0004 0.9991 .9963 .993.3 .9899 .987 .984
60 0.9990 .9968 .9939 .990.7 .9872 .984 .981
70 .9980 .9949 .9920 .9888 .9848 .982 .979
80 .99.75 .9943 ..9912 .9878 .9840 .981 .978
90 .99.74 .9938 .9904 .9871 .9832 .980 .977

100 .9976 .9932 .9897 .9864 .9824 .978 .975

110 .9976 .9932 .9895 .9860 .9819 .978 .974
120 .9977 .9934 .9895 .9858 .98.17 .978 .974
130 .9981 .993.7 .9896 .9856 .9814 .977 .973
140 .9988 .9940 .9897 .9854 .9811 .977 .973
150 .9996 .9950 .9905 .9861 .98.17 .978 .974
160 1.0004 .9959 .99.13 .98.68 .98.23 .978 .974
170 1.0012 .9969 .992.1 .9876 .9829 .978 .974
180 1.0022 .9980 .9931 .9885 .9836 .979 .975
190 1.0034 .9984 .99.45 .9896 .9847 .980 .975

200 1.004.7 1.0008 .9958 .9907 .9857 .981 .976

210 1.0061 1.0021 .9971 ..9919 .9868 .982 .977
212 1.0064 1.0024 .0974 .992.1 .9870 .982 .977
220 1.0079 1.0039 .9988 .9934 .9881 .983 .978
230 1.0097 1.0057 1.0005 .9951 .98.96 .985 .980
240 1.01.19 1.0075 1.0023 .9967 ..9910 .986 .981
250 1.0142 1.0095 1.0041 .9984 .99.25 .988 .983
260 1.0165 1.0117 1.0061 1.0003 .9943 .989 .984
270 1.019.1 1.0140 1.0082 1.0023 .9961 ..991 .986
280 1.0222 1.0163 1.0102 1.0042 .99.79 .993 .988
290 1.0255 1.0194 1-0131 1.0069 1.0005 .995 .989

22
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT AND HEAVY WATER CHAP. 1.3

Table 1.3.3—(Continued)

cp, Btu/(lb)("F)
Pressure, psia, compressed liquid
Temperature, Saturated
°F 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
liquid

300 1.0289 1.0232 1.0166 1.0101 1.0037 .998 .992

310 1.0322 1.0270 1.0200 1.0132 1.0068 1.001 .995
320 1.0354 1.0307 1.0235 1.0164 1.010 1.004 .998
330 1.0404 1.0353 1.0278 1.0205 1.014 1.008 1.002
340 1-0455 1.0399 1.0322 1.0246 1.017 1.011 1.005
350 1.0511 1.0445 1.0365 1.0287 1.021 1.014 1.008
360 1.0564 1.0496 1.0411 1.0331 1.025 1.018 1.012
370 1.0614 1.0553 1.0461 1.0377 1.029 1.021 1.014
380 1.0669 1.0611 1.0510 1.0424 1.034 1.026 1.019
390 1.0728 1.0668 1.0560 1.0471 1.038 1.030 1.022

400 1.0794 1.074 1.062 1.053 1.043 1.035 1.027

410 1.0861 1.080 1.068 1.059 1.048 1.040 1.032
420 1.0941 1.087 1.075 1.065 1.053 1.045 1.037
430 1.1023 1.095 1.082 1.072 1.059 1.051 1.043
440 1.1114 1.105 1.091 1.079 1.066 1.057 1.048
450 1.1212 1.114 1.100 1.087 1.074 1.065 1.056
460 1.1319 1.124 1.109 1.095 1.081 1.071 1.061
470 1.1431 1.136 1.120 1.104 1.090 1.079 1.068
480 1.1545 1.149 1.131 1.114 1.099 1.087 1.075
490 1.1698 1.163 1.143 1.125 1.109 1.095 1.082

1.1861 1.176 1.154 1.135 1.118 1.102 1.088

510 1.21 1.19 1.171 1.551 1.132 1.115 1.100
520 1.23 1.21 1.188 1.166 1.146 1.127 1.110
1.25 1.23 1.205 1.182 1.160 1.139 1.121
1.28 1.225 1.199 1.175 1.152 1.132
1.31 1.252 1.218 1.192 1.168 1.147
1.34 1.278 1.238 1.209 1.182 1.158
1.37 1.304 1.257 1.227 1.198 1.172
1.41 1.341 1.283 1.246 1.216 1.189
1.46 1.382 1.310 1.265 1.230 1.200

1.51 1.448 1.346 1.290 1.25 1.21

1.58 1.52 1.385 1.317 1.27 1.23
1.65 1.62 1.441 1.352 1.29 1.25
1.71 1.509 1.392 1.32 1.27
1.88 1.597 1.442 1.36 1.31
2.09 1.701 1.505 1.40 1.34
2.34 1.817 1.576 1.43 1.36
2.84 2.14
3.5 2.56
5.5

Accuracy for indicated temperature range, 9%

32-100 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.1
100-200 .2 .4 .8 0.6
200-300
300-400
400–500
.2
.3
.3
.4
.5
.5
.8
.9
.9
:
1.5
500–530 1.0
530-600
600-620
620–660
660-680
690 5.0
1.0 .7
7
1. 5
1.0
1.0
3.5
4.0
-

- i 1.5
1.5
1.5

23
CHAP. 1.3 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.3.4—Specific Heat (cp) of Liquid Heavy Water at 1 Atmº.

(Conversion Factor: From Btu/(lb)("F) to cal/(gm)(C) multiply by 1)

Temperature
°C °F Cp, Btu/(lb)(*F)

10 50 1.009
15 59 1.008
20 68 1.006
25 77 1.005
30 86 1.005
35 95 1.004

*Accuracy: +3.5%

Table 1.3.5—Thermal Conductivity (k) of Light Liquid Water

(Conversion Factor: From Btu/(hr)(ft)("F) to cal/(sec)(cm)(°C) multiply by 0.00413379)

k, Btu/(hr)(ft)(*F)
i
Temperature, Saturated Pressure, psia, compressed liquid
•F liquid 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

32 0.3185 0.3198 0.3211 0.3227 0.3246 0.3266 0.3286

40 .3245 .3260 .3275 .3294 .3314 .3335 .3358

50 .3319 .3337 .3356 .3377 .3398 .3422 .3447

60 .3397 .3414 .3433 .3454 .3476 .3500 .3528
70 .3472 .3487 .3508 .3530 .3551 .3576 .3604

80 .3532 .3537 .3570 .3590 .3616 .3640 .3665

90 .3589 .3608 .3629 .3651 .3676 .3700 .3723

100 .3641 .3659 .3680 .3703 .3727 .3751 .3777

110 .3689 .3707 .3727 .3760 .3773 .3797 .3822

120 .3733 .3751 .3771 .3792 .3815 .3839 .3862

130 .3772 .3790 .3810 .3831 .3853 .3877 .3900

140 .3810 .3828 .3847 .3868 .3891 .3914 .3938

150 .3836 .3855 .3875 .3897 .3920 .3944 .3968

160 .3861 .3880 .3902 .3924 .3948 .3973 .3997

170 .3884 .3903 .3925 .3947 .3971 .3996 .4020

180 .3905 .3924 .3945 .3968 .3992 .4017 .4041
190 .3923 .3942 .3964 .3986 .4010 .4034 .4059

200 .3935 .3957 .3980 .4003 .4027 .4051 .4074

210 .3943 .3970 .3995 .4017 .4044 .4067 .4088
212 .3944 .3972 .3998 .4020 .4047 .4070 .4091

220 .3950 .3977 .4003 .4028 .4055 .4079 .4103

230 .3957 .3983 .4010 .4037 .4064 .4091 .4118

240 .3961 .3988 .4016 .4043 .4071 .4099 .4127

250 .3964 .3992 .4021 .4048 .4077 .4106 .4135

260 .3964 .3992 .4021 .4048 .4077 .4106 .4135
270 .3962 .3991 .4020 .4048 .4078 .4107 .4136

280 .3959 .3987 .4018 .4048 .4079 .4109 .4140

290 .3955 .3984 .4015 .4047 .4078 .4110 .4141

300 .3952 .3981 .4013 .4045 .4076 .4109 .4141

310 .3948 .3975 .4006 .4038 .4069 .4102 .4137

320 .3944 .3969 -3998 .4029 .4060 .4094 .4131

24
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT AND HEAVY WATER CHAP. 1.3

Table 1.3.5-(Continued)

k, Btu/(hr)(ft)(*F)
Pressure, psia, compressed liquid
Temperature, Saturated
•F liquid 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

330 0.3933 0.3958 0.3988 0.4019 0.4050 0.4084 0.4122

340 .3921 .3947 .3977 .4009 .4040 .4075 .4114

350 .3906 .3933 .3965 .3997 .4031 .4069 .4108

360 .3891 .3919 .3951 .3984 .4020 .4059 .4101

370 .3876 .3904 .3936 .3970 .4006 .4046 .4089

380 .3857 .3885 .3919 .3954 .3991 .4031 .4077

390 .3834 .3863 .3900 .3937 .3975 .4017 .4063

400 .3809 .3840 .3880 .3920 .3960 .4000 .4043

410 .3783 .3817 .3860 .3903 .3944 .3983 .4021

420 .3753 .3787 .3833 .3877 .3920 .3960 .3999

430 .3724 .3757 .3806 .3850 .3894 .3936 .3976

440 .3693 .3728 .3776 .3821 .3865 .3907 .3947

450 .3670 .3697 .3745 .3791 .3836 .3880 .3922

460 .3640 .3664 .3713 .3761 .3809 .3857 .3904

470 .3608 .3630 .3678 .3727 .3775 .3823 .3872

480 .3575 .3595 .3642 .3689 .3738 .3784 .3832

490 .3535 .3553 .3603 .3650 .3698 .3744 .3791

500 .3494 .3510 .3562 .3611 .3658 .3705 .3750

510 .3446 .3461 .3519 .3574 .3626 .3677 .3725
520 .3397 .3410 .3475 .3535 .3591 .3645 .3697
530 .3348 .3356 .3424 .3486 .3545 .3602 .3657
540 .3298 .3371 .3437 .3499 .3559 .3617
550 .3246 .3318 .3386 .3452 .3515 .3577
560 .3189 .3256 .3328 .3398 .3465 .3530
570 .3130 .3190 .3265 .3339 .3410 .3478
580 .3064 .3118 .3198 .3277 .3354 .3429
590 .2997 .3045 .3130 .3215 .3298 .3380

600 .2919 .2962 .3056 .3146 .3232 .3318

610 .2839 .2875 .2979 .3074 .3167 .3257
620 .2753 .2778 .2892 .2997 .3100 .3199
630 .2662 .2800 .2916 .3030 .3137
640 .2565 .2700 .2831 .2953 .3068
650 .2454 .2588 .2736 .2869 .2993
660 .2335 .2469 .2634 .2779 .2914
670 .2198 .2319 .2516 .2679 .2830
680 .2056 .2161 .2395 .2577 .2744
690 .1854 .2242 .2463 .2661

Accuracy for indicated temperature range, 3%

32-100 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2
100-200 .7 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2
200–300 .6 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2
300–400 .7 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2
400–500 1.7 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.5
500-530 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
530-600 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
600-680 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
690 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

25
CHAP. 1.3 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.3.6— Dynamic Viscosity (u) of Light Liquid Water

(Conversion Factor: From lb/(hr)(ft) to poises multiply by 0.004.13379)

Pl, lb/(hr)(ft)
Temper e, Satur P ressure,, psia,
psia, iqui
compressed liquid
•F liquid 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

32 4.340 4.309 4.279 4.248 4.218 4.187 4.157

40 3.742 3.721 3.699 3.677 3.656 3.643 3.613
50 3.169 3.154 3.140 3.126 3.111 3.097 3.082
60 2.731 2.722 2.714 2.705 2.696 2.688 2.679
70 2.372 2.369 2.365 2.361 2.357 2.354 2.350
80 2.084 2.084 2.083 2.083 2.082 2.082 2.081
90 1.847 1.848 1.850 1.851 1.853 1.854 1.855

100 1.650 1.654 1.658 1.663 1.667 1.671 1.675

110 1.487 1.492 1.498 1.503 1.509 1.514 1.519
120 1.353 1.360 1.366 1.373 1.380 1.387 1.394
130 1.236 1.244 1.252 1.259 1.267 1.275 1.283
140 1.137 1.145 1.154 1.162 1.170 1.179 1.187
150 1.050 1.059 1.068 1.077 1.086 1.095 1.103
160 0.970 0.979 0.988 0.997 1.006 1.015 1.024
170 .902 .912 .921 .930 0.939 0.949 0.958
180 .839 .849 .858 .868 .877 .887 .896
190 .786 .796 .806 .815 .825 .835 .845

200 .738 .748 .757 .767 .777 .787 .796

210 .702 .711 .721 .731 .740 .750 .760
212 .687 .697 .706 .716 .726 .735 .745
220 .660 .670 .680 .689 .699 .709 .718
230 .624 .633 .643 .652 .661 .671 .680
240 .595 .604 .614 .623 .632 .641 .650
250 .568 .578 .587 .596 .605 .614 .624
260 .542 .551 .560 .569 .578 .587 .596
270 .515 .524 .533 .541 .550 .559 .567
280 .494 .502 .511 .519 .528 .536 .545
290 .472 .480 .488 .496 .505 .513 .521

300 .452 .460 .468 .476 .484 .492 .500

310 .436 .442 .450 .459 .467 .475 .484
320 .420 .426 .433 .441 .449 .457 .464
330 .405 .411 .418 .426 .433 .440 .448
340 .391 .396 .404 .411 .418 .425 .432
350 .378 .384 .390 .396 .403 .407 .416
360 .366 .372 .378 .383 .390 .396 .401
370 .355 .361 .367 .372 .378 .384 .389
380 .346 .351 .356 .361 .366 .372 .377
390 .336 .340 .345 .350 .355 .360 .365

400 .327 .330 .335 .340 .345 .350 .355

410 .318 .321 .326 .331 .336 .340 .346
420 .310 .312 .317 .322 .327 .331 .336
430 .302 .304 .309 .313 .318 .322 .327
440 .294 .296 .301 .305 .310 .314 .319
450 .287 .289 .293 .298 .302 .306 .310
460 .280 .282 .286 .290 .294 .298 .302
470 .274 .276 .280 .284 .287 .291 .295
480 .267 .270 .273 .277 .280 .284 .288
490 .262 .263 .267 .270 .274 .278 .281

26
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT AND HEAVY WATER CHAP. 1.3

Table 1.3.6—(Continued)

M, lb/(hr)(ft)

Saturated
Pressure, psia, compressed liquid
Temperature,
•F liquid 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

500 0.256 0.257 0.260 0.2 64 0.267 .271 0.274

510 .251 .251 .255 .2 58 .262 .266 .269
520 .246 .246 .249 .2 53 .256 .260 .264
530 .240 .241 .244 .248 .251 .255 .259
540 .235 .239 .243 .247 .250 .254
550 .230 .235 .2 39 .243 .247 .250
560 .225 .231 .2 34 .238 .243 .246
570 .221 .226 .2 29 .234 .238 .242
580 .217 .222 .225 .230 .234 .239
590 .214 .217 .221 .226 .230 .235
600 .210 .212 .217 .222 .227 .233
610 .205 .207 .2 12 .218 .224 .230
620 .200 .202 .2 08 .214 .220 .226
630 .195 .2 02 .209 .216 .222
640 .190 .1 96 .203 .211 .218
650 .183 .1 89 .197 .206 .215
660 .177 •l 82 .192 .202 .212
670 .169 .1 74 .186 .198 .210
680 .161 .166 .180 .194 .208
690 -148 .172 .188 .203

Accuracy for indicated temperature range, 36

32–100 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 1.0 1.0
100–200 .7 .8 .8 .8 .8 1.0 1.0
200-300 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5
300–400 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.5
400–500 3.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 4.0 4.0
500–530 4.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 5.0 5.0
530-600 4.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 5.0 5.0
600-620 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 8.0 8.0
620-680 7.0 7.0 7.0 8.0 8.0
690 7.0 7.0 8.0 8.0

Table 1.3.7 – Dynamic Viscosity (u) of Heavy Liquid Water at 1 Atm”

Temperature A4

°C °F cp lb/(hr)(ft)

5 41 1.988 4.809
10 50 1.684 4.074
15 59 1.450 3.508
20 68 1.260 3.048
25 77 1.102 2.667
30 86 0.972 2.352
35 95 .863 2.089

* Accuracy: +0.5%

27
CHAP. 1.3 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.3.8—Prandtl Number (cru/k) for Light Liquid water

cru/k
Pressure, psia, compressed liquid
Temperature, Saturated
•F liquid 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

32 13.74 13.52 13.33 13.14 12.93 12.72 12.51

40 11.59 11.43 11.28 11.12 10.95 10.80 10.63
50 9.55 9.44 9.32 9.19 9.06 8.93 8.80
60 8.03 7.95 7.86 7.76 7.66 7.56 7.47
70 6.82 6.76 6.69 6.61 6.54 6.46 6.38
80 5.89 5.86 5.78 5.73 5.67 5.61 5.55
90 5.13 5.09 5.05 5.01 4.96 4.91 4.87

100 4.52 4.49 4.46 4.43 4.39 4.36 4.32

110 4.02 4.00 3.98 3.94 3.93 3.90 3.87
120 3.61 3.60 3.59 3.57 3.55 3.53 3.52
130 3.27 3.26 3.25 3.24 3.23 3.21 3.20
140 2.98 2.97 2.97 2.96 2.95 2.94 2.93
150 2.74 2.73 2.73 2.72 2.72 2.71 2.71
160 2.51 2.51 2.51 2.51 2.50 2.50 2.49
170 2.33 2.33 2.33 2.33 2.33 2.32 2.32
180 2.15 2.16 2.16 2.16 2.16 2.16 2.16
190 2.01 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.03 2.03 2.03

200 1.88 1.89 1.89 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.91

210 1.79 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.81 1.81 1.82
212 1.75 1.76 1.76 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.78
220 1.69 1.69 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.71 1.71
230 1.59 1.60 1.60 1.61 1.61 1.61 1.62
240 1.52 1.53 1.53 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.55
250 1.45 1.46 1.47 1.47 1.47 1.48 1.48
260 1.39 1.40 1.40 1.41 1.41 1.41 1.42
270 1.33 1.33 1.34 1.34 1.34 1.35 1.35
280 1.27 1.28 1.28 1.29 1.29 1.30 1.30
290 1.22 1.23 1.23 1.24 1.24 1.24 1.24

300 1.18 1.18 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.20

310 1.14 1.14 1.15 1.15 1.16 1.16 1.16
320 1.10 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.12 1.12 1.12
330 1.07 1.07 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.09 1.09
340 1.04 1.04 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.06
350 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.01 1.02
360 0.993 0.997 0.996 0.993 0.994 0.994 0.991
370 .973 .977 –975 .972 .971 .968 .965
380 .956 .958 .954 .952 .949 .946 .942
390 .941 .939 .934 .930 .926 .922 .917

400 .927 .924 .918 .914 .908 .905 .902

410 .913 .909 .903 .898 .892 .889 .887
420 .903 .897 .890 .884 .877 .874 .872

28
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT AND HEAVY WATER CHAP. 1.3

Table 1.3.8—(Continued)

cpu/k
Saturated Pressure, psia, compressed liquid
Temperature,
•F liquid 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000"

430 .894 .886 .877 .872 .864 .861 .858

440 .886 .878 .869 .862 .854 .850 .846
450 .876 .871 .861 .854 .845 .841 .836
460 .871 .866 .855 .845 .835 .829 .822
470 .867 .863 .852 .840 .829 .822 .813
480 .863 .861 .849 .836 .824 .816 .807
490 .865 .862 .847 .833 .821 .812 .802

500 .870 .861 .844 .830 .816 .806 .796

510 .88 .86 .848 .832 .818 .805 .794
520 .89 .87 .852 .834 .819 .804 .792
530 .90 .88 .859 .841 .822 .806 .793
540 .90 .870 .848 .826 .811 .796
550 .93 .886 .859 .837 .820 .803
560 .95 .905 .871 .849 .828 .809
570 .97 .924 .882 .860 .837 .817
580 1.00 .953 .903 .874 .849 .827
590 1.04 .985 .925 .889 .859 .835

600 1.09 1.015 .954 .908 .879 .849

610 1.14 1.09 1.003 .934 .899 .869
620 1.20 1.18 1.034 .964 .916 .884
630 1.25 1.089 .997 .941 .901
640 1.39 1.158 1.034 .970 .933
650 1.56 1.241 1.086 1.006 .962
660 1.77 1.337 1.147 1.039 .990
670 2.19 1.61
680 2.75 1.97
690 4.40

Maximum error for indicated temperature range, 3%

32-100 1.5 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.5 3.7
100-200 1.6 2.0 2.2 2.6 2.4 3.5 3.7
200–300 2.3 3.2 3.4 3.8 3.6 5.0 5.2
300–400 2.5 3.3 3.5 3.9 3.9 5.0 5.2
400–500 5.0 5.8 6.0 6.4 6.4 7.5 8.0
500–530 9.5 10.5 10.2 10.5 10.0 11.5 11.5
530-600 10.0 10.2 10.5 10.0 11.5 11.5
600-620 13.5 13.5 13.0 12.5 14.5 14.5
620–660 15.5 15.5 12.5 14.5 14.5
660-680 16.0 16.0
690 17.0
CHAP. 1.3 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.3.9 — Absolute Density (p) of Heavy Liquid Water at 1 Atm”

Temperature p

•F °C Lb/cu ft Gm/cc

41 5 69.0176 1.10555
50 10 69.0444 1.10598
51.8 11 69.0450 1.105.99
53.6 12 69.0450 1.105.99
55.4 13 69.0438 1.10597
59 15 69.0382 1.10588
68 20 69.0063 1.10537
77 25 68.9508 1.10448
86 30 68.8746 1.10326
95 35 68.7828 1.10179
104 40 68.6723 1.10002

* Accuracy: +0.003%

Table 1.3.10— Vapor Pressure of Heavy Liquid Water

Pressure

Temperature Atm
•C •F (absolute) Psia

0 32 0.004.80 0.0705
10 50 .01025 .1506
20 68 .0200 .2939
30 86 .0368 .5408
40 104 .0647 .9508
50 122 .1100 1.616
60 140 .1797 2.641
70 158 .2843 4.178
80 176 .4363 6.412
90 194 .6520 9.582
100 212 .9503 13.96
110 230 1.353 19.88
120 248 1.888 27.75
130 266 2.584 37.97
140 284 3.474 51.05
150 302 4.596 67.54
160 320 5.993 88.07
170 338 7.707 113.3
180 356 9.788 143.8
190 374 12.29 180.6
200 392 15.26 224.3
210 410 18.77 275.8
220 428 22.87 336.1
230 446 27.63 406.0
240 464 33.17 487.5
371.5 700.7 218.6 3212

30
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT AND HEAVY WATER CHAP. 1.3

Table 1.3.11—Latent Heat of Vaporization of Heavy Water*

Temperature AH

•C •F Cal/gm Btu/lb

3.82 38.9 554.66 998.39

10 50 549.47 989.05
25 77 541.53 974.76
40 104 531.50 956.69
60 140 519.86 935.75
80 176 507.98 914.36
100 212 495.65 892.16
120 248 482.76 868.98
140 284 469.08 844.35
160 320 454.70 818.47
180 356 439.28 790.69
200 392 422.70 760.86
220 428 404.63 728.33

*Accuracy: +0.3%

31
CHAP. 1.3 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

A.OHO

N N N- H.HEAVY WATER

N -CE".' "l
H. LIGHT WATER
H.OOO PN
*- A

O 990
3o 4o 50 60 70 so 90 too to 120 (30
TEMPERATURE, "F

HEAVY WATER
SEE ABOVE LIGHT WATER

{OO 2OO 3OO 4OO 500 6OO 7OO

TEMPERATURE, "F

Fig. 1.3.1 — Graphical Comparison of Specific Heat Data for Light and Heavy
Liquid Water. Drawn from values of Wellman’ and Kirshenbaum” by Argonne
National Laboratory, June 15, 1952.

32
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT AND HEAVY WATER CHAP. 1.3

I-T-T-I I TTTI T-T-T-I T-I-T- TTTI I-T-I

O.4O

—s
O.35
*-
/ —

-
|-

O.30
*- N -

- -

O.25

O.2O \
H -

1–1–1–1 I I L I l L I L I | | | | | | | | | | |
O IOO 2OO 3OO 4OO 500 6OO

TEMPERATURE, *F

Fig. 1.3.2— Graphical Presentation of Thermal Conductivity Values for Light

Liquid Water. Drawn from values of Wellman” by Argonne National Laboratory,
June 15, 1952.

33
:

INDICATE EXTENT
POINTS
THE DATA OF
EXISTING
OF 7OO
8OO
6OO
500
4OO
90O
PREPARATION
IN
USED

Vargaſtik”
Timrot
from
Sandell”
and
Keyes
of
data
Purdue
Sibbitt,
L.
W.
by
Coingdhutc-twiavtietry
Thermal
1.3.3—
LFig.
for
Data
from
Submitted
Vapor.
CURVES
THE

LUanbiovreatsoirty.,
National
Argonne
by
Drawn
1952.
23,
June

/ TEMPERATURE,
“F
zº
PSIA
15
PSIA
854
.*

.*- 423
TEAM.---
Sl

<-

sysATURA
tº:-
£º -

O.2O
OO8 OO4
O.28 O.24 O.[6 O.12

:
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT AND HEAVY WATER CHAP. 1.3

5.0 PT-T-T-7 I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-T-I-T-

-
-

4.5 \
.#E \
233 \
5O5

E
\
w \\
L-HEAvy waſ ER

= LIGHT WATER

1.O
F
K
osf `s
É I l l 1
1OO
I L I
2OO
L I L I
3OO
| |

TEMPERATURE, *F
| |
4OO
| | | |
5OO
1–1–1–1
6OO
| | | |
7OO

Fig. 1.3.4— Graphical Comparison of Dynamic-viscosity Data for Light and

Heavy Liquid Water. Drawn from data of Wellman’ and Kirshenbaum” by Argonne
National Laboratory, June 15, 1952.

35
CHAP. 1.3 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

O.O.9

O.O8 22
ºx
•º

>
O O7
/ \ 2O º
5.
^
-e
>-T
H.
/
^ 29
OQ
cºº
3 oos 4–
7 -T-Fo
2×
O $y oS
on
S &«y,z \
gº
9
: &
&
2
22
2 <!
2 O.O5 o
8 2’

O.O4

O.O3
4OO 5OO 6OO 7OO BOO 900 1OOO 11OO

TEMPERATURE, *F

Fig. 1.3.5— Dynamic-viscosity Values for Light-water Vapor. Submitted from

data of Timrot' by W. L. Sibbitt, Purdue University, June 23, 1952. Drawn by
Argonne National Laboratory.

36
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT AND HEAVY WATER CHAP. 1.3

TTE H-T-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T- TTTI

\ LIGHT WATER f

| | | | | L | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
HOO 2OO 3OO 4OO 5OO 6OO 7OO

TEMPERATURE, *F

Fig. 1.3.6— Graphical Presentation of Prandtl Number Values for Light Liquid
water. Drawn from values of Wellman" by Argonne National Laboratory, June
15, 1952.

37
WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

O
92

Fig. 1.3.7 – Graphical Presentation of Prandtl Number Value for Light-water

Vapor. Drawn from calculations of W. L. Sibbitt," Purdue University, June 23,
O
O
92
O
Z$

TEMPERATURE, *F
<r
�<r.~
092，7%ÁºO
zcz， Oſ·O
Lºģ$/， '$%^~}oo
_- <_- ºfçº<<~
_- - -+ - - - ~~----- TH -- ~~
_ _- - --
-→1•Sg3

1952, by Argonne National Laboratory.

LL），}”ZÁº：-
-- - - - -___----|-------† ~~~^O
•O
„- *(o
_ • ***sg
_ -- → -+ ***quo
_- - - -
--~~~
|- ſ*•Q.}
T ~#~ ___4–~1§
T + – – –L - - - -† ***-
=）
WĘŻS”.<）
VĘSõìş~8uo
ſūș~）.|-~
- - → → → →-
`~
（~） >
→/8
OOOOOO<r.
©<tCN）-Ooo8Ģ3&
cº）CNCNov.c\，----O
CHAP. 1.3

#HāgwnN TIONvud
O

38
 CHAP. 1.3

ºzg6I ºg1 Aww ºkroſsroqsT tauoiſen ouuoº iv Kq ,søkøy pue ueueøy jo sønțea uong uaeuq
*( 3.0*-.0ý) requAA 4，8|"I tog sønne A 44!suºGI Jo uoſqequeseră Twopqderſo – 8°ç* I *?!）
3. ‘38 n.Lw&#3d W31
Otºtº O2 t→ OOº Oºſſ O92. Otrº O2， OOº O82 092 Ot>2 O22 OO2 O31 091Ot». O21 OO10809Ot»
09
|9
29
29
t»9
99

+4 no/q ‘ALISN3O
99
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT AND HEAVY WATER

19
01 n01T 031 vaenlw'S
89
69
OOO!!!
OoO2O9
0002
000 º19
0009
oooº29
sqo u bs/q1'3anssawa
£9
•9
WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

'zg6I ºg I Kew ‘ÁIoquioqe'I [buoņæN 9uuoºuw Aq,søÁøypue ubu00x, jo sømpea uouy uABICI
·(3.09.1.–.00ý) røqeða ſq?!"I rog sønțe.A Aſsuaq Jo uoſqøyneseră TeopqderÐ – 6°ç* I *?\））
3. ‘BºnLw&3d W31
O91 Otv/ O21 OO1 O89 O99 Otvº O29 OO9 O99 O99. Otºg O29 OOG O8t; O9t» Otºty O2t> OO!»
82
Oº
22
t» 2
99:
89

44 no/q ‘ALISNBC
Ot»
2t>
tytº
OITTOIT OB LW18||01\7S
9t;
8º
OOO !
OOO.2 O9
OOOº.
OOO!» 29
CHAP. 1.3

OOO9
OOO9 199
sqo ºu! bs/q| ‘38 mSSBJd

40
99
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT AND HEAVY WATER CHAP. 1.3

CRITICAL POINT
7OO

350 –
650

T 600

3OO H.

- 550

– 500

25 O -

450

2OO H.
aco

350

| 50 H 3OO

– 250
500 |OOO |500 2OOO 2500 3OOO psid

1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1–1
O 50 |OO |50 2OO of m

SATURATION PRESSURE

Fig. 1.3.10–Graphical Presentation of Vapor-pressure Values for Light Water.

Drawn from data of Keenan and Keyes" by Argonne National Laboratory, May 15,
1952.

41
CHAP. 1.3 WATER-COOLED SYST

REFERENCES

1. J. H. Keenan and F. G. Keyes, “Thermodynamic Properties of Steam,” 1st ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1936.
2. E. J. Wellman, “A Survey of the Thermodynamic and Physical Properties of water,” M.S. Thesis, Purdue University, Janual
1950.
3. I. Kirshenbaum, “Physical Properties and Analysis of Heavy Water," 1st ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
4. W. L. Sibbitt, School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, private communication.
5. F. G. Keyes and D. J. Sandell, Jr., “New Measurements of the Heat Conductivity of Steam and Nitrogen, Trans. Am. Soc. M
Engrs., 72: 767-778 (1950).
6. D. L. Timrot and N. B. Vargaftik, Heat Conductivity, Viscosity, and Thermodynamical Properties of Steam at High Temper
tures and Pressures, Paper No. 10 in “Transactions of the Fourth World Power Conference, London, July 11-14, 1950,” Vol.
pp. 1642-1666, Percy Lund, Humphries & Co., Ltd., London, 1952.
7. D. L. Timrot, Determination of the Viscosity of Steam and Water at High Temperatures and Pressures, J. Phys. U.S.S.R., 2:
419-436 (1940).

SELECTED READING LIST

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ANALYSIS OF HEAVY WATER, I. Kirshenbaum, 1st ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New Y
1951.

NEW MEASUREMENTS OF THE HEAT CONDUCTIVITY OF STEAM AND NITROGEN, F. G. Keyes and D. J. Sandell, Jr., Trans. ,
Soc. Mech. Engrs., 72: 767-778 (1950).
HEAT CONDUCTIVITY, VISCOSITY. AND THERMODYNAMICAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM AT HIGH TEMPERATURES AND PRES
SURES, D. L. Timrot and N. B. Vargaftik, Paper No. 10 in “Transactions of the Fourth World Power Conference, London, July 11
1950,” Vol. 3, pp 1642-1666, Percy Lund, Humphries & Co., Ltd., London, 1952.
REVIEW OF DATA ON DYNAMIC VISCOSITY OF WATER AND SUPERHEATED STEAM, G. A. Hawkins, W. L. Sibbitt, and H. L.
Solberg, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 70; 19-23 (1948).
HEAT CONDUCTION OF WATER AT HIGH TEMPERATURES, D. L. Timrot and N. B. Vargaftik, J. Tech. Phys. U.S.S.R., 10: 106
1073 (1940).

DETERMINATION OF THE VISCOSITY OF STEAM AND WATER AT HIGH TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES, D. L. Timrot, J. P.
U.S.S.R., 2:419-436 (1940).

PROPERTIES OF ORDINARY WATER-SUBSTANCE, N. E. Dorsey, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York, 1940.
HEAT CONDUCTIVITY OF WATER VAPOR AT HIGH PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES, N. B. Vargaftik and D. L. Timrot, J. Te
Phys. U.S.S.R., 9: 63-70 (1939).
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF STEAM, J. H. Keenan and F. G. Keyes, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1936.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUIDs UNDER PRESSURE, P. W. Bridgman, Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci., 59: 141-169 (1923).

42
 CHAPTER 1.4

Heat Transfer

W. H. Jens and P. A. Lottes

The most common mode of heat transfer used to cool reactors is forced convection.
Convection is defined as the transfer of heat from one place to another within a fluid by
the mixing of one portion of the fluid with another. Convection is further subdivided into
free convection and forced convection.
In free or natural convection, heat is transferred by the circulation of fluid due to densi
ty differences brought about by heating or cooling. In forced convection, the velocity of
the main body of the fluid is usually large compared to the natural circulation currents.
There is no sharp line of demarkation, however, between the two types of convection. In
cases where the bulk velocity of the fluid is low, the transfer of heat will be governed
mainly by the effect of temperature difference causing natural convection currents.
Forced convection is generally subdivided into laminar or turbulent flow. Laminar flow
is generally considered to exist for values of Reynolds number (DeG/[1) of less than 2100
and turbulent flow for somewhat larger values. A transition region exists for Reynolds
numbers between 2100 and 10,000." Turbulent flow can safely be considered to exist at
values above 10,000. For flow inside single tubes, turbulent flow exists for a Reynolds
number above 3100. In the forced convection of water, the Reynolds number usually ex
ceeds either of these critical values, and the flow is turbulent.
A film coefficient of heat transfer (h) is used in convection to determine the amount of
heat transferred. It is defined as the heat transferred per unit area per unit time per unit
temperature difference between the surface and the fluid. The thermal conductivity (k), the
dynamic viscosity (u), the density (p), and the constant-pressure specific heat (cp) are the
physical properties of the fluid that affect the film coefficient. Since these physical prop
erties vary with temperature and pressure, the film coefficient is a function of temperature
and pressure. The velocity of the fluid and the shape and spacing of the heating surface also
affect the film coefficient; these variables may be adjusted to give the desired coefficient.
Heat-transfer nomenclature is presented in Table 1.4.1, and conversion factors are pre
sented in Table 1.4.2.

BASIC EQUATIONS FOR FREE-CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

The following correlations” may be used to predict free-convection heat transfer from
vertical metal surfaces to water. For the laminar range of Nor.Npr = 0.2 x 10° to 40 x 10",
the heat-transfer coefficient is given by the equation:
hL
# = 0.726 (NG.N.P.)” (1)

*References appear at end of chapter.

43
CHAP. 1.4 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.4.1 — Heat-transfer Nomenclature and Units

Symbol Definition Units”

Af Flow area Sq
b Wetted perimeter ft
C Constant None

Cp Specific heat Btu/(lb)("F)

Ds Diameter of sphere ft
D Outside diameter of pipe Eq. (4) and (5) it
De Equivalent diameter equal to 4 times the ft

flow area divided by the wetted perimeter, 4At/l,

Do Outside diameter of cylinders — tº
f Subscript used to designate that the None

physical properties should be evaluated at

the film temperature
G Mass velocity lb/(hr)(sq ft)
Gmax Mass velocity based on minimum free cross lb/ſhr)(sq ft)
section across banks of tubes (either
transverse to stream or on diagonal
clearances, whichever is less)
Gs Mass velocity per unit area of a bed of spheres lb/ſhr)(sq ft)
g Gravitational acceleration, local, usually ft/(sec)(sec)
taken as Standard value, 32.2
h Heat transfer coefficient Btu/(hr)(sq ft)("F)
hm Mean value of heat transfer coefficient over Btu/(hr)(sq ft)("F)
entire surface of sphere or cylinder
k Thermal conductivity Btu/(hr) (ft)("F)
L Length ft
N Number of tubes ºirection of gº None
2 s
Nor Grashof number, pºss or Pºet None

NNu Nusselt number, hDe/k None

NRe Reynolds number, DeG/u None
NP, Prandtl number, cru/k None

P Pressure lb/sq ft
q” Heat flux Btu/(hr)(sq ft)
q$o Burnout heat flux tº. * t Btu/(hr)(sq ft)
tf Film temperature, *: s •F

ts Temperature of surface transferring heat •F

tsat Saturation temperature •F
tw Bulk water temperature •F
g Coefficient of thermal expansion •F-1
p Density lb/cu ft
At Temperature difference between surface and fluid •F
At sat Temperature difference between tempera- •F

ture of surface transferring heat by boil

ing minus the saturation temperature
Atsub Temperature difference, saturation tem- •F

perature minus the bulk water tempera

ture
Pl Viscosity? (dynamic) lb/ſhr)(ft)

*Lb used to represent pounds mass

f Viscosity as given in this chapter is given in units of lb/ſhr)(ft) whereas in Chap. 1.5 the
unit used is lb/(sec)(ft). Care should be taken in using proper units in equations

44
HEAT TRANSFER CHAP. 1.4

Table 1.4.2—Heat-transfer Conversion Factors

English Units x Multiplication Factor to Obtain CGS Units

sq ft 929 cm.”
Btu/lb)(F) 1 cal/(gm)(*C)
ft 30.48 cm

lb/ſhr)(sq ft) 1.356 x 10" gm/(Sec)(sq cm)

Btu/hr)(sq ft)("F) 1.356 x 10" cal/(sec)(sq cm)(C)
Btu/(hr)(sq ft)ſ"F) 5.676 x 10" watt/(sq cm)("C)
Btu/hr) (ft)("F) 4.133 x 10^* cal/(sec) (cm)(C)
Btu/hr) (ft)("F) 1.73 x 10"? watt/(cm)(C)
Btu/hr)(sq ft) 7.535 × 10^* cal/(sec)(sq cm)
Btu/hr)(sq ft) 3.154 x 10^* watt/sq cm
lb/ſhr)(ft) 4.134 x 10° gm/sec)(cm)
lb/ſhr)(ft) 4.134 x 10^* poise

For the turbulent range of Nor.NPr = 40 × 10° to 900 x 10" the heat-transfer coefficient is
given by the equation:

# = 0.0674(No.(Nr.)”!” (2)

These equations represent experimental data on water and ethylene glycol to within + 10
percent.
Free convection from single horizontal cylinders to water may be calculated within + 10
percent according to Eq. (3)” provided that the value of the outside diameter (D) of the cyl
inder is used as the characteristic length in the Nusselt and Grashof number:

0.25

hD 0.25 =
D'píðgat cput
#-0.5% [Nor:NPr] 0.53
-

uţ -

ki (3)

The physical property constant (p;8g/u?)(cput/kt) has been plotted as shown in Fig. 1.4.1
for saturated water as a function of temperature. The constant is practically independent
of pressure. By multiplying this constant by the cube of the characteristic dimension, D”
or L*, and by the temperature difference, At, the product NGr.N pris obtained.

BASIC EQUATIONS FOR FORCED-CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

PIPES, NONCIRCULAR DUCTS, AND ANNULI

The heat-transfer coefficient for the turbulent flow of water through heated pipes, non
circular ducts, and annuli is calculated according to the equation:

DeG 0.8 0.4

|º]- *| ; | # (4)

Equation (4) has been experimentally verified” for water flowing in heated tubes up to
2500 psia and 600°F with heating rates up to 1,000,000 Btu/(hr)(sq ft) for Reynolds num
bers of 50,000 to 700,000.

45
CHAP. 1.4 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

102

E
-

IO

É
-

| f
-
i
#|-
O

r—h
/ –

§
“t ST IO
9
C T
l— - -

lo°E

H. -

107
O IOO 2OO 3OO 4OO 5OO 6OO 7OO

TEMPERATURE, “F
Fig. 1.4.1—Relationship Between Free-convection Heat-transfer Physical
Properties of Water, (pāg/u?)(cput/k/), and Temperature at Saturation Pres
sure. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, Sept. 15, 1952.

46
HEAT TRANSFER CHAP. 1.4

The heat-transfer coefficient calculated from Eq. (4) for water flowing through a channel
with an equivalent diameter of 0.25 in. is shown as a function of water temperature and
mass velocity in Fig. 1.4.2. Physical properties of water were evaluated at the saturation
conditions. A correction factor to be used when calculating the heat-transfer coefficient
for equivalent diameters other than 0.25 in. is included in Fig. 1.4.2. This correction fac
tor is multiplied by the heat-transfer coefficient for an equivalent diameter of 0.25 in. to
determine the heat-transfer coefficient for other equivalent diameters.
A comparison of the heat-transfer coefficients of light and heavy water is given in Fig.
1.4.3. The comparison is made for both constant linear and constant mass velocities of the
two liquids. The physical properties presented in Chap. 1.3 of this section were used in
this comparison with the exception of the thermal conductivity of heavy water. In the ab
sence of values from the literature, the thermal conductivity values of heavy water were
assumed to be the same as those for light water.

TUBE BANKS

FLOW PARALLEL TO AXIS

For turbulent flow outside tube banks with the liquid flowing parallel to the axis of the
tubes, Eq. (4) is used. The equivalent diameter for this case is expressed as:

De = +H: (5)

FLOW NORMAL TO AXIS*

Use of the following equations” is recommended for calculating the heat-transfer coef
ficient for the unbaffled flow of water normal to banks of staggered tubes and for values of
(DoGmax/uf) greater than 10,000:

him D Dr.G 0.6 Cpſlf %

tº-º-º:
kf kf (6)

The subscript f in the above equation indicates that the physical properties of the water
should be evaluated at the film temperature, and him is the mean value of heat transfer co
efficient over the entire surface of tubes.
For unstaggered tubes with values of (DoGmax/uf) greater than 10,000, the recommended
equation is:

h.D
n *-os- * DoG
o 0 (7)
kf |lf ††
kf

*The above formulas, correlated with data from gases at lower Reynolds numbers have been used
generally as the basis for obtaining heat-transfer coefficients for water flowing across tube banks. It
is recognized that the existing correlations must be extrapolated to much higher Reynolds numbers
for use with water. In addition, Eqs. (7) and (8) are inconsistent. Work presently under way at Brook
haven for the flow of water across tube banks at high Reynolds number should be consulted.

47
CHAP. 1.4 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

or

is £
(2 3
!"
I.O ºr o;
~ C
o9 o º
ost; F
7 u <!
or 0.
or
O.I O2 O.4 O.6 O.8 I.O 8
EQUIVALENT DIAMETER (D.), in

30,000

20000

I0000

5000

2000

IOOO

400Ioºf 6
IO
r
lo

MAss veLocITY (G = ev), Ib/ſhr)(sq ft)

Fig. 1.4.2—Heat-transfer Coefficient for Light Water. Submitted by Argonne
National Laboratory, June 10, 1952.

48
HEAT TRANSFER CHAP. 1.4

1.3O | | I
O.8 O.4
hD
k
* = oozs ( •) ( *)
GD C

I.2O

Assumption: “...a - Koo

© º, T -- *-
33 I. I O ==

CONSTANT G AND De
N-H |
T- -
I.OO T

o T--
CONSTANT v AND De

O.90 l

O 5O |OO 15O 2OO 25O

TEMPERATURE, "F

Fig. 1.4.3—Relationship Between hho and hp.o. Submitted by Argonne National

Laboratory, June 16, 1952.

Equations (6) and (7) apply only to ten or more rows of tubes. The coefficient him is the
mean or average coefficient for all of the tubes. Table 1.4.3 gives the ratio of him for a
tube bank N rows deep to that of a tube bank ten rows deep.

Table 1.4.3—Effect of Number of Rows of Tubes on the Average Heat-transfer Coefficient (him)
(W. H. McAdams, “Heat Transmission,” 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942)

Number of rows 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ratio for staggered tubes 0.70 0.82 0.87 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.99 1.0
Ratio for in-line tubes 0.64 .76 .83 .87 .92 .94 .96 .97 .99 1.0

SINGLE CYLINDER - FLOW NORMAL TO AXIS*

The average heat-transfer coefficient for the flow of water normal to a single tube is
given by:

= 0.26
|
G 0.6
DoG
|lf
ºff
kf
.3
(8)

*The above formulas, correlated with data from gases at lower Reynolds numbers have been used
generally as the basis for obtaining heat-transfer coefficients for water flowing across tube banks. It
is recognized that the existing correlations must be extrapolated to much higher Reynolds numbers
for use with water. In addition, Eqs. (7) and (8) are inconsistent. Work presently under way at Brook
haven for the flow of water across tube banks at high Reynolds number should be consulted.

49
CHAP. 1.4 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

for DoG/uf from 1000 to 50,000. The coefficient will vary around the cylinder according to
its angular position. The magnitude of this variation is estimated to be approximately 30
percent for water.

RANDOMLY PACKED SPHERES

The heat-transfer coefficient for the flow of water through beds of randomly packed
spheres of equal diameters may be calculated according to the equation:"

hm Ds 0.58 Geds]"."[coul’.”
R – v. |l k (9)

The correlation was based on experiments with air. The properties should be evaluated
at the film temperature when large temperature differences exist between the sphere sur
face and the bulk of the fluid. No data are available on the local heat-transfer coefficient
or the variation in the coefficient over the surface of a sphere.

BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer with a phase change from liquid to vapor is called boiling. This phase
change may occur in the boundary layer next to the heat-transfer surface or in the bulk of
the fluid. Boiling may occur in either a natural or forced-flow system. Boiling should oc
cur whenever the surface temperature of the solid transferring heat exceeds the saturation
temperature of the fluid by a specific amount, designated as Atsat. A further classification
of the type of boiling is usually made. With the bulk temperature of the fluid below the
saturation temperature of the fluid, the phase change is called nucleate or local boiling.
With the bulk temperature of the fluid at the saturation temperature of the fluid, the phase
change is called net boiling.
A typical plot of heat flux (q") from a solid surface to a liquid is shown in Fig. 1.4.4 as
a function of the difference between the surface temperature of the solid and the bulk tem
perature of the liquid. The curve has been verified in a static system; however, it is be
lieved to hold also for a flowing system. The curve is drawn for constant pressure and
constant bulk water temperature. At values of surface or wall temperature (ts) below the
water saturation pressure, the heat is transferred by convection and is proportional to the
temperature difference (ts — tw). This is the region AB. As the surface temperature ex
ceeds the saturation temperature of the fluid, the heat flux rises very rapidly for a small
increase in temperature difference as shown by the nucleate or local-boiling region BC.
Small vapor bubbles which form rapidly due to superheating of the surface and the liquid
in a film adjacent to the surface also collapse very rapidly as soon as they grow and ex
tend into the subcooled liquid beyond the superheated film. A further increase in wall tem
perature at point C or an increase in heat flux results in a blanketing of the surface with
vapor due to the coalescing of the individual vapor bubbles. The heat flux curve in this
region decreases with an increase in (ts – tw). In the region CD, however, the heat flux
finally rises again, and the surface temperature becomes very high. The major share of
the heat transfer in this region has been postulated to occur across the vapor space by
conduction and radiation. The wall temperature in the region CD corresponding to the heat
flux at C, the peak of the nucleate boiling region, is usually higher than the melting point
of the metal surface. For this reason burnout usually accompanies an increase in heat flux
above the peak value at point C. The heat flux at point C has been frequently called the
burnout heat flux. *

*In water heat transfer, the burnout heat flux often corresponds to point C as shown in Fig. 1.4.4.
However, burnout may occur at other values. In general, burnout heat flux is defined only as that heat
flux at which burnout occurs for a given set of conditions.

50
HEAT TRANSFER CHAP. 1.4

BURNOUT HEAT FLUX - - --

C - - -- - - -
|- - - -
uu
or
->
*-

*
uu D
0.
-:
uu
*|
3|
3|
-

Tor
# ##| 3*
- un --
3 <! | 3
—l B

| P = CONST
| tw = const
|
A |
Force D . NUCLEATE | PARTIAL COMPLETE
CONNECTION BOILING | FILM BOILING | FILM BOILING
|
—l

LOG (ts – tw)

Fig. 1.4.4— Boiling Heat Transfer from a Solid Surface to Water. Submitted
by Argonne National Laboratory, July 15, 1952.

In reactors, heat is generated and transferred to the heat-transfer fluid independently of

the amount of heat-transfer surface or the temperature of the fluid. For this reason it is
comparatively easy to determine the surface temperature of the heat-transfer surface.
The surface temperature is calculated based on a convection film coefficient. If the sur
face temperature as calculated does not exceed the saturation temperature of the fluid cor
responding to the system pressure plus an additional temperature (termed ATsat), the heat
is transferred solely by convection and the surface temperature is as calculated. If the
temperature of the surface as determined by dividing the heat flux by the calculated con
vection heat-transfer coefficient added to the fluid temperature is in excess of the satura
tion-temperature flux At sat, then heat is being transferred by local boiling. The surface
temperature under these conditions is not that which was calculated but is the saturation
temperature plus Atsat. The heat flux, of course, must be less than the burnout heat flux
for the specific conditions, otherwise the surface will burn out. -

Numerous experiments”*** have indicated that the heat flux in the nucleate boiling
region does not depend significantly upon the fluid velocity, nor upon the temperature dif
ference between the surface and the bulk water, but does depend upon the difference be
tween the surface temperature and the saturation temperature corresponding to the sys
tem pressure, and upon the system pressure itself.
McAdams et al” correlated their local-boiling data at pressures from 30 to 90 psia for
water flowing through an annulus. The relation is:

q* = C Atº: (10)

in which C varied from 0.189 for water containing 0.30 cc of dissolved air/liter of water
to 0.074 for water containing 0.06 cc of dissolved air/liter of water.
The UCLA and MIT local-boiling data were correlated by means of the following equa
tion:

51
CHAP. 1.4 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

60(q”/10*)'4
Atsat =
eP/129600 (11)

The effect of dissolved gases,”** type of solid surface transferring heat,”** and
cleanliness of the surface*** and of the water all affect Atsat, the effects being more
pronounced at lower pressures. Very high values of Atsat have been obtained in a
special apparatus" in which high cleanliness was maintained.
The burnout heat flux*** has been investigated experimentally at pressures from 500 to
2000 psi at velocities from 5 to 30 ft/sec in a round seamless tube of 0.226 in. ID, using
distilled water flowing upward through the tube. The equation expresses the condition that
experimental burnout is always higher than that calculated by the derived equation. The
maximum deviation was plus 23 percent. This equation results, therefore, in the minimum
burnout heat flux for a round tube:

q"B.O.
10° T d;G lº (tsat – tw)” 12
(12).

Values of “m” and C vs Pressure

Pressure, psia In C

500 0.16 0.817

1000 .275 .626
2000 .500 .445

This equation is limited to the conditions of the experiment. Other burnout experiments
at lower velocities have demonstrated that burnout does not occur until very high steam
qualities have been obtained. In these experiments, special apparatus was required to in
sure positive flow. Burnout at these high qualities would otherwise be difficult to anticipate
since the flow would drop to very low values as steam is formed due to the high pressure
drop associated with two-phase flow. If burnout is being predicted in any design, the pres–
sure drop across the heated channel must be analyzed since it will probably be the deter
mining factor in the burnout of the channel.
In pool boiling,” burnout has been determined for horizontal wires and flat plates.
In these cases, the water was at the saturation temperatures, and flow across the surface
was by natural convection.

HEAT TRANSFER AT SUPERCRITICAL PRESSURE

To date, no correlations are available for predicting the heat-transfer coefficient of

water under conditions where the water properties change radically with temperature, such
as near the critical point. There is an increasing amount of analytical and experimental
work currently being done toward obtaining a method of predicting the heat-transfer coef
ficient in these regions.”
The heat-transfer coefficient at supercritical pressures from metal surfaces to water in
forced flow can be predicted from the previously mentioned equations provided that the
water properties do not change radically with temperature.

REFERENCES

1. W. M. Kays and A. L. London, "Convective Heat Transfer and Flow Priction Behavior of Small Cylindrical Tubes-Circular and
Rectangular Cross Section,” Trans. Am. Soc. of Mech. Engrs. Preprint No. 51-A-130.
2. Y. S. Touloukian, G. A. Hawkins and M. Jacob. “Heat Transfer by Free Convection from Heated Vertical Surfaces to Liquids."
Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engr., 70: 13 (1948).
3. W. H. McAdams, "Heat Transmission,” 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942.

52
HEAT TRANSFER CHAP. 1.4

4. W. M. Rohsenow and J. A. Clark, “Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Data for High Heat Flux Densities to water at High Subcriti
cal Pressures.” Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Contract Nos. N5ori-07827 and NR-035-267) DiC Project No. 6627, Prog
ress Report No. 3. Apr. 1, 1951.
5. H. Buchberg et al., "Final Report on Studies in Boiling Heat Transfer,” University of California, Department of Engineering,
COO-24 (AEC Contract No. AT-11-1-Gen-9), March 1951.
6. H. L. McGill and W. L. Sibbitt. "Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop of water Flowing in a small Tube,” ANL-4603. Part I, pp
1-58. February 1951.
7. W. M. Kays. A. L. London and R. K. Lo, “Heat Transfer and Friction Characteristics for Gas Flow Normal to Tube Banks-Use of
a Transient Test Technique,” Stanford University, Technical Report No. 15, to be issued.
8. W. H. Denton et al., “The Heat Transfer and Pressure Loss in Fluid Flow through Randomly Packed Spheres. 1" United Kingdom,
HPC-35, 44 pp. June 28, 1949.
9. W. H. Jens and P. A. Lottes, “Analysis of Heat Transfer, Burnout, Pressure Drop and Density Data for High-pressure Water.”
Argonne National Laboratory, ANL-4627, 71 pp, May 1, 1951.
10. F. C. Gunther. “Photographic Study of Surface-Boiling Heat Transfer to water with Forced Convection,” Trans. Am. Soc.
Mech. Engrs. 73: 115-123. (1951).
11. F. Kreith and M. Summerfield, “Heat Transfer to Water at High Flux Densities with and without Surface Boiling,” Trans. Am.
Soc. Mech. Engrs. 71: 805-815 (1949).
12. W. H. McAdams et al., “Heat Transfer at High Rates to Water with Surface Boiling.” ANL-4268, 78 pp, December 1948.
13. E. Schmidt et al. “Heat Transfer by Liquids Near the Critical State,” AAF Translation, ATI No. 22433 (F-TS-527 RE), 15 pp.
April 26, 1946.
14. M. T. Cichelli and C. F. Bonilla. “Heat Transfer to Liquids Boiling under Pressure,” Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engr., 41; 755
787 (1945).
15. G. A. Hawkins, "A Brief Review of the Literature on Boiling Heat Transfer,” University of California, Department of Engineer
ing. COO-23 (AEC Contract No. AT-11-1-Gen-9), 50 pp, June 1950.
16. "Heat Transfer to Fluids with Temperature Dependent Properties,” Nuclear Developments Assoc., White Plains, New York,
April 1952.

SELECTED READING LIST

HEAT TRANSFER, A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF UNCLAssified REPORT LITERATURE, A. T. Morphew, TID-3022, 53 p, March 18, 1952.
HEAT TRANSFER. A bibliography OF ClassIFIED REPORT LITERATURE, A. T. Morphew, TID-3021, 66 p. January 31, 1952.
A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON BOILING HEAT TRANSFER, University of California. Department of Engineering. G. A.
Hawkins, COO-23 (AEC Contract No. AT-11-1-Gen-9), 50 pp, June 1950.
HEAT TRANSFER. M. Jacob, Vol. 1, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1949.
HEAT TRANSMISSION. W. H. McAdams, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942.

53
 CHAPTER 1.5

Hydrodynamics
W. H. Jens and P. A. Lottes

Hydrodynamics or fluid mechanics must be considered in the design of a nuclear reactor

and its coolant system. For example: The pressure drop through the reactor and other
parts of the coolant system must be known together with the required pumping power; the
flow distribution to the coolant channels surrounding the fuel elements during normal opera
tion must be properly evaluated; and the flow distribution during abnormal operation when
boiling might occur must be understood so that the proper safeguards may be provided to
prevent flow stoppage and burnout of a fuel element.
Fluid flow nomenclature used in the following equations is defined in Table 1.5.1, and
appropriate conversion factors are listed in Table 1.5.2.

SINGLE-PHASE-FLOW PRESSURE DROP

APPLICATION TO REACTOR CORES AND HEAT EXCHANGERS

FLOW INSIDE TUBES, NON-CIRCULAR CHANNELS, AND ANNULI

The differential equation* for steady flow in tubes, ducts, or channels of constant cross
Section is:

d(v*) g fy?
wdP + + + –F– dz + dL = 0 (1)
2ge 8c 2gcDe

For flow of incompressible fluids, the integrated equation is:

1
fvº (Li-Lī) – 0 2
;P-Po-ºº-ºo 2ge De (2)

where p = 1/v.
If the temperatures of the fluid varies, f will also vary, since it depends on the Reynolds
number; this variation is generally very slight and is usually neglected.
For the case of varying friction factor, the mean friction factor (fm) is:

-- Hiſ 1 La
f dI, (3)

*The friction factor (f) based on the equivalent diameter is used in this and subsequent equations;
this friction factor is equal to four times the value used in the Fanning equation. Fanning used a hy
draulic radius which is one fourth of the equivalent diameter.

55
CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.5.1 – Hydrodynamic Nomenclature and Units

Symbol Definition Units”

A Flow area sq ft
b Wetted perimeter ft
d Distance between channels ft
D Diameter (inside) of conduit ft
De Equivalent diameter of conduit ft
Do Diameter (outside) of pipe ft
D, Diameter of sphere ft
f Friction factor based on equivalent diameter None
b’ Wetted perimeter per unit flow area ft-1
fi Friction factor for cross flow to tubes in Eqs. (7), (8), and (10) None
fi Friction factor for randomly packed spheres in Eq. (11) None
Fb Frictional energy loss due to bends ft-lbf/lb
Fe Frictional energy loss due to sudden contraction ft-lbf/lb
Fe Frictional energy loss due to sudden expansion ft-lbf/lb
F. Frictional energy loss due to rough miter bend ft-lbf/lb
F, Frictional energy loss due to smooth miter bend ft-lbf/ib
F, Frictional energy loss due to valves ft-lbf/ib
g Gravitational acceleration, local, usually taken as 32.2 ft/(sec)(sec)
ge Proportionality factor in Newton's law of motion equals 32.2 [lb/lbſ][ft/(sec)(sec)]
G Mass velocity lb/(sec)(sq ft)
xt Ratio of longitudinal pitch to outside tube diameter None
xt Ratio of transverse pitch to outside tube diameter None
Z Vertical distance above any arbitrary datum plane ft
AH Enthalpy of saturated liquid minus enthalpy of liquid, at inlet Btu/lb
subcooling enthalpy
AP Pressure drop lbf/sq ft
AP0 Friction pressure loss for flow of saturated water lbf/sq ft
APTPF Friction pressure loss for flow of two-phase fluid lbf/sq ft
(dPTPF) Ratio of two-phase, frictional pressure gradient to saturated- None

(dPo) water, frictional pressure gradient

(APTPF) Ratio of two-phase, frictional pressure loss to saturated- None

(APO) water, frictional pressure drop

5 Relative roughness factor None

6 Angle of elevation with respect to the horizontal Degrees

Pl Dynamic viscosity of liquid lb/(sec)(ft)
Pºb Dynamic viscosity of bulk water lb/(sec)(ft)
Plf Dynamic viscosity of saturated water lb/(sec)(ft)
Pig Dynamic viscosity of saturated steam lb/(sec)(ft)
Plm Weighted viscosity of steam-water mixture in Eq. (31) lb/(sec)(ft)
Pºw Dynamic viscosity based on wall temperature lb/(sec)(ft)
p Density of fluid lb/cu ft
p Average density of fluid lb/cu ft
Gmax Maximum mass velocity based on minimum free area for lb/(sec)(sq ft)
cross flow through tube banks
Gºonic Maximum mass discharge rate from a pipe lb/(sec)(sq ft)
hig Latent heat of vaporization Btu/lb
Kb Factor in bend-loss equation None
Ke Factor in contraction-loss equation None
Ke Factor in expansion-loss equation None
Kr Factor in rough miter bend-loss equation None
Ks Factor in smooth miter bend-loss equation None
K Factor in valve- and fitting-loss equation None

56
HYDRODYNAMICS CHAP. 1.5

Table 1.5.1 — (Continued)

Symbol Definition Units+

L Length of pipe ft
N Number of rows in a bank of tubes None

N, Number of velocity heads lost in friction, f ; None

Nae Reynolds number, GDe/u or volle/u None

P Absolute pressure lbf/sq ft

P, Pressure equivalent of velocity head lbf/sq ft
Q Total heat input Btu/sec
r Multiplication factor in Eq. (26) None
V Specific volume cu ft/lb
W Average specific volume cu ft/lb
wf Specific volume of saturated liquid cu ft/lb
Vig Specific volume change due to vaporization cu ft/lb
W Velocity ft/sec
W Flow rate lb/sec
x Steam quality, fraction vaporized by weight None

*Pounds mass used unless otherwise noted. Lbf signifies pounds force

Table 1.5.2—Hydrodynamic Conversion Factors

English units x multiplication factor = CGS units

sq ft 929 Sq Cm
ft 30.48 cm

ft-lbf/lb 2.987 x 10" cm-dyne/gm

ft/(sec)(sec) 30.48 cm/(sec)(sec)
[lb/ibl/ft/(sec)(sec)] 0.03105 [gm/dyne][cm/(sec)(sec)]
lb/(sec)(sq ft) .488 gm/(sec)(sq cm,
Btu/lb .5555 cal/gm
lb/sq in. 6.895 x 10" dyne/sq cm
Btu/sec 252 cal/sec
Btu/sec 1054.8 Watts
cu ft/lb 62.42 cm”/gm
ft/sec 30.48 cm/sec
lb/sec 453.6 gm/sec
lbf/sq ft 478.8 dyne/sq cm
lb/(sec)(ft) 14.88 gm/(sec)(cm)
lb/cu ft 1.602 x 10-? gm/cm”

57
CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Generally, frn = f at A (Li + L2) and is sufficiently accurate for most calculations.
For cases in which the channel is horizontal or where the difference in hydrostatic head
between the ends of the channel is negligible, Eq. (2) reduces to:
2
AP = z*- |: 0.14 2
_ſv" DLDL#| 0.14
(4)
25 geBel P. b 2ge De Pºb

The term (uw/ub]** accounts for a change in viscosity of the fluid at the wall and of the
bulk fluid, as caused by heat transfer. This term can generally be neglected when the bulk
water temperature is greater than 200°F.
For pipes:

De = pipe diameter (5)

For non-circular ducts and annuli:

4 × flow area
* wetted perimeter (5a)

An approximation for parallel plates is:

De = 2 x distance between confining boundaries (5b)

For a circular annulus:

De = outside diameter minus inside diameter of annulus (5c)

Equation (2) has been used in the past for geometries other than pipes and has recently
been re-examined and substantiated for annuli.”
An evaluation of relative roughness as a function of the equivalent diameter of tubes or
channels may be made from Fig. 1.5.1. The friction factor is then obtained from Fig. 1.5.2
using this value of relative roughness. The friction factor may be obtained directly from
Fig. 1.5.1 for complete turbulence in rough pipes. Following general practice, the relative
roughness curves presented in Fig. 1.5.1 were extrapolated to the smaller equivalent diam
eters generally encountered in reactor design. For convenience in making pressure drop
calculations, the Reynolds number is given in Fig. 1.5.3 as a function of the product of
velocity and equivalent diameter for various water temperatures.

FLOW OUTSIDE TUBE BANKS

Flow Parallel to Axis

Pressure drop for turbulent flow outside tube banks with the liquid flowing parallel to the
axis of the tubes is calculated by Eq. (4). The friction factor (f) is evaluated from Fig. 1.5.2.
The Reynolds number is:

N, GDe – 4W = 4G (6)
Re T 1 T pub T pub'

where b' is the wetted perimeter per unit of flow area.

*References appear at end of chapter.

58
HYDRODYNAMICS CHAP. 1.5

EQUIVALENT DIAMETER (De), ft.

0.08 O. 4 0.6
0.06 0.2 0.3 || 0.5 4
O.05 0.07
0.04
RiveTED 0.06
0.03 STEEL -

O.02 O.O5

oncret E

wood 0.04
0.01 TAV
0.003 ºł 0.035 to
Lu

O-Oos 9
0.005 0.03 *
0.004 5
0.003 #
O.O25 -
Lil
0.002 #
wo *:
#
-

0.ool O.O2 =
g
# o.ooos 0
-- 0.018 u
§ 0.0006 tº
£ o.o.o.o.5 s:
w
>
0.0004 o.ois à
;:
- 0.0003 ©
cº

-
: 0.0002 O. O.14
$2
**

o:
0.0001 O.O12 É
0.000,08 <
*

0.000,06 --
0.000,05 S
G
0.000,04
0.000,03
o.o. E
M

0.000,02 0.009

0.000,01 0.008
0.000,008

0.000,006
Coo-oo
0.000,005 0.2 0.4 0.6 || || 2 3 4 5 6 lo 30 40 50

o'.3 o'5' 0.8

EQUIVALENT DIAMETER (De), in .
Fig. 1.5.1—Relative Roughness vs Equivalent Diameter. Reprinted from L. F.
Moody, Friction Factor for Pipe Flow, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 66, 1944.

59
CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

O. 1
O. O.9

O.O3

O.O7
.
O. O6

O.05

0.04

0.03

| O.O2
| .
w

O. O.1
O.009

oo:: 105 10.6 107 108

REYNOLDS NUMBER, Nse

Fig. 1.5.2—Friction Factor vs Reynolds Number. Reprinted from L. F.

Moody, Friction Factor for Pipe Flow, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 66, w

1944.

60
hydroDYNAMICS CHAP. 1.5

§ *

104

O. : 0.7 Toº Tole o.8 i 2 3 4 5 6 789 10

*..[4]
Fig. 1.5.3—Relationship Between Reynolds Number vs Velocity Times Equiva
lent Diameter for various Water Temperatures. Submitted by Argonne National
Laboratory, Sept. 12, 1952.

61
CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Flow Normal to Axis'

The friction pressure drop for isothermal turbulent flow across tube banks is given by:

2
AP fiMVimax (7)
O 2gc

where N = number of rows of tubes

Vmax = maximum velocity based on the minimum free area

The friction factors for unstaggered tubes are calculated from:

0.08 x1] [Do Gmax]-".”

f, = 4 |0.044 + →l l—t 8
1 | (xt- #|| Plf (8)

IM-L INE TUBES STAGGERED TUBES

[-º, o I AMETER F-ºr D I AMETER

TO O O O O O O O

––
tºº.” O O O NUMBER
of Rows
t— O
LONG ! Tud in AL O O Number
of Rows

PITCH Pi Tch
I O O ?. O TRANSVERSE I O O O O TRANSVERSE

| PITCH | | | FTYER

FL ow fu.ow

where n = 0.43 + 1.13/x, (9)

xi = ratio of longitudinal pitch to tube diameter
xt = ratio of the transverse pitch to tube diameter
Pitch is defined as the center-to-center distance between tubes.
The friction factors for staggered tubes are calculated from:

f, = 4 || 0.23 + →TFF I-
0.11 Do * -0.15
10
1 (xt - 1)1.” |lf (10)

RANDOML Y PACKED SPHERES

The local pressure gradient through a cylindrical bed of randomly packed spheres may
be calculated according to the equation:*
2
AP = #- (11)
ge 9 Ds

where G is the apparent mass velocity based on the total cross section of the bed and De is
the diameter of the spheres. Values of f, are shown in Fig. 1.5.4. At NRe of about 50,000,
f2 approaches a constant value of 16, where all pressure loss arises from form resistance,
causing changes in flow cross section.

APPLICATION TO PIPING AND PLENUMS

A convenient method of estimating pressure drop in a turbulent flow system is to use the
velocity-head concept. In a turbulent flow system, friction losses can be visualized in terms
of the kinetic energy of the fluid flowing. This can be shown from Eq. (4) since the kinetic
energy per pound of fluid is:

62
 :
105

104

Pressure Loss
and
Transfer
Heat
The
al,
et
Denton
H.
W.
from
Reprinted
Spheres. HPC
Kingdom
United
I.
Spheres,
Packed
Randomly
through
Flow
Fluid
in
1.5.4—Friction
Fig.
Packed
Randomly
for
Number
Reynolds
vs
(f2)
Factor

di/T
290cDs
(#
f2Gº
_
O
1
VDsº

NUMBER,
REYNOLDS

O.
O
1

1949.
28,
June
35,

o'
1 3
O

| 2
O 10

§
CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

kinetic energy vº
pound 2ge (12)

and P is proportional to V*/2ge. The kinetic energy can, in turn, be expressed as a pressure
differential by introducing density:

P. = − (13)

where P, is the velocity head in pounds force per square foot (lbf/sq ft) for a fluid moving
at a velocity V. A plot of velocity head for water expressed in pounds per square inch (psi)
as a function of temperature and velocity is shown in Fig. 1.5.5.

FLOW IN PIPES

The isothermal frictional pressure drop can now be written in terms of velocity heads
as:

AP L
Ny = p vº/2ge T f E (14)

where Ny equals number of velocity heads lost and f is obtained from Fig. 1.5.1.
For rapid estimation of pipe-friction pressure drop in a flow system where NRe lies in
the range 5,000 to 1,000,000, an average value of f equal to 0.022 may be used for clean,
commercial-steel pipe. Using this value of f in Eq. (14), an L/D = 45 is obtained; that is,
a length of clean, commercial-steel pipe equivalent to 45 diameters will have approximately
one velocity-head loss within plus or minus 40 percent. -

Equation (1) for the flow of incompressible liquids can be revised for a general flow sys
tem in which a variety of frictional losses are encountered, providing the maximum velocity
for each transition is the same:

AP = (z-z, p ++...+(N,
gc 28c + k, K. K, 1 K, 1 K, ...) (15)

where N, = f L/D and Ke, Ke, Kp, Ky, Ks are loss coefficients for enlargements, contrac
tions, and the like.

ENLARGEMENT LOSSES

The frictional energy loss due to sudden and sharp enlargement of the flow cross section
can be calculated according to the equation:

v; All’ſ vi
Fe = Ke 2g. T | -: 2gc (16)

where V1 = average linear upstream velocity

A1/A2 = ratio of upstream flow area to downstream flow area.
Values of Ke are shown as a function of A1/A; in Fig. 1.5.6.
CONTRACTION LOSSES

The frictional energy loss due to sudden and sharp contraction of the flow cross section
can be calculated with the equation:
HYDRODYNAMICS CHAP. 1.5

102

r—l

2.É.
*-

it
~To
$. &

10-1

10-2
1 10 100

WATER WELOCITY (W), ft/sec

Fig. 1.5.5–Velocity Head of Saturated Water as a Function of Velocity and

Temperature. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, June 30, 1952.

65
CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

1 -O

O. 9

O. 8 v:-"
2ff
v3
O. 7

N K e = ( º).
e = U -RT
O .. 6 \ 2

O. 5
N ENERGY LOSS = K e
Vi
2

l-H-NH
O .. 3 N
- N
O.
2 NN

O O. 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 O. 5 0. 6 O. 7 O. 8 O. 9 1 .0

Al
72
Fig. 1.5.6— Loss Coefficient for Sudden Enlargement. Submitted by Argonne
National Laboratory, June 30, 1952.

Fe = Ke: (17)

where V2 = average linear downstream velocity.

Values of Kc are shown in Fig. 1.5.7.

RADIUS-BEND LOSSES

The frictional energy loss due to 90-degree bends may be calculated according to the
equation:

V?
Fb = K, -
b 2gc
(18)

Figure 1.5.8 shows values of Kb as a function of bend geometry. Values are shown plotted
against the ratio of bend radius (from center of bend to centerline of pipe) to inside plpe
diameter.

Figure 1.5.9 shows the effect of bend angle on Kb at NRe = 2.25 x 10".

66
HYDRODYNAMICS CHAP. 1.5

V
ENERGY Loss = ke - 2
0.4 28 c

tº
* O. 3

H
2.
tal

9
ta.
th
u
O
O

3 o. 2
-1

O. 1

FOR NRe MUCH GREATER THAN 10°

O
O O. 1 O. 2 O. 3 O. 4 0.5 0. 6 O. 7 O. 8 0.9 1.0

A2
A.

Fig. 1.5.7–Loss Coefficient for Sudden Contraction. Redrawn from W. M.

Kays, Loss Coefficients for Abrupt Changes in Flow Cross Section with Low
Reynolds-Number Flow in Single- and Multiple-Tube Systems, Stanford Uni
versity Technical Report No. 9, Jan. 1, 1950.

67
CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

- ENERGY LOSS =
V2
-

2g c

O. 4

-->
>

—
2
* O. 3
9
M
M
MJ

8 Dº RAT IOS
%2
to
0.2
* *
O O. OO20

-1 O. OO15

0.001 O
0.0005
O. 1 SMOOTH

AccuRACY of Kb t o.o.3
O
O 1 2 3. 4 5 6 8 9 1 O 11 12

R.
D

Fig. 1.5.8–Loss Coefficient for 90° Bends. Reprinted from Standards of

Hydraulic Institute, 8th ed., Hydraulic Institute, New York, 1947.

O. 3O I I Kevº
D ENERGY LOSS= -lº
º --|-- 20c
s: 0.25
R=1-
º: -
R T; --

iſ o. 20 L-T
O LT #=2~
D
-
M- 0.15 H.

_-T | #=4 |
5 –2
8 O. 1 O Q.

wo - |-

3 O. O.5 P-
2 _º R
#=10 -z-
O
LT Note: smooth| surface at Nº. = 3.25 x 10°
l l l l l

O 10 2O 3O 40 50 60 70 80 9O

ANGLE OF BEND (a), degrees

Fig. 1.5.9–Loss Coefficient for Bends vs Angle of Bend in Smooth Tubes.

Reprinted from Standards of Hydraulic Institute, 8th ed., Hydraulic Institute,
New York, 1947.

68
HYDRODYNAMICS CHAP. 1.5

MITER-BEND LOSSES

The frictional energy loss due to miter bends may be calculated by means of the follow
ing equation:

V? V2
F.-K. i. or F. -k - (19)

Figure 1.5.10 gives the values of Ks and Kr as a function of the angle of the miter bend
and for various combinations of bends connected by straight pipe. The values are given for
a Reynolds number of 2.25 x 10".

LOSSES DUE TO VAL VES AND FITTINGS

The frictional energy loss through screwed valves and fittings can be calculated accord
ing to the equation:

F, - Ky 2gs (20)

Values of Ky are given in Table 1.5.3 in the column designated “Equivalent Velocity Head.”

TWO-PHASE-FLOW PRESSURE DROP

BASIC EQUATIONS

The general equation for homogeneous (no slippage), two-phase flow may be written in
differential form as:

–VCIP = ##
2

geBe
+ d |: ++-dz
2

[2gc] ge
(21)

Or:

2 2

-ap-#1%
ge De ge ge V (22)

The over-all pressure drop is then:

2 2 2

P-P,-#–
2gcDe ſº
Ji p tºl;-#|
ge|p1 pi | #-ſ’
8c paz (23)

The first two terms on the right hand side of Eq. (23) are the frictional pressure drop and
momentum pressure drop, respectively. The last term is the change in hydrostatic head in
the vertical direction “z.” For vertical, two-phase flow upward with constant heat genera
tion along a tube with saturated water at the inlet and equal steam and water velocities at
any cross section (no slippage) with exit quality of x, the last term in Eq. (23) is evaluated
as follows:

ſoda-i-
1 xvig Z2 – zi)
21 log e |...}
Vf (24)

The first two terms of Eq. (23) may be evaluated either according to the Martinelli
Nelson" method or according to the method developed at Hanford."

69
& :
loe
5°
15°
325e
ſº ||
e

-O
K.
:oO16
o34
K,-oo.42
K-oose
K-osz
K-129
K.
=0
Kr.044
K.-Ooe2
K=0.154
0.024
K.684
K.-1265
1.23D
2.37
D*
1440
//7So-
$o.
3o-
/ o
-
Xo,
--
o -
9.
un
Q.

-0.112
K,
K,-ol.43
K-0.450
0.108
K.-
K.-04oo
K.-0.400
:o
K.384
0.268
K.-
K.-O.227
0.236
O534
K--
soeot
K,

ºok,
K.%)
||K,
K,
"o
of
507|0.510
oi2O
||O294
123
Ox47
||Ofsº
K,
K.0415
03:50
|||os43
*o Oizº
444
O252
Os2O
||Ofoe
Oe
4.174|OS33
84
ox
-
ozso
167_i|O150 3
O.3OO
i.70"|oiás
||0.299
#| 4.42
iO377
||O.261
ot24
1.23
0457
||
oz86
||O.300
~o.
-
.5o"
O,280
|1O.117
1.91
oz72
O.156
||
4.67
O.312
||Oiº
O.378
-
||0289
|1Oo36'
390
|O
0.317
|O.86
Oter
Oiºs
||
2.37
.337
O.264
-
ooº;
ozºos
º'256
0.429
oš56
296
||OióO
3.77
O.342
Oizz
||
||O.242
373
oºze
ºs
Otoe
O.317
4.14
oss4
0-190
||
3.72,
4.70ſ
oisol
oA60
osse;
||O360
oig2
O-316
Soe
40
On
6.10||
O2/O
489,
O.360
O2O4]
O455
Oseº
532,
O442.
2444
9:22,
Oslº
cza
oººº.
osso

-RESISTANCE
k,
coefficient
smooth
For
surface *
VALUE
pTIMUM
of
N
a
oTERPolared
:RESISTANCE
K.
coefficient surface,
Rough
for
=oooz2
#
D

1.5.10—Loss
Fig.
for
Coefficient
Bends
Miter
Various
of
Straight
and
Angles
Sections.
Reprinted
Standards
from
Institute,
Hydraulic
of
8th
ed,
Institute,
York,
New
1947.
HYDRODYNAMICS CHAP. 1.5

Table 1.5.3—Pressure Drop for Turbulent Flow Through Screwed Valves and Fittings
(Reprinted from “Velocity Head Simplifies Flow Computation” by
C. E. Lapple. By permission from Chem. Engr. 56, May 1949.)

Pressure drop”

Equivalent ve
Type of valve or fitting Equivalent L/D locity head (Ky.)

Couplings 2 0.04
Unions 2 .04
Gate valves f
Open 7 0.1
% open 40 .8
% open 200 4
% open 800 15
Globe valves,t bevel seat
Open 350 6
% open 550 10
Composition disk
Open 330 6

% open 500 9
Plug disk
Open 500 9

% open 700 13
% open 2000 35
% open 6000 110
Angles valvest
Open 170 3
Y or blow-off valvest
Open 170 3
Check valves?
Swing 110 2
Disk 500 10
Ball 3500 65
Water meters
Disk 400 8

* Pressure drop is expressed as straight pipe of same nominal size as the fitting.
Where the pressure drop is expressed as L/D, L is the equivalent length (feet) of straight
pipe and D is the inside diameter (feet). Where the pressure drop is expressed as velocity
heads, the velocity in the pipe is based on the nominal diameter of the fitting
t Flow direction through valves has negligible effect on pressure drop
1 Values apply only when check valve is fully open, which generally is attained at pipe
velocities over 3 ft/sec for water

71
CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

MARTINELLI-NELSON METHOD OF PREDICTING TWO-PHASE PRESSURE DROP

The friction pressure drop for two-phase isothermal flow may be written as:

- dPTPF
APrpr = AP, *# (25)

Values of [dpTPF/dPol as a function of pressure and quality are given in Fig. 1.5.11.
Equation (25) may be used to calculate frictional pressure drop of a constant-quality mix
ture flowing through a horizontal tube of constant diameter. The velocity of the water and
steam are not necessarily equal in this correlation.
For the specific case of a horizontal, uniformly heated tube with constant heat input per
unit length and saturated water at the inlet:

2
- AP G
APrp = AP, *:# * g. + (26)

where r is a multiplication factor accounting for slippage of the steam in water as it affects
the change in momentum pressure drop.
Values of [APTPF/A Pol as a function of pressure and exit quality are given in Fig. 1.5.12.
This figure is the result of integrating the frictional term as indicated by Eq. (23) using
point values of friction factor as given by Fig. 1.5.11. For equal velocities of water and
steam, r in Eq. (26) is equal to the change in specific volume of the mixture during the
acceleration. This is evident from a comparison of Eq. (23) and (26). For unequal veloci
ties (slippage), values of r may be obtained from Fig. 1.5.13. For vertical tubes, the fric
tion and acceleration losses from Eq. (26) may then be added to the loss in hydrostatic head
to give total pressure drop.

HANFORD METHOD OF PREDICTING TWO-PHASE PRESSURE DROP

Hanford' has developed a method for evaluating pressure drop of two-phase flow with
heating through a horizontal tube. The method involves a stepwise calculation along a tube
with a summation to give the total pressure drop.
This method involves the use of the equation:

AP = C,1w"Tim
Wi-" Fix-cy;-;
*" |p, T p,
1 1
27
(27)

where:

c. -—% 28
1 - 2ge A*D;" (28)
1
C, - - 29
2 A°ge (29)

The constant Cs in Eq. (28) is defined by McAdams' in the equation for turbulent flow:

C
f = F **u-r 30)
(NRe) (

where f is given in Fig. 1.5.1.

72
HYDRODYNAMICS CHAP. 1.5

1000

100

i;
# O

32O6

2O 40 6 O 80 1 OO

QUALITY, percent vapor by weight

Fig. 1.5.11—Ratio of Local Two-phase Pressure Gradient to Pressure Gradi

ent for 100 Percent Liquid Flow as a Function of Quality and Pressure. Re
printed from R. C. Martinelli and D. B. Nelson, Prediction of Pressure Drop
During Forced Convection Boiling of Water, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 70,
(1948).

73
CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

100% Exi T QuAL ITY

-
–90
-80
7o
60
50
40

§
;

1o too 1000 10,000

PRESSURE, psia

Fig. 1.5.12–Ratio of APTPF to AP, as a Function of Exit Quality and Pressure.

Reprinted from R. C. Martinelli and D. B. Nelson, Prediction of Pressure Drop
During Forced Convection Boiling of Water, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 70,
(1948).

74
hydroDYNAMICS
CHAP. 1.5

1. Ooº. Ex-IT QUAL 1 TY

90

0.01
10 1 Oo 1 OOO

PRESSURE, psia

Fig. 1.5.13—Multiplier (r) vs Pressure for Various Exit Qualities. Reprinted

from R. C. Martinelli and D. B. Nelson, Prediction of Pressure Drop During
Forced Convection Boiling of Water, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 70, (1948).

75
CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

For smooth tubes, the value of Cs in Eq. (30) is 0.184 for a range of NRe from 5,000 to
200,000.
Equation (27) is of the same form as Eq. (23). The first term is the frictional drop. The
dynamic viscosity is evaluated as:

1 – 1-x 4 x (31)

The second term in Eq. (27) is the pressure loss due to the change in momentum of the
flowing fluid and is based on equal steam and water velocities (no slippage). The constants
C1 and C2 include the flow area.

CALCULATION FOR POSSIBILITY OF SONIC FLOW

In making any two-phase pressure-drop calculation, it should be determined that the

exit velocity is less than the sonic velocity. If sonic flow (Gsonic) exists within a channel,
the Martinelli-Nelson method may be used to evaluate the two-phase pressure drop up to
the position where the sonic velocity exists. The pressure loss at the end of a channel due
to sonic flow can be evaluated from Fig. 1.5.14. For a given flow and given exit enthalpy,
Fig. 1.5.14 shows the pressure just inside the exit, independent of the back pressure:

VCIP + Vdv_ 0 (32)

c

or:

dP
Gsonic = W-8cay. (33)

Values of Gsonic as a function of quality and pressure are shown in Fig. 1.5.14. It was
assumed that (dP/dv) should be evaluated at constant entropy.

EFFECT OF LOCAL BOILING

The general effect of local boiling is to increase pressure drop above that existing with
out boiling. The increase is dependent upon pressure, subcooling, and heat flux and is, at
this time, unpredictable. However, the increases are small compared to the increases that
occur with net boiling."
FLOW IN PARALLEL CHANNELS

In heat exchange equipment containing many flow channels in parallel, each channel re
ceives a share of the flow, the amount of which depends upon channel geometry, the orienta
tion of the channels with respect to each other (as determined by the connecting headers),
and the pressure-drop flow characteristic of each channel. The flow is governed by the
total pressure drop across the channels. If the resistance to flow through any particular
channel changes, the flow in that channel will change. This problem is obviously of primary
importance in a heat exchange system of parallel channels using boiling water as the meth
od of heat transfer, but it also is important in a system transferring heat to liquid water by
forced convection. Careful analysis of the latter systems should be made since the acciden
tal formation of steam in one channel of a heated parallel-channel arrangement may de
crease the flow of liquid water in this channel, thereby causing more steam to form. The
additional resistance to flow may even cause the flow of liquid water to stop entirely, and
burnout of a reactor channel may result. The condition for burnout, therefore, must be con

76
 CHAP. 1.5

77
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CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

sidered as part of the parallel-channel flow problem. In the case of a natural-circulating

system, a more complicated problem is encountered where steam formed in one channel
causes a flow stoppage in another channel. This case is discussed in this chapter under
“Parallel Flow Channels in Same Vertical Plane.”
No analytical methods are available in the literature for the solution of two-phase flow
in parallel channels. There are procedures, however, for avoiding flow instabilities and
dangerous operating conditions. The general practice is to design each channel for stable
flow by introducing properly sized orifices in series with each flow channel, provided that
an analysis of single-flow channels indicates the need for such orifices.

PRESSURE DROP VS FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

A typical curve for two-phase flow is shown in Fig. 1.5.15 for a given geometry, heat
flux, inlet subcooling, and pressure. Also shown are the pressure-drop curves for liquid
flow and vapor flow. It is recommended that the Martinelli-Nelson method be used to
calculate the two-phase region of this curve. Although the shape of this type of curve has
been experimentally verified, the analytical methods presently available do not check
quantitatively to the experimentally measured pressure drops in all cases.

| Pressure Drop
Peº for Wapor

0. |
<!
|
a
co
Cº
O

* 1– — — — —4 — — — — — — —
cº

7.
3 /
Cº- / <^
0. /*2 Pressure Drop
/ _T for Li qu i d
/ - T

MASS FLOW RATE, W

Fig. 1.5.15–Typical Flow Curves for Heating Water. Submitted by Argonne

National Laboratory, June 2, 1952.

At high flow rates the characteristic curve follows the liquid line. As the flow is re
duced with heat flux held constant, net boiling occurs, and the curve departs from the liq
uid line. Further reduction in flow causes more steam formation, and the curve approaches
the vapor line. The manner in which the curve passes through the two-phase region de
pends upon the above mentioned variables. Fig. 1.5.15 shows two such paths: Curves A
and B.
Points 1 and 2 on Curve A indicate two possible conditions of flow at which the channel
could burn out or overheat. At flows greater than given by points 1 or 2, the heat is being
transferred either by boiling or forced convection with surface temperatures not greatly
in excess of saturation. At flows lower than given by points 1 and 2, the heat transfer co
efficient decreases to a very low value, and surface temperature increases to very high
values. These points cannot be calculated with presently available data and must be de
termined experimentally. In vertical channels with L/D ratios greater than 50 and heat
fluxes less than 200,000 Btu/(hr)(sq ft), this overheating occurs when the steam quality
is between 80 to 100 percent.

78
HYDRODYNAMICS CHAP. 1.5

The general shape of the characteristic pressure-drop flow curve for each of the indi
vidual channels in parallel is the criteria for flow stability. The pressure drop across the
parallel channels is also the pressure drop across each individual channel. The inter
section of a horizontal line, representing the header pressure drop or the pressure drop
across the parallel channels, with the characteristic curve of each channel determines the
flow and the character of the flow in each channel. If the horizontal line representing this
header pressure drop intersects a channel characteristic pressure drop curve at more
than one point, an unstable condition is indicated. This possibility of instability exists with
channels having a multivalued curve (such as A, Fig. 1.5.15). Channels represented by the
single-value curve B, are considered to be stable channels.
Qualitatively, the general character of the pressure-drop curves can be obtained by inte
grating Eq. (22). The assumptions necessary in integrating the equation are a constant heat
input, a horizontal tube, a constant friction factor for two-phase mixture, no slippage of
steam through the water, no sonic discharge at the exit of the channel, and a sufficiently
high absolute pressure so that the pressure drop across the channel will not appreciably
affect the saturation pressure. The resulting Eq. (34) may be used to determine the effect
of subcooling, pressure, and geometry. The equation should not be used where accurate
values for two-phase drop are needed.
f QLVig 2 AHW* AH*W* Vigo AHW*
P = HF}Lviv’ + âniº (w- + + ;\w- (34)
2ge De A fg Q Q” hfggcA

Differentiating Eq. (34) with respect to W gives the inflection point in the pressure-drop
flow curve as a function of friction factor, L/D ratio, pressure, and inlet enthalpy." The
condition for stability is:

s #|*|
gcDe]l Vig
(35)
fL 2 /3 ſ fl iſ fl
+ + – 2 \| +–
1
+ —
#. 8c 2 #. lº. :
The equation is shown in Fig. 1.5.16. These curves give the maximum permissible inlet
enthalpy for flow stability with a given ratio of L/D and given pressure. In a system in
which heat is being transferred, the condition for instability is independent of the heat trans
ferred. However, in an unstable condition, the degree of instability is dependent upon the
heat transferred because the maximum pressure drop in the unstable region increases with
heat input.

PARALLEL FLOW CHANNELS IN SAME HORIZONTAL PLANE

The condition of two-phase flow through parallel channels in the same horizontal plane
is illustrated in Fig. 1.5.17. This figure shows two typical curves. Curve A is the pres
sure-drop flow characteristic of channels which are generating an average heat flux. Curve
B is the pressure-drop flow characteristic of channels which have a higher-than-average
heat generation.
The header pressure drop is defined as the difference in static pressure between the in
let header and the exit header. This pressure drop occurs across all channels since they
are in parallel. If this pressure drop should fall as low as the minimum point on curve B
of Fig. 1.5.17, the flow in the hot channel would be too greatly reduced, and the channel
would burn out as defined above. Burnout occurs since the pressure drop at burnout is
higher than the available pressure drop.

79
 ： ：• ••
WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

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80
HYDRODYNAMICS CHAP. 1.5

Pressure Drop for

Hot Channel 5

Burnout Pressure

: Point S

(W) Flow in
Aver age Channel s
Which Causes a Burn
Out 1 in Hot Chann el S.

MASS FLOW RATE, W

Drop for
Aver age
Channel 8

Fig. 1.5.17–Burnout with Two-phase Flow. Submitted by Argonne National

Laboratory, July 2, 1952.

PARALLEL FLOW CHANNELS IN SAME VERTICAL PLANE

The parallel-flow problem is further complicated in that various orientations of the

channels with respect to the vertical will affect the flow distribution in parallel channels.
This is true in cases where the hydrostatic head becomes a sizeable amount compared to
the friction and acceleration pressure losses, such as might occur in natural-circulating
systems with steam generation. An example is the emergency cooling system of a water
cooled reactor.
If the channels are in any position other than vertical, density differences between the
inlet and exit headers will affect the flow distribution. In fact, the flow may actually re
verse in some channels.
In order to demonstrate the effect of headers, consider the two channels A and B in
Fig. 1.5.18. The static pressure drop between points 1 and 2 through channel A is equal
to sum of the dynamic pressure drop and hydrostatic pressure drop. The dynamic pres
sure drop is defined as the sum of the friction and acceleration losses:

Pi— P2 = APA + ſ^p, sin 9 al - AP, “p, sin 9 L (36)

where Pi – P1 = total static pressure drop between points 1 and 2

APA = dynamic pressure drop between points 1 and 2
pA = density of fluid at any point in channel A
8 = angle of orientation with respect to the horizontal
L = length along channel
pA = average density in channel A.

If the headers are assumed large so that the velocities in the headers are small, the pres
sure drop between points 1 and 3 and between 2 and 4 will be largely hydrostatic pressure
drop. Therefore:

Pi—P, s—pin d cos 6 (37)

P-P, * APs + ba L sin 9 (38)

P. - P. & d pout cos 6 (39)

81
CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Flu i d Out

Flu 1 d In

Fig. 1.5.18—Parallel Flow Channels. Submitted by Argonne National Labora

tory, July 2, 1952.

Adding Eq. (37), (38), and (39):

Pi – P2 * APs + 5B L sin 8 + d cos ° (Pout - Pin) (40)

Equating (36) and (40):

APA +TA L sin 6 = APs + pe L sin 6 – d cos ° (Pin - Pout) (41)

This equation could also have been written as:

(Pin - Pout)A - (Pin - Pout)b – d cos 6 (Pin - Pout) (42)

Equation (42) states that channel A has less pressure drop than channel B by an amount
equal to the difference in hydrostatic head of the inlet and exit headers. If both channel A
and B receive the same amount of heat, channel A will operate at a lower flow rate than
channel B. A critical condition might occur if 9 were small, pout were small in comparison
to pin, and d were large. Under these conditions, the right side of Eq. (42) could become
negative causing a reversal of flow in channel A with resulting burnout of channel A. In a
single-phase system or in a system where the fluid is being pumped, this parallel flow
problem probably does not exist.

EFFECT OF ORIFICES

In general, parallel-channel, water-cooled reactors operate in the non-boiling region.

However, knowledge of the boiling characteristics of a particular reactor and an analysis
of two-phase flow is essential to the safety of the reactor. A proper heat-transfer and
fluid-flow analysis is the first step toward preventing burnout of any channel. The second
step is to prevent reactor operation in an unstable flow region.

82
HYDRODYNAMICS CHAP. 1.5

Orificing is one method of maintaining steady flow through a tube with a pressure-drop,
flow-characteristic curve similar to that shown in Fig. 1.5.17, curve B.
If the pressure-drop, flow-characteristic curve for a heated channel is multivalued, it is
probable that burnout would occur when the flow decreases or when the heat input increases
to the point where boiling begins. Using an orifice at the entrance to the tube would change
the pressure-drop flow characteristic of the orifice and tube. By proper selection of orifice
size, the curve with the orifice then becomes single valued. Curve A in Fig. 1.5.19 is the

Pressure Drop Across C

Or if 1 c e and He at ed Pre S sure
Ch. Channel rop Acry’s
<! En tranc 92.
al O rif i c
O
º
2
o (W) at Burnout | /
Lal of Curve C B ~
º: 2"
->
º
o
ºl
º:
CA
Pressure Drop
...”
Across He at ed
- T (W)/ at Burnou Channel
_-T f Curve A

MÁss flow RATE, w

Fig. 1.5.19–Effect of Small Orifice on Pressure Drop. Submitted by Argonne
National Laboratory, July 2, 1952.

pressure drop across the heated channel; curve B is the pressure drop across the entrance
corrective orifice; and curve C is the sum of curves A and B or the pressure drop across
the orifice and heated channel. Curve C is then the difference in header pressure between
the entrance and exit header. The orifice for all of the channels is determined, therefore,
by the orificing required for the channel with the maximum heat input, at the maximum
possible power level expected. The flow which causes burnout is shown to have decreased
by the installation of an orifice. This type of orifice will prevent unstable flow in all re
gions of operation. These tubes, therefore, could be designed to operate in the boiling re
glon.
In many cases, the pressure drop, and consequently the pumping power, required to ori
fice for this much safety would be prohibitive, especially if the reactor were designed
to operate in the single-phase region. Another method of orificing which does not require
as much pressure drop across the orifice is based on the assumption of a momentary
flow stoppage in a channel. Figure 1.5.20 shows the effect of a small orifice on pressure
drop. The general practice is to design each channel for stable flow by ensuring that suffi
cient header pressure is available to sweep steam from the channel should boiling be initi
ated. It is postulated that the header pressure does not change but that some protection is
needed to guard aginst the possibility of a momentary flow stoppage, such as that caused by
a plugged channel.
The typical multivalued pressure-drop curve is shown as curve CAB. The orifice curve
intersects curve CAB at the design operating point. If the flow should momentarily de
crease to point E, the sum of the channel-pressure drop and orifice-pressure drop would
be less than the header-pressure drop. The resulting excess pressure drop would restore
the flow to point A.
If the header-pressure drop should decrease, it may be shown from Fig. 1.5.20 that the
orifice curve would then intersect channel curve CAB in three points. Operation of the

83
CHAP. 1.5 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

channel in the boiling region would be unstable. This type of orifice does not necessarily
provide protection for design operation in the boiling region. It does afford some protection
for a reactor designed to operate in the non-boiling region. The header pressure drop must
not be permitted to decrease, however. If, as was done in Fig. 1.5.19, the pressure drop
across the orifice is added to the pressure-drop curve for the channel, the resulting curve
will in all probability be multivalued.

In 1 et Header Pressure Drop Across C

“-y Oriſ 1 ce. At Entrance Ž
D *- D

B ==S
Pressure Drop
wall able To
-

-
Design
A/_Operating
Point

: Restore

Pressure Drop
In Channel
rio, 22

*_-
E >

MASS FLOW RATE, W

Fig. 1.5.20–Effect of Large Orifice on Pressure Drop. Submitted by Argonne

National Laboratory, July 2, 1952.

A method recommended for sizing the orifice is to have an inlet header pressure, DD, a
given percentage greater than the peak pressure, B, in the two-phase region. Several reac
tors are designed so that this increase is 30 percent. If the design operating point were at
C or at higher flows, no orifices would be required for this method of protection.
Since unstable operation is probably caused by a sudden increase in power or decrease
in flow (which in turn causes the formation of vapor by boiling), it is possible to prevent
boiling over a wide range of conditions by pressurizing the system. The pressure may be
established so that no boiling would occur between the design power and twice design power
or any other overload figure set by the controlability of the reactor.
When mechanically feasible, advantage should also be taken of natural circulation in the
design of a reactor cooling system. Natural circulation has a tendency to act as a protec
tion, as do orifices. When steam is formed or water is heated it has a tendency to rise.
It is possible that, even without the use of pumps, sufficient circulation could be induced
to cool a reactor momentarily. For this reason, the flow should be upward. In upflow, the
pressure-drop flow characteristic of a heated channel has less tendency to exhibit a multi
valued pressure-drop curve than downflow, and this also leads to a more stable condition.

REFERENCES

1. W. H. McAdams, “Heat Transmission,” 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York and London, 1938.
2. H. C. Clairborne, “A Critical Review of the Literature on Pressure Drop in Non-Circular Ducts and Annuli,” ORNL-1248, May 22,
1952.
3. W. H. Denton, et al., “The Heat Transfer and Pressure Loss in Fluid Flow Through Randomly Packed Spheres,” United Kingdom
HPC-35, 44 pp, June 28, 1949.
4. R. C. Martinelli and D. B. Nelson, “Prediction of Pressure Drop During Forced Circulation Boiling of Water,” Trans. Am. Soc.
Mech. Engrs., 70 pp, 695-702, 1948.
5. Reactor Division, Hanford Works, Nucleonics Department, HDC-1565, November 30, 1949 (classified).

84
HYDRODYNAMICS CHAP. 1.5

6. W. H. Jens and P. A. Lottes, “Analysis of Heat Transfer Burn Out, Pressure Drop, and Density Data for High Pressure water,”
ANL-4627, (1951).
T. M. Ledinegg. “Instability of Flow During Natural and Forced Convection,” Die Warme, 61, pp 891-898, (1938).

SELECTED READING LIST

HANDBOOK OF ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS, O. W. Eshback, 2nd ed, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1952.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS HANDBOOK, L. S. Marks, 5th ed, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1951.
FLUID AND PARTICLE MECHANICS, C. E. Lapple et al., University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, March 1951.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS HANDBOOK, R. T. Kent, 12th ed, Vol 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1950.
ENGINEERING HYDRAULICs, H. Rouse et al., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1950.
PREDICTION OF PRESSURE DROP DURING FORCED CIRCULATION BOILING OF WATER, R. C. Martinelli and D. B. Nelson, Trans.
Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 70, pp 695-702, 1948.
STANDARDS OF HYDRAULIC INSTITUTE, The Institute, 8th ed., New York, 1947.

PIPING HANDBOOK, 4th ed, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1945.
TUBETURNS ENGINEERING DATA BOOK #111, Tube Turns, Inc., 1943.

FLOW OF FLUIDs THROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS, AND PIPE, Crane Co., Technical Paper No. 409, Chicago, 1942.
HEAT TRANSMISSION. W. H. McAdams, 2nd ed, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York and London, 1942.
FLUID MECHANICS FOR HYDRAULIC ENGINEERS, H. Rouse, 1st ed, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York and London,
1938.

FAN ENGINEERING, Buffalo Forge Co., 4th ed., Buffalo, New York, 1938.
HYDRAULICS, E. W. Schoder and F. M. Dawson, 2nd ed, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York and London, 1934.

85
 CHAPTER 1.6

Spatial Distribution of Heat Generation

J. R. Dietrich and D. Okrent

HEAT GENERATION IN FUEL ELEMENTS

The symbols used in this chapter are defined in Table 1.6.1.

Of the total useful primary energy emitted per fission, some 91 percent appears as
kinetic energy of charged particles (fission fragments and beta particles—see Volume 1,
Table 1.2.17). The fission-fragment energy is converted to heat within a few thousandths
of a centimeter of the fission site, and the relatively unimportant beta energy is converted
within about a centimeter of the fission site. Consequently, the spatial distribution of heat
production in the fuel elements may be taken, with sufficient accuracy, to be the same as
the distribution of fission density in the elements. In most water-cooled reactors, fissions
are caused almost entirely by thermal neutrons, and the fission-density distribution is
proportional to the distribution of the product of f(thermal) and Žf(thermal). Since the
distribution of fissionable material in the fuel elements, and hence the spatial variation of
21 is generally known, determination of the power distribution in the fuel elements reduces
to determination of the thermal neutron flux distribution. Indeed, all water-cooled reac
tors which have to date reached an advanced stage of design employ uniform density of
fissionable material in the fuel elements, and the initial power distribution is just pro
portional to the thermal flux distribution. This initial distribution is modified somewhat
with time as non-uniform burnup of fissionable material and, in converter reactors, non
uniform production of new fissionable material proceeds. This effect is not large for the
degree of burnup designed into current reactors. The possibility of employing non-uni
form fuel distribution to control the power distribution in fuel elements is discussed later.

QUASI-HOMOGENEOUS REACTORS

Included in this class are those reactors in which the fuel element-moderator-coolant
structure is so fine-grained that no important change in neutron density occurs in going
from, for example the center line of a typical fuel element, out through the fuel element,
to the center line of the adjacent layer of moderator. This condition is met if at least one
dimension of the typical fuel element is much less than one diffusion length. Most highly
enriched reactors designed for high power density fall into this class. A typical example
is the MTR. For such a reactor, the thermal flux distribution may be computed as though
the fuel element-moderator matrix were an equivalent homogeneous region, and the power
distribution in the fuel elements may be obtained from the product of the flux distribution
and the local value of the fission cross section.

87
CHAP. 1.6 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.6.1—Symbols

Symbol Definition Units

A, B, C Extrapolated lengths of sides of a bare rec- cm

tangular reactor in x, y, and z directions,

respectively
Ae Equivalent bare half-length of reflected finite cm

cylindrical core = half-length of core plus

reflector saving at one end
Aoi Average absorption of neutrons to form of n/(cm”)(sec)
emitters of type i
Así Average absorption of neutrons to form 8 n/ (cm”)(sec)
emitters of type i
Ayi Average absorption of neutrons to form y n/(cm”)(sec)
emitters of type i
a Radius of flattened zone of cylindrical core cin

Eai Energy of a particles from emitters of new

type i
Bal Energy of 8 particles from emitters of mev

type i
Eyi Energy of y photons from emitters of type i mew

En Fraction of total available energy per fission -

emitted as kinetic energy of neutrons

(~0.027 for U**)
E, (prompt) Fraction of total available energy per fission - -

emitted as prompt y energy (~0.027 for

U’s)
By (delayed) Fraction of total available energy per fission -

emitted as delayed y energy (~0.032 for

U’s)
Jo (p) Bessel function of the first kind, of argu
ment p
keft Multiplication constant of finite reactor, in
cluding effect of leakage
k- Multiplication constant of an infinite medium
having the same material properties as
those of the finite reactor being considered
L” Thermal diffusion area for neutrons cm.”
mfp Neutron mean free path cin

MTR Materials Testing Reactor - - -

P(r) The local power density in a reactor watts/cm”

core, computed as though the core were
homogeneous
P Average power density over the entire watts/cm”
reactor core
Re Equivalent bare radius of reflected cy- cm

lindrical core = core radius + reflector

saving
r Radial coordinate in cylindrical coordinate cin

system
x, y, z Coordinates in the cartesian system cm

Yo(p) Bessel function of the second kind, of

argument p
B Probability that a gamma photon, emitted
inside a sample of material, will be ab
sorbed inside the sample

88
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT GENERATION CHAP. 1.6

Table 1.6.1 – (Continued)

Symbol Definition Units

k? Reactor buckling in a given, specified cm-*

direction
p” Radial buckling of a cylindrical reactor cm-2
= k– – 1/L* + T for an infinitely long cy
linder in one-group theory
Pl Energy attenuation coefficient for gamma cm
radiation

£ Logarithmic energy decrement for elastic - - -

scattering of fast neutrons

Žs Macroscopic scattering cross section cm-1
Pai Average macroscopic thermal cross section cm-1
for absorption of neutrons to produce a
emitters of type i
Psi Average macroscopic thermal cross section cm

for absorption of neutrons to produce 8

emitters of type i
-1
2-. Average macroscopic thermal cross section cm

for absorption of neutrons to produce y

emitters of type i
Ef (thermal) Average macroscopic thermal fission cross cm-1
Section
$ (r) Local neutron flux density n/(cm2)(sec)
$ Neutron flux density averaged over reactor n/(cm”)(sec)
core

*s, *thermal Thermal neutron flux density n/(cm”)(sec)

*f, *epithermal Epithermal neutron flux density n/(cm”)(sec)
r Slowing down area for fission neutrons cm.”

DISTRIBUTIONS IN BARE AND REFLECTED coRES

Most practical reactor shapes may be approximated by a rectangular parallelepiped or a
right circular cylinder. Sometimes, for general analyses covering a range of variables, it
is convenient to approximate practical shapes by a sphere. The thermal neutron flux dis
tributions for homogeneous bare reactors of these three shapes are given in Table 1.6.2.
The reactor dimensions are the extrapolated dimensions (Volume 1, Chapter 1.3).
Practical reactors almost always have a reflector of some kind which modifies the flux
and power distributions. Usually, the power distribution in a reflected reactor is computed
by solving one of the group approximations to the reactor equation in the core and reflec
tor regions, with appropriate continuity conditions at the interfaces between regions.
These methods are discussed in Volume 1, Chapter 1.4. This chapter gives a physical
description of the effects of reflectors on power distribution, with illustrative examples.

Typical Features of Distribution in Reflected Reactor

The effect of a reflector on the criticality conditions in a reactor can be described in
terms of a reflector saving (Volume 1, Chapter 1.5). The reflected reactor behaves,
reactivity-wise, as the equivalent bare reactor; i.e., as a uniform reactor whose boundary
lies at a distance equal to the reflector saving beyond the boundary of the active core of
the real, reflected reactor. The concept of the equivalent bare reactor is useful also in
describing the flux distribution in a reflected reactor. The thermal flux distribution in the
core of such a reactor will be the same as that in the equivalent bare reactor (Table 1.6.2)

89
CHAP. 1.6 WATER-COOLED SWSTEMS

Table 1.6.2 — Thermal Neutron Flux Distributions in Bare Homogeneous Reactors

of Simple Shapes

Reactor geometry Flux distribution *

Rectangular parallelepiped of extrapolated side length - Tx Ty Tz

A, B, and C in x, y, and z directions. Axis of co- q (x,y,z) = to cos A cos is cos c
ordinates at center of reactor
Right circular cylinder of extrapolated length H and TZ 2.405 r
extrapolated radius R. Axis of coordinates at center
- - - b (z, r) = Po cos I,
H
Jo R
of reactor
Sphere of extrapolated radius R d Tr
q, (r) = *
r0 Sin
si R

* to is in all cases the central value of the flux, determined by the power level at which the
reactor is operating

to within a thermal diffusion length or two of the core-reflector boundary. In the regions
closer to the boundary, the flux distribution will depend upon the detailed properties of
both the core and the reflector. Typical features of the distribution in thermal reactors
employing moderating reflectors are illustrated by the distributions shown in Fig. 1.6.1
which were computed for an H2O reflected core composed of H2O, zirconium and enriched
uranium. From the center of the core out to about two diffusion lengths (7cm) from the
core boundary, the radial thermal flux distribution follows very nearly the Jo variation
typical of the cylindrical reactor of the equivalent bare radius Re (= radius of core + radial
reflector saving), and the axial distribution follows nearly the cosine variation typical of
the equivalent bare half-length Ae. Near the reflector, the thermal flux rises above the
equivalent bare distribution, and in the case illustrated, peaks in the reflector. This rel
ative increase in the thermal flux results from (1) the moderating effectiveness of the re
flector being somewhat greater than that of the core and (2) the macroscopic thermal ad
sorption cross section in the reflector being less than that in the core. The ratio of the
production rate of thermal neutrons in the reflector to the rate of loss (per unit thermal
neutron flux) by absorption and leakage from the reflector is thus higher than the corre
sponding ratio in the core, and a maximum in the thermal neutron flux results. Evidently,
the effect depends upon the relative magnitudes of the thermal and epithermal fluxes in the
core as well as on the relative moderating effectivenesses and absorption cross section of
the core and reflector (see below). Since the average epithermal flux in the case illus
trated is almost four times the average thermal flux, the peaking in the reflector is pro
nounced. -

Effect of Reflector Saving

It is evident from the above discussion that if the ratio of core dimension to reflector
saving is large the ratio of the central thermal flux to the minimum thermal flux in the
core will also be large. This effect is illustrated by Fig. 1.6.2A which shows thermal flux
distributions in similar Be-H2O cores' with different reflectors.

'References appear at end of chapter.

90
 :
8O cm
CORE,
OF
PLANE
CENTRAL
FROM
(z)
DISTANCE
AxIAL

|| | | l |
5
| || | | | |

ić
||
Core | |
|
Hº-1
|e|| T |
—l
| |
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|)
SS
IS! O2
4O
6OO
e|
|
| 5|
|5!
| 3 !T
s M
| | or Laboratory,
National
Argonne
Submitted
Reflector.
H2O
an
by
Surrounded
A:
Curve
1952.
15,
Nov.
| | | | | | | | Zbeislroacrtopintvieuolmny,
H2O,
an
of
Rposed
with
Core
Uranium
Enriched
Aand
Thermal
High
1.i6eactor
DFig.
Flux
Epithermal
and
Thermal
RComputed
a
in
Com
s.t1-rTiwbou-gtriounp
->

B|
CURVE
|

1–1–
A
Dºs thermal|
*

N ©epi|
thermal

~~
O

dradial
axial
B:
Curve
istribution.;

cm
Axis,
CORE
FROM
(r)
DISTANCE
RADIAL
|
n L} ||| | || |

—-
---.|
Core r
All 2O
O
6O
4O

| | | |
`s
|
5|
| E|
|?|
§ | Gr
| -
He—
| | | #
i
| || | || |
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|
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\–––Re. }
(tº
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*epit|
| hermal °thermal
|
|
TZ's
|

se
CHAP. 1.6 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

CURVE A
1.2 H.

w
o
|
3.0 |-- Core Boundary
5
#, 8H Reflector Soving |
--- 18.0 cm

à
u

50.6
Or
º- - 7.2 en- |
} -
->
ul
|
fo H
<ſ N | N |
:
+ n ol-
NN N
|
It O.2 |

O | | l N N
O IO 2O 3O 4O 50
RADIAL DISTANCE FROM CORE AXIS, cm

I.O

: CURVE B
§
>
> O.8k
s H Core Bound ory
f
5

3 oe H.
—l
u

&
# 04H
->
ul
z

3 oz!— {N
: |NN
LLJ | NN
E NN
O | | Il N\ |
O IO 2O 3O 40 50
RADIAL DISTANCE FROM CORE Axis, cm

Fig. 1.6.2— Computed Radial Thermal Flux Distributions in Cylindrical

Be-U”-H,o Cores with Various Reflectors. Reprinted from ORNL-133, Sept. 1,
1948. BE: H2O = 1:1 by volume; 416°F; length = diameter = 61 cm. Curve A,
Effect of Reflector Saving: (1) 8-in.-H.O reflector; core loading 20 kg U* plus
sufficient uniformly distributed absorber for criticality; (2) 8-in.-Be reflector;
core loading 14 kg U” plus sufficient uniformly distributed absorber for crit
icality. Curve B, Effect of Moderation in Reflector: (1) 8-in.-H.O reflector;
core loading 20 kg U” plus sufficient uniformly distributed absorber for criti
cality; (2) 8-in.-Fe reflector; core loading 20 kg U* plus sufficient uniformly
distributed absorber for criticality.

92
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT GENERATION CHAP. 1.6

In reactors designed for high average power density the use of a good, moderating re
flector is often more important for the purpose of achieving a low maximum : average
power ratio than for the purpose of reducing critical mass. Curve (2) of Fig. 1.6.2A
illustrates the point that a moderating reflector with large saving, when used on a small
core having a high ratio of epithermal to thermal flux, can cause the power peak at the
edge of the core to exceed that at the center. This result is usually undesirable. The
effect can be controlled by adjustment of the reflector thickness as well as by adjustment
of the reflector composition.

Non-moderating Reflectors
If a non-moderating reflector is used, the thermal flux distribution does not rise above
the curve for the equivalent bare reactor. If the thermal absorption cross section for such
a reflector is relatively high (e.g., as for iron), the thermal flux may drop considerably
below the equivalent bare distribution near the edge of the core. Figure 1.6.2B compares
computed radial thermal flux distributions in water-reflected and iron-reflected cores.
The two distributions differ widely near the core boundary even though the iron reflector
saving is only slightly less than that of the water. It may be noted that a non-moderating
reflector can provide appreciable reflector savings on a reactor having a high fast-neutron
leakage even though the thermal absorption cross section of the reflector be large.

Effect of the Ratio *epithermal /*thermal

As pointed out above, the height of the thermal neutron peak in a moderating reflector
relative to, for example, the general level of thermal flux in the core depends upon the
relative magnitude of the epithermal leakage from the core into the reflector. This de
pendence can be illustrated by the change in thermal flux distribution resulting from a
change in the (uniform) loading of fissionable material in a given reactor. As the loading
is changed, the average epithermal flux in the reactor, and the epithermal leakage at a
given fission rate (power level) will change only slightly. The average thermal flux at a
given power level will, however, vary inversely as the loading [i.e., ºthermal = const x
(Reactor Power/Loading of Fissionable Material)]. Thus, the ratio of thermal to epi
thermal flux will vary roughly inversely as the loading, and large changes in loading may
produce marked effects on thermal flux distribution. Figure 1.6.3A shows computed
radial thermal and epithermal distributions in a water-reflected beryllium-water core
containing 2.6 kg of U* (the clean critical mass). The maximum thermal flux is about
58 percent as high as the maximum epithermal flux. There is a marked divergence of the
thermal flux from the equivalent bare distribution near the core boundary, but no peaking
(i.e., the derivative of the flux remains negative in the core). Figure 1.6.3B shows the
computed flux distributions in the same core loaded with 20 kg of U*. (Sufficient thermal
absorber is added to the core to maintain criticality.) The maximum thermal flux is now
only 7.5 percent as high as the maximum epithermal. In fact, if the thermal flux is multi
plied by the ratio 20 kg/2.6 kg the resulting product is in about the same ratio to epither
mal flux as was the thermal flux in the 2.6-kg core, except near the core boundary. There
is now a very pronounced rise in the thermal flux near the boundary.

Accuracy of Calculations of Flux Distribution

Figures 1.6.4 and 1.6.5 show comparisons of computed and measured thermal flux dis
tributions in Al-H.O. (MTR)” and Zr-H.O critical assemblies. The water-reflected
reactors (Figs. 1.6.4A and 1.6.5) have been treated only by two-group calculations. Part

93
CHAP. 1.6 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

I.O

CURVE A

O.8 H
| o q2 epithermol
8
vo |
> |
S |
2 |
e O.6H- |
× |
->
—l ||
u
Core
3 ſsoundary
or qº thermol |
5 |
ū O4H
- 2 |
—l |
<ſ |
>
Gr N |
ul \ |
mº
H. \

O2H- \\
\|
\
| \
| \
| \
O | | Il \\
O IO 2O 3O 4O
RADIAL DISTANCE FROM CORE Axis, cm

Fig. 1.6.3—See facing page for legend.

94
SPATLAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT GENERATION CHAP. 1.6

CURVE B

O.O.O.468
ſq. epithermol
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|

Core
Boundary

|
T/ 2 O |
2.6
- qº fthermol |

|
|
|

N
|- \
O2
N |
N
lv
| N
| \
| \
| \

O
| | || \\
O IO 2O 3O 4O

RADIAL DISTANCE FROM CORE Axis, cm

Fig. 1.6.3—Computed Radial Thermal and Epithermal Flux Distributions in

Be-U”-H,o Cores with Different U* Loadings.
Cylindrical, Water-Reflected,
Reprinted from ORNL-133, Sept. 1, 1948. Be : H2O = 1:1 by volume; 416°F;
length = diameter = 61 cm; 8 in. H2O reflector. Curve A, U* loading = 2.6 kg
(clean critical mass); reflector saving = 6.8 cm. Curve B, U* loading = 20 kg plus
sufficient uniformly distributed absorber for criticality; reflector saving = 7.2 cm.

95
CHAP. 1.6 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

| i
|
1.4 | |
Go CURVE A | | Ds (H2O). O.142

§ 1.2 | –––– Ds (H2O)= o.167

>
i rol
-

S ||| 9 | o
Expº”
3 1.0 } \
5 /
-
/
x |
-> O.8 |
—J
la- |
z

20.6 |
Hº
º Core Boundary—- | Colculoted
2 O.4 | Core
& - | | Boundary
-E
§ 0.2 Core | Reflector

# O.66 Al: Loo Heo by vol. | Pure Hºo

ke's L62O | |
O | | | i l l | |
O 5 IO 15 2O 25 3O 35 4O

RADIAL DISTANCE FROM core Axis, cm

Fig. 1.6.4—See facing page for legend.

96
SPATLAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT GENERATION CHAP. 1.6

I .4

CURVE B | - - Two Group

| o
- - - - - -- Three Group
1.2 H. | - - Four Group
#2 >< O Experimentol points

O. 8

|-- Core Boundary

O6 º
|
|
O.4H- Core | Reflector
O.76 Al: Loo H2O by vol. | Beryllium

O.2H- |
|

O | L i I | L | |
O 5 IO 15 2O 25 3O 35 4O

RADIAL DISTANCE FROM CORE AXIS, cm

Fig. 1.6.4— Measured and Calculated Radial Distributions of Thermal Neutron

Flux in MTR Critical Assemblies. Reprinted from Monp-402, Oct. 29, 1947.
Curve A, H2O reflector, two-group calculations. Curve B, Be reflector, two-,
three- and four-group calculations.

97
:
36

D2iOs-treifbluetcitoends,
Radial
Calculated
and
Measured
1.6.5—
HFig.
an
in
Flux
Neutron
Thermal
of
quadrants
adjacent
two
in
measured
were
points
cof
The
assembly.
the
by
is
aylciunldarticoanl

Zr-H,o-U”
sets
two
The
1951.
24,
Aug.
ANL-4684,
in
presented
data
on
Based
Assembly.
Critical
Reflector
Core

|
l
|
—l
l
|
I

cm
DISTANCE,
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|8
32
28
24
2O
|6
O
42
.

model.
two-group
ed
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Colcul

|-

|.O o
H
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I

3
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT GENERATION CHAP. 1.6

of the discrepancy between calculation and experiment in Fig. 1.6.4A results from the fact
that the criticality calculation did not predict the correct position of the core boundary.
Inasmuch as computation seems to predict too high a thermal flux peak in the reflector in
Fig. 1.6.4A and too low a value in Fig. 1.6.5, it seems as likely that the discrepancies
represent inaccuracies in reactor constants or in measurement as that they indicate in
adequacy of the two-group model for flux computations. It may be noted that neutron
transport calculations by the spherical harmonics method indicate that diffusion theory
underestimates slightly the thermal flux rise near a boundary between water and core
material (see Fig. 1.6.8).
When the equilibrium slowing-down distribution in the reflector material is much dif
ferent than that in the core material, it is hardly surprising if two-group calculations fail
to give correct flux distributions. Figure 1.6.4B compares two-, three-, and four-group
calculations for such a case with the measured distribution. The three-group calculation
fits the measured distribution better than either the two-group or the four-group. This
result suggests that more may be gained by improving the constants to be used in three
or four-group theory than by using a larger number of groups.
It may reasonably be concluded from the relatively few cases in which calculated flux
distributions have been checked by experiment, that if a two-group or multi-group calcu
lation predicts critical mass correctly it will predict the power distribution in the core
with sufficient accuracy for determining heat-removal requirements. An exception would
be a reactor in which the power distribution near the core boundary is of primary impor
tance, either because the power peak at the core boundary is the highest in the core, or
because of thermal expansion difficulties arising from the steep power gradient.

Flux Distributions in D2O-moderated Reactors

Few D.O-moderated reactors in the quasi-homogeneous class have been investigated

in detail. The general features of flux distributions discussed above hold also for D2O
moderated reactors. In general, diffusion lengths in D2O-moderated reactors will be con
siderably longer than those in H2O-moderated reactors, and flux perturbations caused by
the reflector will extend farther into the core. If reasonably thick D2O reflectors are
used, quite large reflector savings may be realized-up to perhaps 40 cm in practical
cases. The combination of these two characteristics — long diffusion length and large re
flector saving – makes it feasible to attain quite flat power distributions in simple D2O
moderated cores up to three feet or more in diameter. Some measurements of flux distri
butions in Uº-D, o critical assemblies have been reported,” and flux distributions in
D;0-reflected, H,O-moderated reactors were made in connection with MTR critical ex
periments." A design study of a small, enriched, D2O-moderated power reactor has been
made which contains calculated power distributions,” and subsequent studies of the same
general type of reactor contain further computed (two-group) flux distributions and curves
of reflector savings."

EFFECTS OF CONTROL ELEMENTS

Since all types of control elements must be capable of varying the neutron balance in the
reactor in order to fulfill their purpose, they will all modify the neutron flux distribution
to a greater or lesser degree. To date, only absorbing rods and plates have been used as
control elements in water-cooled reactors. They are usually, but not necessarily, black to
thermal neutrons and may also have significant absorption in the resonance energy range.
Since the effect of such a control element is to depress the thermal neutron flux in its
vicinity, the elements should, in the interests of achieving flat power distribution, be in
stalled in the regions of maximum thermal flux. The choice of the maximum flux regions
is also dictated by control considerations since it results in maximum rod effectiveness
(exception: if the maximum flu? region is near the edge of the core—see discussion of

99
CHAP. 1.6 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

importance functions in Volume 1, Chapter 1.6 for more quantitative treatment of this
subject). In fact, it can be shown that approximately maximum effectiveness can be ob
tained from a group of rods if the rods are so located in the reactor as to produce the
flattest possible flux distribution."

Symmetrical Calculations; Cell Approximations

If a single, round control rod at the center of the reactor is used, the resulting flux
distribution can be computed by a straightforward application of two-group theory. If a
reasonably large number of identical control rods are installed in a uniform lattice
arrangement, the reactor region containing the control rods can be divided into a number
of approximately equal “cells,” each containing a control rod along its axis. The approxi
mate flux distribution within a typical cell can be computed by a group method on the
assumption that the neutron current is zero at the cell boundary. The gross flux distri
bution over the reactor can be computed on the assumption that the region of the reactor
composed of the cells constitutes a separate, effectively homogeneous region with appro
priate average properties. Detailed discussions of the cell method are contained in Volume
1, Chapter 1.6 and in reference (7).

Off-center Rods; the Nordheim-Scalettar Method

If the number of control rods is small, if all the rods are not identical, or if the spacing
is not such as to allow the identification of a typical “cell,” a more general method of flux
computation is required. The two-group Nordheim-Scalettar method" has been frequently
employed. This method imposes no restrictions on the number, placement, or variation
in size of control rods inserted in the axial direction in a cylindrical core. The labor of
computation may, however, be great if many rods are used in an arrangement of poor
symmetry. The method has two deficiencies: It usually applies the boundary condition on
the thermal neutron flux at only one point on the rod surface, and it applies no boundary
condition on the epithermal flux at the rod except that the flux remain finite at the rod cen–
ter. The first of these deficiencies may not be serious if the rods treated are round, since
the treatment inherently fits the boundary condition on an approximate circle if the con–
dition is applied at one point on the circle. An extension of the method is available,” which
provides for boundary conditions at additional points. The second deficiency results in an
apparent fast-neutron current into the rod which has no counterpart in fact. As a result,
the calculation tends to overestimate the effectiveness of rods. The discrepancy can be –
come quite large if the rods are large or if the epithermal flux in the reactor is very
much higher than the thermal flux. It is generally advisable before applying the Nordheim –
Scalettar method to a complex arrangement of rods to test it against a straightforward two
group calculation for the case of a single rod installed on the reactor axis. It would seem
reasonable to presume that if the size of “Nordheim-Scalettar” rods is adjusted to give
the same reactivity change as the actual rods the calculated resulting flux distributions
would be reasonably accurate in most cases. More recent computation methods, which are
fundamentally similar to the Nordheim-Scalettar method, provide for a more realistic
boundary condition on the epithermal flux."."
Figure 1.6.6 is a flux distribution computed by the Nordheim-Scalettar method for a
water-reflected core composed of H2O, zirconium, and enriched uranium, and containing
six fully-inserted round control rods.” The flux flattening produced by the rods is evident
if Fig. 1.6.6 is compared with Fig. 1.6.1A. The degree of flattening produced by such a
ring of strong control rods (the rods are worth about 3 percent keff each) is quite sensitive
to the distance from the core axis to the rod axes; a change in this distance of one diffu
sion length can change drastically the ratio of the height of the central flux peak to the
height of the flux peak outside the ring of rods. The optimum rod position for flattening
depends on the size and effectiveness of the rods and on the reactor constants.”

100
 :

$
f
Conston
Core rNoreactor
a
(1)
Curve
method.
equivalent
the
for
is
(2)
curve
reflector;
water
with
dheim-Scalet ar
85.05 cm
5 cm?
2Core
9
-
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Rod 1D;
0.395Control
= =
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N
N
º o
Plot
Flux
of
Line Hoexagonal
a
in
Rods
Round
Inserted
Fully
Six
Containing
and
Uranium,
Criched
Pattern.
bymputation
7O
3O
6O
5O
4O
|O
O
2O Dieactor
Flux
1.6.6—
RFig.
a
in
Rod
One
Through
En
and
Zirconium,
H2O,
of
Composed
stribution

N toRod
Core
Hº-
Reflector
--

N&o
/
TSL’
N
z |
NS
NS
cm
AXIS,
CORE
FROM
DISTANCE
RADIAL
NNº.2

@Né,
*
(2)
z >
\||7
S.J.,
N

~s
||
---

reactor.
bare

-
12
--
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|O
-
8
& 7
3 |

9O
c s \
*
3
5\ \
—l
5
u- §:
\ ->

E
CHAP. 1.6 WATER -COOLEID SYSTEMS

It is the usual practice to reduce the labor involved in computing flux distributions with
control rods by solving the problem for the equivalent bare reactor, where the boundary of
the equivalent bare reactor with rods is assumed to be the same as the boundary of the
equivalent bare reactor without rods. In the case of Fig. 1.6.6, the equivalent bare com
putation gives a flux distribution that is identical with the reflected distribution except
near the core boundary. This result would be expected so long as the rods are far from
the core boundary.
Derivations of the Nordheim-Scalettar equations and of the modified Nordheim-Scalettar
equations are available for a number of specific cases.”
Non-circular Rods

In calculations of the heat-removal requirements of reactor fuel elements, the details

of the flux depression very near the control rod are not usually important. Consequently,
it is usually permissible to replace rods of inconvenient shape by equivalent circular rods,
i.e., by circular rods which produce the same change in reactivity. If experimental data
which indicate the correct equivalent circular rod are not available, estimates may be
made by methods' which neglect the slowing-down of fast neutrons near the rod, or a nu
merical computation may be made by relaxation techniques" to determine the equiva –
lent circular rod for any specified rod shape.
Figure 1.6.7 shows the result of a calculation by the relaxation method of a cross
shaped rod of 4% in. span." The calculated diameter of the equivalent circular rod is
3.68 in. Reference (7) would give 3.65 in. for the same rod. Experimental measurement
in a H2O reflected, Zr-H2O-U” critical assembly showed an equivalent diameter of 3.5
in. The measured rods, a cadmium-silver alloy, absorbed appreciably in the resonance
range, whereas the calculations were made for pure thermal absorbers.

PARTIAL INSERTION OF CONTROL RODS

Control rods when fully inserted do not affect the axial flux and power distributions in
the reactor except insofar as the rods may change the reflector saving and the behavior
of the thermal flux near and in the reflector. If the rods are only partially inserted, how –
ever, they tend to cause a depression in the general level of the flux in the region of the
core penetrated by the rods in relation to the rest of the core. The resulting axial flux
pattern, instead of having the basically cosinusoidal shape symmetrical about the central
plane of the core, becomes unsymmetrical with the maximum displaced in the direction
away from the control rods. Although a certain degree of assymmetry of this type may be
beneficial for heat removal if properly integrated with the cooling design, a large effect,
which may result if the partially-inserted rods control several percent reactivity, can re
sult in a severe power peak.
No practical general method has been developed for calculating the three-dimensional
flux distributions in reactors with partially inserted control rods. Ideally, the complete
flux distribution could be computed for such a reactor by numerical methods such as the
relaxation method. Such calculations are exceedingly laborious. As yet, no thorough in
vestigation of the capabilities of high-speed automatic digital computers for this problem
has been made. In many cases, approximate methods (see below) are considered suffi –
ciently accurate for practical purposes.
Since absorbing control rods produce flux depressions rather than flux peaks in their
vicinity, it is not usually necessary to know the detailed flux distribution near the control
rods to design heat-removal systems. Often, satisfactory approximations to the general
distribution can be computed by spreading the effects of the rods over a suitable volume,
the boundaries of which are such as to simplify the application of boundary conditions,
e.g., by extensions of the “cell” techniques.

102
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT GENERATION CHAP. 1.6

5 I I I /
Ds= 0.2745 cm 2d = 0.05466 cm- /
Constant Thermol Source= in Mcu cm/sec) /
Asymptotic Flux = 18.295 n /(sq cm)(sec) /
N

/
/

3.
N ×

N
*~
O (2.2/ZZZZZZZ Z-Z Z.Z.Z.Z.Z.Z
O | 2 3 4 5

DISTANCE FROM ROD AXIS, in

Fig. 1.6.7— Thermal Flux Contour Map Surrounding a Cross-type, Thermally

black Control Rod in an Infinite Medium of Zr-H.O-U* Core Material. Redrawn from
ANL-4795, Mar. 15, 1952. Computation by relaxation treatment of thermal neutron
diffusion; slowing-down density assumed constant outside the rod. Numbers on con
tour lines indicate flux resulting from slowing-down density of 1 neutron/(cm’)(sec).

EFFECTS OF WATER HOLES

It has been pointed out above that if a core having a high ratio of epithermal to thermal
flux is surrounded by a moderating reflector of relatively low cross section, a maximum
will be produced in the thermal flux in the reflector, and a power peak will occur at the
core-reflector boundary. For the same reasons, the presence of any sizeable lump of
low-cross-section moderator (e.g., water) in the core will cause a thermal flux peak in
the moderator and a power peak in the adjacent core material. Such power peaks may be
quite serious if they occur in regions of the core where the power density is already high.
The control-rod channels in water-cooled reactors constitute such flux-peaking “water
holes" if they are allowed to fill with water as the control rods are withdrawn. This situ
ation has been avoided in the MTR by attaching fuel elements to the ends of the absorbing

103
CHAP. 1.6 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

control rods located in the core. The control rod channel is thereby filled with material
of approximately the same composition as the surrounding core when the control rod is
withdrawn.

Computation with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes of the flux peaking caused
by “water holes” has not proved particularly difficult. A spherical harmonic calculation
(up to the prºterm) has indicated that diffusion theory gives reasonably accurate thermal
flux distributions around water slabs of thickness one mean-free-path in an infinite medi
um of Zr-H.O-U” core material.” Figure 1.6.8 shows a comparison of thermal flux
distributions computed by the spherical harmonic method and by diffusion theory. Flux
distributions around single water holes of odd shapes can be computed by relaxation meth
ods using diffusion theory. Because small water holes, although they may perturb the
thermal neutron flux drastically, do not produce a large change in the total (fast plus
thermal) neutron population (i.e., they do not represent large reactivity changes), it is
possible to superimpose the local thermal flux peak owing to a water hole upon the unper
turbed thermal flux distribution which would have existed if the water hole had been full of
core material. It is also possible to superimpose to some extent the flux peaks resulting
from neighboring water holes.
Reactor designs have not, to date, required any detailed investigation of the effects of
water (D2O) holes in D2O-moderated reactors. D2O slabs of 2- to 4-cm thickness have
been computed by diffusion theory” for reactors having epithermal-to-thermal flux ratios
of about two. The peaking at the core-D2O boundary is about 8 percent and 20 percent,
respectively, for the two slabs. The effects extend quite far in the core material because
of the long diffusion length, and it might be expected that by employing judicious design
the effects of D2O holes might be kept unimportant in most D.O-moderated cores.

METHODS OF IMPROVING POWER DISTRIBUTION

If the characteristics of a reactor do not change greatly with time (i.e., if the reactivity
does not change much because of burnup of fissionable material, formation of fission
product poisons, or for other reasons during the life of the reactor), it is not difficult in
theory to achieve quite a flat power distribution by proper design. Improvements beyond
those obtained by the use of a good reflector and judicious placement of control rods may
be made by non-uniform distribution of absorber, fissionable material, or (conceivably)
moderator. These improvements may or may not result in the requirement of larger crit
ical mass or improved fuel quality. It has been shown in Volume 1, Chapter 1.5 that the
critical mass of the reactor can actually be minimized if the fuel is so distributed as to
produce uniform thermal flux. This uniform flux distribution is achieved by concentrating
the fuel near the center of the reactor. The power density is therefore not constant but
rather concentrated near the reactor center. If, however, the core is made up of identical
fuel subassemblies separated by moderator, the spacing of the subassemblies can be de
creased near the center of the core to achieve a flat radial flux distribution with the result
that the power output of all subassemblies is equal. This type of arrangement is of inter
est when moderator in excess of that required as coolant is necessary (for water-cooled
reactors in the supercritical temperature range, and possibly for boiling reactors).
If the core is constructed of close-packed subassemblies, uniform power distribution
can be achieved by varying the fuel content of the fuel elements. Figure 1.6.9 illustrates,
for a spherical reactor, the effect on power distribution of various fuel distributions, from
the uniform distribution to that producing uniform power distribution.” The curves are
normalized to the condition that the reactor power output is limited by the maximum power
occurring at any point. The upper set of curves shows the assumed fuel distributions, and
the middle set the corresponding thermal flux distributions. The lower set of curves, the
power distributions, are the products of the other two sets of curves. Listed also on the
figure is the ratio of critical mass, for each fuel distribution, to the critical mass with
uniform fuel distribution.

104
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1952.
15,
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 -
-
-

CHAP. 1.6 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

In a reactor which must provide for large changes in reactivity, the problem of provid
ing continuous flat power distribution is much more difficult because most types of control
elements cause changes in power distribution as they change reactivity. This effect is
minimized if the source of control is an absorber of adjustable concentration distributed
uniformly in the reactor core. This type of control might be achieved in water-cooled re
actors if the absorber were dissolved in the coolant water. A practical system of this
type has not been developed to date.”
A second possibility for control of water-moderated reactors is to compensate for re
activity changes by adjustment of the average temperature and density of the water mod
erator.

HETEROGENEOUS (NATURAL-URANIUM AND LOW-ENRICHMENT) REACTORS

The heterogeneous design is used in natural-uranium and slightly enriched reactors to
reduce the resonance absorption by U*. The reactor core is periodic in structure and
can be considered to be composed of “cells” symmetrical about the fuel element. The
gross flux distributions in the reactor can be computed, as for homogeneous reactors,
using appropriate average properties determined by detailed analysis of a typical cell.
The detailed flux distributions can then be approximated by superimposing the distribution
in a typical cell upon the gross distribution computed by homogeneous reactor theory. Such
calculations are discussed in Volume 1, Chapter 1.5.
The principles governing the gross flux and power distributions in heterogeneous re-
actors are the same as those discussed above under “Quasi-homogeneous Reactors.” The
quantitative characteristics of heterogeneous reactors are, however, sufficiently different
to emphasize different aspects of the power-distribution problem. These differences are
most pronounced in graphite-moderated and D2O-moderated reactors; some slightly en
riched, H2O-moderated designs begin to approach the compact structure characteristic of
the quasi-homogeneous reactors.
Some important characteristics of most heterogeneous designs are:
(1) The size of the reactor core is usually rather large in comparison with the reflec
tor saving; the reflector is less effective in flattening the power distribution than in the
case of a small, highly enriched reactor
(2) The epithermal flux is not usually much higher than the thermal flux, and the ther
mal flux peak at the core-reflector boundary is small or absent. This characteristic
frequently does not apply to H2O-moderated cases.
(3) In most cases, the cell structure is already so coarse that small departures from
the typical structure (e.g., water holes) are not important. An exception occurs if the
perturbation of structure exists very near the fuel element (see Wilkins Effect, in “Local
Flux Distributions,” below). >

(4) Large changes in reactivity do not usually occur during operation of the reactor. It
is therefore feasible, and customary, to employ spatial variations in the properties of the
reactor to achieve advantageous power distributions.
The characteristics of heterogeneous reactor power distributions are discussed in more
detail in the following.

RADIAL DISTRIBUTION

For an infinitely long, unreflected, cylindrical core of uniform composition, the radial
distribution would be a Bessel function of the first kind, that is, a Jo (Kr), where k is de
termined by the L”, T, and k. of the lattice. Presumably k... would be larger than neces
sary to supply the leakage out through the periphery, and control rods or some fixed ther
mal absorber would be distributed throughout the core to keep the reactor critical. To
flatten the power, a redistribution of the thermal poison is made. By shifting enough of

106
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT GENERATION CHAP. 1.6

2.4

24.68O2

: .. O

O. 8

O. 6

OO.I 89O

f
O. 7

O. 6
O 4. 8 12 I6 2O 24

RADIAL DISTANCE, cm

Fig. 1.6.9—Distributions of Fuel, Thermal Flux, and Power in Spherical,

Water-moderated, Water-reflected Reactors: Total Power Assumed Limited
by Local Value of Power Density. Redrawn from NACA-RM-E52C11, 1952.
Two-group calculations by electrical network reactor simulator. Numerical
computation gives 3% higher critical mass than that tabulated for the case of
uniform power distribution.

107
CHAP. 1.6 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

the absorber to the middle section of the core to make kee equal to unity there and by
completely removing the poison from an annular band of thickness, t, which is determined
by the L*, r, and ke of the lattice, the reactor can be kept critical but the flux distribution
changed so that it is flat across the middle and more highly buckled (or curved) near the
periphery. A comparison of the flattened flux and Jº for the infinite cylinder are given in
Fig. 1.6.10. The proper radius, a, of the flattened zone is readily found from one-group
diffusion theory.

Flottened
Distribution

Reflector Soving

Hºs-Active Core

Fig. 1.6.10—Qualitative Comparison of Flattened Radial Flux Distribution

with Unflattened [J,(Kr)] Distribution. Submitted by Argonne National Labora
tory, Nov. 15, 1952.

The solution for the flux in the annular region is:

* = AJ,(ur) + Yº(ur) (1)

Where:

and A is a constant to be determined. Since the flux goes to zero at the outer radius R:

A=
Yo(uP)
TJS(MR) (2)

Now dº/dr (r = a) must be zero for criticality. Hence:

Yiſua) YoſuK) (3)

J1(1a) Jo (1R)

108
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT GENERATION CHAP. 1.6

If p and R are known, this transcendental equation may be solved numerically for a.
If the reactor considered were a semi-infinite slab, the equation defining the thickness,
t, of the buckled zone on each side of the flattened center would be:

L” +
t=; WH (4)

If the reactor is not infinitely long, allowance must be made for leakage out the ends.
Hence, ke in the flattened zone must be slightly greater than unity. Also, the thickness of
the buckled zone will increase slightly if the lattice has the same kee, L*, and T.
If the reactor has a radial reflector, usually the equivalent bare core is considered
(i.e., actual core plus reflector saving). The thickness of the buckled zone is found as be
fore, but now only part of it lies in the actual core.
It is noted that the one-group solution may differ significantly from the most accurate
two-group solution, and the latter might best be employed to check design choices. In
Fig. 1.6.11, the results of one-group and two-group solutions for a “flattened” reactor
are compared. It is seen in this case that the smaller L* in the buckled zone causes the
two-group thermal flux to fall off slightly at the edge of the flattened zone.

LOCAL FLUX DISTRIBUTIONS

A distinctive characteristic of heterogeneous reactors lies in the local flux variation

around each fuel element which is superimposed on the over-all flux distribution. Although
the reactor lattice is generally square or hexagonal, it is common practice to “cylindri
cize” the lattice cell for calculation purposes.
Another local perturbation on the thermal flux occurs in reactors using fuel elements
in the shape of short slugs having end caps. The “Wilkins” effect” occurs, whereby the
small absorption and possibly large thermal mean-free-path of the end caps results in a
higher flux at the ends of the slugs than the middle. This increase may range from 10 to
35 percent, depending on the particular geometry.

POWER DISTRIBUTIONS IN SPECIFIC REACTORS

MTR

Power distributions in the MTR are currently being measured. The radial distribution
is variable according to the loading pattern used. Figure 1.6.4B is an approximation to the
radial distribution with slab loading. The actual distribution is modified somewhat by the
existence of various holes in the reflector.” The axial distribution in a freshly loaded
MTR core is quite unsymmetrical because of the partial insertion of control rods. It is
estimated that the limiting total power output of the fresh core is about half that of the
core when depleted enough to allow complete withdrawal of the rods.

HEAT GENERATION IN OTHER CORE COMPONENTS AND MATERLALS

Although the density of heat production in other parts of the core is usually much lower
than that in the fuel elements, its computation may be fully as important because it speci
fies the amount of cooling required for the non-fuel-bearing parts of the core as well as
the thermal stresses and strains experienced by those parts.

109
i
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Flottened
GH
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roup
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E
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT GENERATION CHAP. 1.6

THE HEAT SOURCES

The immediate source of heat is, in all cases, a charged particle which is being slowed
down in the material in question. The common classes of such charged particles are:
(1) High-speed electrons formed or ejected from atoms in the process of gamma-ray
attenuation. The gamma rays may include secondary gammas from n — y reactions as well
as the prompt and delayed fission gammas.
(2) Atomic nuclei knocked-on by fast-neutron collisions.
(3) cº-particles formed in n – or reactions (e.g., in boron or lithium control rods).
(4) B-particles emitted in the decay of radioactive isotopes formed by neutron capture.
While these charged particles are the immediate heat sources, they all stem, ultimately,
from the neutrons and gamma rays (prompt and delayed) emitted in connection with fission.
The energies available in the primary fission gammas and neutrons are given in Volume 1,
Table 1.2.10. The energies involved in secondary reactions (n – or, n–B, n—y) must be
evaluated separately for the particular reactions in question.

APPROXIMATE GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR HEAT GENERATION IN A PIECE OF

MATERIAL EMBEDDED IN THE REACTOR CORE

The following expression includes the common sources of heat in a sample of non
fissioning material embedded in a reactor core:
3
Heat production per cm^ = (neutron energy loss per cm" owing to elastic collisions) +
(absorption of fission-gamma energy per cm") + (absorption of energy from distributed
secondary gammas per cm") + (absorption of energy per cm’ from secondary gammas
produced in the sample itself) + (energy per cm” of n – o and n – 3 reactions in the
sample).
The expression neglects inelastic scattering, which is usually unimportant in water
moderated reactors. The following gives approximate evaluations for the various terms
of the above expression. The approximations are quite rough, and more accurate calcu
lations should be made if the result is at all crucial. It is assumed that the following
quantities are known or can be approximated for the reactor in question:
(1) P(r), the local total power density, computed as though the reactor were homogene
ous, and including the energy of the fission fragments, in watts per cm°.
(2) P, the average total power density over the entire core, in watts per cm”.
(3) Ps (r), the local thermal-neutron flux density.
(4) ºf (r)/4 f, the local distribution of fast-neutron flux.

NEUTRON ENERGY LOSS BY ELASTIC COLLISIONS

Approximations: All fast neutrons slow down in the core; energy absorption in any
material proportional to £2 s where Xs is evaluated at some “appropriate” energy:

2s)s.
(Heating per cm" at r) = P *(r) ($2s)sample
-

En watts/cm”
dºf ($2s)core

2s should be evaluated somewhere in the region between 0.5 mev and 2 mev. This ex
pression gives only a rough estimate since Xs varies rather rapidly with energy in the
neighborhood of 1 mev for the light elements. However, in many cases, the slowing-down
energy is a small part of the total heating, and a rough estimate will suffice. If the rough
relation indicates slowing-down energy to be important, more detailed calculations should
be made.

111
CHAP. 1.6 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

ABSORPTION OF FISSION-GAMMA ENERGY

Approximations: Local gamma energy absorption per cm” in core material = local
gamma energy production per cm” when core material is assumed homogeneous in com—
position:

(Heating per cm” at r) = P(r) * [Ey(prompt) + Ey(delayed)] watts/cm”

core

where usample and ucore are the energy absorption coefficients for gammas in the sample
and in the core, respectively. p. should be evaluated at 1 to 2 mev. The relation is good if
the core is large and inhomogeneities (including the sample) small compared to 1/u. As
written, the relation applies when the reactor has operated long enough for the delayed
y-emitters to come to equilibrium. If this condition does not hold, Ey (delayed) may be
modified by application of the delayed gamma decay data (Volume 1, Chapter 1.2).

ENERGY FROM DISTRIBUTED SECONDAR Y-GAMMA SOURCES

Approximations: The core material, including the secondary-gamma emitters, is ho

mogenized; local gamma energy absorption per cm” in core material = local gamma energy
production per cm":

(Heating per cm" at r) = 1.6 x 107* *sample

|l core
+s (r) i
E.;
y1
watts/cm”

where the Xyi apply to the materials of the core.

In applying the relation, dºs (r) should be the equivalent homogenized value; e.g., local
flux depressions less than 1/p should be ignored (unless caused by the secondary-gamma
emitters themselves). The relation applies when the core is large and inhomogeneities
(including the sample) small compared to 1/p.

ENERGY FROM SECONDARY-GAMMA EMITTERS IN THE SAMPLE ITSELF

Approximations: Only the average heat production per cm' is evaluated. If the sample
is a weak absorber (causes negligible flux depression):

(Average heating per cm” of sample at r) = 1.6 x 107* Bºs(r) E 2, E, watts/cm”

i

where the Xyi apply to the materials of the sample and B is the probability that a photon
emitted in the sample will be absorbed in the sample. If the sample shape can be approxi
mated by a sphere, an infinite cylinder, or an infinite slab, 3 can be read from Table 1.6.3.
If the sample is a strong absorber, the average absorption of thermal neutrons per cm”
of sample per second (Ayi) by the ith type of y-emitter must be calculated by appropriate
means, and:

(Average heating per cm’ of sample at r) = 1.6 x 107* 8 × Ay, Eyi watts/cm”
i

ENERGY FROM N – o AND N–3 REACTIONS IN THE SAMPLE

Alphas and, unless the sample is very thin, most betas emitted in the sample will pro
duce their heat in the sample. If the sample is a weak absorber:

(Heating per cm" of sample at r) = 1.6 x 107* *s (r)).i (2aiBai PBiFBI)

112
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT GENERATION CHAP. 1.6

Table 1.6.3—Probability, 8, That a Gamma Ray Emitted Inside a Sample Having Absorption
Coefficient pi Will Be Absorbed Inside the Sample

Source uniformly distributed

Source uniformly distributed" over volume of samplc over surface of sample
Infinite cylinder Infinite slab of Infinite slab of
MP Sphere of radius R of radius R thickness R thickness R

0 O O 0 0
0.5 0.295 0.405 0.61 0.336
1.0 .473 .594 .765 .425
1.5 .590 .700 .836 .463
2.0 .662 .765 .875 .481

If the sample is a strong absorber, the absorption of thermal neutrons per cm” of sample
per second by the ith type of alpha emitter (Aoi) and by the ith type of B emitter (Api) must
be calculated by appropriate means, and:

(Heating per cm" at r) = 1.6 x 107"). (Aoi Eoi + Ap;Epi) watts/cm”

i

The relations assume that all delayed emitters are in equilibrium.

HEATING OF THE MODERATOR

In water-cooled, water-moderated reactors, direct heating of the moderator is usually

not of great importance. In graphite-moderated reactors, it may be important to know
both the magnitude and the distribution of the heat produced in the moderator in order to
provide proper cooling facilities. In large reactors, it may be assumed that all of the
kinetic energy of the fission neutrons goes into the moderator. Primary and secondary
gammas will be absorbed by both moderator and fuel slugs, roughly in the ratio amoder
ator/fuel slugs per unit volume. This procedure will overestimate the gamma heating of
the moderator in lumped reactors because of the self-shielding of the fuel slugs. This ef
fect can be estimated with the aid of Table 1.6.3.
The gross distribution of moderator heating will follow nearly that of fuel-element
power in large reactors. More detailed, intracellular distributions are not generally cal
culated, but the methods are straightforward if such calculations are necessary.

HEATING OF CONTROL RODS

GENERAL METHODS

Generally, heat production in control rods has two main sources: gamma energy from
distributed sources (fission and n—y reactions) in the surrounding core and energy from
the neutron-absorbing reactions in the rod itself. Absorption of gammas from distributed
Sources may be estimated as indicated above. This procedure leads to some overestimate
since it does not take account of the depression of both the fission rate and the n – y re
action rate near the rod. Reference (28) is an example in which this effect was computed.

113
CHAP. 1.6 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

In estimating the energy production from neutron reactions in the rod, the number of
neutrons absorbed per second by the fully inserted rod is usually known from calculations
of the rod effectiveness. If n — or reactions occur in the rod (e.g., boron, lithium), all of
the emitted energy is absorbed in the rod. If n — y reactions occur, the fraction of the re
sulting energy absorbed in the rod must be computed. Simple cases can be estimated with
the aid of Table 1.6.3. More complex cases must be computed in detail. If the shape of
the rod is other than a circular cylinder, it may be necessary to compute the detailed
distribution of neutron absorption in the rod, particularly if the reaction in the rod is
n- or, which will give a heat-production distribution identical with the neutron-absorption
distribution. Such absorption distributions may be approximated by computations of the
relaxation type (Fig. 1.6.7).
If the control is inserted completely through the core of the reactor, the distribution of
heat production (owing to both core gammas and neutron-absorption reactions in the rod)
along the length of the rod will be the same as the gross distribution of heat production in
fuel elements along a line parallel to the rod axis. The absolute value of the heat pro
duction must, of course, be determined from the total neutron and gamma absorptions of
the rod. If the rod is inserted only partway into the core, the axial distribution of heat in
the rod, to within a diffusion length (core material) or two of the tip, will be nearly the
same as the general distribution of heat production in fuel elements, in the direction par
allel to the rod axis. This distribution may, of course, be influenced by the presence of
the control rod or rods.
Far from the tip of a highly absorbing control rod, any given small length of the rod is
“shadowed" by adjacent lengths. The material at the very tip of the rod is shadowed on
only one side and consequently absorbs considerably more neutrons than the material a
diffusion length or two from the tip. The tip of the rod receives also a relatively stronger
dose of core gammas than do the points far from the tip. An estimate for the heating of
the tip by core gammas can usually be made by ignoring the flux depression caused by
the rod in the surrounding core material. This always gives an overestimate but usually
not an unreasonable one.
Figure 1.6.12 shows the measured flux (copper foils) along a control rod slot in the
CP-2 reactor.” The control “rod” was a flat cadmium strip, 3 in. wide. It is estimated
that the flux at the tip of the rod is higher by a factor of 1.4 than the flux at a point 10
percent of the rod length back of the tip.
Figure 1.6.13 shows calculated values of the normal gradient of the neutron density
(proportional to the current into the rod) around the tip of a cylindrical rod, with a tip
shaped as indicated, half-inserted in a reactor core.” The calculation is by the one-group
approximation (i.e., neutrons assumed to be born thermal), and the rod shape results from
the characteristics of the calculation method. The total absorption in the last diametral
length of the rod is 1.9 times that of one diametral length located 10 percent of the rod
length behind the tip.
In a reactor having a diffusion length (L) considerably shorter than the slowing-down
length (VT), e.g., in an H2O-moderated reactor, a better approximation is probably obtained
by assuming the epithermal flux is undisturbed by the presence of the rod and computing
the thermal flux distribution around the tip by relaxation methods. Figure 1.6.14 shows
such a distribution for a cylindrical rod cut off square at the end of a Zr-H2O-U” core.

RODS IN SPECIFIC REACTORS

MTR

The estimated production of heat by absorption of core gammas in a foreign material

placed at the center of the MTR core is 3.4 cal/(gm)(sec).” This would produce 38 cal/
(cm°)(sec) in a thorium control rod at the maximum point. A thorium rod containing 0.1

114
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:
CHAP. 1.6 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

41-28
dw
at 90R +.
dw
57 (Arbitrary units)

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DISTANCE FROM FACE OF REACTOR IN UNITS OF ROD RADIUS

Fig. 1.6.13 —Calculated Relative Values of Normal Gradient of Neutron Flux

(dn/dv) into a Cylindrical Rod with Tip Shaped as Indicated. Redrawn from
CP-1235, Jan. 18, 1944. One-group calculation; rod black to all neutrons; rod
of radius R is inserted axially to a depth of 100.6R into a bare cylindrical re
actor of radius 100R and length 200R.

116
 :
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1952.
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Inserted
and
Neutrons
Thermal

in
POINT,
REFERENCE
FROM
DISTANCE
Ax|AL

(sec).
(cm”
neutron/
one
of
density
down

on
C
Rod
trol

O
2
5
4
3
6
|
7
4 3 2

E
CHAP. 1.6 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

percent converted U” would produce 22 cal/(cm°)(sec) of fission heat at the same (maxi
mum) point. Estimates for cadmium control rods are not given as their cooling is not
crucial in the MTR design.

HEAT GENERATION IN REFLECTOR, THERMAL SHIELD, AND REACTOR VESSEL

Heat generation in the reflector is important for determination of cooling requirements
if the reflector is composed of a solid material. Most high-power reactors require a ther
mal shield outside the reflector whose function is to attenuate the heat-producing radiations
from the reactor for protection of either the reactor vessel, the biological shield material
or both. The primary and secondary sources of heat energy are the same as those dis
cussed above in connection with heating of core materials. The computation of heating Of
materials outside the core is often more difficult, however, because the transport of energy
from the reactor core to the point in question, through the intervening material, must be
calculated. The energy attenuation involved is often rather large (factors of 10 to 10°),
and the additional processes of inelastic scattering and absorption of fast neutrons, which
are negligible heat sources in most water-moderated cores, may have to be considered.
The methods of calculating heat generation in reflectors, themal shields, and reactor
vessels are the same as those presented in Volume 1, Chapter 2.9 for the shield in general
and will not be treated here. Details of design calculations which have been checked by
experiment do not exist in published form. Reference (31) contains detailed calculations of
reflector heating, but confirming experiments have not been made. The remainder of this
chapter presents experimental data and estimates for specific reactors.

ORNL LID TANK DATA

Many of the ORNL shielding data, from both the Lid Tank and the Bulk Shielding Facility,
are useful for heating estimates. The Lid Tank data” reproduced in Fig. 1.6.15 are
particularly informative for water-moderated, water-reflected reactors. The gamma dose
is plotted as a function of distance in water from the center of a thin-disc fission source.
Plates of iron immersed in the water are interposed between the source and detector at
various positions. The fission source, which covers an effective area of 3970 cmº, Operates
at 6 watts. The effective power is reduced to about 3.6 watts by the shielding resulting
from parts of the experimental assembly.” The heat production in a thin section of any
material such as iron, which does not absorb neutrons strongly, is given by:

Heat Production = 3.3 pd ergs/(cm”)(hr)

where p is the gamma energy absorption coefficient and D is the gamma dose in mr/hr.
When the six iron slabs are placed immediately adjacent to the source they reduce the
gamma dose by only a factor of 2.4 below that resulting from water alone. When the iron
plates are moved back to leave 25.4 cm of water “reflector” between the source and the
plates, the attenuation owing to the iron increases to a factor of 14.6. This is because
much of the gamma intensity consists of secondary gammas arising from neutron ab
sorption. The thick water reflector insures that most of the secondary gammas are form
ed at points where they can be attenuated by the iron plates. The addition of boron to the
water in the “thermal shield” reduces the secondary gamma intensity still more, curve (d).

MTR REFLECTOR

Figure 1.6.16 shows the calculated heat production in the beryllium and graphite reflec
tors of MTR and the heat production measured in a critical assembly mock-up of the re
actor.” Slab loading, which should result in maximum density of heat production, was used
in the core.

118
º SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT GENERATION CHAP. 1.6

i Attenuotion Curves in H2O

:
4.
H2O
- - - - - Gornmo dose me 0 sured IOcm
For curve a | \ behind successively added Fe slobs

O.9 cm H2O

For Curve b

Heo
25.4 cm

For Curve c

Borated H2O

Pure
H2O
2O.O.cm

For Curve d

IO
o 2O 40 8O |OO |2O
DISTANCE FROM Source , cm

Fig. 1.6.15–Gamma Dose Behind Thermal Shields Composed of 2.22-cm

Iron Slabs Separated by 1.3-cm H2O Layers. Drawn from Lid Tank Data from
ORNL-CF-52-5-40 and ORNL-CF-52–5–41 both dated May 7, 1952.

119
§ I>
IOO

---— Graphite s—
:
Beryllium
Core –º-H

Filling:
Chamber
Ion
Grophite
N
(
for
A
— ir-Corrected
©n,p)
densities
Electron
C
—
Ooe
air
to
normolized
H
-
©e
f

normalized
production
heat
Observed
(nvºzzio”
core
of
center
to

production
heat
Observed
lo'"
2x
(nv)th-
to
normolized
of
core.
edge

Colculoted
Production
Heot
P-272)
(Mon
I | I l I l|
O.I
24
18 3O 36 66
72
6O
54
48
42 78
1
6
O2
cm
core,
of
CENTER
FROM
Distance
MTR
in
Measured
as
Reflector
Production
Heat
Redrawn mma
Experiments.
1.6.16–Ga
Fig.
Critical
U23s.
Slab
1951.
7,
k
3
cm;
May
6
1
× g
76
ORNL-963,
x
71
from
loading:

-s
atº
ºr
ir
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT GENERATION CHAP. 1.6

REFERENCES

l, Qik Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-133, Sept. 1, 1948 (classified).

7. E. Greuling and B. Spinrad, Clinton Lab., Monp-402, Oct. 29, 1947 (classified).
3. A. H. Snell, Clinton Lab., MonP-454, Jan. 16, 1947 (classified).
4. M. M. Mann and A. B. Martin, Clinton Lab., MonP-357, Aug. 18, 1947 (classified).
5, Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4570, Feb. 1, 1951 (classified).
$, Algome Nat. Lab., ANL-4683, Sept. 15, 1951, pp. 99-102 (classified).
". . A. Wheeler, Metallurgical Lab., N-2292, June 28, 1944 (classified).
8. R. Scalettar and L. W. Nordheim, Theory of Pile Control Rods, Clinton Lab., MDDC-42, June 17, 1946.
W. H. L. Garabedian, Westinghouse Atomic Power Div., WAPD-18, Aug. 9, 1950 (classified).
10. L. N. MacKay. Nat. Res. Council of Canada, CRE-400-G, Sept. 1948 (classified).
ll. J. Codd and C. A. Rennie, Two Group Theory of Control Rods in a Thermal Reactor, Atomic Energy Res. Establishment,
AERE RNR 818, 1952.
!?. Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4424, March 15, 1950, pp 14–24 (classified).
13, Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4898, Sept. 15, 1952, pp 10-12 (classified).
14, Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4455, June 15, 1950, p88 (classified).
15, Clinton Lab., MonN-383, Appendix F., Sept. 15, 1947 (classified).
16. Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-22, March 22, 1944, pp 28-36 (classified).
11. R. W. Southwell. Relaxation Methods in Theoretical Physics, Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 1946.
lº, Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4795, March 15, 1952, pp. 41-57 (classified).
13. Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4795, pp 30-42 (classified).
º, Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4729, Feb. 1, 1952, p 175 (classified).
21. R. R. McCready, R. B. Spooner, and M. F. Valerino, Nat. Advisory Comm. Aero., NACA-RM-E52C11, 1952 (classified).
* Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4795, March 15, 1952, p 159 (classified).
13. Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4842, June 15, 1952, pp 107-113 (classified).
* J. E. Wilkins, Jr., Metallurgical Lab., CP-1989, Aug. 3, 1944 (classified).
*. W. Karush, A. T. Monk and J. E. Wilkins, Jr., Metallurgical Lab., CP-2071, Aug. 16, 1944 (classified).
*. J. H. Buck and C. F. Leyse, Argonne Nat. Lab. and Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-963, May 7, 1951 (classified).
*. C. W. J. Wende, E. L. du Pont de Nemours and Co., N-609(CP), Jan. 11, 1944 (classified).
* Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4583, March 15, 1951, pp. 16-17 (classified).
*. E. Fermi and Associates, Metallurgical Lab., CP-1088 (classified).
30. F. H. Murray, Absorption Near the Tip of a Control Rod, Metallurgical Lab., CP-1235, Jan. 18, 1944.
31. S. A. Kushneriuk and D. Hall, Atomic Energy of Canada, Ltd., Chalk River Project, CRT-504, April 28, 1952 (classified).
* C. E. Clifford to E. P. Blizard, oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF-5-40, May 7, 1952 (classified).
33. C. E. Clifford to E. P. Blizard, oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF-52-5-41, May 7, 1952 (classified).
*. E. P. Blizard, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF-51-10-70, Mar. 7, 1952, pp 75-78 (classified)

12]
 CHAPTER 1.7

Steady-state Heat Removal

W. H. Jens and L. L. Kintner

Thermodynamic analysis of stationary-fuel reactor systems can be divided into two

phases: (1) a macroscopic study of the over-all reactor cooling system in which the re
actor may be treated as a heat source causing a temperature rise in the cooling water and
(2) a microscopic study of the reactor itself in which a detailed examination is made of the
fluid and metal temperatures that may occur within the reactor.
In all reactor systems, whether for production, power, or research, the power-density
level is limited by the capacity of the heat-removal system. In all cases, the heat-removal
system must be analyzed to determine optimum operating conditions.
The first (macroscopic) phase of the analysis is covered in Chapter 1.2, “Heat Dissipa
tion and Thermal Cycles.” In considering the complete system, the temperature of the
heat sink, whether ambient air or cooling water, determines the lower temperature level
ºf the entire reactor cooling system for a given reactor-system design and power level.
Then, by relating successively the temperatures of the secondary and primary cooling
fluids to the temperature of the heat sink, the fluid temperatures across the reactor as a
Point source of heat are finally obtained. The temperature of the heat source and the tem
Perature level of the various intermediate heat flow paths to the heat sink establish
*mselves at levels required to transfer heat to the sink at the same rate as it is being
generated at the heat source.
Nomenclature and units used in this chapter are given in Table 1.7.1 and conversion
factors are given in Table 1.7.2.
Aheat balance at the reactor relates the over-all reactor variables:

Q = (Hout – Hin) w (1)

When only liquid-water phase is used as the coolant, this relation applies:
- tout
*-wſ: cp dt = cp (tout – tin) W (2)

te Variables may be determined by the requirements or purpose of the design or the de

Sign limitations.
** shown in Eq. (2), reactor power increases with an increase in (1) average water
*mperature rise (tout - tin), (2) total flow rate (w), and (3) specific heat (cp). Although
the specific heat is fairly constant with temperature and is approximately equal to unity
for water temperatures below 350°F, an increase in the outlet-water temperature (tout) of
*reactor beyond certain low limits will increase the cost because the wall thicknesses
ºf piping and pressure vessels must be increased to contain the increased pressure neces
*ary to prevent (or reduce) boiling.

123
CHAP. 1.7 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.7.1 — Nomenclature and Units

Symbol Definition' Unit.”

a Flow area sq ft
A Area sq ft
Ab Mean heat flow area of bond sq ft
Ac Mean heat flow area of clad sq ft
Af Outside heat flow area of fuel sq ft
A0 Outside heat flow area of scale sq ft
As Mean heat flow area of scale sq ft
Cp Specific heat Btu/(lb)(°F)
Frn Mixing factor, theoretical None
F0 Orificing factor None
Fat Ratio of the maximum water-temperature rise None
in a channel to the normal water-tempera
ture rise in that channel
FAT Ratio of the maximum temperature difference None
through a fuel element as compared to the
normal temperature difference at this loca
tion
Fo Ratio of the maximum film-temperature dif- None
ference between the fuel-element surface tem
perature and the water temperature to the nor
mal temperature-difference at this location
h Heat transfer coefficient Btu/(hr)(sq ft)(*F)
H Enthalpy Btu/(lb)
k Thermal conductivity Btu/(hr)(ft)(*F)
kb Thermal conductivity of bond space or bond Btu/(hr)(ft)("F)
alloy
kc Thermal conductivity of clad Btu/(hr)(ft)("F)
kf Thermal conductivity of fuel Btu/(hr)(ft)("F)
l Length along fuel element to position des- ft

ignated by primes
L Length of fuel element ft
p Pressure lbf/sq ft
Pp Pumping power ft-lbf/hr
Q Heat transfer per unit time Btu/hr
Cl Heat transfer per unit time per unit length of Btu/(hr)(ft)
fuel element parallel to flow
q” Heat flux Btu/(hr)(sq ft)
q” Volume heat generation Btu/(hr)(cu ft)
Q Total reactor power output Btu/hr
r Radius ft
Tb Radius of fuel element at the inner surface of ft
clad
ſc Radius of fuel element at the outer surface of ft
clad
rf Radius of fuel element at the outer surface of ft
fuel
Ts Radius of fuel element at the outer surface of ft
scale
R Thermal resistance (hr)(*F)/Btu
Rb Thermal resistance of the bond between fuel (hr)("F)/Btu
and clad
Re Thermal resistance of the clad (hr)(°F)/Btu
Rf Thermal resistance of fuel (hr)(*F)/Btu
Rh Thermal resistance of the water film (hr)("F)/Btu

124
STEADY-STATE HEAT REMOVAL CHAP. 1.7

Table 1.7.1 —(Continued)

Symbol
Definition Unit.”

Thermal resistance of the scale (hr)("F)/Btu

Modified thermal resistance (hr)(sq ft) (°F)/Btu
Modified thermal resistance of bond (hr)(sq ft)(°F)/Btu
Modified thermal resistance of clad (hr)(sq ft)(*F)/Btu
Modified thermal resistance of fuel (hr)(sq ft)(°F)/Btu
Modified thermal resistance of water film (hr)(sq ft)(*F)/Btu
Modified thermal resistance of scale (hr)(sq ft)(*F)/Btu
Water temperature •F
Fuel-element temperature °F
Velocity ft/hr
Total flow rate lb/hr
Pressure drop lbf/sq ft
Fluid temperature rise •F
Temperature difference through fuel element •F
Fraction of heat that enters channel up to cer None
tain point designated by primes
Thickness ft
Thickness of bond ft

Thickness of the cladding ft

Thickness of fuel measured from the centerline ft
Thickness of scale ft
Film temperature difference •F
Ratio of axial heat flux to the average heat flux None
as designated by primes
Ratio of maximum transverse heat flux to the None
average transverse heat flux
Subscripts
ave Average
in Inlet
max Maximum
Out Outlet

Superscripts
--
Position along the length of the channel at which the maximum surface
temperature occurs
Position along the length of the channel at..which the maximum internal
temperature occurs

*Pounds mass used unless otherwise noted; lbf signifies pounds force

A decrease in inlet-water temperature (tin) in the reactor is usually reflected by in

creased cost. When heat is rejected directly to the heat sink, a reduction in tin will re
quire the addition of a refrigeration system. If the primary-coolant system discharges the
heat through a heat-exchanger to the heat sink, a reduction in tin results in a lower tem
perature difference in the heat exchanger, a necessary increase in heat-exchanger size for
the same power, and a consequent increase in cost. Where useful power is being produced,
a reduction in inlet temperature results in a corresponding decrease in the steam pres–
Sure to the power turbine.
In the second (microscopic) phase of thermodynamic analysis of the reactor, the shape,
size, number, and arrangements of fuel elements and the size and shape of the reactor,

125
CHAP. 1.7 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.7.2–Conversion Factors

To convert from
English unit To CGS unit Multiply by

sq ft cm.” 929
Btu/(1b)("F) cal/(gm)(*C) 1
Btu/lb cal/gm 0.5555
Btu/(hr)(sq ft)(*F) cal/(sec)(sq cm)(C) 1.356 x 107*
Btu/(hr)(sq ft)("F) watt/(sq cm)(*C) 5.676 x 10^*
Btu/(hr)(sq ft)("F) cal/(sec)(cm)(C) 4.133 x 107°
Btu/(hr)(ft)("F) watt/(cm)(C) 1.73 x 10"?
ft cm 30.48
lbſ./sq ft dyne/sq cm 479
ft-lbf/hr cm-dyne/gm 2.987 x 10"
Btu/hr cal/sec 7 x 10"?
Btu/hr watt 0.293
Btu/(hr)(ft) cal/(sec)(cm) 2.295 x 107*
Btu/(hr)(ft) watt/cm 9.62 x 10"?
Btu/(hr)(sq ft) cal/(sec)(sq cm) 7.53 x 107*
Btu/(hr)(sq ft) watt/sq cm 3.15 x 107*
ft/hr cm/sec 8.47 x 10"?
lb/hr gm/sec 0.126

itself, are determined consistent with the nuclear requirements. It is desirable to design
the reactor with fuel elements and assemblies that are reliable and easily manufactured.
The analytical procedure is usually one of trial and error in which a particular design
is analyzed and the resulting temperatures, pressure drop, and pumping power deter
mined. If certain nuclear or thermodynamic limitations (discussed later) are exceeded,
modifications and another analysis are made. This procedure is followed until a success
ful design is obtained.

CALCULATION OF TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

The basic law of steady-state uni-directional heat conduction' without heat generation
is:

- a -ka # - (3a)

Or:

AT -(#) (—q) (3.b)

The equation for steady-state heat transfer by convection is:

q = ha (T – t) (4a)

1Reference appears at end of chapter.

126
STEADY-STATE HEAT REMOVAL CHAP. 1.7

or:

T-9-(;)(a) (4b)

Both equations (3b) and (4b) state that the temperature difference is directly proportional
to a thermal resistance and the quantity of heat being transmitted.
There are normally five resistances to heat flow in a fuel element, namely: the uranium
fuel itself; the bond or lack of bond between the fuel clad and the uranium; the fuel clad;
deposits, scale, or corrosion productions on the surface of the fuel element in contact with
the water; and finally, the film heat-transfer coefficient.
For preliminary design work, it is usually assumed that all of the heat generated in the
fission process is released as heat in the fuel core of the fuel element. Heat transfer is
therefore that of heat conduction with internal heat generation. This assumption results
in higher calculated fuel-element temperatures throughout the reactor. In more detailed
calculations, a more realistic assumption is that most of the heat is generated in the fuel
core and the remainder in the control rods, construction materials, coolant, and materials
external to the core. Other assumptions usually made are that the thermal conductivity is
constant (independent of temperature) and that the conductivity value is the mean value
occurring within the material. It is also usually assumed that heat is generated uniformly
within the fuel core and that no longitudinal heat conduction occurs along the fuel element.
Figure 1.7.1 shows three simple types of fuel elements. The temperature distribution
in the fuel portion of each [with a uniform rate of heat generation rate in the fuel of q’”
Btu/(ft”)(hr)] is parabolic, and the temperature differential through the fuel portion for each
type is:
AX 2. r
Plates: Tu – Tº = (Ax)"a"Q
2k

- r;” q”
Cylinders: Tu – Tº = 4k

r 2 q”
Spheres: Tu – T = ‘ā;

The temperature differences stated above can be expressed in terms of the total heat, q,
released from the fuel-element surface area, Af, and a thermal resistance. Conversion
of the above expressions results in:

Axf
Plates: Tu – T = 2KA, (q) (5)

cylinders and spheres: T. - T, = #A, (3) (6)

The thermal resistance in the fuel is therefore Axf/2kfAf for plates and rf/2kfAffor
cylinders and spheres. Thermal resistances in series may be added, just as in the case of
electrical resistances. This analogy is particularly helpful in the case of fuel elements in
which several resistances are normally in series. The various thermal resistance (R)

127
WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

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128
|11. Bw. ET 3 T 3^2 + 0 3INGw3 TE TEm 3 20 3
STEADY-STATE HEAT REMOVAL CHAP. 1.7

formulae are given in Table 1.7.3 for the three simple fuel-element geometries sketched
in Fig. 1.7.1.
The thermal-resistance term is used as follows: Two metal temperatures, namely,
the surface temperature of the clad (Tc) and the internal fuel temperature (Tu), generally

Table 1.7.3–Thermal-resistance Formulae for Plates, Cylinders, and Spheres

Type of fuel element

Type of
resistance Plane plate Cylinder Spheres

1. 1 1
Film (Rh) ha 2T rs Lh 4T rºh

Scale (R, )
1 1 1 (+–4.)
k, A/A X, 21 k, L/ln(r, /re) 41 k, \rs re

1 1 1 1 - l
Clad (Re)
ke A/A Xe 21 keL/ln(re /rb) 47 ke \re rb
1 1 1 1 - 1.
Bond (Rs) kbA/A Xb 21 kiL/ln(r)/r?) 41 ke (i. rt
1 1 1
Fuel (R)
2kfA/A Xf 41 kiL 81 kfrt

limit a reactor design. It is usually desirable to relate these temperatures to the bulk
fluid temperature (t), as given below. Surface temperature of clad limiting:

Te-t = (Rh + Rs) (q)

Or:

Tc — t
(7)
** F.I.R.
Internal fuel temperature limiting:

Tu – t
Q (8)
" RTR. F. R. FRS FR

The thermal resistance for cylinders and spheres may be simplified by using a mean
heat-flow area for each thermal resistance, based on the arithmetic mean radius, if the
radius ratios are less than 1.4 for cylinders and 1.2 for spheres. A modified thermal re
sistance may then be defined as R = R'/A in which the area term is removed from the re
sistance term. Thus, Eqs. (7) and (8) in terms of modified resistance are:

q= As(T-t) (9)
f A. r
R. + As Rg

129
CHAP. 1.7 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

An ºr 1A, B, 1A, B, 1A,

R; R. A. R ºr ºn, (10)

Where the mean area is defined as:

Mean area For cylinders For spheres

4T 2
As T (rs + re) L T2 (rs + re)
4T
Ac T (re + rp)L # (re + rt.)”
A L 4T 2
b T (rb + r.) T2 (rb + r()

Af 2m (rf)L 4m (rf)”
The error introduced by this simplification is less than 1 percent. The values for the
modified thermal resistance are therefore identical for the three simple fuel elements
considered, if the Ax's are considered as thickness of clad, bond, scale, and fuel. The
values are given in Table 1.7.4.

Table 1.7.4— Modified Thermal-resistance Formulae for Plates,

Cylinders, and Spheres

Type of resistance Formula

- 1
Film (RA) h

Scale (RA)
s ——
k, /A x,
1
Clad
r
(Rg) k. WAx.
e

Bond (R.)
b ——
kb/A Xb

Fuell (R.
(R) 1
2kf/A xf

DESIGN LIMITATIONS AND CRITERIA

It is generally necessary to establish the effect of design variables on performance and

operation in the initial design phase of a water-cooled, solid-fuel reactor. For conven
ience, design variables have been separated into two types: design limitations and design
criteria. Values are assigned to some of these design variables (design limitations) to
maintain consistency in the adjustment of the other variables (design criteria) in order to
determine the best design for a specific reactor. Design limitations are imposed primarily
by stress, temperature, and corrosion to assure successful reactor operation. Design
criteria are used in evaluating pressure-vessel size, pumping costs, effect of scale on

130
STEADY-STATE HEAT REMOVAL CHAP. 1.7

heat transfer, and other conditions to assure a sound, economical, practical design. The
particular objective of a reactor design will dictate the relative importance of the design
limitations and the design criteria. In addition, the particular design will dictate the
values that may be assigned to the various design limitations and the practicability of
assigning various design criteria.

DESIGN LIMITATIONS

The following limitations are typical of the restrictions which may be imposed on a de
sign by stress, corrosion, or heat-removal considerations:

MAXIMUM FUEL TEMPERATURE (Tn)

Fuel temperature is limited to prevent (1) phase changes in the fuel metal or alloy re
sulting in an excessive dimensional change in the fuel element or (2) exceeding the struc
tural strength of the fuel.

MAXIMUM SURFACE TEMPERATURE (Ts)

The temperature of the clad surface is limited to (1) the temperature corresponding to
the maximum permissible rate for corrosion or (2) the saturation temperature correspond
ing to the static pressure necessary to prevent boiling of the coolant.

MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE THROUGH A FUEL ELEMENT (ATnax)

Temperature differences may be limited by the allowable thermal stress in the fuel ele
ment where extreme repeated temperature fluctuations are encountered or brittle mate
rials are used.

MAXIMUM COOLANT TEMPERATURE (tout)

The temperature of outlet fluid is limited to (1) maintain all liquid phase and prevent
vapor binding of pumps or (2) prevent excessive corrosion of pressure vessels, piping, or
other external equipment.

MAXIMUM WATER-TEMPERATURE RISE (Atmax.)

The temperature rise may be limited by the maximum allowable thermal stresses or by
distortions which may be developed in the reactor internal structure or in pressure ves
sels during sudden changes in power level.

BURNOUT OF A FUEL ELEMENT

Burnout occurs when a sufficient blanket of steam is formed on the heat-transfer sur
face to effectively insulate the fuel element and thus cause a rapid rise in metal tempera
ture. In a reactor using net or local boiling as the heat-transfer mechanism, the design
heat flux or power level should be limited to a value sufficiently below the burnout heat
flux or power level.

DENSITY (9)

Density changes may be caused by corresponding periodic fluctuations in power level or

by steady-state operation at various power levels. These density changes should be con
sidered as functions of the compensation ability of the control system. In a reactor using
net or local boiling as the heat-transfer mechanism, the amount of permissible density
change should be considered as a design limitation.

131
CHAP. 1.7 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

MAXIMUM FLUID VELOCITY (Wºma, )

Erosion of clad materials at high velocities should be considered in determining the
maximum coolant velocity past the fuel elements. High coolant velocities in headers and
plenum chambers may result in jetting of the fluid and maldistribution of flow.

DESIGN CRITERLA

Design criteria are general considerations in the design of a particular reactor and
usually cannot be assigned specific values. Engineering judgment and evaluation of the
specific design will dictate the relative importance of these criteria and their effect on
the over-all design. The following criteria suggest some aspects of a design which may
become critical.

THERMAL RESISTANCE OF CLADDING BOND (Axb/kb Ab)

The bond between the clad and fuel alloy has a certain thermal resistance depending up
on the type of bond obtained; generally, a mechanical bond has a significant resistance
whereas a good metallurgical bond has a minimum resistance.

THERMAL RESISTANCE OF SCALE ON HEAT-TRANSFER SURFACE (Axs/ks As)

Scale may be formed by corrosion products of clad material and/or by corrosion prod
ucts formed elsewhere in the system and deposited on the heat-transfer surface. A value
of the thermal resistance of the scale, based on these considerations, is used in calcula
ting fuel-element temperatures.

MINIMUM THICKNESS OF FUEL ELEMENTS AND CLAD (4xf, Axc)

The minimum thickness is that which (1) may be practically achieved in manufacturing
and (2) provides sufficient clad to protect the fuel from exposure to the coolant by corro
sion or erosion.

PRESSURE (p)
The operating pressure for single-phase coolant systems is prescribed by the maximum
surface temperature and is that pressure which will inhibit boiling at that location.

PRESSURE DROP (AP)

The permissible pressure drop is evaluated by consideration of (1) pressure stresses

on fuel elements and fuel-element subassemblies and (2) the availability and size of pumps
to produce desired flow at the given head loss.

PUMPING POWER (P))

The power available for pumping is determined by (1) percentage of total reactor power
assigned for pumping or (2) amount of economically available power procured from out
side facilities.

INLET - AND EXIT-HEADER SIZE

In designs using a pressure vessel, the number, size, and spacing of openings in the
vessel effect the pressure stresses of the vessel. In designs incorporating a low static
pressure, the problem is one of supplying large quantities of water to a relatively small
plenum chamber with reasonable velocities and pressure drops in the ducts.

132
STEADY-STATE HEAT REMOVAL CHAP. 1.7

PRESSURE - VESSEL SIZE

The practical pressure-vessel size, particularly the diameter, is evaluated as a balance

between design pressure and manufacturing and transportation facilities.

PLANT SIZE AND WEIGHT

For mobile application, minimum size and weight considerations are of primary im
portance and dictate stringent requirements during all phases of reactor design.

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DESIGN LIMITATIONS AND DESIGN VARIABLES

Solid-fuel reactors can be subdivided into two general types, heterogeneous and quasi
homogeneous, based on nuclear considerations. In the heterogeneous type, fuel is lumped
with the fuel elements being placed on the reactor lattice points. Cooling is provided by
the circulation of water past these fuel elements. Thermodynamically, the flow channels
surrounding the fuel elements can be treated individually. In the quasi-homogeneous
type, fuel is distributed throughout the core of the reactor in a uniform manner, usually
with alternate spacing of fuel element and coolant. In most cases, the fuel elements form
individual flow channels such as those formed by parallel plates.
In the analyses, the performance of the reactor and the fuel elements is determined by
the performance of a single channel, called the “hot channel.” A hot channel is that flow
channel (or fictitious flow channel in the case of discontinuous fuel elements) which con
tains the fuel element with greatest surface temperature, greatest temperature differences,
and/or highest internal temperature in the reactor. This channel is usually the channel
having the highest heat production owing to a non-uniform neutron-flux distribution.
In preliminary design work, approximate flux distributions are obtained as mathematical
expressions by making simplifying assumptions. These expressions can be used in mathe
matical form to obtain the temperature distribution. However, these cases are very spe
cific and generally very difficult to handle. It is simpler to graphically integrate the cal
culated flux-distribution curve to obtain the temperatures along the length of a channel.
Figure 1.7.2 shows the typical temperature distribution in fuel elements in the direction of
flow. In the case of discontinuous fuel elements, such as the flow across wires, the tem
perature distribution would be discontinuous; however, the equations to be given are also
applicable.
Since the temperatures to be calculated are maximum temperatures, it is usually neces
sary to determine graphically where the maximum surface temperature and maximum in
ternal temperature will occur along the channel. To simplify the analytical procedure,
several quantities will be defined. The fraction of total heat input that enters the flow
stream up to the point where the maximum nominal surface temperature exists is defined
as:

fr -
ſ" a di (11)
−
ſ: a di
The fraction of total heat that enters the flow-stream up to the point of maximum nominal
internal temperature is:

,1” q..., dl
5” = — (12)
J. a di

133
CHAP. 1.7 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

(q'max) MAXIMUM AxIAL HEAT FLUX

HEAT INPUT
PER UNIT
LENGTH OF
FUEL ELEMENT
|N DIRECTION

(q')

TEMPERATURE
SURFACE
( 's) rempffiaru

l
! in
-

| | _l T
1 TT
O J. D." 1." A' L

—s-

DIRECTION OF COOLANT FLOW

Fig. 1.7.2– Typical Temperature Distribution in a Fuel Element. Submitted by

Argonne National Laboratory, Dec. 15, 1952.

Basically, the equations developed are expressions for three temperature differences:
the water temperature rise (At), the film temperature difference (6) between the bulk-water
temperature and the metal surface, and finally, the temperature difference between the
center and the surface of a fuel element (AT). The maximum nominal surface temperature
is obtained by adding the appropriate water-temperature rise up to the position 1’’ and the
film temperature difference at the position 1’’ to the inlet water temperature. Similarly,
the maximum nominal internal temperature can be obtained by adding the appropriate

134
STEADY-STATE HEAT REMOVAL CHAP. 1.7

water-temperature rise up to the position 1’’’ and the film temperature drop and tempera
ture difference through a fuel element at the position l’” to the inlet-water temperature.
To estimate the maximum possible temperatures that may occur within the reactor and
thereby maintain the temperatures within the specified design limitations, uncertainties in
flow conditions, heat generation, fuel-element fabrication, and analytical variables must be
anticipated. Typical variables that can produce higher-than-nominal temperatures are
tabulated in Table 1.7.5, including an order of magnitude of each effect on the coolant
temperature rise, the film-temperature differential, and the temperature drop from cen
ter of fuel element to surface. The values shown in the table are intended to be used only
as a guide in general reactor work, as the order of magnitude of the individual factors
may be varied considerably and both the applicable factor and its magnitude depends on
the particular reactor. In a particular design, it should be recognized that some of the
factors are based on estimates of reactor operating conditions while others, such as the
effect of manufacturing tolerances, are based on detailed physical analyses.

Table 1.7.5— Hot-spot Factors Used in Typical Design

Order of magnitude
of factor involved

Uncertainty or deviation from nominal condition FAt F6 Fat

Effect of plenum-chamber conditions upon flow distribu

tion to parallel reactor channels 1.02 1.02 - - -

Effect of warping 1.04 1.03 - - -

Combined effect of tolerances on core alloy in fuel ele

ment, both in thickness and concentration 1.08 1.21 1.21
Combined effect of tolerances on clad-thickness and
water-channel dimension 1.40 1.26 - - -

Precision of flux-distribution calculation 1.20 1.20 1.20

Local variations in axial, heat-flux distribution, such
as the Wilkins effect (this factor may be included as
a flux-ratio factor) - - - 1.10 1.10
Precision of flux distribution radially or through the
thickness of a fuel element - - - - - - 1.10
Accuracy of the thermal conductivity of the fuel-element
material - - - - - - 1.20
Precision of the correlation for the heat-transfer
coefficient - - - 1.20 - - -

Variation of heat-transfer coefficient on the fuel

element surface - - - 1.50 - - -

Precision of power measurement resulting in devia

tions in design-power output 1.10 1.10 1.10
If the power output of each channel is monitored by
noting its temperature rise, all of the individual fac
tors for Fat may be neglected except for one to ac
count for inaccuracies in measuring each tempera
ture rise 1.10 - - - - - -

If the coolant channels should be interconnected, then

most all factors on FAt, water temperature rise may
be disregarded with the exception of a factor for devia
tions from theoretical mixing 1.3 - - - - - -

135
CHAP. 1.7 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

It is assumed for conservative design that the individual effects all occur simultaneously
in the same channel, the channel exposed to the highest heat generation. The use of hot
spot factors gives reasonable assurance that these temperatures will never exist within
the reactor or that, if they do, they will occur only at certain limited, perhaps microscopic
locations. This procedure is especially applicable to designs where the penalty for ex
ceeding temperature limitations is severe.
The combined effect of all the individual variables is obtained as a composite product
of the individual factors, to yield over-all hot-spot factors for water-temperature rise,
Fat, film drop, F, , and fuel-element temperature differential, FAT. Their use, as shown
below, then gives the maximum possible water-temperature rise in a channel and the
maximum possible surface and fuel-element temperatures.
The average temperature rise in a reactor is obtained from Eq. (2) as:

Q_
Atave = (13)
cp W

The water-temperature rise in the hottest channel or channel with the maximum heat
input is obtained by multiplying the average water-temperature rise by the ratio of the
maximum transverse flux to the average transverse flux.
The maximum possible water-temperature rise is obtained by multiplying the water
temperature rise in the channel with maximum heat input by the hot-spot factor for the
water-temperature rise. If individual channels or groups of channels are orificed to pro
portion the flow according to the radial flux distribution or if the channels are intercon
nected, an additional factor must be allowed for this effect.
In symbols:

- _ Q
*max - Atave Fat ©r Fm Fo = cow Fat ©r Fm Fo (14)

where: Fat = hot-spot factor for water-temperature rise

©r = ratio of maximum radial flux to the average radial flux
Fm = factor to account for theoretical mixing. For individual channels, Fm = 1.
For flow in interconnected channels, Fm would be less than 1 but greater
than 1/pr
Fo = factor to account for orificing. Without orificing, Fo = 1. With orificing of
each individual continuous channels, F = 1/4,
The water temperature rises up to the points of maximum internal temperatures are
given as:

Q
At (to te max) - cpW FAt ©r Frn Fo 6” (15)

A T - Q *r *
t (to ul max) - cºw FAt prEm Fo 5 (16)

It may be desirable in some cases to substitute the fluid velocity for the flow rate,
especially in cases where the velocity is limiting. In general:

W = p Va Fo (17)

The average heat flux in a reactor is given as:

136
STEADY-STATE HEAT REMOVAL CHAP. 1.7

q"ave -
§ (18)

Using the expression for the average heat flux, the film-temperature difference at the
point of the maximum surface temperature can be written as:

6 (at to max) = q’ave F6 ºr 4'(R; + R;) - § F6 ºr pº (R; + R.) (19)

and:

6 (at Tu max) = q’ave F6 ºr bº’ (R,+ R.) - § Fa ºr bº' (R; + R!) (20)

The maximum surface temperature can therefore be written as:

To max = tin * At (to To max) + 9 (at To max) (21)

TC max
= tº +4,
cpw. Fa,
1.In
º, Finm F,
At ‘Pr" r 0 w tº
A *F, 9.9%
0 ºr "a (R,
vºh + R.) s
(22)

The maximum internal temperature can be written as:

Tumax = tin * At (to Tu max) + 6 (at Tu max) + AT (at Tu max) (23)

Q Q
= tº ºw FA, ºr F. F. 9" + i F, º, ø," (R, + F)
* , Fa, º, . (R. 1 R, Rø (24)
In the preliminary evaluation of the effect of design variables on a given design, it is
usually sufficiently accurate to assume approximate values of bºº, pºº, 6” and 5’”. Esti
mates are also made of the hot-spot factors, Fat, Fa, and FAT, and the mixing and ori
ficing factors, Fm and Fo. With these factors assumed, the equations reduce to a form in
which the effect of the flow area of the reactor, the total heat transfer area, and the fuel
element geometry can be studied.
Another major consideration in reactor design is the pressure drop and pumping power
required to obtain the desired heat-transfer performance. The formulas for pressure drop
are given in Chapter 1.5. The formula for fluid pumping power is given as:

P, WAp
- (25)
O

Normally, three temperatures determined by the performance of the hottest channel are
limiting in a design: the minimum inlet temperature (tin), the maximum surface tempera
ture (Tc), and the maximum internal fuel temperature (Tu).
Equations (22) and (24) demonstrate that a power increase will result in a proportional
increase in the rise in water temperature (At), in the film temperature difference (6), and
in the temperature difference through a fuel element (AT). Since it is usually desired to
increase the power of the reactor without a corresponding increase in the temperature
differences between the surface and the inlet water (Te - tin) and the temperature dif
ference between the internal fuel and the inlet water in the hot channel (Tu – tin), changes

137
CHAP. 1.7 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

must be made in certain other variables. For maximum effectiveness, changes in design
parameters should be made which reduce the largest of the contributing temperature dif
ferences in a particular design. A list of changes and the general results produced are
given below. Each change is considered to occur without altering any of the other variables.
(1) Reactor channels may be orificed for proper flow distribution by adjusting the flow
in each channel to obtain the same water-temperature rise in every channel. Another
method, not commonly used, is to orifice each channel to permit the maximum surface
temperature and the maximum internal temperature to occur simultaneously in all of the
channels. Flow distribution by orificing reduces the amount of water needed for cooling
and the thermal stress between fuel elements since the differences in the average tem
perature between individual fuel elements is minimized. For fuel elements in the form of
rods, wires, spheres, or any other discontinuous form, orificing cannot be effectively
used. For these cases, however, mixing will tend to equalize the outlet temperatures
throughout the outlet-flow cross section.
(2) Increasing the flow rate decreases the water-temperature rise and decreases the
film-temperature difference. For the same flow area, an increase in flow is accompanied
by an increase in velocity. Therefore, the heat-transfer coefficient increases and the
film-temperature-drop decreases. The pressure drop and pumping power increase with
an increase in flow rate.
(3) Decreasing the flow cross section of the reactor, without altering the heat-transfer
area or flow rate, increases the velocity. Therefore, as stated in (2), the film-temperature
difference decreases. The pressure drop and pumping power increase with a decrease in
cross Section.
(4) Increasing the number of passes of the coolant through the reactor by the use of
baffling increases the velocity, thereby decreasing the film-temperature drop. The pres–
sure drop and pumping power increase with an increase in the number of passes.
(5) Decreasing the amount of scaling or corrosion of the fuel-element surface decreases
the thermal resistance of the scale and therefore decreases the film-temperature dif–
ference. Since the surface is smoother with less scale, the pressure drop and pumping
power probably decrease.
(6) Decreasing the thickness of the fuel elements permits more heat-transfer area to
be placed in the reactor volume with the same flow area. This change results in a de
crease in the film-temperature difference and in the temperature drop through the fuel
elements. The pressure drop and pumping power normally increase for a decrease in the
fuel-element thickness.
(7) Decreasing the maximum-to-average heat-production distribution by the proper use
of nuclear poisons or enriched fuels decreases the three temperature differences without
increasing pressure drop or pumping power. In cases where the internal temperature is
limiting and the fuel elements are relatively thick, as in production reactors, it is de
sirable to have the heat-generation distribution as uniform as possible in both the axial
and transverse directions. This flattened-flux distribution not only reduces the tempera
ture drop through the fuel element but also decreases the film-temperature difference
and water-temperature rise in cases where orifices are not used.
(8) When the internal fuel temperature is not limiting and the fuel-element thicknesses
are small, as in small enriched power reactors, it may be advantageous to use a roof-top
flux distribution. Roof-topping involves adjusting the heat-generation distribution in the
axial or flow direction to maintain surface temperature (Tc) constant at the maximum
limiting value. The variation of the heat-transfer coefficient with water temperature
along the length of the channel should be considered in determining the roof-topped flux
distribution. If surface temperature is the only limitation, more power can be obtained
from the hottest channel (and therefore the reactor) by roof-topping than with any other
flux distribution.

138
STEADY–STATE HEAT REMOVAL CHAP. 1.7

(9) Decreasing the pressure of the system to permit local boiling decreases the film
temperature difference. However, pressure drop and pumping power probably increase,
and the complexity of the problems associated with flow in parallel channels and flow
stability increases. The density changes associated with local boiling may increase prob
lems of reactor control. In general, the safety of the reactor decreases since the design
condition is closer to the burnout conditions. If local boiling is to be employed as the heat
transfer mechanism to advantage, care should be taken to eliminate scale.
(10) Distribute the fuel and coolant in such a manner as to accomplish either a constant
coolant temperature rise for each channel or a constant maximum fuel temperature, the
result to be accomplished to depend on which limitation controls or which result gives the
maximum power.

REFERENCES

1. M. Jakob, Heat Transfer, Vol. 1, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1949.
2. Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4683, Sept. 15, 1951, p. 20 (classified).
3. R. N. Lyon and W. B. Harrison, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF-52-1-76 (classified).

139
 CHAPTER 1.8

Transient Generation and Removal of Heat

J. P. Silvers and J. R. Dietrich

Chapter 1.6 of Volume 1 contains a comprehensive treatment of reactor dynamics. The

following paragraphs contain some supplementary information of particular use in the
treatment of water-cooled reactors. The nomenclature employed in these paragraphs is
defined in Table 1.8.1.

TRANSIENTS WHEN REACTIVITY IS INDEPENDENT OF POWER LEVEL

In a supercritical or subcritical reactor, the power increases or decreases, respective

ly, with time. Although in the general case the spatial distribution of power generation as
well as the power level may vary with time, it is entirely adequate for practical reactor
design to assume that the spatial distribution remains the same as that for the critical
reactor of the same configuration. Any departures from this distribution will exist for
only a few average neutron-generation times and will be small in magnitude so long as the
departure from criticality is limited to a few percent. By making this approximation, the
spatial distribution of power generation may be treated by the methods discussed in Vol
ume 2, Chapter 1.6, and if reactivity is independent of power level, the time variation of
power level can be determined by solution of the space-independent one-group equation as
discussed in Volume 1, Chapter 1.6. Since most water-cooled reactors have rather large
temperature coefficients of reactivity, the assumption that reactivity is independent of
power level is applicable only for power levels so low that they produce no important
temperature increase in the reactor or for transients so rapid that large power changes
may occur before the resultant heat can be transferred to the regions of the reactor which
are effective in changing the reactivity. When the reactivity is independent of the power
level, the important dynamic characteristics of the reactor depend upon only the effective
neutron-generation time in the reactor and the characteristics of the available delayed
neutron emitters. Delayed-neutron data are contained in Volume 1, Table 1.2.16 (curves
of use in solving the kinetic equation with the delayed neutrons characteristic of U* are
contained in Volume 1, Chapter 1.6). Reactors containing large quantities of D2O or Be
may have a small additional contribution to the delayed neutrons as a result of y-m reac
tions involving delayed-fission gammas.
Neutron-generation times in existing H2O-moderated reactors lie in a range around 10-4
second, while those in existing D2O-moderated and graphite-moderated reactors are in the
neighborhood of 10° second. Calculated generation times" for a number of specific re

'References appear at end of chapter.

141
CHAP. 1.8 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.8.1 — Nomenclature and Units

Symbol" Definition Units

a, b, d Physical measurements, constant ft

A1, A2 Equation constants Dependent upon usage
etc.
Aw Wetted surface area in core sq ft
B1, B2, B3 Equation constants Dependent upon usage
c Heat capacity Btu/(lb)(*F)
C1, C2 Equation constants Dependent upon usage
h Coefficient of convective heat transfer Btu/(hr)(sq ft)("F)
k Thermal conductivity Btu/(hr)(ft)("F)
keff Multiplication constant of a finite reactor, includ- None
ing effect of neutron leakage
k. Multiplication constant of an infinite medium None
having the same material properties as those of
the finite reactor being considered
P Total heat generated in the core per unit time Btu/hr
q Time-variable density of heat generation, - q(t) Btu/(hr)(cu ft)
q’’ Density of heat flow (flux) Btu/(hr)(sq ft)
Q Initial density of heat generation Btu/(hr)(cu ft)
T Temperature in excess of an arbitrary level °F
U Over-all coefficient of heat transfer from fuel Btu/(hr)(sq ft)(*F)
element interior to coolant
V Velocity ft/hr
V Volume cu ft ,
x Space variable ft
or Reciprocal of period of exponential rise hr"
y Specific weight lb/cu ft
A Prefix indicating finite lumping None

r Thermal diffusivity : sq ft/hr

p Density lb/cu ft
T Time hr

*Subscripts
i Inlet
o Outlet
m Metal
w Coolant
T Present time
T + At Future time, one time-step later
Numbers or letters, in general, refer to points or different spatial regions

Superscripts
'(prime) Future time, after one time-step
” (double prime) Used with q to indicate heat flux (flow density)

actors are listed in Tables 1.8.2 and 1.8.3. Approximate experimental verifications of cal
culated generation times have been made only for the Chalk River zero-power reactor
(ZEEP)” and the Argonne graphite reactor (CP-5).” High accuracy in determining the gen
eration time is not usually necessary, as the generation time has an important effect only
in very rapid transients, where other large uncertainties usually exist.

142
TRANSIENT GENERATION AND REMOVAL OF HEAT CHAP. 1.8

Table 1.8.2—Calculated Neutron-generation Times for Specific Reactors

Neutron
generation
Reactor Fuel Moderator time, sec

Argonne research
reactor (CP-3') Enriched U* D2O 2.3 × 10^*
New Argonne
research reactor
(CP-5) Enriched U* D2O 1 × 10−3

Table 1.8.3—Calculated Neutron-generation Time in

MTR" as Function of k. and Core Size”

Generation
U*, kg k. time, 10° sec

0.98 1.606 2.36

1.88 1.432 1.52
2.61 1.373 1.26

*Vol aluminum/vol water = 0.75. The fuel density in

core is constant; the total loading is varied by increas
ing the core size. Criticality is maintained by poison
ing. The unpoisoned k. = 1.61

TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF REACTIVITY

In enriched H2O-moderated and D2O-moderated reactors which do not contain important

resonance absorbers, the temperature coefficient of reactivity results primarily from
changes in the moderator temperature with, in some cases, small contributions from ex
pansions of the reactor parts. The reactivity is therefore insensitive to the fuel-element
temperature and varies with moderator temperature. In D2O-moderated reactors, the
coefficient is negative in all practical cases (reactivity decreases with increasing tem
perature) and is larger for small reactors (high buckling) than for large reactors (low
buckling). In small H2O-moderated reactors, the coefficient is negative. At low tempera
tures (MTR) where the density of water does not change rapidly with temperature, the co
efficient results primarily from the change of microscopic cross sections with neutron
temperature. At high temperatures, the change in water density with temperature makes
the most important contribution to the temperature coefficient. At such temperatures, the
negative coefficient decreases as reactor size is increased and may presumably become
positive if the size is increased to the point where the increased absorption caused by
an incremental increase in H2O density is more important to the neutron balance in the
reactor than is the accompany decrease in neutron leakage.

143
CHAP. 1.8 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

In natural-uranium and slightly enriched reactors, there is a negative contribution to the

temperature coefficient from the doppler broadening of the U” resonance lines. This
component of the coefficient is associated with the fuel temperature. All other contribu
tions to the coefficient are associated with the moderator or the coolant temperature. The
important contributions are usually from change in resonance escape owing to change in
slowing-down power of the moderator and, for the H2O case, change in thermal utilization.
Changes in leakage are usually of lesser importance since most reactors of this class
have low total leakage. Reactors which are both cooled and moderated by D.O will have
negative coefficients in all practical cases. The possibility of net positive coefficients for
H2O-moderated reactors evidently exists, but this undesirable characteristic has been
successfully avoided in the design studies to date. A strong positive component may be ex
pected in the temperature coefficient of reactors cooled by H2O and moderated by D.O or
graphite. This positive component is usually large enough to result in a net positive coef
ficient. Temperature coefficients of reactivity for some specific reactors are given below.

ARGONNE D.O-MODERATED, ENRICHED-URANIUM,

RESEARCH REACTOR (CP-3')

The calculated temperature coefficient for CP-3’ is -0.05 percent kett/*C; this value is
approximately confirmed in operation. Changes in the temperature of fuel elements alone
do not affect reactivity appreciably; the coefficient is produced almost entirely by tem
perature changes in the D2O and the reactor tank. Since heat is transferred from the fuel
elements to the D2O by natural convection (although the D2O is circulated for heat removal),
the temperature coefficient is relatively slow in action.

NEW ARGONNE D.O-MODERATED, ENRICHED-URANIUM,

RESEARCH REACTOR (CP-5)
The temperature coefficient is calculated to be —0.06 to -0.07 percent keft / C. Essen
tially all of the coefficient results from moderator heating. About half of the coefficient
results from the D2O inside the fuel subassemblies and will, therefore, act fairly rapidly.
The remainder results from the D2O surrounding the subassemblies and will act quite
slowly.

MATERIALS TESTING REACTOR (MTR)*

Calculated temperature coefficients for three different core radii are given in Table
1.8.4. The average measured value of the temperature coefficient between 36° and 54°C
on the MTR mockup (LITR), for which k. = 1.58, is – 13 × 107*% kett/*C.

Table 1.8.4 —Calculated Temperature Coefficients of

Reactivity in MTR at 20°C

Reactor
r, C m 12.78 17.85 21. 12
k. 1.606 1.432 1.373
Expansion of fuel plates, 10% keff/*C — 1.6 — 1.4 — 1.3
Expansion of water, 10% keff/*C – 3.8 — 3.0 — 2.8
Change in microscopic cross sections
with temperature, 10% keff/*C — 15.7 – 10.5 –8.9

Total, 10% keff/*C – 21 — 15 — 13

144
TRANSIENT GENERATION AND REMOVAL OF HEAT CHAP. 1.8

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTIONS WITH EXPONENTIAL POWER RISE

In fixed-fuel reactors having temperature coefficients associated primarily with the

coolant temperature, very rapid power transients, such as those which may be postulated
in reactor accidents, can raise the fuel element temperatures to dangerously high levels
before sufficient heat flows into the coolant to change its temperature appreciably. During
this part of the power transient, the reactivity may be considered independent of the power
level, and, in fact, the power rise will in many cases be nearly exponential over an im
portant fraction of the transient. When these conditions hold, the transient is usually so
fast that transport of heat by coolant flow is unimportant, and the transient temperature
distribution of interest is that associated with the transfer of heat from the sources in the
fuel element to the coolant. The estimation of this distribution of interest may be relative
ly simple when the power transient is exponential. Equations for the temperature distri
bution in some specific idealized configurations are given in the following. This applica
bility to any given reactor must be evaluated for the particular case of interest. See Table
1.8.1 for definition of symbols.

UNCLAD FUEL PLATE IN STAGNANT COOLANT"

The period is assumed to be so fast that convection is negligible, and heat flows from
fuel plate to coolant by conduction alone. Fuel plate and coolant are initially both at tem
perature 0; at t = 0, uniform heat generation, q = QeºT cal/(cm”)(sec) begins in the fuel
plate. The fuel plate (region 1) and coolant channel (region 2) are considered slabs infinite
in two dimensions. The center of coordinates (x = 0) is at the central plane of the fuel
plate; the fuel plate-coolant boundary is at x = a, the central plane of the coolant channel
is at x = b (see Fig. 1.8.1A). The temperature distribution is, in the fuel plate:

B sinh N. (b-a) cosh W. x

Ti(x,t) = #: ed
O1C1
T 1 — K2
g(Vo)
K1

b-a oo * -- Y
b–a
—
As X e-X*t
––
Q 1 + V.K. , 88 2 sin x, y-, cos iſ e J (1)

Op1C1 a (b-a) || | p 1C: Tº . . dº. T

Vº. " " Vº 4 º' " i º), -o
and in the coolant:

T2(x,t) = 8 ear
Oy
sinh v |- a cosh
WK,
W.Toy (b-x)
K2 , Q
a
-

VK,
op 1C1 g(Vo) P" a , a (b-a)
VK, WK,
-> a A,

2 sin A; F cos TF (b-x)

- ; jVK. V.K. e-Ajº (2)
1V-1 d
Aj(xi+ q j. [g(x)], . iX j

145
CHAP. 1.8 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

where i\; satisfies:

g(iXs) = 0

g is defined as:

g(Vs) = sinh V; a cosh V; (b-a) + 3 cosh V; a sinh V; (b-a)

with:

k; VK.
kiv K.

and:

k
k = —
pC

In both Eqs. (1) and (2), all terms beyond the first become negligible after a few
periods, and the spatial temperature distribution assumes a characteristic asymptotic form
(dependent on the period) which is maintained as long as the heat generation rises as e of
(that is, the temperature at every point in the fuel plate and coolant rises also as e^T).

CLAD FUEL PLATE IN STAGNANT COOLANT"

Again, heat flow from fuel plate to coolant is assumed to be by conduction alone. All
regions are initially at temperature 0; at t = 0, uniform heat generation, q = Qeo" cal/
(cm°)(sec), begins in the fuel plate. The fuel plate (region 1), cladding (region 2), and
coolant channel (region 3) are slabs infinite in two dimensions. The center of coordinates
(x = 0) is at the central plane of the fuel plate; the fuel plate-cladding interface is at x = a,
the cladding-coolant channel interface is at x = b, and the central plane of the coolant is at
x = c (see Fig. 1.8.1B). The temperature distribution is, for the fuel plate:

*** + 6 (c-b)
Ti(x,t) = ° eat | 1
Op 1C1
.#
DV or
cosh V. x| + |*
K1
8 VK,
|b-a, a (c-b), a
K3 – 1

VK, "" VK, "VR,

Q 2N(x) e J A;
T plc, H COS # x (3)
1- 1 iX; (Aš + O.) - |D(\ - K1
H ºf to is [P0)], -º,

146
TRANSIENT GENERATION AND REMOVAL OF HEAT CHAP. 1.8

A
| 2
Boundary Conditions
Fuel Plote Coolont 3T,
Chonnel + (o,t) = 0
l ox
TI (r. - t) T2 (x,t) T

ki , P: , c | *2, P2, C2
*
ox
(b. ) - 0
T(x,t) and k 3T (x,t)
ax

Continuous ocross
interface at 0.

Ç
B

I 2 3

Fuel Plote Clod Coolant t 3 Ti

Chonnel 3x (O,t) = 0
T ( x, t) T (x,t) T3 (x,t)
- T3
*1, P1, c. *2, P2,82 *3, P3, 93 →x
(c.,t) = 0

3.T
T(x,t) and k 3 x (x,t)

Continuous across
inter foces of q and b

Fuel Ploie 9 T.
5 x (O,t) = 0
T (x,t) 9 T2
-k 5 -(b,t) = h T. (b,f)
&T
T ( x, t) and k # (x,t)
continuous across
inter foce of q

Fig. 1.8.1 — Geometrical Arrangements for Calculation of Temperature Dis

tributions in Slab Fuel Elements Under Exponential Power Increases. Submitted
by Argonne National Laboratory, Nov. 15, 1952. (A) Unclad fuel plate in stag
nant coolant; (B) clad fuel plate in stagnant coolant; and (C) clad fuel plate in
flowing coolant.

147
CHAP. 1.8 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

for the clad:

Qe ot y sinh
-

N; Cy
a sinh
-

W. Q.--
Oy
cosh N;6-9)
o:
Oy

T2(x,t) = * | cosh K. (b-x)

0.91C1 –D(Va.)

d
Yi TF
Q_ 1VK,
+ 3 tanh V; or
(c-b) sinh
-

V; b-o-
or
0.01C1 E-3, Bº-B)...a
WK, "TV's V.K.

__Q -
e-Air 4ysin
Aj
VK. . VK,
a Sln
Aſ (b-a) cos
_^j
VK, (c-b)

O1C1
j=1
in . () 2
iAj (x; + o)
d
dA [D(x)], = i\;

|co. _^j
VK.
(b-x) — Btan Aj
VK,
(c-b) sin Aj
VK.
º-s, (4)

and for the coolant:

Q 2) sinh V. a sinh V; (b-a)

T3(x,t) =
Cºp 1C1
eo.T 1
—D(VO, )
2 cosh V; (c-x)
Q v. Q *\ 4 ysin ... a sin ;: (b-a)
— — —” “H--- —ti-Hºº-cos # (c-x) (5)
opic, b-a,
VK.
a (c-b),
VK3
a pie.
VKi
aſ of a dN
J Vºj
# [D0)] A = i\} VK3
j=1

where D and N are defined by:

D(S) = cosh # a cosh y; (c-b) + 3) sinh y; a sinh ; (c-b)

...
– ) sinh S a→ sinh
V.K. ...... VK.
2S (b-a) cosh WK,
S. (c-b)

-
—By sinh –Š 2S (b-a) sinh
VK, (c-b) cosh VK, ... VK,
S. a

—B cosh y,S a... sinhº

.s.l. 2S (b-a) cosh _S 2S tº
y; a cosh i ſh-a) cosh –Š
y, (cſob)

(Note: D(S) is inherently negative for real S)

148
TRANSIENT GENERATION AND REMOVAL OF HEAT CHAP. 1.8

N(S) = |son WK, 2S

(b-a) -] cosh
S - 2S -

WK. (c-b) + 3 sinh WK, (b-a) sinh VK. (c-b)

S

iX) are the successive roots of D(A) = 0 and:

8=
;;
;:#
Again the solutions contain terms which describe an asymptotic spatial temperature
distribution which is independent of time. The calculated asymptotic distributions for clad
aluminum fuel plates (similar to MTR plates) in water are shown in Figs. 1.8.2 and 1.8.3
for periods of 0.01 sec and 0.001 sec, respectively."

CLAD FUEL PLATE IN FLOWING COOLANT"

Heat is assumed to be transferred from the fuel-plate clad to the coolant by the usual
forced-convection process, characterized by a heat-transfer coefficient h cal/(cm°)(sec)(“C).
The heat capacity of the bulk coolant is assumed effectively infinite (i.e., the bulk coolant
temperature does not change), and the heat capacity of the boundary layer is assumed negli
gible. These assumptions lead to the simple mathematical boundary conditions tabulated
on Fig. 1.8.1C. All regions are initially at temperature 0; at t = 0, uniform heat generation,
q = Qeat cal/(cm°)(sec), begins in the fuel plate. The fuel plate (region 1) and the cladding
(region 2) are slabs infinite in two dimensions. The center of coordinates (x = 0) is at the
central plane of the fuel plate; the fuel plate-cladding interface is at x = a, and the cladding
coolant channel interface is at x = b. Since the coolant is regarded as a constant-tempera
ture heat sink, its extent is effectively infinite (see Fig. 1.8.1C). The fuel plate and the
cladding are assumed to have identical thermal properties (except for the sources, which
are confined to the fuel plate). Only the asymptotic distribution has been derived. The
distribution is, in the fuel plate:

k
Qe or T
cosh -
ow

h W. K.
W; + V: (b-a) o:

k cosh W: x (6)
Ti(x,t) -
croc
p
1 —
cosh |; W#+ W. b|
h K K

and in the clad:

- Cy

T2(x,t) = Qeºſ
Ozoc
O cosh (;* ;*Włł) sinh |: V; V; º-s,
+ (7)

h W. K. k

Neglecting the heat capacity of the boundary layer in deriving the above equations may
prove serious for the case of very rapid transients. For that case, the assumption of stag
nant coolant (see above) may be a more valid approximation.

149
 ——
H20
—-
A lad
c—-
Al-U”
-— -
-—
-—
:
Alloy

7O

6O

5O

4O

3O

2O

| | | | | | | |
.IO
.O.9
O8
.O7
.O6
.O5
.O3
.O
.O2
Ol4
cm.
PLATE,
FUEL
OF
PLANE
CENTRAL
FROM
DISTANCE
Stagnant
in
Plate
Fuel
Aluminum
Clad
Distribution
Temperature
Asymptotic
Calculated
1.8.2—
Fig.
1952.
12,
Nov.
ANL-4921,
from
Redrawn
Period.
0.01-sec
on
Increase
Power
Exponential
with
Coolant

Used
Calculation
in
Constants
H.o
Clad
Al
Al-U”
cal/(cm)(sec)
k,
0.40
0.00143
0.50 ("C)
gm/cm”
p,1.0
3.44
2.70
cal/(gm)(*C)
c,
0.22
1.0
0.23
 :
Al-U”—-i-
-—
clad —He
Heo
—-l-—A

O
.O2
YO6
O5
.O4
O3
.O7
O...
.O.Ol
O 'B9

Tiesmtpreirbautuiroen
Asymptotic
Calculated
1.8.3—
DFig.
Stagnant
Plate
Fuel
Aluminum
Clad
in

Exponential
with
Coolant
1952.
12,
Nov.
ANL-4921,
from
Redrawn
Period.
sec
0.001-
on
Increase
Power

cm.
PLATE,
FUEL
of
PLANE
CENTRAL
FROM
DISTANCE

Al-U235
H2O
Clad
Al

|
IO

Calculation
in
Used
Constants

c0.00143
k,
a0.40
l/(cm)(sec)("C)
0.50

c1.0
c,
a0.22
l/(gm)(C)
0.23

gm/cm”
p,
1.0
2.70
3.44

Alloy
Ts
O O O O
|
5 3 2

g
CHAP. 1.8 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION FOR ARBITRARY POWER GENERATION

In the general case of reactor power variation for which the reactivity is coupled to the
power level via the temperature coefficient of reactivity, it is not possible to treat the
kinetics of heat generation and heat flow separately. This circumstance arises from the
non-linearity of the differential (reactor kinetics) equations which describe the time vari
ation of power generation. If, however, the power transients to be investigated are confined
to small variations about a steady value, the reactor kinetics equations can be linearized,
as discussed in Vol. 1, Chapter 1.6. This approximation is quite useful in analyzing the
stability of reactor control systems. In the linearized treatment, the equations of transient
heat flow may be handled separately from those of reactor kinetics, and for this applica
tion, methods of computing temperature distributions resulting from arbitrary power vari
ations, especially sinusoidal power variations. are useful.
For cases in which the linearized treatment is inadequate, both automatic digital com
puters” and analog computers” have been used successfully. When these methods are ap
plied, methods of computing temperature distributions resulting from arbitrary power
variations are again useful; they may be employed in specifying satisfactory electrical
analogs for use in analog computers and in arriving at approximations which simplify the
formulation of the computation for a digital computer.
The following summarizes simple and general analytical methods for approximating the
temperature distributions resulting from arbitrary, specified power variations. These
methods can be used for making broad estimates on a wide variety of physical cases in a
minimum of time. More accurate and less general methods (as above) are used frequently
for obtaining solutions in individual applications; references to solutions for more of these
are given in the Selected Reading List.
There are two usual points of interest in connection with reactor thermal transients;
(1) calculation of local fuel-element temperatures and (2) the over-all mean core tempera
ture response, including the transfer function of the core.

FUEL-ELEMENT TEMPERATURES

The analytical method shown is that of lumped parameters. This consists of “lumping”
space or time or both into discrete subdivisions and assuming that conditions are uniform
within a space lump and constant within a time lump. The most general approach by this
method (that of using completely irregular lumping) has been slighted in the literature,
most authors having preferred to describe special refinements obtainable with special
circumstances. Many of these specialized treatments may be found in the Selected Reading
List. Dusinberre” and, to some extent, Ingersoll and Zobel" have taken the trouble to deal
with irregular and non-homogeneous lumping in a clear and unsophisticated way. Since a
refined approach is not generally useful when a fast solution is desired, the crude form of
lumping treatment will be given here.
Consider a fuel element of plate form (Fig. 1.8.4) with a heat-generating region in the
center protected by metal and cooled by a liquid at the clad surface. Assume, for sim
plicity, that only one-dimensional heat transfer need be considered. (The method is quite
general and may be applied to different geometrical arrangements and two- or three-di
mensional heat flow.) The lumping may be done arbitrarily in a manner suited to the pur
poses of the analysis and the geometry of the element. In general, a finer subdivision gives
more accurate results, and it will often be found that less complicated as well as more
accurate equations result from the use of uniform spacing in the lumps. In Fig. 1.8.4, a
non-uniform spacing is inferred for generality of presentation.

152
TRANSIENT GENERATION AND REMOVAL OF HEAT CHAP. 1.8

F UEL CLA D FLUID

//

LUMP O LUMP | 2

|
|
|
UNIDIRECTIONAL

HEAT FLOW |
|
|
|

Fig. 1.8.4 – An Example of Coarse, Non-uniform Lumping in a Plate-type

Fuel Element. Submitted by ANL, Dec. 15, 1952.

EQUATION FOR LUMPED SPACE AND CONTINUOUS TIME

A heat balance is written upon the center lump surrounding point 0. Since this lump is at
the center line of the plate, it is assumed that (because of symmetry) heat flows only to the
right of point 0, none passing through the plate centerline. Heat flowing through the right
face of the lump is assumed directly proportional to the temperature difference between
points 0 and 1 (and the unit area of the surface) and inversely proportional to the heat-flow
resistance of the path between the points:

m - A
"...t- b (Ti — To)
-

+
ka k.b

The heat generated within the lump is expressed by (aq.A). The product of heat capacity
of the core lump and the time rate of temperature change at point 0 is set equal to the rate

153
CHAP. 1.8 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

of heat gain and/or loss by conduction plus the heat gain by power generation:

dTo A
Aayaca + = -al
(Ti — To) + aq A (8)
+
ka i.
This is the equation for the core lump. It will be observed that the effect of lumping in
the space variable is to remove that variable from the equation leaving in this case an
ordinary time-dependent differential equation. Similar equations may be written for each
of the other lumps (cancelling the unit area):

dT 1 k
(b+d/2) YoCb # = H (T. - T,) +. (T, -T) (9)

ka" kb

d dT
#y,Cº. # = * (Ti — T2) + h(Tw — T2) (10)

The bulk fluid temperature, Tw, is left as a specified quantity here and therefore does
not require an equation.
The problem of estimating the transient thermal response of the fuel element is now
reduced to the simultaneous solution of three ordinary differential equations. Such equa
tions may often be solved with analogue computing equipment, or explicit analytical solu
tions may often be found for certain simply expressed types of perturbation such as step
or sine function charges of Tf or Q. However, a different solution must be worked out for
each case. For flexibility and the inclusion of arbitrary types of parameter variations, a
totally numerical approach is often useful.

EQUATIONS FOR LUMPING IN BOTH THE SPACE AND TIME WARIABLES

The totally numerical solution is made by lumping the time variable as well as the space
variable. This can be done in different ways; three representative solutions are discussed
below:

Explicit Numerical Equations

The first solution is obtained by expressing a future temperature at a point as an ex
plicit function of the past temperatures at the same and surrounding points. An imaginary
space-time grid is shown in Fig. 1.8.5. [In the figures showing grids of this type, dots (•)
represent known temperatures, crosses (x) represent unknown future temperatures, and
circled crosses (3) represent the unknown points for which solution is to be made. All
points marked in one of these ways represent temperature values which enter into the
computation of a temperature at a particular point..] The time lumping is illustrated with
an equation of the form of Eq. (8) above:

dT
:*= C1 (T1 — To) + Czq

154
TRANSIENT GENERATION AND REMOVAL OF HEAT CHAP. 1.8

& r + Ar

Fig. 1.8.5– Space Time Coordinate Grid Showing the Temperature Points
which Enter into Explicit Computation of Tſ. Submitted by ANL, Dec. 15, 1952.

The time derivative is lumped by replacement with a difference quotient:

*
d7.
- T AT
- T - To, I AT
Ar – To. 1

Making this substitution, and solving for Tº gives:

Tº = (1 - CIAT) To + C1AT Ti + C2ATd (11)

With equations of type (11), for each point, the calculator chooses a At value (subject to
Festrictions explained below) and evaluates the constants. Starting with a specified initial
*mperature distribution, future temperatures can be computed indefinitely by time-steps
ºf size AT. The computer inserts proper specified initial values into the explicit equation
"reach point and thus computes a complete new set of T values. The new values are re
ºbstituted in the proper equations and the process repeated indefinitely. (Representative
*Sults of calculations performed in this way may be seen in Figs. 1.8.6 to 1.8.9).
The computer does not have a completely free hand in the choice of a AT value. The
*stricting criterion is roughly as follows: With the finite difference (or lumped) equation
Solvedexplicitly for T6, collect all To terms on the right side of the equation. The resulting
coefficient of To must be greater than or equal to zero. Thus in Eq. (11), if AT is chosen

155
CHAP. 1.8 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

{4O ==T-Fi
A

a.
>
LL
H 120 A

H.
Lil
—l
H.

3
(OO
2
<I
—l
O
O
© 8O
—l
st
H I
2
ul 60
>
O
co
<I B
u’
o
_--~
4O
uſ 2
Ox
Im)
H.
<I

É 2O
Q- C
>
ul
7 |-

H. T
O
O O.2 O.4 O6 O.8

TIME, SEC

Fig. 1.8.6—Transient Temperature Response of the Metal and Coolant in a

Reactor Pass with a Perturbation in Power Production. Redrawn from ANL-4810,
April 10, 1952. Reactor power instantaneously doubled from normal full-power
value; coolant flow held constant at full-flow level and coolant inlet temperature
maintained constant; channel of average power production and non-uniform
flux distribution in the second reactor pass; metal temperature taken at a point
of about twice the average full-power flux, approximately % the distance through
the pass. Curve (A), fuel-element (centerline); curve (B), fuel-element (surface);
curve (C); coolant (pass outlet). Ordinate scale shows temperature difference
only.

156
TRANSIENT GENERATION AND REMOVAL OF HEAT CHAP. 1.8

{OO

_T A

8O P

6O

B
4O -

2O

LT
ol—x.
O O.2 O.4 O6 O.8

TIME, SEC

Fig. 1.8.7—Transient Temperature Response of the Metal and Coolant in a

Reactor Pass with a Perturbation in Coolant Flow. Redrawn from ANL-4810,
April 10, 1952. Coolant flow instantaneously halved from a normal full-flow
value; reactor power held constant at full power and coolant inlet temperature
maintained constant; channel of average power production and non-uniform
flux distribution in the second reactor pass; metal temperatures taken at a
point of about twice the average full-power flux, approximately % the distance
through the pass. Curve (A), fuel-element (centerline); curve (B), fuel-element
(surface); curve (C), coolant (pass outlet). Ordinate scale shows temperature
difference only.

157
CHAP. 1.8 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

a.
= 60
LL Lil
> H.
O -
OO H. A
<ſ LLJ
- L 4O _-T
u_ H a
o m)

of 9
H.
L^
g; =
E *ſ B
3 a 20 |--

& O L
> →
uj S.
H H. O

2 O O.2 O.4 O.6 O.8

TIME, SEC

Fig. 1.8.8—Transient Temperature Response of the Metal and Coolant in a

Reactor Pass with a Perturbation in Coolant Inlet Temperature. Redrawn from
ANL-4810, April 10, 1952. Pass inlet coolant temperature instantaneously in
creased by 16.5°F; reactor power and coolant flow maintained at normal full
power levels; channel of average power production and uniform flux distribution,
in the first reactor pass; average metal temperatures given. Curve (A), fuel
element (centerline); curve (B), fuel-element (surface); curve (C), coolant (pass
outlet). Ordinate scale shows temperature difference only.

158
TRANSIENT GENERATION AND REMOVAL OF HEAT CHAP. 1.8

14.OH-ta
rn
2.
-U
In
20
p
-A
C
12.O #
r”
2
-0
u- rt
o -A
- C
; 10.0
ul rn 2OO
mo
E
_T
—l
Cl.
>
* so | 6O
LL
or

P
<!
or
LL
\ 2. Wº.
3
Qo
5.
Cl-
> 6O -
|2O $
º H.
u
| r
Oſ)

4.O - 80 co
u_j

<ſ
T
Cl

2.O - - 4O

O O
O 2 4 6 8 |O

Powe R cycle FREQUENCY, cps

Fig. 1.8.9— Calculated Outlet Coolant Temperature Variation of a Single

Reactor Pass in Response to Sinusoidal Variations in Power Level. Redrawn
from ANL-4810, April 10, 1952. Power cycled between zero and twice full
power; reactor channel of average power generation and uniform flux distri
bution; flow and pass inlet coolant temperature held constant at normal full
power levels.

159
CHAP. 1.8 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

such that C1At > 1, the equation becomes unstable. Choosing C1At too close to unity even ~5
though stable will sometimes cause unsatisfactory oscillations. The value of At is thus º:
restricted, and it may often be found that this restriction necessitates an impractical
amount of calculation. ...!

Implicit Numerical Equations

A second way to lump the time variable is to express the desired unknown future tem- 2:
perature as an implicit function of its own past value and the unknown future values at ti

surrounding points. This procedure is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.8.10. In this case, tº
Eq. (8) would be stated: z:

Tº — T ..".
** = c (T-T) + Cº.' (12)
…]

Solved for Tº: *:

To + C1AT TH + C. At q’
r
T;
- -
1 + C1 At (13) *:::
.

With this type of equation, it can be seen that unknown temperatures appear on both sides -

of the equation. It is therefore necessary to make a simultaneous solution of the equations sº

of all points at each time step. This is not a great disadvantage where only a few points ::::
are involved, whereas a great advantage accrues to this method in being able to take un- º:
limited values of At without incurring instability. If the number of equations is only five ki.
*::::

t t º * ,

| To | T. | T. --

— X (X) X r + Ar º
* **

| st:

Ar º
*-

TO
O
TI T2 | r s
-
...

T | t

Ar -

| ~

º:
H.- A x —-H - A x —- sº

O | 2 \;
X —- Sº, -

sº!
Fig. 1.8.10—Space-time Coordinate Grid Illustrating an Implicit Finite Differ
ence Computation Scheme. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, Dec. 15, ~.
1952. º:

160
TRANSIENT GENERATION AND REMOVAL OF HEAT CHAP. 1.8

or so, the unknowns may be eliminated algebraically prior to computation; for example,
with three equations such as Eqs. (8), (9), and (10), each point would reduce to the explicit
form (T. and Q' specified):

T; - A1 To + A2T1 + A3T2 + A4Tw + Asq’

The computation would then proceed in a straightforward manner, beginning with a speci
fied initial temperature distribution and continuing by time-steps of At duration.
An interesting solution can be made with the implicit computational pattern (Fig. 1.8.10)
in any transient case wherein both initial and final temperature distributions are known.
Equation (12) can be solved for To instead of T6:

Tº = (1 + CIAT) Tº – C1At Ti – C. At q’ (14)

Note that this equation is explicit for the past temperature of To in terms of future tem
peratures. If the final temperatures are known, they may be inserted for the prime (') or
future values, and the temperatures for one increment At in the past may be evaluated.
The procedure is then repeated until the solution closes upon the known initial values.
This solution does not require simultaneous elimination of variables and is stable for all
values of At. The accuracy with which it closes on the initial values can also afford some
idea of the accuracy of the solution.
Judgment must be used in choosing the size of At even where its value is not limited by
instability; too large a choice will still destroy the accuracy of solution. Comparing the
results of two sets of computations, each performed with different values of AT, will indi
cate reasonable values; if the results are not greatly different, the larger choice probably
affords sufficient accuracy for estimating purposes.

Time Average Implicit Numerical Equations

A third set-up has the advantage of stability for large values of AT and is somewhat
more accurate. This consists of expressing the desired future temperature in terms of its
own past value and the average of present and past values at surrounding points, as illus
trated in Fig. 1.8.11.
In this case, Eq. (8) would be stated as follows:

T; – Tº , , (T + T – T – To) (q’ + q)
AT = C1 2 + C2 2

Solved for To:

T; =
(1 – C1 AT/2)To + Ci At/2 (T: + Ti) + C. At/2 (q’ + q)
1 + C1 At/2 (15)

Equations of type (15) are then applied for the numerical solution in the same manner as
the fully implicit equations described previously.

CORE RESPONSE

Lumping may also be employed to estimate the temperature response or transfer func
tion of the entire core. The core may be represented by two gross lumps of material as
shown in Fig. 1.8.12. One lump represents all the core metal, while the other represents
all the coolant within the core. An over-all coefficient of heat transfer from metal to water
is evaluated by combining the resistance of the mean fluid film coefficient and the mean

161
CHAP. 1.8 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

| T.
X r + Ar

Ar

T2
O T

A r

Fig. 1.8.11—Space-time Coordinate Grid Illustrating the Time Average Im

plicit Computational Scheme for Computation of Tí. Submitted by Argonne
National Laboratory, Dec. 15, 1952.

—
%
º
º ,
Fig. 1.8.12—A Schematic Example of Gross Lumping of all the Fuel and all
the Coolant in a Reactor Core. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory,
Dec. 15, 1952.

162
TRANSIENT GENERATION AND REMOVAL OF HEAT CHAP. 1.8

length of heat conduction path (x) from within the fuel elements to their surface. (As a
simple example, with plate-type fuel elements, x would be roughly % the plate thickness.)
Using broad assumptions, heat balances are written upon each lump:

dT
Wmym cm *** = UAw (To – Thi) + P (16)

- dTo
www.ew i = UAw (Tim – Tº) + vºwe w (T-T) (17)

These equations may be solved by any of the previously mentioned methods. In making
a specific analysis of the core response, this crude lumping was found to give results
not greatly different from considerably more detailed work.” This method does not faith
fully transmit a step function of coolant inlet temperature but instead smooths it out as
shown in Fig. 1.8.13. This is a rare discontinuity, however. The effects of step changes in

TIME

Fig. 1.8.13–The Effect of Gross Reactor Lumping on the Transmission of a

Jump in Inlet Temperature. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory,
Dec. 15, 1952.

P and v are represented with sufficient accuracy for estimating purposes.

The two equations may be combined into one, eliminating T m if so desired, with the
following result:

d'T, V dTo / 1 dv Biv v dTi / 1 dv Biv

d: * B. : y + Bjºr V, dr" v. To = i, Li +| r = + ,-] T1 + B2 P (18)

163
CHAP. 1.8 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

where:

UA u.
B1 = x,-- w
Vm) mem
1
B. F if
Vm) m ('m

Vw w Cw

In most cases to be analyzed, not all the parameters (v, P, Tl) will be allowed to vary
simultaneously, and Eq. (18) would usually be considerably simplified in application.
It will be noticed that in Eqs. (16) and (17) the coolant lump storage is based on the core
outlet temperature, To, rather than the average coolant temperature. The metal-to-fluid
heat transfer is also expressed relative to To. Setting the equations up in this manner lends
stability to the numerical solution and does not greatly affect the estimates derived from
them. In solving, however, it should be understood that Tm of Eq. (16) is not the average
metal temperature but is higher by about 0.5 (To – T1).
The q and P terms in the above equations represent heat generation and power terms
which, of course, are proportional to the fissions occurring in the reactor. Any equations
of reactor physics which represent these quantities may be inserted in the above equations
to further generalize their application.

REFERENCES

1. M. M. Mills, Reactor Sci. Tech. 1, No. 1, TID-71, April 1951, pp 55-81 (classified).
2. E. F. Fricke et al, Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4810, April 10, 1952 (classified).
3. C. W. Gilbert and G. J. Fergusson, Nat. Res. Council of Canada, CRP-377, May 20, 1948 (classified).
4. E. Greuling, H. Soodak, and A. M. Weinberg, Clinton Lab., MonP-272, Mar. 27, 1947, p 28 (classified).
5. J. M. Harrer, R. E. Boyar, and D. Krucoff, Transfer Function of Argonne CP-2 Reactor, Nucleonics 10, No. 8, Aug. 1952,
pp 33-36.
6. J. H. Buck and C. F. Leyse, Argonne Nat. Lab. and Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-963, May 7, 1951, pp. 4.19 and A4.36 (classified).
7. Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4951, Dec. 15, 1952 (classified).
8. J. R. Dietrich, D. C. Layman, and O. A. Schulze, Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4921, Nov. 12, 1952 (classified).
9. Westinghouse Atomic Power Div., WAPD-55 (Section 2 - Appendices), April 20, 1951, pp 186-188 (classified).
10. A. F. Henry, Westinghouse Atomic Power Div., WAPD-28, March 1951 (classified).
11. A. F. Henry, Westinghouse Atomic Power Div., WAPD-37, Aug. 1951 (classified).
12. J. C. Simons, Jr., Westinghouse Atomic Power Div., WAPD-34, Vol. I and II, Feb. 1952 (classified).
13. G. M. Dusinberre, Numerical Analysis of Heat Flow, 1st ed, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, Chapters 5, 6, and 11, 1949.
14. L. R. Ingersoll, O. J. Zobel, and A. C. Ingersoll, Heat Conduction, 1st ed, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, Chapter 11, 1948.
15. Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4537, Dec. 15, 1950, pp 101-103 (classified).

SELECTED READING LIST

HEAT TRANSFER. M. Jacob, Vol I, 1st ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, Chapters 18 and 19, 1949.
NUMERICAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS IN ENGINEERING, L. E. Grinter, 1st cd, Macmillan Co., New York, 1949.

ENGINEERING EXPERIMENTAL STATION BULLETIN NO. 98, Purdue University, G. A. Hawkins and G. T. Agnew, March 1947.
A STUDY OF THE NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS, G. G. O'Brien, M. A. Human, and S. Kaplan,
Jour. Math. and Phys. 24, No. 4, Jan. 1951, p 223.
MEASUREMENT OF CP-2-REACTOR TRANSFER FUNCTION, Argonne Nat. Lab., J. M. Harrer, R. E. Boyar, and D. Krucoff, ANL-4373,
Jan. 1952.

FORMULAS AND TABLES OF COEFFICIENTS FOR NUMERICAL DIFFERENTIATION WITH FUNCTION VALUES GIVEN AT UNEQUAL
LY SPACED POINTS AND APPLICATION TO SOLUTION OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS, Lewis Flight Propulsion Lab.,
Chung-Hua Wu, NACA-TN-2214, Nov. 1950, 104 pp.

164
 CHAPTER 1.9

Thermal-stress Analysis
R. A. Daane

Thermal stresses occur in all parts of a reactor core as a result of the internal heat
generated in the fissionable material and, to some extent, in all irradiated components.
Removal of the heat produces temperature distributions which cause thermal stresses.
Nuclear characteristics, strength, corrosion resistance, and economy considerations in
many designs require a conjunction of various materials with different coefficients of ex
pansion. When large parts are connected by elements of small cross section, the resulting
expansion differences may produce great strain concentrations.
Rational determination of stresses and strains and their significance would require, in
addition to complicated mathematical operations, knowledge of the behavior of the con
struction materials complete enough to permit the macroscopic mechanical condition of
the material to be predicted for any conditions of temperature, stress, and stress history
encountered in operation. Such extensive knowledge and, especially, mathematically
useable laws formulated from such knowledge is not currently available, even for com
monly used materials. The theory of elasticity, based primarily on the rule that stress is
proportional to strain, provides a satisfactory approximation to these laws for most ma
terials under restricted conditions, but the conditions accompanying thermal stresses in
reactors often fall outside this restricted area.
The primary object of this chapter is to provide a skeletal basis for attacking thermal
stress problems in reactor designs by presenting thermal-stress formulas for a few sim
ple but frequently encountered cases, by indicating methods of analysis for other problems,
and by listing some general relationships that show the order of magnitude of thermal
stresses for selected shapes and temperature distributions. Material behavior character
istics which should be considered in analyzing thermal stresses and in applying the re
Sults to reactor designs are also pointed out. A Selected Reading List is also presented
which is grouped as follows: general methods of stress analysis, items (1) through (20);
design data in the form of solutions to and methods of analysis of specific types of prob
lems, items (29) through (44); and the mechanical behavior of materials under conditions
related to thermal-stress problems, items (14) through (28).

THERMAL-STRESS FORMULAS, RULES, AND RELATIONSHIPS

The following formulas relate to elastic thermal stresses occurring at the boundary
surfaces” of simple shapes heated internally by a constant heat generation (q) per unit
volume, cooled uniformly on the surface, and at steady-state temperature. Heat gener
ation resulting from irradiation is not constant but is attenuated toward the interior of the

*Boundary surface stresses are usually the significant stresses since it is at the boundary surface
that fatigue cracking usually originates.

165
CHAP. 1.9 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

material. However, this attenuation is negligible for small thicknesses and, when con
sidered, results in a smaller maximum thermal stress for the cases given here. Nomen—
clature and units are presented in Table 1.9.1.

Table 1.9.1—Stress Analysis Nomenclature and Units

Symbol Definition Units

Inside radius of tube in.

Outside radius of tube in.
Curvature 1/in.
Diameter of solid cylinder in.
Modulus of elasticity psi
Thermal conductivity Btu/(hr)(in.)(*F)
Heat generation per unit volume Btu/(hr)(cu in.)
Thickness of flat plate in.
Temperature excess with respect to reference
temperature such that when T is uniformly
zero, there is no stress •F
Mean temperature rise •F
Temperature at surface denoted by subscript •F
Rectangular coordinates in.
Coefficient of thermal expansion in./(in.)(*F)
Unit strain in./in.
Poisson's ratio None
Longitudinal and circumferential stress at the
inside surface of a tube psi
Longitudinal and circumferential stress at the
outside surface of a tube psi
Stress at the boundary in a cross sectional
plane of a prismatical shape psi
Longitudinal stress in cylinder psi
Stress in any direction parallel to the surface
on side 1 of flat plate psi
Circumferential stress in cylinder psi

SIMPLE SHAPES

LONG, SOLID ROD

The maximum stresses, except for stresses near the ends (i.e., at a distance from the
end less than or equal to the diameter of the cylinder), are at the boundary surface.

Max Stress, os = o
_ Eaqd” (1)
z T 32k(1 – v)

FIXED PLATE (NOT FREE TO BEND), COOLED ON ONE OR BOTH SURFACES, WITH
TEMPERATURE T, ON SURFACE NO. 1 AND T, ON SURFACE NO. 2
The maximum stress is at the surface with the lower temperature, T1. At the surface
with temperature T1:
2
Eo:
Max Stress, oi = 2(1 - 9) |. + (Tz — to (2)

166
THERMAL-STRESS ANALYSIS CHAP. 1.9

FREE PLATE (FREE TO BEND)

The maximum stress is at the surface of the plate and is the same at both surfaces.

Eaqt”
Max Stress, Oi = 0.2 = #: (3)

HOLLOW TUBE

The maximum stress, except for stresses near the ends, is at either the inside or the
outside surface of the tube wall.

Max stress, o, - H. ||
as a ſº +. a.” -loge
tº-a'-
b/a + (Tb-T,)|, *=
i. -—1–
loge bº/a”
-
(4)

- or B.
"b = II, ||
Q_ 2 ? – b”
+ a
- a” - a?
loge b/a + (Tb – Ta) ĐTaº
-

loge1 bº/a” | (5)

THIN-WALLED TUBE

When the thickness of the tube wall is less than about one-tenth of the inner radius,
thermal stresses not near the ends are approximately the same as those for a flat plate,
fixed against bending, whose thickness is equal to that of the tube wall. The stresses in
this case are given by Eq. (2).
If there are no surface forces or restraint forces, the maximum stresses near the ends
are, for cylinders, somewhat larger than those given above by a factor which depends on
the thickness of the tube wall. The percentage increase in maximum stress near the ends
varies from about 10 percent for a solid rod to about 20 percent for a thin-walled tube.”
No simple formulas can be derived for calculating thermal stresses in more complicated
cases. In general, solutions must be obtained by methods such as those described in items
(1) through (20) of the Selected Reading List.

DISTORTIONS OF LONG PRISMATICAL SHAPES

Another frequently encountered problem in reactor stress analysis is the calculation of

the distortions of parts the function of which would be impaired by large changes in shape.
Reactor control rods are examples. The shapes of many such members approximate long
prisms with temperatures constant in the z (longitudinal) direction. For such objects, the
distortion consists of:
(1) Pure bending (i.e., uniform curvature of the member in a longitudinal plane with no
warp of cross-sectional planes and no twist).
(2) Uniform longitudinal expansion.
(3) Cross-sectional distortions within cross-sectional planes.
Considering the curvature assumed by the bar as made up of two components of curva
ture, C, and Cy (the curvature in x-z and y-z planes, respectively), these components are
given by (assuming elastic conditions):

Cx - aſTzda
Iy c.y – aſTydA
Ix (6)

where the integrations are to be made over the complete area of cross section of the
member, Iy and I, are the moments of inertia about the y and x axes, respectively, and the

‘References appear at end of chapter.

167
CHAP. 1.9 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

x and y axes are principal centroidal rectangular coordinate axes for the cross-sectional
area.

Uniform expansion of the longitudinal centroidal axis is given by:

_ aſTāA
*z,o Area T **ave (7)

where Tave is the mean temperature rise over the cross section, compared with a refer
ence temperature for which T = 0.
Cross-sectional distortions may be calculated for each particular case, using the equa
tions of elasticity for plane strain, superposing on these results the cross-sectional
deformations:

—v(e Z, O + x-C, + y:C,)

STRESSES IN PRISMATICAL SHAPES WITH CONSTANT Axial TEMPERATURES, NOT

NEAR THE ENDS

Boundary surface stresses are usually the most important thermal stresses. For elas
tic stresses at a boundary surface, Hooke's law reduces to:

oz - vos = Eez
(8)
os – voz = Ees

from which:

E
"... = TITZ (ez + ves) (9)

The strain, ez is:

ez = a Ta + x-C, 4 y-cy – at (at the point considered). (10)

If the temperature distribution in the prismatical shape is such that C. = Cy = 0 (which

would be the case when the temperatures are symmetrical with respect to a pair of x and
y axes) or if the bar is restrained against bending, then:

— Eo (Tave – T e

•.-ºº-ºº::="(. . . .) (11)

The stress os and the strain es depend on the cross-sectional shape and are not, in gen
eral, limited to any simply expressed value. However, if the cross-sectional shape is
simple (i.e., does not involve thin webs or flanges) and if we are considering a point on a
relatively smooth part of the boundary, then, in general:

(12)

168
THERMAL-STRESS ANALYSIS CHAP. 1.9

EFFECT OF AXIAL TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS IN PRISMATICAL SHAPES

If there are no resultant forces or moments acting over any complete cross section in a
thermal-stress problem, then, for a prismatical shape, by St. Venants’ principle,” the
stresses at any point depend only on the temperature distribution within a short distance
of the point (approximately a distance equal to the major dimension of the cross section).
This is only a general rule, applicable to reasonably simple shapes.
Accordingly, axial temperature differences do not cause appreciable stresses when the
variation of temperature along the axis is rather gradual. The elastic stress resulting
from an axial variation in temperature is generally less than:

%Ea(AT)a
where (AT)d is the difference in temperature occurring over a length equal to a major
cross-sectional dimension. Even then, there must be a change in axial temperature gra
dient near the point considered in order to have this large a stress. (Further information
will be found in items (39) and (40) of the Selected Reading List.)

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

THE NATURE OF THERMAL STRESSES

The system of thermal stresses developed in an unrestrained body is that equilibrium

system of stresses which produces strains at each point such that the total unit deforma
tions (thermal expansions plus strains) constitute a compatible set of deformations. In
other words, temperature differences within a body produce strain differences and asso
ciated stress differences which keep the elementary parts of the body fitting together.
Temperatures which vary linearly with respect to rectangular coordinates do not produce
any stress in a free body because the associated expansions constitute a compatible system.
Temperature differences do not give rise to boundary surface loads. Thus, in an un
restrained body, thermal stresses must be so distributed that the resultant shear force,
normal force, and bending and twisting moments acting over any complete cross section*
of the body are zero.
These considerations apply to a multiply connected body considered in its entirety as
well as to simply connected bodies. However, in a multiply connected body or in a group
of mechanically connected parts, resultant loads and moments may act on some cross
sections. Special attention should be given to thermal stresses in multiply connected com
ponents having large parts connected by relatively small sections since large resultant
forces or moments may exist in these small sections. Reactor core structures usually
involve such problems. The calculation of thermal stresses in multiply connected objects
usually requires all of the considerations made in a statically indeterminate structure
analysis. Items (6) through (9) and (38) of the Selected Reading List pertain to such
analyses.

THE ORDER OF MAGNITUDE OF THERMAL STRESSES AND STRAINS

In accordance with the nature of thermal stresses, the largest thermal strain occurring
in an unrestrained body of fairly regularf shape with a non-linear temperature distribution

*The term complete cross section is used to designate a cross section or the sum of cross sections
cutting the body into two separate parts. In a multiply connected body, it is possible to make a com
plete cut over a cross section (interior surface completely bounded by the external surface of the
body) without separating the body into two parts.
f"Regular” is used to refer to shapes not having sections which are thin compared with other
parts of the body. In such thin sections, concentrated strains may occur.

169
CHAP. 1.9 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

has an order of magnitude equal to the product of the coefficient of expansion (a) and the
maximum temperature difference (AT) existing in the body. Then for elastic conditions,
the order of magnitude of the maximum stress is:

Stress e Eowa.T

It is emphasized that these expressions are approximations and cannot be used indiscrimi
nately for precise calculations. The actual stress and strain depends upon the three
dimensional distribution of expansions, stresses, and strains existing in the body, taking
into account the effect of strains in directions normal to the strain considered. The more
irregular the geometry of the body, the more in error these rules may be. However, as an
approximate rule of thumb for simple regular shapes, this estimate of maximum stress or
strain may justify disposing of the thermal stress problem without further analysis.
If the material is ductile and if the temperature differences are large enough to cause
strains above the elastic limit,” then the order of magnitude of the strain for a simple
shape is still that given by the above rule. However, the stress may be considerably
smaller than EaaT, since for plastic strains a lot less stress is required to produce a
given strain than for elastic strains. Unlike stresses caused by sustained mechanical
loads where resultant forces and moments must be balanced by definite stresses in the
material regardless of the strain that occurs, thermal stresses above the elastic limit
must be calculated according to a reasonably realistic theory of plasticity, even though the
mathematical difficulties encountered in such calculations make it necessary to use a
greatly simplified and approximate idealization of plastic behavior.
In recent years, much work has been done to develop applicable theories of inelastic
stress analysis. Applicable discussions are presented in items (10) through (20) of the
Selected Reading List.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THERMAL STRESSES

The significance of the results of thermal-stress calculations, aside from the design
significance of the thermal strains and distortions which must be determined as a part of
the stress analysis, is their indication of the probability that the component will fracture
under stresses combined with mechanical loads. Thermal stresses are predominately
biaxial or triaxial. Stress problems in reactors usually concern materials at elevated
temperatures. Cyclic thermal stresses usually consist of large stresses with a relatively
small number of cycles occurring during the life of the reactor.
For these conditions, sufficient information is not available to allow accurate prediction
of either static or fatigue fractures. However, some probable relationships between ther
mal stresses and different types of failure are presented in Table 1.9.2. Items (17) through
(26) of the Selected Reading List are representative of the available information of this
type.

* “Elastic limit” is the largest stress or strain which may occur in a material without causing a
permanent deformation; when strains are below the elastic limit strain, stress is proportional to
strain, and the strain or deformation does not depend on time. These rules of behavior form the
principal basis of the theory of elasticity. Except for a few materials such as bronze and mild steel,
this usage of the term “elastic limit” is a simplifying idealization of the behavior of materials. For
most materials, some permanent strain will result from even the smallest stress, and the stress
strain curve is actually curved from the outset, but the deviations from the idealized elastic behavior
are very small for low stresses and gradually increase as the stresses increase. Also, at higher
stresses, flow may occur; i.e., the strain increases with time while the stress remains constant.
Thus “elastic limit” is usually taken to mean a conventional elastic limit, below which the stresses
may be calculated according to the theory of elasticity to a degree of approximation permissible for
the given problem. Above this conventional elastic limit, the material behavior is described as being
plastic.

170
 i
(decreasing
stress
of
Intensity
creep
as
stress
uniaxial
for
strain
Maximum
principal
are
os
and
o,
oi,
where boundary
biaxial
of
intensity
Stress principal stresses
the
are
o,
and
01
where surface.
boundary
the
at
combination
strain
measuring -os)”
(Wo,
+
o-os)
–i)"
o,
os ap reciable
No
to
likely
is
effect
stress
tensile
elastic
Maximum stresses
combined
for
Unknown
Significant
or
stress probability
failure
of stress
Inelastic
stresses. Stress
inelastic
or
Elastic

likely
is
rupture
No stresses,W2(CH-agº
surface Foà)

occurs): occur

etncmopuenrtaerued countered.
most
the
For
of primary
property
Material and
stress
for
rate
Creep
importance to
cycles
or
Endurance, combination
stress
of high combined
for
unknown
part, and
stresses
Stress
Thermal
of
Effects
1.9.2—
Table area)
of
reduction
and temperature
elevated
specific
for
failure temperature
and
en
(elongation
Ductility
strength
Ultimate

especially
shape,
regular
connected,
multiply
when flanges
webs,
plates,
Fuel
component
of
Type and
shapes
irregular
ductile
shape
Regular concentrated
where
of
sections
thin
or connected
multiply
ir
material
Ductile occur
may
strain
material
Brittle
shape
Regular
material
bodies part
Any

time
short
or
elastic
of
other
(or
buckling
Creep
distortions
excess
in
failure
of
Mode distortions)
plastic

rupture Static
Static rupture rupture
Static

Fatigue
Creep

5
CHAP. 1.9 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

IRRADLATION EFFECTS

Data on the effects of irradiation on the behavior of materials are presented in Sect. 3.2,
“Radiation and Thermal Effects,” Volume 3.
In some materials, such as uranium and graphite, irradiation produces growth or unit
deformations. Such deformations may give rise to stresses in the same manner that dif
ferential expansions produce stresses but may be much greater than the differential ther
mal expansions encountered. Consequently, stresses and distortions of this type should be
considered in a reactor design.
Irradiation in reactors may change the properties of the component materials. An in
crease in notch sensitivity has been found to occur in some boiler steels. These changes
in properties may not only determine what the allowable stresses are but may also affect
the method of analysis and especially the significance of thermal stresses.

REFERENCES

1. S. Timoshenko, Theory of Elasticity, 1st ed. Engineering Societies Monograph, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1934, pp 151 and 174. -

2. F. H. Murray, Thermal Stresses and Strains in a Finite Cylinder with No Surface Forces, AECD-2966, Jan. 9, 1945.
3. Timoshenko, loc cit, p 31.

SELECTED READING LIST

1 THEORY OF ELASTICITY, S. Timoshenko, 1st ed, Engineering Societies Monograph, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1934.

2. SOME PRACTICALLY IMPORTANT STRESS SYSTEMS IN SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION, R. V. Southwell, Proc. Roy. Soc., London, A,
180, 1942, pp. 367 and 396.
3. RELAXATION METHODS APPLIED TO ENGINEERING PROBLEMS, VII D, STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ELASTIC SOLIDS OF REVO
LUTION, D. N. de G. Allen, L. Fox and R. V. Southwell, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., London, Series A, Vol. 239, 1945, pp 501-537.
4- RELAXATION METHODS IN ENGINEERING SCIENCE, R. V. Southwell, Oxford Press, 1946.

5. RELAXATION METHODS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS, R. V. Southwell, Oxford Press, 1946.

6. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, S. Timoshenko, 2nd ed., Wols. I and II. D. Van Nostrand, Inc., 1930.

7. THEORY OF ELASTIC STABILITY, S. Timoshenko, Engineering Societies Monograph, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1936.

8. THEORY OF PLATES AND SHELLs, S. Timoshenko, Engineering Societies Monograph, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1940.

9. THEORY OF STRUCTURES, S. Timoshenko and D. H. Young, 1st ed, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1945.
10. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF PLASTICITY, W. Prager, Jour. Applied Phys., Vol. 20,
March 1949, pp. 235-241.
11. THEORY OF PERFECTLY PLASTIC SOLIDS, W. Prager, Applied Mathematics Series, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1951.
12. THE INELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF ENGINEERING MATERIAls AND structures, A. M. Frendenthal, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1950.

13. THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF PLASTICITY, R. Hill, Oxford University Press, 1950.
14. GENERAL STRESS-STRAIN LAWS OF ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY, A. Gleyzal, Jour. Applied Mech., Vol. 13, Dec. 1946,
pp A261-264.
15. CORRELATION OF TENSION CREEP TESTs WITH RELAxATION TESTs, E. P. Popov, Jour. Applied Mech., vol. 14, 1947,
pp A135-142.
16. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON PLASTICITY, IT'S THEORY AND APPLICATIONS, ASME-Metals Engineering Division, The Society, 1950.
17. PLASTICITY, A. Nadai and A. M. Wahl, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1931.
18. THE INTERPRETATION OF CREEP TESTS FOR MACHINE DESIGN, C. R. Soderberg, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engr., Nov. 1936,
p 733.

172
THERMAL-STRESS ANALYSIS CHAP. 1.9

19. THEORY OF FLOW AND FRACTURE OF SOLIDS, A. Nadai, 2nd ed, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.

20. HANDBOOK OF EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS, Edited by M. L. Hetenyi, Chapter 10, “Working stresses,” C. R. Soderberg,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1950, pp. 438-458.
21. FATIGUE OF METALS, H. F. Moore and J. B. Kommers, 1st ed, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1927.
22. ABSTRACTS OF ARTICLES ON FATIGUE OF METALs UNDER REPEATED STREss, JUly 1, 1928 to JUNE 30, 1930, Prepared by
the A. S. T. M. Research Committee on Fatigue of Metals, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1929-1931.
23. PREVENTION OF THE FAILURE OF METALS UNDER REPEATED STRESS, Battelle Memorial Institute, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1941.

24. FAILURE OF METALS BY FATIGUE, University of Melbourne, University Press, Melbourne, Australia, 1947.
25.
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE ABILITY OF ZIRCONIUM To witHSTAND STREsses caused by THERMAl cycling, westing
house Atomic Power Division, D. D. Frederick, WAPD-EM-167, Classified, April 23, 1952, p 24.
26. AN INVESTIGATION OF THE ABILITY OF TYPE 347 STAINLESS STEEL TO WITHSTAND STRESSES CAUSED BY THERMAL
CYCLING, Westinghouse Atomic Power Division, D. D. Frederick, WAPD-EM-159, Jan. 31, 1952.
27. CYCLIC HEATING TEST OF MAIN STEAM PIPING BETWEEN FERRITIC AND AUSTENITIC STEELS-SEWAREN GENERATING
STATION, H. Weisberg. ASME Trans., 71, Aug. 1949, pp 643-664.
28. THERMAL SHOCK AND OTHER COMPARISON TESTS OF AUSTENITIC AND FERRITIC STEELS FOR MAIN STEAM PIPING-A
SUMMARY REPORT, w. C. Stewart and W. G. Schreitz, ASME Paper No. 52-A-35, presented at Annual Meeting. Dec. 1952.
MEMOIRES PAR DRIVERS SAVANTS, J. M. C. Duhamel, French Academy, vol. 5, Paris, 1838, p 440.
. ON THE STRESSES IN SOLID BODIES DUE TO UNEQUAL HEATING, AND ON THE DOUBLE REFRACTION RESULTING THERE
FROM, Lord Rayleigh, Phil. Mag., Series 6, Vol. I, 1901, pp 169-178.
THE CALCULATION OF TEMPERATURE STRESSES IN TUBES, ENGINEERING, L. H. Barker, vol. 124, 1927, p. 443.
THERMAL STRESSES IN SPHERES AND CYLINDERS PRODUCED BY TEMPERATURES VARYING with TIME, C. H. Kent, Trans.
Am. Soc. Mech. Engr., Vol. 54, No. 18, 1932, p 185.
THE THERMAL STRESSES IN SPHERES AND CYLINDERS PRODUCED BY TEMPERATURES WARYING WITH TIME, C. H. Lees,
Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engr., Vol. 54, No. 18, 1932, p 185.

A GENERAL PROPERTY OF Two-DIMENSIONAL THERMAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION, M. A. Boit, Phil. Mag., vol. 19, 1935, p 540.
THERMAL STRESSES IN PLATES, J. L. Maulbetsch, Jour. Applied Mech., Vol. 2, No. 4, Dec. 1935.

TEMPERATURE STRESS IN FLAT RECTANGULAR PLATES, AND IN THIN CYLINDRICal TUBEs, J. Franklin Institute, Aug. 1936,
p 149.

THERMAL STRESSES, J. N. Goodier, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engr., Vol. 59, Paper A-33, 1937.
FORMULAS FOR STRESS AND STRAIN, R. J. Roark, 2nd ed, McGraw-Hill Book company, Inc., New York, 1943.
STRESSES IN LONG THIN-wallHD CYLINDERs, DUE TO AN Axial TEMPERATURE GRADIENT. G. Horway and w. P. Manger,
KAPL-390, Aug. 15, 1950.

CIRCULAR CYLINDER STRESSES, M. Kornhauser, Jour. Am. Soc. Nav. Engrs., 62, No. 1, 1950, pp 55-62.
THERMAL STRESSES AND STRAINS IN A FINITE CYLINDER WITH NO SURFACE FORCEs, F. H. Murray, AECD-2966, Jan. 9,
1945.

THERMAL BUCKLING OF PLATES. M. L. Gossard, Paul Seide, W. M. Roberts, NACA-TN-2771, Aug. 1952.
THE PLANE STRESS PROBLEM OF PERFORATED PLATES, G. Horvay, Jour. Applied Mech., 19, No. 3, sept. 1952, pp 355-360.
STRESSES IN PERFORATED SHEETS DUE TO NON-UNIFORM HEATING, G. Horvay, KAPL-566, Aug. 17, 1951.

173
 CHAPTER 1.10

Water Decomposition

H. O. Monson

Water subjected to reactor irradiation undergoes decomposition. In general, the amount

of decomposition is extremely small and, for practical purposes, often may be assumed
negligible. Among the aspects of decomposition most frequently suggested as representing
possible practical problems are the following: effect of the decomposition products on cor
rosion resistance of containing vessels; requirements of degasification equipment for re
moving decomposition products; requirements of burner (catalytic) equipment for recom
bining the decomposition products to reform water; formation of explosive mixtures by
accumulation of gaseous decomposition products; effect of bubbles of gaseous decomposition
products on heat-transfer characteristics or on reactor reactivity; and loss of heavy water.
Experience with reactors has shown that some of these possible problems never are mani
fested, while others, although they should be considered under some circumstances, are
relatively minor in magnitude and rather easily handled in practice.
The mechanism of water decomposition is complicated. There are many variables in
volved in the decomposition process, and the effects of some of these have not yet been
completely investigated. Although the qualitative picture is fairly well developed, partic
ularly for water at ordinary temperature, much uncertainty remains with respect to
many of the quantitative considerations. The intent here is to provide, first, a general
qualitative description of the decomposition process, and second, a brief survey of quan
titative experimental data.
The treatment presented here is meant to apply only to water employed for cooling or
moderating stationary-fuel reactors, not to water used for carrying fuel. This limitation,
in effect, limits the types of radiation absorbed by the water to gamma radiation and neu
tron radiation.
A qualitative description of decomposition is given under the following headings: GEN
ERAL CONSIDERATIONS, an approximate picture of the gross process; THE MECHANISM,
the role of ionization and the principal chemical reactions involved; and MAJOR FACTORS,
the major variables and their effects upon decomposition. Finally, under PRACTICAL
CONSIDERATIONS, general observations on decomposition which are of interest to the
reactor designer, general rules for minimizing decomposition, and specific decomposition
data obtained from in-reactor experiments and from full-sized reactors are presented.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

For water at high temperatures (above about 200°F), the end products of decomposition
are gaseous hydrogen” and oxygen. At ordinary temperatures, the end products are gaseous

*For heavy water (D2O), all references to hydrogen are to be interpreted as deuterium.

175
CHAP. 1.10 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

hydrogen, gaseous oxygen, and hydrogen peroxide in solution. This temperature dependency
of the nature of the decomposition end products results from breakdown of the peroxide at
high temperatures to form oxygen (and water).
The instantaneous RATE OF DECOMPOSITION of water is equal to the difference be
tween two separate rates of reaction; viz, the rate of the FORWARD REACTION, which
converts water to decomposition products, and the rate of the BACK REACTION, which
converts decomposition products to water.
When water is first irradiated, no back reaction exists initially since there are no de
composition products present to be converted to water. The initial rate of decomposition
is therefore equal to the rate of the forward reaction. If the decomposition is allowed to
proceed within a closed system, accumulation of decomposition products leads to a back
reaction by which some of the products are converted to water; the rate of decomposition,
accordingly, is reduced. As the concentrations of decomposition products increase, the
rate of the back reaction also increases in accordance with the mass-action law, and
the rate of decomposition is eventually reduced to zero; that is, an EQUILIBRIUM CON
DITION is achieved in which the rate of the back reaction exactly equals the rate of the
forward reaction, the rate of decomposition equals zero, and the decomposition-product
concentrations remain constant at their maximum, equilibrium values.
On the other hand, if the decomposition is allowed to proceed (hypothetically) within a
completely open system, i.e., a system from which the decomposition products are re
moved immediately upon being formed (with the result that the concentrations of the
products never become greater than zero), the rate of decomposition remains constant
with time and equal to the initial, maximum rate.
Actually, the conditions most often applying to water used to cool or moderate reactors
lie somewhere between these two extremes. The gaseous decomposition products normally
are being continuously removed from the water, but at too low a rate to maintain zero
product concentrations within the water. The product concentrations therefore increase
to some intermediate value, while the rate of decomposition (or rate of gas generation)
decreases correspondingly. Often, an essentially constant rate of removal of decomposi
tion products exists, so that the system ultimately reaches a STEADY-STATE CONDITION
in which the rate of decomposition (gas generation) equals the rate of removal and the
decomposition product concentrations remain constant.
Sometimes, one or more decomposition products are also generated in the water by
some extraneous process (as, for example, generation of hydrogen by corrosion of con
tainer materials). The steady-state condition in such a case results when the total rate
of generation (rate of extraneous process plus rate of decomposition) exactly equals the
rate of removal. In practice, the decomposition products are removed from the water
continuously by deliberate, mechanical degasification or by natural diffusion from the
water to a gas space above the water surface.
The preceding description illustrates the general picture of water decomposition, but
the picture as presented is not rigorously correct. One discrepancy is that not all de
composition products enhance the rate of the back reaction (hydrogen does, but oxygen or
hydrogen peroxide in excess actually inhibits the back reaction). A more accurate picture
must consider not only this discrepancy but also a number of other factors which affect
the decomposition process. Before taking up these factors, the general mechanism of
water decomposition is described.

THE MECHANISM

Decomposition of water by reactor radiations occurs primarily because of the ionizing

abilities of the radiations. Fission recoils, alpha particles, protons (or deuterons),
gamma rays, and beta rays are all present within a reactor, and all are potentially capable

176
WATER DECOMPOSITION CHAP. 1.10

of ionizing water. However, in stationary-fuel reactors employing water solely for cooling
or moderating (as opposed to fuel carrying), only protons and gamma rays are effective,
the other radiations being almost completely absorbed by fuel elements and structural
materials before reaching the water. Protons appear in the water as a result of collisions
between epithermal neutrons and the nuclei of hydrogen atoms of the water; the neutrons
undergo a loss in energy, and the nuclei are ejected from their atoms as energetic pro
tons. The protons ionize water molecules directly, by virtue of their charge and speed.
The gamma rays do not ionize directly but are absorbed within the water by photoelectric
effect, Compton effect, or pair-production, each type of absorption resulting in production
of high-speed electrons. The electrons thus produced then ionize the water molecules
directly.
In brief, the epithermal-neutron flux within a reactor is responsible for the production
of protons in the water. The protons, together with the electrons produced by gamma
rays, ionize molecules of the water to give H.O’ ions and secondary electrons. Starting
with these ions, a series of chemical reactions then automatically ensues which finally
results in decomposition. The initial chemical reactions are:

H.o" — H* + OH

e + H2O – OHT + H

which have the net result:

H.O – H + OH (1)

The free radicals, H and OH, then may react according to:

H+ H − H, (2)

OH + OH -- H2O, (3)

and these are the processes which constitute the forward reaction converting water to de
composition products (the H2O, being further decomposed at high temperatures to Oz and
water).
The free radicals of Eq. (1) may also react, however, according to:

H+ H2O, --OH + H2O (4)

OH + H2 → H + H.O (5)

with the net result:

H, 4 H2O, -2H,O

and these are the processes which constitute the back reaction converting decomposition
products to water. This reaction is a chain reaction which, presumably, proceeds indef
initely unless interrupted by some sort of chain-termination reaction.
There are also other reactions in which the free radicals, H and OH, may take part:

OH + H2O, - H2O + HO, (6)

H+ HO, - H2O, (7)

177
CHAP. 1.10 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

with the net result:

H + OH -- H2O
Or:

H + O. -- HO, (8)

OH + HO, -- H2O + O. (9)

with the same net result. The effect of these processes is to reduce the back-reaction
rate, thereby promoting decomposition by removing H and OH radicals which are neces
sary to the back-reaction processes of Eqs. (4) and (5).
The free radicals may also become involved in reactions with ionic impurities in the
water. A number of such processes are possible, one example being:

OH + BrT —- Br + OHT (10)

H + Br —- Brº + H+ (11)

H* + OHT – H2O (12)

with the net result:

H + OH -- H2O

Regardless of the exact mechanisms involved, the effect of processes of this type is al
ways to reduce the back-reaction rate and promote decomposition, again by removing the
necessary H and OH radicals.
A reaction which complements the back reaction of Eqs. (4) and (5) is:

2H, + O. --2H2O (13)

This reaction may be considered both as radiation-induced and as a catalyzed thermal re

action (catalysis being effected by certain impurities in the water, as discussed later).
With the above general mechanism in mind, various factors which have important ef
fects on the decomposition of water may be examined.

MAJOR FACTORS

Primarily, the instantaneous rate of water decomposition and the equilibrium concen—
trations of decomposition products within water (and therefore the maximum partial pres–
sures exerted by the gaseous products) are dependent upon four major factors:
(1) The nature and intensity of the radiation.
(2) The temperature of the water.
(3) The nature and extent of ionic impurities in the water.
(4) The concentrations of the decomposition products in the water.
These four factors are discussed briefly below, both with regard to water irradiated at
elevated temperature and water irradiated at moderate temperature. Since hydrogen per
oxide has not been detected experimentally in water irradiated at high temperature, the
chemical reactions which result in decomposition at elevated temperature probably differ
somewhat from those which produce decomposition in water irradiated at moderate tem
perature; therefore, data pertaining to water at moderate temperature may not be applied
unqualifiedly to water at elevated temperature.

178
WATER DECOMPOSITION CHAP. 1.10

EFFECT OF NATURE AND INTENSITY OF RADLATION

The ionizing ability of a charged particle is a result of its charge and its motion. For a
moving particle with a given charge, the probability of its ionizing molecules lying in its
path becomes greater as the velocity of the particle becomes smaller (down to a velocity
where the particle either has become neutralized or has insufficient energy to effect ioni
zation). Since the magnitude of the charge of a proton is the same as that of an electron
and since its velocity, for the same energy, is much smaller, the probability of ionizing
water molecules lying in the path of a proton (produced by an epithermal neutron) is much
greater than for an electron (produced by a gamma ray). Accordingly, the ionization
density [and therefore the local concentration of H and OH free radicals formed in ac
cordance with Eq. (1)] along the tracks of protons coursing through water is very much
greater than along the tracks of electrons.
Since gamma (electron) radiation results in the formation of free radicals only at widely
separated intervals along the radiation tracks, the free radicals get little chance to react
with each other to form decomposition products in accordance with Eqs. (2) and (3). In
stead, many drift away from the tracks into the bulk of the water and become available
for reacting with decomposition products (to form water) in accordance with Eqs. (4) and
(5). The ratio of the number of pairs of free radicals which form decomposition products
to the number of pairs which become available for recombining the decomposition products
is about one to four. This results in a weak forward reaction and a very strong back re
action, and in pure water, gamma radiation alone produces no decomposition. In fact,
gamma radiation provides a reserve of recombination potential, and radiation of another
nature which may tend to produce decomposition must first overcome this excess capacity
for recombination before any decomposition can result.
On the other hand, epithermal neutron (proton) radiation results in the formation of
relatively close free radicals. Many of these radicals have the opportunity therefore to
combine in accordance with Eqs. (2) and (3) to produce decomposition products before
becoming dispersed. Relatively few radicals drift away from proton tracks and become
available for the back reaction of Eqs. (4) and (5). The ratio of the number of pairs of
free radicals which form decomposition products to the number which become available
for recombining the decomposition products is comparatively high (the exact value of the
ratio not yet having been determined). Consequently, a strong forward reaction, together
with a weak back reaction, results, and epithermal-neutron irradiation of pure water
produces appreciably high rates of decomposition.
When water is irradiated by gamma rays and epithermal neutrons simultaneously, the
rate of decomposition is greatly reduced from that which would exist if neutron radiation
alone were present. This important effect occurs, as indicated above, because the free
radicals formed by the gamma rays and dispersed into the bulk of the water by diffusion
help to convert the decomposition products produced by the epithermal neutron radiations
to water through Eqs. (4) and (5). As the intensity of epithermal-neutron radiation is in
creased from zero for a given gamma-radiation intensity, the rate of decomposition re
mains at zero until the neutron-radiation intensity is sufficient to overcome the reserve
recombination capacity of the gamma radiation. Further increase in the neutron-radiation
intensity then results in a progressively higher (initial) rate of decomposition. The mini
mum neutron-radiation intensity required to effect decomposition, of course, is increased
as the gamma-radiation intensity is increased.
In brief, the decomposition effects on reactor water subjected to epithermal neutron and
gamma fluxes simultaneously are these: both the instantaneous rate of decomposition and
the equilibrium concentrations of decomposition products increase with increase in epither
mal neutron flux (unless the flux remains below the minimum value required to produce
decomposition); both decrease with increase in gamma flux (unless the flux was initially

179
CHAP. 1.10 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

high enough to prevent any decomposition); of most importance, under the average neutron
and gamma-flux levels existing in cooling water or moderating water of present reactors,
both the instantaneous decomposition rates and the maximum concentrations of decomposi
tion products are very close to zero (for initially gas-free, relatively pure water).

LOW TEMPERATURE

Experimental evidence indicating the relative effects of epithermal neutron and gamma
fluxes has been obtained. Figure 1.10.1 relates the total pressure exerted by gaseous de
composition products (or, effectively, the concentration of the gaseous products) to the

| 20

- Ampoule Surrounded
F ` by I.75 cm of Paroffin
*º- \ (to decrease epithermol
o 8O \ neutron flux )
E
O
/ \

LL]

g
Oſ) ef
_e— \
\
§ 40 * \
ul /
Or / Ampoule Surrounded
Cl / by 1.75 cm of Lead Y~
Z (to decrease gammo flux) Y--
| --O

O
O 75 15O - 225 3OO 375

IRRADIATION TIME, hr

Fig. 1.10.1 – Effect of Change in Nature and Intensity of Radiation upon Water
Decomposition Product Equilibrium Pressure as Observed with Partially Filled
Ampoules Irradiated in Oak Ridge X-10. Redrawn from ORNL-130, Oct. 11, 1949.

irradiation time for water irradiated in a quartz ampoule at 77°F in the ORNL X-10 re
actor." The slope of the curve is quantitatively indicative of the rate of decomposition;
where a slope equals zero, equilibrium exists. On one run (upper curve) after equilibrium
was established, a shield of paraffin was placed around the ampoule to decrease the
epithermal neutron flux without appreciably changing the gamma flux. Upon introduction of
the shield, the pressure fell rapidly as a result of the reduction in the forward-reaction
rate, Eqs. (2) and (3), without an accompanying reduction in the back reaction rate. On the
other run (lower curve) after equilibrium was established, a shield of lead was placed
around the ampoule to decrease the gamma flux without impairing the neutron flux. On
inserting the lead shield, the pressure rose rapidly as a result of the reduction in the
back-reaction rate, Eqs. (4) and (5), and consequent resumption of decomposition. The
difference between the equilibrium pressures shown for the two runs was caused by a
difference in water purity and has no bearing on the present discussion.

*References appear at end of chapter.

180
WATER DECOMPOSITION CHAP. 1.10

The back reaction is augmented by another type of product recombination; viz, radiation
induced recombination of hydrogen and oxygen to form water in accordance with Eq. (13).
Experimental evidence" indicates that, at low temperature, the back reaction is substan
tially bolstered by this process (when the concentrations of hydrogen and oxygen are high)
in liquid water but does not occur in the vapor phase. The effect of such recombination is
to reduce the decomposition rate (except for the initial, maximum rate), as well as the
decomposition-product equilibrium concentrations.

HIGH TEMPERATURE

Experimental results” indicate that the rate of recombination of hydrogen and oxygen
in accordance with Eq. (13) while under irradiation at high temperature is appreciable.
Figure 1.10.2 shows, as a function of time, the total partial pressure of hydrogen and
oxygen added to the vapor phase of an ampoule containing both liquid- and vapor-phase

4O | I

UD A. Added 364 cc (STP) oz

-> --
2 wo * B. Added 70.5 cc (STP) H2
5 * /
ul | C C. Reactor Start-up at Epithermal
u! Gº 30 i | | -

— — I Flux of 2 x IO
3? |
0- Lu |
> or
< 0. |
2 = | N

# * |
#5
(ſ) C.
|
|
#
Or *
Cl <! IO = H| N

§L5
3. |2– "A B

S 3. A-\ |
H |
O
O 4 8 |2 |6 2O

TIME, hr

Fig. 1.10.2 – Radiation-induced Recombination of Hydrogen and Oxygen in an

Ampoule Partially Filled with Water. Redrawn from ANL-4628, May 1, 1951.

water at 202°F.” Although the pressure remained constant in the absence of irradiation,
a rapid reduction in pressure, indicating recombination, commenced upon start-up of the
reactor. At high temperature, contribution to the back reaction by Eq. (13) seems to oc
cur in both liquid- and vapor-phase water.” Again, the result is reduction in the decompo
sition rate and equilibrium concentrations.

181
CHAP. 1.10 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

The important effect of temperature is that in general, increased temperature results

in reduced decomposition rates and equilibrium concentrations of decomposition prod
ucts.
Temperature does not affect the forward-reaction rate and, consequently, does not af
fect the initial, maximum decomposition rate. It does, however, influence the rate of back
reaction expressed by Eqs. (4) and (5), an increase in temperature producing an increase
in back-reaction rate. Therefore, the rate of decomposition experienced with concentra
tions of decomposition products anywhere between zero (where the initial, maximum de
composition rate occurs) and the equilibrium value (where the decomposition rate equals
zero) is reduced by increase in temperature; similarly, the equilibrium concentrations of
decomposition products are reduced.
Experimental results have been obtained which suggest that the rate of radiation-induced
recombination of hydrogen and oxygen by the process of Eq. (13) also may be influenced by
temperature. At elevated temperature, the rate of this reaction apparently becomes fairly
high and is effective in reducing the rate of decomposition and the equilibrium concentra
tions of decomposition products.

LOW TEMPERATURE

In one experiment" utilizing relatively pure water in a quartz ampoule, increasing the
water temperature from 97°F to 230°F reduced the equilibrium partial pressure (effectively,
gaseous decomposition-product concentration) from 14 to 1.2 psi. Much of this effect is
probably attributable to an increased rate of the back reaction of Eqs. (4) and (5). A graph
of the data from this experiment is shown in Fig. 1.10.3.

HIGH TEMPERATURE

A recent series of experiments’ suggests that the rate of radiation-induced recombina

tion of hydrogen and oxygen in accordance with Eq. (13) in an ampoule containing both
liquid- and vapor-phase water increases with increase in temperature up to about 300°F.
Above about 300°F, the rate of this recombination reaction seems to be fairly high and
essentially independent of temperature. A graph of some of the data obtained in these
experiments is shown in Fig. 1.10.4.

EFFECT OF IMPURITIES

The important effect of ionic impurities is that, in general, the presence of ionic im–
purities results in increased decomposition rates and equilibrium concentrations of decom
position products, some impurities producing slight increases and others producing very
large increases.
Ionic impurities in water have no effect upon the forward-reaction rate. Many types
of such impurities, however, have been shown to reduce the back-reaction rate. The
ionic impurity reacts with the free radicals H and OH by some scheme of the type illus
trated by Eqs. (10), (11), and (12), thereby removing free radicals which are required for
the back reaction of Eqs. (4) and (5). Consequently, almost any ionic impurity capable of
reacting with H and OH radicals increases the rate of decomposition (except for the initial,
maximum rate which is not affected) by reducing the back-reaction rate and also increases
the equilibrium concentrations of decomposition products.
Apart from ionic impurities, suspended or colloidal impurities may be present in water.
Like ions, such impurities have no effect upon the forward-reaction rate. Unlike ions,
however, these impurities do not reduce the rate of the back reaction of Eqs. (4) and (5),
because they do not readily react with and remove H and OH free radicals. Consequently,

182
WATER DECOMPOSITION CHAP. 1.10

8O -T—

,-water of 36 °C (97 °F)

-- Temperature Changed
to IO "C (230 °F)

6O
ch
Im.

*-
O

E
O

- 4O
Lil
or
m)
on
(n)
Lil
É Temperoture Chonged
2O to to
| 50 °C 42°C
(3O2°F) (104°F)

O
O 15O 3OO 45O 6O

TIME, hr

Fig. 1.10.3— Effect of Temperature on the Equilibrium Pressure of Water De

composition Products as Observed with a Partially Filled Ampoule Irradiated
in Oak Ridge X-10 Reactor. Redrawn from ORNL-130. Oct. 11, 1949. Pressures
measured at room temperature during periodic removal of ampoule from reactor.

I I
al TE MP | NITIAL SLOPE
5 3 OO C oF cc (STP) / min

G A 293 || || 3 + O.O4
• B B 345 1.86 t O.O.7
LLJ C 495 1.89 + O.O6
—l
->
O 2 OO N
Cl- A N
>
<ſ

3 loo SS N
O
—l
`S
<ſ S
H.
O
~e
H.

o
O 5O IOO 15O 2OO

IRRADIATION TIME, min

Fig. 1.10.4— Effect of Temperature upon Rate of Combination of Hydrogen and

Oxygen in an Ampoule Partially Filled with Water and Under Irradiation in the
Chalk River Reactor (NRX). Redrawn from ANL-5004, March 1953. Initial ratios
of hydrogen to oxygen only approximately stoichiometric.

183
CHAP. 1.10 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

in general, the presence of suspended or colloidal impurities does not result in increased
decomposition rates or equilibrium concentrations of decomposition products.
There are, however, a few suspended or colloidal impurities (cited below) which have
been shown to catalyze the recombination of hydrogen and oxygen in accordance with Eq.
(13). Here, obviously, the effect is to reduce the decomposition rate and the equilibrium
concentrations. Such catalysis is strongly dependent upon temperature, being considerably
greater at higher temperatures.
Organic materials form a special class of impurities in that they readily break down
under irradiation to liberate free hydrogen and other products. The hydrogen thus evolved
sometimes aids in reducing the rate of decomposition, as described later.

LOW TEMPERATURE

Experimental evidence' indicates that some ionic impurities have a much greater effect
on decomposition than others. Solutions of KBr, KI, CuSO4, KCl, HCl, H2SO4, and K2SO4,
among others, provide ions that react with H and OH, of these, Brº, T, and Cu” ions are
the most reactive and, even with very dilute solutions, result in extremely high equilibrium
concentrations and decomposition rates. With neutron- and gamma-flux conditions which
in relatively pure water would produce equilibrium partial pressures (concentrations) of
less than 10 psi, solutions of KBr, KI, and CuSO4 may produce partial pressures of more
than 1500 psi. Under the same flux conditions, a 0.0088N solution of HCl produces a pres
sure of 350 psi; a 1.03N solution of H2SO4 produces 155 psi; and a 0.0095N solution of
H2SO4 has little effect, producing about the same equilibrium pressure as relatively pure
water.
Experimental evidence has been obtained" which shows that undissolved impurities, at
least in the range from a few to 16 ppm, have no effect upon decomposition.

HIGH TEMPERATURE

Although few details are available at present, exploratory work” has shown that cer
tain impurities strongly catalyze the recombination process of Eq. (13) at high temperature.
Among these impurities are copper, rhodium, palladium, platinum, silver, iodine, and (to
a lesser extent) tin, iron, and titanium. This effect is important only at temperatures
above 400°F.

EFFECT OF DECOMPOSITION PRODUCT CONCENTRATIONS

As indicated earlier, many of the reactions involving decomposition products are de

pendent upon the availability of the free radigals H and OH, this availability being prima
rily a function of the intensity of the existing gamma flux. Because the average gamma
flux intensity within present stationary-fuel reactors is relatively high, the effects of such
reactions are of considerable importance. It should be kept in mind, however, that in a
case where the gamma-flux intensity is low, these reactions would be expected to be rel
atively ineffective. The same comment is applicable to reactions involving ionic impurities,
as described above.
Although the concentrations of decomposition products in water have little or no effect
upon the forward-reaction rate, they may greatly affect the rate of decomposition by virtue
of their effect upon the rates of the processes contributing to the back reaction. The
process of Eqs. (4) and (5) is greatly influenced by the concentrations of hydrogen and
hydrogen peroxide in the water. As the concentration of hydrogen is increased, the rate
of this process is increased (by the mass-action law) and back reaction is promoted. As
the concentration of hydrogen peroxide is increased, however, a twofold effect occurs: The
increase tends to increase the rate of the back reaction (again, by mass action); simulta
neously, it tends to decrease the rate of the back reaction by removing, through the process
of Eqs. (6) and (7), the H and OH free radicals necessary to Eqs. (4) and (5). In other words,

184
WATER DECOMPOSITION CHAP. 1.10

the presence of hydrogen peroxide tends to inhibit decomposition on the one hand, and en
hance it on the other. The net effect has been shown to be a function of the ratio of the
hydrogen concentration to the hydrogen peroxide concentration. The importance of this
ratio is described below.
The effect of oxygen concentration is roughly comparable to that of hydrogen peroxide:
Oxygen tends to decrease the rate of the back reaction by removing, through the process
of Eqs. (8) and (9), the H and OH free radicals necessary to Eqs. (4) and (5); simultane
ously, oxygen tends to bolster the back reaction by recombining with the hydrogen present
in accordance with Eq. (13).

LOW TEMPERATURE

In relatively pure water* at low temperature (where appreciable concentrations of hydro

gen peroxide are possible), an important criterion for the effect of hydrogen and hydrogen
peroxide on decomposition is the hydrogen-to-hydrogen peroxide ratio at the start of irra
diation. Experimental evidence" indicates that the effect upon equilibrium concentrations
of decomposition products is as follows: For high ratios, very little decomposition occurs,
and the equilibrium concentration of hydrogen is low, the hydrogen peroxide concentration
very low, and the oxygen concentration effectively zero; for a ratio of unity, more decom
position occurs, the equilibrium concentrations of hydrogen and hydrogen peroxide are
higher, and the concentration of oxygen becomes appreciable; for low ratios, the equilib
rium concentrations of all the decomposition products are relatively high. The decompo
sition rates effected follow the same pattern, being very low in the case of high hydrogen
to-hydrogen peroxide ratio and relatively high for low ratios.
When initially gas-free, relatively pure water is irradiated within a closed system (a
system such that decomposition products formed must remain in the water), the resulting
decomposition rates and equilibrium concentrations are comparable to those for the unity
ratio case, above. However, if such water is irradiated within a system which permits
some of the gaseous hydrogen to escape from the water, as by mechanical degasification or
by diffusion from the water to a gas space above the water, the decomposition rates and
equilibrium concentrations become much greater as a consequence of the lowered hydro
gen-to-hydrogen peroxide ratio. In either case, at low temperature, decomposition is so
repressed by excess hydrogen that virtually no decomposition occurs at average neutron
and gamma irradiation levels in present reactors if hydrogen equivalent to 5 to 10 psi
partial pressure is initially dissolved (and maintained) in otherwise relatively pure water.
The presence of oxygen in water at low temperature promotes decomposition, principally
through the effect of Eqs. (8) and (9) on Eqs. (4) and (5) when hydrogen and hydrogen per
oxide are present in low concentrations. At high concentrations, it is probable that the
same result is effected through some different process. However, as indicated above,
maintenance of excess hydrogen precludes formation of oxygen by decomposition, and
promotion of decomposition by the presence of oxygen may be avoided by using initially
oxygen-free, hydrogenated water.

HIGH TEMPERATURE

The general decomposition mechanism and the effects of the various decomposition
product concentrations on decomposition of water have received much less study for high
temperature water than for low-temperature water. It is probable, however, that both the

*The term “relatively pure water” is used in this chapter to denote water which has been treated
by distilling, demineralizing, and degasifying so as to leave only trace amounts of impurities, in
cluding organics. Very approximately, a minimum specific resistance of 200,000 ohm-cm and a
maximum gas content of 0.1 ml/liter are implied. The term “pure water” is reserved for the hypo
thetical case of water with no impurities.

185
CHAP. 1.10 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

general mechanism and the concentration effects are similar for both cases, the chief
differences being those which stem from the rapid breakdown of hydrogen peroxide and
consequent formation of oxygen at high temperature. Because of this rapid thermal de
composition, hydrogen peroxide is present at high temperature only in negligibly low con
centrations, and the hydrogen-to-hydrogen peroxide concentration ratio always is ex
tremely high. With much excess hydrogen, some tendency to repress decomposition would
be expected. In addition, both radiation-induced and catalytic thermal recombination of
oxygen with hydrogen in accordance with Eq. (13) are very effective at high temperature,
further tending to repress decomposition. Finally, the low oxygen concentration found in
high-temperature water under irradiation, as discussed below, aids in reducing decompo
sition. The total effect, with relatively pure water at very high temperature, is almost
complete elimination of decomposition.
If initially gas-free, relatively pure water at high temperature is irradiated by epither
mal neutrons and gamma rays, an equilibrium condition should quickly be reached in which
the hydrogen peroxide concentration is (effectively) zero, the oxygen concentration very
low, and the hydrogen concentration about twice that of the oxygen. Practically, this con
dition seldom is realized. Because the vapor pressure of water at elevated temperature is
extremely high, almost any vessel or piping system designed to contain water within a
reactor must be constructed of some metal with which there is associated a certain cor
rosion rate, or rate of reaction between the metal and the water. One result of such a
corrosion process is the liberation of hydrogen into the water without liberation of oxygen.
The excess hydrogen thus introduced tends to combine with oxygen present, repress de
composition still further, and still further lower the oxygen concentration (normally, to a
point well below half the hydrogen concentration, although a portion of this effect is a re
sult of loss of oxygen to corrosion of containing materials and impurities). Of course, as
long as corrosion continues and no water is gasified either mechanically or by diffusion
into a gas space, the hydrogen concentration continues to rise. Consequently, an equilib
rium or steady-state condition is never attained under these circumstances. Normally,
however, some degasification does occur and a steady-state condition is achieved in which
the rate of hydrogen formation is equal to the rate of degasification and in which the hydro
gen concentration (as well as that of oxygen) remains constant. If the rate of degasification
is initially so high that the hydrogen concentration is prevented from rising above a very
low value, decomposition takes place at some constant rate which is primarily dependent
upon this steady-state hydrogen concentration, and the rate of degasification is equal to
the steady-state rate of hydrogen formation by decomposition plus that by corrosion; how
ever, if the rate of degasification is initially sufficiently low, the hydrogen concentration
increases to a value where the decomposition rate becomes zero, and the steady state is
achieved only if the rate of degasification is equal to the rate of hydrogen formation by
corrosion (if the rate of degasification is higher than this, the preceding case results; if
lower, a steady-state condition is not realized because the hydrogen concentration con
tinues to increase). -

The most important observation concerning effects of decomposition-product concen—

trations is that at high temperature, initial introduction (and maintenance) of a hydrogen
concentration equivalent to 5 to 10 psi partial pressure reduces decomposition of (other
wise) relatively pure water subjected to average neutron- and gamma-irradiation levels in
a reactor virtually to zero and effectively maintains the oxygen concentration very close
to zero.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The data presented in the following, if extrapolated in accordance with the principles
discussed above, should permit an engineer to estimate the decomposition problems that
may be expected in a contemplated reactor. If a precise estimate of the extent of decom

186
WATER DECOMPOSITION CHAP. l. 10

position is required or if the assumed irradiation conditions are far removed from those
in existing reactors, the reader is urged to refer to the references listed.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

(1) If pure water were irradiated in a reactor by neutron and gamma flux only, it is very
probable that no decomposition of the water would occur because of the relatively high
gamma flux normally associated with the average epithermal-neutron flux in a reactor.
(2) In practice, some decomposition of water irradiated in a reactor usually does take
place because of certain ionic impurities in the water, the effect of the impurities being
sufficient to override the repressive effect of the gamma flux. The amount of decomposi
tion occurring depends upon the amount and type of ionic impurities present. The im
purities may have been contained in the initial charge of water or they may be introduced
as discussed below in paragraph (3).
(3) The material used to contain the water in the reactor may readily introduce appreci
able amounts of ionic impurities into the water. Because such impurities are continuously
introduced, some of which promote decomposition, a means must be provided to remove
them continuously from the system if decomposition must be eliminated or reduced to a
very low value. The use of initially relatively pure water is not a sufficient precaution, in
itself, to assure negligible decomposition.
(4) The decomposition of water in any of the existing or currently planned reactors may
be completely or very nearly eliminated by a combination of the following: using initially
relatively pure water; continuously removing impurities inadvertently introduced during
operation; maintaining a small amount of excess hydrogen (or deuterium) in the water.
(5) In certain reactors, the effects of water decomposition are negligible even though no
precautions are taken for minimizing decomposition; in other reactors, the effects rep
resent minor problems to which the solutions are readily available.

MEANS OF MINIMIZING DECOMPOSITION

The chief interest of the reactor designer with regard to water decomposition lies in
reducing or, if possible, eliminating it. Based on theoretical considerations and supporting
experimental evidence already discussed, the following are known to be effective in mini
mizing decomposition:
(1) Maintain the water free of all ionic impurities which promote decomposition.*******
In addition to removing impurities before the water is charged, a method for continuous
removal (such as by by-passing a portion of the water flow through an ion-exchange bed)
should be employed. It is especially important that Brº., IT, and Cu" ions be removed from
water to undergo irradiation at low temperature; even slight traces of Br or IT left in
the water may be sufficient to cause a high rate of decomposition.
The specific resistance of water is, at best, a qualitative indication of the ionic content
with respect to the particular ions of importance in water decomposition. Nevertheless,
regulating the specific resistance can be employed to advantage to keep the general ion
content as low as possible and, thereby, hold the undesirable ion content to a reasonably
low value.*.*.* In general, the higher the specific resistance of the water, the less the
decomposition. In most existing reactor systems, the specific resistance of the water is
normally maintained within the megohm-cm range.
(2) Maintain a certain concentration of hydrogen (or deuterium) in the water.”
The presence of a small amount of hydrogen is normally sufficient to reduce the decompo
sition to zero, or very nearly zero. The exact amount required depends upon a variety of
other conditions, e.g., epithermal-neutron and gamma flux intensities, temperature, and
ionic impurity content. In the usual case, with water of high specific resistance, a hydrogen
partial pressure of a few psi is sufficient.
(3) In systems at ordinary temperature, reducing the hydrogen peroxide (or deuterium
peroxide) and oxygen concentrations as far as possible aids in reducing decomposi

187
CHAP. 1.10 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

tion.***** This is best accomplished by initially removing all oxygen from the water
and dissolving a small amount of hydrogen in the water before the start of irradiation; the
presence of the hydrogen (which must be continuously maintained if any sort of degasifica
tion takes place during operation) then prevents appreciable formation of peroxide or oxy
gen. If excess hydrogen is not deliberately maintained in the water, large gas spaces
should be avoided into which any hydrogen generated can diffuse from the water and,
thereby, help to establish high hydrogen peroxide concentration.
(4) Usually, the presence of undissolved solids in the water is not important." Intro
duction of certain suspended materials, such as copper, rhodium, palladium, platinum,
silver, and iodine” is known to reduce decomposition at high temperature, mainly above
about 400°F; however, the practicability of using such materials, especially in view of
possible detrimental effects unconnected with decomposition, has not yet been established.
Two additional means of minimizing decomposition, of possible application to in-reactor
experimental equipment, although of little use in reactor design, are mentioned below.
(5) Decrease the epithermal-neutron flux and increase the gamma flux within the water
as much as possible.” Normally, both these fluxes are firmly fixed by other considera
tions, and no range of manipulation of either is available for reduction of decomposition. It
is remotely possible, however, that a choice of water passage location may be made to favor
zones of low neutron flux or high gamma flux. In some instances, it may be possible to use
alternate structural materials or structural configuration to promote intensity of the gamma
flux within the water.
(6) Increase the temperature of the water under irradiation to as high a value as possi
ble. 1,10-13 Again, the water temperature usually is dictated by other considerations and
cannot easily be increased solely for the purpose of reducing decomposition. In those
cases where temperature could be increased, the problems of increased corrosion rates
of containing materials and of providing additional structural strength to withstand the
increased water vapor pressure would have to be weighed against the benefit in the de
composition problem.

THE PRACTICAL DECOMPOSITION PROBLEM IN REACTORS

To illustrate the problems of water decomposition encountered in practice and the

means available for combating them, the CP-3 class of reactor is discussed below.

CP-3 CLASS OF REACTOR

The CP-3 class of reactor is characterized by: use of a RECIRCULATING water sys
tem; irradiation of the water at LOW TEMPERATURE; use of heavy water. In addition to
CP-3, other reactors of the same general type are NRX and CP-5. Additional reactors
which properly are classed with CP-3, although they employ light water instead of heavy
water, are MTR, LITR, and the ORNL Research Reactor. The use of light water does not
materially change decomposition considerations except to eliminate concern over possible
loss of water and eliminate possible need for recombination equipment. Practically all
decomposition data available to date on the CP-3 type of reactor have been obtained from
CP-3 (CP-3') or NRX.

CP-3 (Argonne Heavy-water Reactor)

Heavy water at low temperature is used for both cooling and moderating. The system is
closed, the same water being continuously recirculated through the reactor. The core con
sists of an aluminum tank in which cylindrical, aluminum-clad fuel rods are suspended,
and through which all the heavy water flows. A large gas space filled with helium is pres
ent over the surface of the water within the tank. Within the reactor, the containing

188
WATER DECOMPOSITION CHAP. 1.10

material is all aluminum and external to the reactor, primarily stainless steel. Approxi
mate values of pertinent operating conditions are as follows:

Epithermal neutron flux 4 x 10" cmº’ sect'

Water temperature 100°F
Volume of water under irradiation 5000 liters
Volume of water in system 6000 liters
Flow rate in main system 27,000 liters/hr
Water pressure 15 psia
Reactor power (heat) 275 kW
Surface area of water-gas interface 30 ft”
Surface area of aluminum 450 ft”
Surface area of stainless steel 200 ft”

In this reactor, the following conditions tend to promote decomposition: fairly high
epithermal-neutron flux; low water temperature; high ionic-impurity content; high initial
oxygen content; lack of introduction of excess deuterium into the water prior to and during
irradiation; the presence of a large gas space into which the deuterium initially formed
can escape from the water, thereby aiding establishment of a high deuterium peroxide con
centration.
Aside from the fairly high gamma flux which would be expected, there are no outstanding
conditions present tending to repress decomposition.
A factor which increases the importance of any decomposition which might result is that
the decomposition products tend to accumulate since the water is irradiated repeatedly
instead of being discharged after one passage through the reactor. A sufficiently high ac
cumulation of oxygen or deuterium peroxide could conceivably pose a corrosion problem;
a sufficiently high total gas concentration could conceivably produce bubbles capable of
interfering with desirable heat-transfer characteristics or with reactor reactivity control.
Other factors are possible formation of explosive mixtures in the gas space within the
tank, and the fact that appreciable decomposition may require provisions for water de
gasification and recombination of deuterium and oxygen (because loss of heavy water is
economically objectionable).
The original operation of CP-3 was carried out under the above conditions. A consider
able amount of decomposition occurred,"," and recombination of deuterium and oxygen
was necessary. This was accomplished by continuously recirculating the helium-deuterium
oxygen mixture through the gas space in the reactor tank and through an unheated platinum
catalyst recombiner outside the reactor. The water was degasified adequately by natural
diffusion into the gas space within the tank. A helium flow of 6 cfm was found more than
sufficient to preclude possible formation of explosive mixtures (although it probably should
be pointed out that nitrogen impurity in the helium was observed to form nitric acid in the
reactor water). During this initial operation, because the water system was closed and be
cause additions of ammonium hydroxide were made regularly for pH control, the ionic
impurity content of the water was very high. At one time, the water contained about 1200
ppm of ammonium nitrate in addition to about 100 ppm of aluminum, 50 ppm of lead, and
appreciable amounts of copper, chloride, and other metals. At that time, the following
conditions existed:

Water conditions:
Specific resistance 10,000 ohm-cm
Deuterium peroxide concentration 10 – 15 ppm
Deuterium concentration Not observed
Oxygen concentration Not observed

189
CHAP. 1.10 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Water decomposition rate:

Rate of formation of deuterium 60,000 – 100,000 ml/hr
Rate of formation of oxygen 30,000 – 50,000 ml/hr

The reactor (now known as CP-3') is being currently operated under the same conditions
except that the water is kept relatively free of impurities.** A mixed-bed ion-exchange
system, through which a small fraction (about 230 liters/hr) of the main system flow is
by-passed, continuously removes ionic impurities from the water and maintains the total
dissolved solids content at about 1 ppm. This change has resulted in the following condi
tions:

Water conditions:
Specific resistance 1,000,000 ohm-cm
Deuterium peroxide concentration <1 ppm
Deuterium concentration 0.08 ml/liter
Oxygen concentration 0.01 ml/liter
Water decomposition rate:
Rate of formation of deuterium 200 ml/hr
Rate of formation of oxygen Negligible

The rates of formation of gas shown include the effects of corrosion processes.
In this type of reactor, as indicated earlier, the inherent irradiation conditions would be
expected to favor extensive decomposition. The original operation of CP-3 has shown that
appreciable decomposition does occur, but that of the several possible detrimental effects
of such decomposition cited at the beginning of the chapter, the only ones of practical
significance are: a possibility of formation of explosive mixtures by accumulation of the
gaseous decomposition products; the necessity of providing burner equipment for catalytic
recombination of the gaseous products to reform heavy water; a possibility of increased
aluminum corrosion resulting from deuterium peroxide in the water.
Present operation of CP-3’ has shown that all of the above effects are eliminated by
maintaining high specific resistance of the water through the use of a by-pass, mixed-bed
ion-exchange system. In spite of the many other conditions tending to promote decomposi
tion, the one precaution which assures low ionic content in the water is sufficient to
virtually eliminate decomposition. It is highly probable that decomposition (by irradiation)
would be totally eliminated if a few psia partial pressure of deuterium were maintained in
the gas space of the reactor tank so as to keep the concentration of deuterium in the water
at a relatively high level.
In brief, the CP-3 class of reactor tends to produce appreciable water decomposition
unless precautions are taken to maintain high water purity. The only problems of practi
cal significance resulting from such decomposition are: possible formation of explosive
mixtures by accumulation of gaseous decomposition products; loss of heavy water; and
possible increased aluminum corrosion because of deuterium peroxide in the water.
The first two of these problems are satisfactorily handled by maintaining an inert-gas
blanket over the reactor water surface and by circulating the gas, together with the de
composition products, through a simple platinum-catalyst recombiner. If no gas space
exists within the reactor, one may be provided in the system outside the reactor to serve
the same purpose; alternatively, some other sort of degasifier may be used, again in con
junction with a recombiner. The third problem disappears when steps are taken to reduce
the decomposition to a low level. Decomposition may be completely eliminated, or very
nearly so, by installation of a by-pass, mixed-bed, ion-exchange system to maintain the
specific resistance of the water at a very high value (1,000,000 ohm-cm or higher). It is
very probable that maintaining dissolved deuterium in the water in an amount on the order
of several milliliters per liter, together with a high specific resistance of the water, would

190
WATER DECOMPOSITION CHAP. 1.10

completely eliminate decomposition (by irradiation). The available data suggest that, with
in a factor of about five, the rate of generation of deuterium in the CP-3 type of reactor
(in milliliters STP per hour per liter of water volume under irradiation) is equal to 105
divided by the specific resistance of the water in ohm-cm (within the approximate range
20,000 to 700,000 ohm-cm). Of course, this relation could not be expected to apply to water
containing other than the normal types of impurities.

REFERENCES

I. A. O. Allen and associates, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab. ORNL-130, Oct. 11, 1949 (classified).
2. J. R. Humphreys. E. L. Abers, P. E. Brown, and associates, Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4628, May 1, 1951 (classified).
3. J. R. Humphreys. E. L. Abers, and Y. Solomon, Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-5004, Mar. 1953 (classified).
4. H. G. Heal. A. R. Van Dyken, T. J. Hardwicke, and R. F. S. Robertson, Atomic Energy of Canada, Ltd., CRC-494, Feb. 8, 1952
(classified).
5. Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-630, pp 129-131 (classified).
5. Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1153, pp. 93-96 (classified).
7. Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1360, pp 89, 116-118, 121-127 (classified).
8. Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1221, pp 122-123 (classified).
9. A. C. Allen. Mechanism of Decomposition of Water by Ionizing Radiations, BNL-1080, April 1952.
19. M. S. vetz and C. H. Scheibelhut, TID-2002, Aug. 1952 (classified).
11. A. O. Allen, BNL-1012, Jan. 15, 1952 (classified).
22. Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-630, pp 5.40-41, 47-48 (classified).
13. L. W. Fromm, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-404, Sept. 16, 1949 (classified).
14. Nat. Res. Council of Canada. Atomic Energy Project, CRR-479, Oct. 5, 1951 (classified).
15. Oak Ridge Nat. Lab. CRNL-65, p 116 (classified).

SELECTED READING LIST

AN INTRODUCTION TO RADLATION CHEMISTRY. M. Burton, Jour. Chem. Ed. 28, 1951, p 404.
THE DECOMPOSITION OF WATER BY RADIATION, Univ. Cal. Rad. Lab., W. J. Toulis, UCRL-583, Feb. 10, 1950.

DFCOMPOSITION OF TRITIUM oxide UNDER ITS OWN RADLATION, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., J. A. Ghormley and A. O. Allen,
QRNL-128, Sept. 1, 1948.
RADIATION CHEMISTRY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS, A. O. Allen, Jour. Phys. and Colloid chem. 52, p. 479.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS WITH X-RAY ACTIVATED WATER, H. Fircke, E. J. Hart, and H. P. Smith,
ſoul. Chem. Phys. 6, 1938, p 299.

191
 CHAPTER 1.]]

Corrosion

A. H. Roebuck

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Corrosion is the destruction of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its

environment. The selection of materials for water-cooled reactor systems involves estab
lishing the effect of the environment on the corrosion of a material and the effect of con
tamination by that material on the specific environment, that is, corrosion studies for re
actor systems should attempt to determine the inter-related effects of the corrosion
process and maintenance of water purity.
Primary considerations in the corrosion of aqueous reactor systems, in addition to those
normally encountered in industrial corrosion problems, include the following:
(1) Materials must be satisfactory for long service to provide a maximum of reliability
without periodic inspection.
(2) The dissociation of water accompanying reactor irradiation provides a constant
Source of oxygen and other decomposition products for corrosion processes. The concen
tration of dissolved oxygen is a very important factor in steel corrosion.
(3) If continuous and appreciable corrosion is possible, removal of the resulting cor
rosion product must be considered to minimize preferential deposition on heat-transfer
Surfaces or in high-flux zones.
(4) Water purity should be maintained within limits dictated by radioactivity tolerances,
Shielding requirements, accessibility of primary components for repair, and decomposi
tion problems.
(5) The effects of irradiation on corrosion processes, although probably of secondary
importance, should be evaluated.
(6) The effects that impurities produced by corrosion processes have on the dissociation
of water must be taken into consideration.
(7) Materials should be resistant to water that contains such additives as corrosion
inhibitors or poisons for excess reactivity.
Materials are, for convenience, generally classified as fuel-element materials or con
Struction materials. Fuel-element materials include fuel materials and cladding or can
materials. The most frequently used clads are aluminum and zirconium, but stainless
Steel and beryllium clads have also been considered in design studies. Construction ma
terials of primary interest are the general engineering materials and special alloys used
for pressure vessels or containing tanks, piping, fuel-assembly supports, control elements,
Core-drive mechanisms, thermal and neutron shields, and the like. The primary construc
tion material for low-temperature reactors is aluminum; stainless steel, zirconium, and
Other corrosion-resistant metals are used in high-temperature reactor applications.

193
CHAP. 1.11 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

FUEL-ELEMENT MATERIALs'
In current water-cooled reactor design, the fuel material is clad to prevent corrosive
attack of the uranium or its alloy. Alloys containing high percentages of uranium are at
tacked rapidly in water at temperatures above 300°F.
Corrosion and scale formation are limiting factors in fuel-element design because the
maximum coolant temperature and maximum fuel-element surface temperature are dic
tated by the corrosion characteristics of the cladding. Burn-up effects and other irradia–
tion phenomena influence performance but in most cases are not limiting. An analytical
discussion of these effects is presented in Chapter 1.7.
Although the primary purpose of the fuel-element cladding in water-cooled reactors is
to prevent the coolant from attacking the fuel alloy, the cladding must also prevent fuel
alloy fission products from dispersing into the coolant, and in some cases it must also
provide structural strength. The cladding must therefore have sufficient corrosion resist
ance to protect the fuel alloy for the core life or cycle time.

CONSTRUCTION MATERLALS

General corrosion leading to large amounts of corrosion products in the coolant stream
is to be avoided. Corrosion products in the coolant tend to deposit on high-temperature
heat-transfer surfaces, in dead spaces (sometimes in areas of high flux), and often in
small constrictions (e.g., instrumentation lines) causing total or partial plugging. Deposi
tion of suspended material in or around close-fit moving parts may cause them to fail or
malfunction, e.g., close-fitting shaft and sleeve mechanisms may freeze if excessive
amounts of corrosion products accumulate in the shaft-sleeve gap. Insoluble corrosion
products in the coolant have an erosive action on impellers and/or sharp elbows. Corro
sion products in the coolant stream, especially from high-cross-section materials, may
also cause changes in the nuclear characteristics of a reactor.
An appreciable amount of corrosion may cause positive or negative changes in dimen
sions. If an adherent insoluble oxide is formed as the metal corrodes, the dimension
change may be positive. If, however, the corrosion product is soluble or nonadherent, di
mension changes will be negative. Either change may cause malfunction of close-fitting
mechanisms.
A higher level of corrosion can be tolerated from parts of limited surface area. Ma
terials having desirable physical properties but not normally acceptable corrosion re
sistance may be used in this instance. Application of these materials is limited to
mechanisms where close tolerance is not necessary and to sizes or areas where the
higher corrosion rate will not introduce excessive impurity.

FACTORS AFFECTING SYSTEM CORROSION

TEMPERATURE

Corrosion rates generally increase with increasing temperatures, but the corrosion rate
vs temperature curve is usually logarithmic, not linear. The temperature range in which
the increase in corrosion rate becomes critical depends upon the specific material. For
example, the corrosion rate of AISI type 300 stainless steels does not generally increase
radically from 500° to 650°F, whereas the corrosion rate of uranium increases rapidly
from 300° to 450°F. A small increase in water temperature above that normally considered

'References appear at end of chapter.

194
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

to be the maximum for satisfactory corrosion resistance may result in a large increase in
corrosion rate.
The exact temperature dependence of corrosion is not always readily predictable as
corrosion processes may be influenced by other factors which are themselves dependent
on temperature. Such factors include dissolved-oxygen concentration and corrosion
product solubility.

IMPURITIES

Water purity, a major factor in the corrosion resistance of reactor systems may be
controlled. Soluble ions that promote galvanic corrosion and dissolved gases that are
similarly deleterious should be held to a minimum. In addition, insoluble corrosion prod
ucts that would accelerate corrosion, erosion, or deposition on heat-transfer surfaces
must be carefully controlled.
Additives to water might be desirable for certain applications, such as: (1) addition of
soluble solutions of high-cross-section materials to effect emergency shutdown or control
excess reactivity; (2) addition of buffer solutions to adjust the pH and improve corrosion
behavior; and (3) addition of gases to increase the pressure or to provide chemical poten
tial, such as adding hydrogen to force oxygen recombination.

INSOLUBLE PARTICLES

Insoluble particles may generally be removed by mechanical methods or sedimentation.

Filters are commonly used in closed-cycle high-temperature reactor systems, either by
inserting them directly into the system or by utilizing the retention of insoluble particles
in ion-exchange resins and their protective screens.

DISSOLVED GASES

Oxygen
The corrosion resistance of some engineering metals and alloys depends markedly on
the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the reactor system. Most metals can be placed in
one of two broad classifications: Maximum corrosion resistance is exhibited (1) either in
the absence of oxygen or (2) in the presence of a particular (and usually large) oxygen
concentration. There is evidence that some metals can be placed into both classifications;
these metals show high corrosion susceptibility between two oxygen concentration regions
where low or minimum corrosion is observed. Such behavior is exhibited by some of the
stainless steels and probably always involves corrosion mechanisms which change with
changing oxygen concentration.

Hydrogen

Certain metals exhibit exceptionally high corrosion resistance in high-temperature

water systems containing large amounts of dissolved hydrogen (more than 50 ml/l). AISI
type 300 stainless steels show the most pronounced effect; tensile tests on samples ex
posed to 500°F water containing hydrogen have not shown changes in physical properties.
High-temperature aqueous systems containing large excesses of hydrogen have been found
to be essentially free of dissolved oxygen. Most of the metals which exhibit high corrosion
resistance in the presence of excess hydrogen also show high resistance in systems of
minimum oxygen content. The effect of dissolved hydrogen on corrosion is thus postulated
to be related to the effect of hydrogen on the oxygen concentration.

195
CHAP. 1.11 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

Control of Gas Content

Dissolved gases may be removed or their concentrations reduced by several methods.

Mechanical degasification may be accomplished by spraying the water into the vapor phase
and continually venting a small amount of vapor. The concentration of dissolved oxygen,
for instance, may be reduced to 0.2 ml/l or less by this method depending on the efficiency
of the degasifier, how long it is operated, and the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the
make-up water used.
Oxygen may also be removed by the addition of excess hydrogen and by the use of oxy
gen-absorbing resins.” The introduction of hydrogen in amounts greater than 50 ml/l has
been found to shift the equilibrium of the reaction:

H2 + %O, -- H2O (1)

toward the right. The use of an oxygen-absorbing resin is also effective, but because the
resin contains metallic copper, precautionary measures must be taken to remove any
copper ions introduced into the coolant.

SOLUBLE SALTS

Of particular concern to reactor performance is the presence of chloride ions and the
soluble salts of heavy metals. Soluble salts of any kind will usually intensify general at
tack and perhaps cause other undesirable effects. Special care, however, must be exer
cised to ensure the absence of chloride ions. Concentrations exceeding a few ppm may
greatly increase corrosion. Stainless steels, beryllium, aluminum, and aluminum alloys
are particularly susceptible to attack by chloride ions. Soluble salts of heavy metals such
as copper, cadmium, cobalt, gold, lead, and silver intensify local attack and pitting. Heavy
metals tend to deposit or plate out in metallic form and provide bi-metallic systems in
which the heavy metal is the cathode.
Soluble-ion content may be reduced appreciably by demineralization, and conventional
practice is to bypass a certain amount of the coolant through resin beds. In high-tempera
ture water systems, the bypass flow must be cooled to approximately 140°F, the maximum
operating temperature of ion-exchange resins. Values for the specific resistance in sys–
tems operating with demineralizers are given in Chapter 1.10 “Water Decomposition.”

EFFECT OF pH
In reactor systems composed of various types of metals, a pH useful in controlling the
corrosion of one material may accelerate that of another. Metal combinations and as
semblies should therefore be thoroughly tested under the proposed pH conditions before
they are used in reactors.
Alkaline conditions are useful in reducing the corrosion of steels and ferrous alloys.
Alkaline systems (high pH) are often used industrially to control corrosion in steel boiler
condenser systems. These systems are generally not required to meet rigid water
specifications on allowable ion content or specific resistance such as are often necessary
for reactors. -

Slightly acid conditions are useful in controlling the corrosion of metals such as alumi
num and aluminum alloys (see later discussion of aluminum and aluminum alloys).

EFFECT OF IRRADLATION

Data on samples of engineering materials tested in high-temperature water loops in

operating reactors indicate that irradiation does not significantly affect the corrosion rate
of these materials for general reactor application. The water velocity in these tests was
about 10 ft/sec, and the maximum temperature studied was 540°F. Various materials have

196
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

been tested under an integrated neutron flux of up to 10° nvt thermal and 10" fast. Control
samples were tested in these loops under the same conditions except that they were not
under reactor irradiation. While a tendency toward preferential deposition of corrosion
products in high-flux zones has been noted, no corrosion effects on the samples directly
attributable to irradiation were observed.

COUPLE AND CREVICE EFFECTS

Active metals are defined as metals high in the electromotive force series. They usually
show a tendency to oxidize or corrode easily. Inactive (noble) metals, on the other hand,
are defined as metals low in the electromotive force series and are metals usually resist
ant to corrosion. If an active metal is placed in contact with an inactive metal, electrons
flow from the active to inactive metal. This imposes a more positive charge on the active
metal and causes it to corrode even more rapidly than it ordinarily would.
It is desirable to avoid contacts between metals widely separated in the electromotive
force series. Contacts between any two metals which do not build up protective films of
high electrical resistance should also be avoided. Such contacts will increase the tendency
of the active metal to corrode and will correspondingly protect the more noble metal. A
corroding bi-metallic couple in an aqueous system may be thought of schematically as
three resistances in Series:
(1) Anodic resistance
(2) Cathodic resistance
(3) Solution resistance
Any process which will increase these resistances will reduce corrosion. Anodic resist
ances may be increased by film build-up, and the solution resistance may be increased by
demineralization. In systems containing high-resistivity water, the solution resistance is
very high; this high resistance prevents extensive galvanic corrosion which might other
wise be introduced by couples or crevices.
Certain couples tend to pitting of the contact faces and should be avoided except for
limited-surface applications. Nickel, nickel-base alloys, AISI type 400 stainless steels,
copper, and copper alloys behave in this fashion when coupled to most other metals in
oxygenated water at 200°F and higher. Nickel and nickel alloys exhibit the most pronounced
effect.

Gaps or crevices in a system should be avoided if possible. In static systems or in dead

spots such as close-fitting, non-moving parts in dynamic systems, corrosion products
build up at the mouth of fine crevices or gaps. In some cases, blisters form; in others,
ridges of corrosion products are produced. Corrosion product build-up on close-fitting
shaft-sleeve mechanisms may cause sticking or freezing. A larger shaft-sleeve clearance
lessens the tendency for freezing; the proper clearance depends on:
(1) Length of shaft contact with sleeve
(2) Temperature, coolant, severity of conditions, and the like
(3) Diameter of the shaft
(4) Frequency of use (continuous or intermittent)
At 500°F in degassed water, a clearance of 2 to 3 mils has been found satisfactory for a
%-in.-diameter shaft in a "4-in.-long sleeve which is moved continuously or at least once
a week. If longer periods between movement are anticipated, the clearance should be
doubled to prevent freezing. In general, the required clearance of shaft sleeves for work
ing parts increases with (1) increased contact length and shaft diameters and (2) corre
sponding temperature rises. However, the ratio of the required clearance per inch of
shaft diameter to the shaft diameter decreases with increasing diameter of the shaft. Be
fore acceptance, the assembly should be tested under the proposed conditions.
Small gaps or fine crevices are not open to circulation if they are of any depth. For this
reason, the ion concentration builds up in these areas, and the oxygen concentration is

197
..CHAP. 1.11 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

depleted. The increased ion concentration results in a lower specific resistance of the
medium in the gap and increases the possibility of galvanic attack. If system flow does not
wash away corrosion products, the oxygen concentration in the crevice will be depleted,
and the corrosion process will often be self-limiting. Systems containing water having a
high specific resistance are less susceptible to galvanic attack.
If system water does not have high specific resistance and if the dissolved oxygen con
centration is depleted locally, the metal contacted by the depleted water will develop a
different potential than the adjoining metal. This leads to increased corrosion and is
known as the “oxygen cell effect.” Gaps and crevices are susceptible to this effect.

EFFECT OF COOLANT VELOCITY

Erosion may be defined as the destruction or loss of metal or other material by the
abrasive action of liquid, vapor, or gas. The presence of suspended solids usually in
creases the erosive action of a medium; care must therefore be exercised to remove
these solids from high-velocity systems.
Metals which resist water corrosion at temperatures up to 500°F are unaffected by flow
rates up to 30 ft/sec. Metals in this class include stainless steels, zirconium and zirconi
um alloys, cobalt alloys, and several silver-platinum-cobalt alloys; aluminum and alumi
num alloys are also unaffected by these flow rates provided the temperature and pH do not
exceed the range where aluminum has satisfactory corrosion behavior. Materials which
are susceptible to corrosion or which have limited corrosion resistance almost always
show increased corrosion rates under flow. Thorough testing is recommended before
specifying such materials for reactor use.
The rate of flow is apparently important in determining the amount of corrosion product
deposition. Heaviest deposition occurs mainly in stagnant areas or areas of low flow rate.
At 500°F, heavy deposition occurred at velocities less than 2 ft/sec.

CORROSION DATA FOR REACTOR MATERLALS

Table 1.11.1 presents a tabulation of the relative corrosion resistance of various metals
and classes of metals in high-purity degassed water up to 650°F. The table is used only to
indicate the general class of materials that may be considered for water systems operating
at the indicated temperatures. The corrosion behavior of specific metals and alloys under
various test conditions simulating reactor conditions are presented under subsequent
headings. Table 1.11.2 lists some terms and test conditions used in the following discus
SiOnS.
Judgement must be exercised in extrapolating test data to select reactor materials since
water purity, water composition, and velocity effects may differ considerably. For in
stance, the magnitude of oxygen concentration (usually low) predicted for a new reactor is
difficult to simulate during a test program. In addition, oxygen concentrations may not be
uniform in all sections of a reactor or test apparatus.
In evaluating test data weight-change rates and visual observations of the amount and
type of corrosion products formed were used as primary criteria for accepting materials.
No attempt was made to remove corrosion products after the test or between test periods.
The corrosion behavior of many highly resistant materials was not reflected in the rates
of weight change. Visual examination, however, indicated typical corrosion behavior since
adherent oxide films were rather readily distinguished from loose flaky films and/or pitting,
couple effects, and the like; accordingly, the reported data contain descriptions of typical
corrosion products. In general, a material having a rate of weight change of less than 0.3
mg/(cm°)(mo) and showing a thin adherent corrosion film has been considered satisfactory.

198
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

Table 1.11.1—General Corrosion Resistance of Metals in Degassed Water

Corrosion resistance”

Material 200°F 300°F 400°F 500°F 600°F 650°F

Aluminum G G D P P P
Beryllium G D P P P P
Chromium plate G G G P P P
Cobalt alloys G G G G G Gf
Copper G G D P P P
70–30 copper-nickel G G G G P P
Bronze G G D P P P
Gold G G G G G Gt
Magnesium D P P P P P
Nickel G G G D P P

Nickel alloys
Monel G G G G D P
Inconel G G G G D P
Hastelloy G D P P P P
Platinum G G G G G Gf
Steels
Carbon D D P P P P
Stainless
Austenitic G G G G G Gf
Ferritic G D D P P P
Heat resisting G G G G G Gf
Martensitic G G G D P P
Precipitation hardening G G G G D P
Silver G D D P P P
Titanium G G G G G Gf
Thorium D P P P P P
Uranium D P P P P P
Zirconium (crystal-bar) G G G G G D
Zirconium-tin alloys
2%% tin G G G G G D
1%% tin + trace elements G G G G Gf

*G = Good – Appearance: no apparent corrosion products; clean tarnish film.

Weight change: less than 0.3 mg/(cm”)(mo)
D = Doubtful — (1) Appearance: no apparent corrosion products; clean tarnish film.
Weight change: greater than 0.3 mg/(cm”)(mo)
– or (2) Appearance: some apparent corrosion products on surface or moder
ate amount of pitting and spalling
Weight change: less than 0.3 mg/(cm”)(mo)
P = Poor – Appearance: heavy deposit of corrosion products on surface, or general deep
pitting and spalling
Weight change: greater than 0.3 mg/(cm”)(mo)
tRecent tests show that these materials have satisfactory corrosion resistance in 750°F
superheated steam

199
CHAP. 1.11 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.11.2—Terms and Test Conditions

Corrosion rate The amount of metal penetration or weight of metal lost

per unit area per unit time [(inch/yr, mils/mo, mg/
(cm”)(mo)]. A distinction is made between a corrosion
rate and a weight-change rate. The corrosion rate may
be determined from the metal corroded vs time curve
as illustrated in Fig. 1.11.1; the corrosion rates usual
ly reported are taken from the slope of the linear por
tion of such a curve. Inclusion of accelerated corro
sion resulting from initial surface conditions is thus
avoided in this interpretation, and such rates may be
extrapolated to longer periods of time.
Weight change The change in weight of a sample per unit area
(mg/cm3). In determining a weight change, the original
sample is weighed without any attempt to remove ad
herent corrosion products. Weight change may express
weight loss (minus) or weight gain (plus).
Weight-change rate The weight change per unit area divided by time under
(Rate of weight change) test (mg/(cm°)(mo)]. In determining the rate of weight
change, the original sample is weighed after each test
period without any attempt to remove adherent corro
sion products.
Gas concentrations Gas volumes are calculated for Solutions at room tem
perature and atmospheric pressure and are expressed
as milliliters of gas per liter of water (ml/l).

Degassed water Routine laboratory test water, degassed by boiling, has

an oxygen content of about 0.1 to 1 ml/l. In special
tests employing deoxygenating resins, the oxygen con
tent is reduced to less than 0.05 ml/l.

ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS*

Aluminum and aluminum alloys have excellent corrosion resistance in many aqueous
environments. Commercially-pure 2S aluminum is useful in reactors as cladding and tub
ing. No significant amount of information about corrosion rates of aluminum in nearly
pure water exists in the open literature, and all of the results presented here are from
project sources. Differences in the corrosion rates of aluminum in neutral or slightly acid
solutions caused by such variables as solution flow rate, hydrogen peroxide concentration,
calcium-, magnesium-, and several mixed-salts, the presence of soluble oil, dissolved
oxygen content, several metal surface pre-treatments, and irradiation during exposure
were unmeasurable with the methods used. It was generally agreed that dilute hydrogen
peroxide and the higher flow rates (above 10 ft/sec) decreased the prevalence of pitting.”

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND pH AT TEMPERATURES ABOVE 100°C (212°F)

The corrosion of 2S aluminum in relatively pure water is shown in Fig. 1.11.1. After an
initial period of relatively rapid corrosion, the rate diminishes to a constant value. The

* This sub-section on aluminum and aluminum alloys was prepared by J. E. Draley, Metallurgy
Division, Argonne National Laboratory.

200
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

O.6

:
Ž O.5

>
-> 9—3–
—º, —(?)-
V
—ó– v- 5–
→ - O.4 cº
<! E
u-

©
§
. o.3
/ No. of Somples: 6

(n >
un ca
o E
—l O.2
H.
r
o
uſ O. I

>
O
O |O 2O 3O 4O 5O 6O 7O

TIME, days

Fig. 1.11.1—Corrosion of 2S Aluminum in Oxygen-saturated Distilled Water

at 50°C (122°F). Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, Sept. 16, 1952.

slope of this linear portion of the curve is often called the corrosion rate, since it can be
extrapolated to long times.
Such corrosion rates are plotted in Figs. 1.11.2 and 1.11.3 as a function of temperature.
In Fig. 1.11.2, three curves have been drawn: one for approximately neutral distilled
water, one for dilute potassium hydroxide solution (pH 8 to 9), and one for dilute sulfuric
acid (pH 4.0 to 4.4). Inaccuracies in the data plotted are such that considerable care
should be taken in their interpretation. Points are given, at temperatures below 100°C
(212°F), for water containing hydrogen, helium, or oxygen. Points used for the neutral
water curve are the helium and hydrogen-saturated cases. At 200° and 275°C (392° and
527°F), the water was not changed for the duration of individual exposures. After seven
days at higher temperature, the water pH had risen to above 8, and an intergranular attack
had apparently started by ten days, as shown in Fig. 1.11.4. Subsequent to that time, more
rapid attack and general disintegration occurred. Rates before eight and after ten days
are plotted in Fig. 1.11.2 for that temperature.
Examination of the curves in Fig. 1.11.2 shows straight-line relationships between log
corrosion rate and 1/T, with sharp changes in slope between 100°–150°C (212° and 300°F).
These breaks perhaps correspond to the transition in the composition of the corrosion
product as the temperature is changed. The product at elevated temperatures is the alpha
monohydrate of aluminum oxide. At lower temperatures, the composition is usually the
beta trihydrate. Apparently, the transition between the two oxides is a function not only of
temperature but also of water purity or solution composition. The high-temperature data
will soon be issued in topical report form.”

EFFECT OF pH, WATER COMPOSITION, AND VELOCITY BELOW 100°C (212°F)

Aluminum suffers rapid attack in either alkaline or strongly acid media. The rate of
corrosion is seen to be lowest in the general pH region of 4.5 to 7.0, with a minimum at
about 6.5 (see Fig. 1.11.5). Within that range, the temperature and flow rate caused no
large variation in corrosion rate. However, the presence of only 2 ppm chloride ion
caused a noticeable increase in pitting, the effect beginning at about pH 6 and increasing
as the pH was decreased. No pitting was observed in the absence of chloride ion and very

201
CHAP. 1.11 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

O—INTERGRANULAR
ATTACK -

loºk— O D1 stilled Woter (Soturofed with Gos Noted )

T & KOH Solution - pH 8-9

T q Heso, Solution - pH 40-44

|- • H2Oz Solution - Normality Indicated

— 1 Mil per mo., Ave. Penetration Rote

‘s
# to E
> T
o |-

•o |-

^
E |-

•o

or |-

Sº - INCIPIENT
É INTERGRANULAR

- ATTACK2
Lil
! !—
&
or
E
|-
\\
z [.
C -

Ud
|-
£
or
O -

to E

toºl I | | | ſº
275 2OO 150 IOO 50

TEMPERATURE, *C

Fig. 1.11.2—Aqueous Corrosion of 2S Aluminum. Submitted by Argonne

National Laboratory, Sept. 16, 1952.

202
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

little when it was present at a concentration of 1 ppm. At pH above 7 and below 4.5, cor
rosion rates are seen to increase sharply. In both regions, a positive dependence of cor
rosion rate on flow rate is exhibited. Above pH 7, increasing the temperature from 70° to
95°C (158° and 203°F) increases the corrosion rate; below pH 4, the reverse seems to be
true.

These data were obtained in recirculating systems to which was continuously added
fresh solution of suitable composition. Water composition thus remained constant. Solu
tion flow rates past specimens were from 9 to 38 ft/sec. Within the pH range of 5 to 7, the
solute concentrations varied throughout the following ranges from one test to another:
chloride, 0 to 2 ppm; hydrogen peroxide, 0 to 107*M; sulfate, up to 100 ppm; magnesium,
0 to 6 ppm; calcium, 0 to 20 ppm. These variations did not have a consistent significant
effect on the corrosion rate. Dilute hydrogen peroxide and the higher flow rates (above
10 ft/sec) decreased the prevalence of pitting. Slightly lower corrosion rates are typically
observed in good quality distilled water (ca. 1 megohm-cm specific resistance) because of
the presence of hydrogen peroxide at 50° to 95°C (122°–203°F). See Fig. 1.11.2.
Halide ions are generally deleterious to aluminum in water, corroding it in decreasing
severity in the order: chloride ion, bromide ion, and iodide ion. Fluoride ion usually does
not cause as rapid corrosion as the other halides. The harmful effect of the chloride ion
is enhanced by the presence of small amounts of ions of heavy metals such as copper and
iron. Even under conditions where the over-all corrosion rate is not significantly in
creased, these ions often cause severe local attack or pitting. Such behavior spoils the
usefulness of the metal in many applications where perforation of the piece cannot be
tolerated.

EFFECT OF ALLOYING

It is generally true that the commercial alloys of lowest additive content are most cor
rosion resistant. Although a certain minimum silicon content may be essential for the best
corrosion resistance, commercial alloys have more than this minimum amount. Most
metallic constituents are relatively insoluble in aluminum at ordinary temperatures and
usually are present in a separate phase. If this separate phase has a markedly different
solution potential than the aluminum matrix, local galvanic cell action is intensified, often
resulting in considerably increased corrosion.
The corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys other than 2S in high-purity water has not
been thoroughly investigated. The corrosion of 63S aluminum is very much like that of 2S
at 200° and 115°C (392° and 239°F) in boiled distilled water.” Alloys 52S and 61ST corrode
similarly to 2S at 35° and 70°C (95° and 158°F).” The 72S alloy corrodes at approximately
the same rate as 2S, but with a greater pitting susceptibility, at temperatures from 70° to
94°C (158° to 201°F).” Alloys containing much more than the minimum critical amount of
silicon generally corrode somewhat more rapidly than 2S and exhibit a greater suscepti
bility to pitting attack.”
COUPLE EFFECT

Aluminum is an active metal and would be expected to corrode more rapidly when ex
posed to the corroding medium while electrically connected to most other metals. In many
aqueous media, this phenomenon does occur. Coupling to a cathodic material such as
copper, brass, stainless steel, or graphite frequently causes rapid pitting of aluminum.
Depending on the conditions, the attack may be largely adjacent to the cathodic metal or
spread out over most of the aluminum surface. In Columbia River water, real and simu
lated, severe aluminum corrosion results from coupling to graphite.” In distilled water,
aluminum is generally highly resistant to the anodic attack although it is anodic to most
metals.” In the absence of oxygen, the corrosion rate of 2S aluminum is perhaps some
what reduced by coupling to graphite.” At temperatures above the boiling point, no signifi

203
CHAP. 1.11 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

TEMPERATURE,”C
320 300280.260 240 220 200 180 160 140 130 120 Ilo IOO 90 80 70 60 50 40 3o 2O iO
T-I-T-I I I i I i I TTI TI i I i i T i I i
o
TEMPERATURE, F
610 570 500 460 430 390 360 320 280 250 230 212 190 175 16O 140 120 los 90 70 so
IO

10'

I6 |8 2O 22 24 26 28 3O 32 34 36

Wr x 10"
Fig. 1.11.3— See facing page for legend.

204
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

Fig. 1.11.3—Corrosion Rate of Various Aluminum Alloys as a Function of

Temperature and Water Condition. Reprinted from NAA-SR-94, 1950.

LEGEND*

Water
Test Type of flow, Type of Other Test time,
No. aluminum ft/sec water pH Additives water data hrt

1 2S-72S clad 20 Demineralized 7.5 Dichromate Degassed 500

2 2S-72S clad 20 6.5 . . . - - - 500
3 2S-72S clad 20 Demineralized 6.5 ... Degassed 500
4 2S-72S clad 20 7.5 Dichromate - - - 500
5 2S 20 7.5 Dichromate Degassed 6000
6 2S - - - 7.5 Dichromate - - - 4500
7 72S - - - 7.5 Dichromate - - - 4500
8 356 Static Demineralized 6.0 0.005M H.O. . ... 1000
9 2S Static Distilled 5.9 . . . - - - 720
10 2S - - - Distilled 6.0 Sat. CO, - - - 342
11 2S 15 Distilled 6.0 0.00001N H2O, ... 700

12 356 7 Demineralized 6.0 0.0005M H2O, - - 1000

13 356 7 Demineralized 6.0 ... Degassed 1000

14 356 7 Demineralized 6.0 0.005M H2O, 1000

15 356 Static Demineralized 6.0 ... Degassed 1000
16 356 Static Demineralized 6.0 0.005M H.O. ... 1000
17 356 Static Demineralized 6.0 0.0005M H2O, ... 1000
18 2S 3 Distilled 5.7 ... Degassed 120
19 2S Static Distilled 6.5 . . . Degassed 48
20 2S 3 Distilled 4.8 0.05M H2O, Degassed 285
21 2S Convect. Distilled 6.5 ... Degassed 48
22 2S 3 Distilled 5.7 . . . Degassed 150
23 2S 3 Distilled 5.7 0.0001M H2O, Degassed 55
24 2S 27 Distilled 6.5 —O, - - - 470
25 2S 27 Distilled 6.5 -H, - - - 650
26 2S Static Bistilled 6.5 . . . Degassed 720
27 2S Static Distilled 6.5 -H, - - - 720
28 2S Static Distilled 6.5 -H, O, - - - 20
29 Alclad Static Distilled 6.0 . . . Degassed 140
30 72S Static Distilled 6.5 . . . Degassed 48
31 24S Static Distilled 6.5 . . . Degassed 48
32 2S Static Distilled 6.5 .. . Degassed 48

*Points are estimated mean values for corrosion rates; deviations as high as a factor of
2 are often encountered
tThe tests run at 212°F were for 1000 hr duration instead of 48 hr. In general, corrosion
rates of Al measured over short periods of time are too high

205
CHAP. 1.11 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

Fig. 1.11.4—Section of 2S Aluminum Sample at Corroded Surface Showing

Intergranular Attack after Ten Days in Distilled Water at 275°C (526°F). Re
printed from ANL-4581, Dec. 31, 1950. (magnification 250×)

206
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

4.O I T

95 °C – 9 ft / sec
|

3.5 7O°C – 9 ft / sec

-

|
95 °C – 20 ft / sec

3
5 3.O

>
o
*o

ë 25
~5
-

or

s
ch
E 2.O -
------

+
- 80 °C – 20 ft / sec
Lil

º
of 1.5 + -

z
C 95 °C – 9 ft / sec
Uſ)

§ 1.0
or
– |
O
O

O.5 \ -

7O oc —
/ 9 ff /sec
-

O
4 5 7 8

pH

Fig. 1.11.5—Effect of pH and Other Variables on the Aqueous Corrosion of 2S

Aluminum. Reprinted from CT-3027, Reference (11), June 19, 1945.

207
CHAP. 1.11 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

cant galvanic effect is observed when it is coupled to graphite. At 100°C (212°F) or lower,
no significant galvanic effect is observed where the aluminum is in open contact with
water, but considerable attack occurs within the crevice formed by fastening the piece of
aluminum to a piece of graphite or stainless steel.” It is possible that such crevice effects
are the result of increased alkalinity caused by the corrosion reactions in the very small
amount of water stagnant within the crevice. The effect does not occur in 107°N hydrogen
peroxide solution at 40°C (104°F). Couples with graphite and with stainless steel tested in
107°N hydrogen peroxide showed no attack, even in the crevice.”

IRRADLATION EFFECT

Tubes fabricated from 2S aluminum are now in use in several reactors. No evidence of
increased corrosion caused by irradiation effects upon the metal has been noticed.

PROTECTIVE MEASURES

Protective methods used to prevent rapid corrosion of aluminum include the use of in
hibitors. Those used most are oxidizing agents, with chromate or dichromate being out
standing. Substances in this category are added to the corroding solution and apparently
help to repair breaks in the protective oxide film, thereby stifling any reaction at the local
anodes on the metal surface.
Another method used is the application of a protective layer on the metal before it is
exposed to the corrosive environment. Such coats include paints and the products of
chemical or electrochemical treatment. Chemical baths are used to form a coat of low
porosity and solubility, such as aluminum phosphate. In the electrochemical treatment,
the metal is “anodized” in one of a variety of solutions; this treatment applies a layer of
aluminum oxide to the surface. All pretreatments have the disadvantage that the effect is
not permanent. If the applied coating is perforated either by mechanical or chemical
means, the resulting penetration of the base metal may be worse than if it had not been so
“protected.”
Aluminum is also protected from severe corrosion by “cathodic protection.” A current
is passed to the metal from a separate electrode in a direction that increases the rate of
the reduction reactions at the aluminum surface and limits oxidation reactions, or corro
sion. If a sufficiently high current is used, anodic reactions of aluminum are prevented
and no corrosion occurs.
Protection from penetrating pits is sometimes achieved through the use of “Alclad”
parts. A thin layer of an anodic aluminum alloy is metallurgically bonded to the surface of
the structural alloy which is to be subjected to the corrosive environment. If pitting
proceeds through the clad to the base metal, penetration stops because the cladding sacri
ficially protects the base metal. This is a special case of cathodic protection.

BERYLLIUM

Beryllium has corrosion properties similar to those of aluminum and magnesium. Its
corrosion rate depends upon the history of the sample. In general, the expected corrosion
rate in water at 300°F is approximately 0.5 to 1 mg/(cm”)(mo), i.e., 2 to 4 × 10° in./yr.
Corrosion is more rapid at higher temperature, and at 500°F the corrosion rate increases
to approximately 2 to 4 mg/(cm”)(mo).” Best corrosion resistance is achieved in de
gassed or hydrogenated water. In water containing dissolved oxygen, resistance is de
creased.
The most resistant type of beryllium is the BP-QMV grade, a high-purity beryllium,
cast by vacuum methods into billets, then pulverized and hot-pressed into blocks. This
type of beryllium is being used in the MTR.

208
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

Beryllium is susceptible to galvanic attack when coupled to stainless steel AISI type 347
or to 2S aluminum. Pitting and general integranular attack are the primary mechanisms
of corrosion.
Beryllium oxide, a loose white powder, is the corrosion product formed when beryllium
corrodes appreciably. An adherent oxide coating, apparently impervious, forms on resist
ant metal. The presence of localized impurities in the metal increases corrosion.
Foreign ions in the test water lead to increased corrosion. The most deleterious are
chloride ions, copper ions, iron ions, or sulfate ions. Inhibitors, however, such as NaNO3
(3–4 ppm) or Na2CrO4 (5 ppm), reduce corrosion.
Various surface treatments and fabrication methods have been investigated in an effort
to improve corrosion resistance in 500°F water. None have resulted in any marked im
provement. Besides cleaning all grease and other attached impurities from the metal be
fore use, no special pretreatment is recommended.

CHROMIUM

Chromium is very corrosion resistant in a passive condition.” Tests indicate that

when properly prepared it may be used in high-resistivity water up to 650°F. In distilled
demineralized water containing 10 ml/l of oxygen, the rate of weight change is about
0.15 mg/(cm") (mo) at 500°F and about 0.4 mg/(cm”)(mo) at 650°F.”
Chromium is used chiefly as a plating for wear surfaces. Such parts exhibit maximum
resistance when in motion and when used in high-resistivity water. The use of chromium
in low-resistivity water or water containing dissolved salts should be avoided because of
the tendency to pit and promote galvanic corrosion.
In the preparation of chromium-plated parts, it is extremely important to avoid pits,
pores, cracks, or other such flaws in the plate. Flaws that allow the coolant media to
penetrate the plate will lead to galvanic attack and increased corrosion. Chromium is
cathodic to most other metals and tends to accelerate corrosion rate if coupled. Applica
tions with chromium in contact with metals of doubtful corrosion resistance should be
avoided. Many chromium-plated parts are ground before use. The only additional surface
cleaning suggested is degreasing.

COBALT AND COBALT ALLOYS

Cobalt metal has low corrosion resistance;” many cobalt alloys, however, have high
resistance." “In general, tests indicate that cobalt alloys having primary alloying con
stituents of 35 to 55 percent cobalt, 18 to 33 percent chromium, 5 to 16 percent tungsten,
and small percentages of silicon, manganese, nickel, and iron,” have satisfactory corro
Sion resistances in water up to 650°F. Weight-change rates are lower in hydrogenated or
thoroughly degassed water than in oxygenated water. There is a tendency for these alloys
to lose weight rather rapidly during the first several weeks of exposure. Subsequent to the
initial period, weight changes are small and general corrosion behavior satisfactory.
Other cobalt alloys containing approximately the same alloying elements as those men
tioned above but with reduced cobalt contents of 27 to 34 percentf are less resistant. They
do not exhibit good resistances at 500°F but may be used in water up to 250°F.

*Trade marks for alloys tested are:

Haynes Stellite Division: Stellite 1, Stellite 3, Stellite 4, Stellite 6, Stellite 12, Stellite 19, Stellite
21, Stellite 26 and Haynes Alloy 25
Vascalloy-Ramet Corporation: Vascalloy-Ramet 171 and Vascalloy-Ramet 192
Elgin National watch Company: Elgiloy
+Trade marks for alloys tested are:
Haynes Stellite Division: Stellite 98M2 and Stellite Star J

209
CHAP. 1.11 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

Cobalt alloys are generally not susceptible to serious couple effects. Couples tested up
to 500°F without deleterious effects are listed in Table 1.11.3.
The exact mechanism of the corrosion process is unknown, but in high-temperature
water, initial weight-change rates of cobalt alloys are negative, indicating that there is a
certain amount of metal dissolution before a corrosion-resistant film is formed. The
negative corrosion rate indicates that proper precautions should be taken to minimize the
presence of cobalt corrosion product in the coolant system.
The surface preparation recommended for cobalt alloys is a clean machining and/or an
HF-HNOs pickle.” Nitrided cobalt alloys have been tested and found subject to spalling
and couple effects; their use is not recommended for 500°F water.

COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS

Copper and its alloys are not recommended for general service in water-cooled reactors
except where absolutely necessary.” Such uses include applications where anti-fouling
properties are necessary. Copper and copper alloys do not have exceptionally high corro
sion resistance, and their corrosion resistance, and their corrosion products have a
strong tendency to deposit or “plate” out of the coolant stream in other parts of the sys
tem. The deposit may be copper oxide or metallic copper depending on the individual con
ditions.

Several copper alloys tested at 500°F contained 9 to 11 percent aluminum, approximately

3 to 4 percent iron, and 85 to 88 percent copper;" these alloys exhibited good corrosion
resistance. Cupro-nickel alloys containing at least 30 percent nickel had fair resistance
at 500°F. Their rate of weight change at this temperature is about -0.3 mg/(cm’)(mo).
Increasing the nickel content gave added corrosion resistance.
Copper, aluminum bronze, phosphorus bronze, silicon bronze, and two alloysf having a
composition of 9 to 10 percent aluminum, 1 to 3 percent iron, and about 85 percent copper
showed poor corrosion resistance in 500°F water but were satisfactory at temperatures
up to 200°F.
Generally speaking, copper and copper alloys have a higher resistance in hydrogenated
or thoroughly degassed water than in oxygenated water.”
Alloys containing more than 50 percent copper tend to cause undesirable coupling effects
when in contact with other metals.” This effect is especially bad with phosphor, silicon,
and aluminum bronzes at elevated temperatures. Aluminum in contact with copper and its
alloys suffers severe pitting. Caution should be exercised in the use of bronzes or brasses
because of their susceptibility to stress corrosion.***
Copper and its alloys can develop an adherent oxide film but tend to go directly into
solution; their corrosion rates increase with increasing temperature. In order to prevent
an undesirable build up of copper corrosion products in systems containing copper or
copper alloys, counter-measures (such as the use of ion exchangers) must be taken to re
move them.

GOLD AND PLATINUM AND THEIR ALLOYS

Pure gold and platinum are metals of extremely high corrosion resistance.*T* Corro
sion rates for both metals are low, and they have been tested at temperatures up to 650°F
in water with satisfactory results. Alloys of gold and platinum, high in either metal, also
have good corrosion resistance. These, however, require individual study and no specific
conclusions are drawn.

*Trade marks for alloys tests are:

Ampco Metals Corporation: Ampco 15, Ampco 18, and Ampco 23
fTrade marks for alloys tested are:
Ampco Metals Corporation: Ampcoloy A-3 and Ampcoloy 45

210
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

Table 1.11.3—Cobalt Alloy Couples of Satisfactory Tested Resistance”

(Compiled from ANL and WAPD Data)

Cobalt alloy Coupled to

| Type 304
US Steel - Stainless W
US Steel - Stainless W,
- - nitrided
*:
. º: 3, ynes Oy
US Steel - Stainless W,
chrome plated

Type 347
Type 347, chrome plated
Armco 17-4 PH

| Stellite 6
Type 347, chrome plated
Armco 17-4 PH, nitrided
Haynes Alloy 25
Stellite 3
Graphitar 14
Stellite 3 Type 304, chrome plated

*When motion must take place for proper operation of adjacent parts,
it is recommended that these parts be moved at least once a week in
order to prevent crevice corrosion product build up and subsequent
freezing. This tendency is prevalent for even the most resistant couples

Gold and platinum and their alloys tend to accentuate couple effects of other metals.
These noble metals owe their corrosion resistance to their chemical inactivity. They are
at the bottom of the emf series. When coupled to more active metals they cause increased
galvanic attack of the active metal.
In any use, a clean surface is recommended for best service. A surface machining
operation or a dilute nitric-hydrofluoric acid pickle is satisfactory in most cases.

MAGNESIUM AND MAGNESIUM ALLOYS

The corrosion rate for commercial-grade magnesium in aerated, boiling, distilled

water is about 4 mils/mo, i.e., 18 mg/(cm”)(mo). The rate increases rapidly with tem
perature. Corrosion resistance of magnesium and its alloys may be improved by in
creasing the pH to between 9 and 11. To date, magnesium has not been used as a major
constructional material or fuel-element clad because of its high corrosion rate and the
resulting large amount of corrosion products.”
Alloy additions or impurities affect the corrosion resistance of magnesium. Impurities
Such as iron, nickel, and copper,” if present in amounts above tolerance limits, decrease
corrosion resistance. Typical data showing the change of corrosion rate with temperature
for a magnesium alloy containing 6.5 percent Al, 0.2 percent Mn, and 1 percent Zn are
shown in Table 1.11.4.
Magnesium and magnesium alloys are subject to galvanic attack when coupled to other
metals lower in the emf series. They are anodic to most other metals and are often used
as sacrificial anodes to prevent or reduce corrosion of other metals. Magnesium tends to

211
CHAP. 1.11 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

pit in stagnant water. The attack is fairly uniform in dynamic or freely flowing water if
the flow rate is not excessive. At flow rates greater than 25 ft/sec, magnesium is some
times subject to erosion.

NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS

Nickel and its alloys show limited corrosion resistance at 500°F" and poor corrosion
resistance above this temperature. Rates of weight change in degassed 500°F water for
the more resistant alloys are about —0.4 mg/(cm”)(mo) or less, depending on the oxygen
content. Nickel and nickel alloys exhibit their highest corrosion resistance in degassed

Table 1.11.4—Aqueous Corrosion of a Magnesium Alloy

Corrosion rate

Temperature, *F Mils/month Mg/(cm°)(mo)

95 0 0
150 0.27 1.2
180 .75 2.9
212 2.9 13

water or in water containing only small amounts of dissolved oxygen. Nickel alloys ex
hibit good resistance in 500°F water containing hydrogen. The compositions of alloys that
show the best resistance in tests at 500°F are shown in Table 1.11.5. Nickel alloys show
better resistance at lower temperatures. Most nickel alloys containing more than 50
weight-percent nickel have weight-change rates of less than –0.2 mg/(cm”)(mo) at 200°F
in degassed water.
Nickel alloys exhibit a tendency toward pitting in high-temperature oxygenated systems.
Nickel is above copper and below iron in the emf series. Nickel alloys may increase gal
vanic corrosion when coupled to another metal unless used with discretion. Nickel does
not readily discharge hydrogen in water in the absence of oxygen or other oxidizing
agents; it exhibits an overvoltage of about 0.5 volts. For this reason, it has fair to good
corrosion resistance in media not containing depolarizers such as dissolved oxygen.
There are various pickles for nickel alloys. A clean machined surface or a pickled
surface is recommended for best service.

SILVER AND SILVER ALLOYS

Silver has good corrosion resistance in water up to about 250°F. In 500°F water, it cor
rodes at a rate of approximately 40 mg/(cm”)(mo), and its corrosion products deposit
readily on other metallic surfaces."T" Silver corrodes with the formation of an oxide
film, but this film is non-protective and corrosion products tend to disperse into the cool
ant stream and plate out in other parts of the system. Several alloys containing cadmium,
platinum, and gold have shown satisfactory resistance in 500°F water; these are listed in
Table 1.11.6. Other alloys containing 60 to 70 percent silver, 30 percent cadmium, and
from 3 to 9 percent copper have not shown satisfactory resistance in 500°F water. Silver
and silver alloys accentuate couple effects. The same precautions suggested for the use of
dissimilar metals in contact with gold and platinum alloys should be employed for silver
or silver alloys.

212
i i
International Nickel
Company
Nickel International
Company
CWaolrp–oCrolamtoinony
Company
Pump
Schleyer
Manufacturer
Corporation
Illium
Company
Duriron

Composition
1.11.5—
Table
Water
500°F
in
Resistance
Corrosion
Good
Showing
Alloys
Nickel
of

2 Colmonoy
Chlorimet 4
Trade mark Monel Inconel
K X
G Durco
Illium D-10

max)
8
-
C
Si,
(Fe,

Others
1.0,
3Cb
–
Ti
.5

3.5
-
Al 0.2
-
Ti
2.0
–
W %,
-
B

Mo
Si .65 4.0
6.4
1.0
32

0.4

Composition,
wt-%
Mn 1.25
0.5 1.0 1.0

0.20(max)
C
.04
.2 0.1

Cu
Cr
Fe
30.0
1.50 6.5 23
22.5 8.0

15.0 8/14
3

75/85
Ni 66.0 73.0 56.0
56 63

Alloy
:
:
CHAP. 1.11 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.11.6— Composition of Silver-Cadmium Alloys of

Good Resistance in 500°F Water

(ANL-4729)

Alloying elements, wt–%

Alloy Ag Coi Pa Au Cu Sn Al

1 60 30 10
2 50 30 20
3 40 30 30
4 66.5 30 3 0.5
5 30 50 20
6 30 60 10

PLAIN-CARBON AND LOW-ALLOY STEELS

Metals in this class have high corrosion rates and are not generally used in water
cooled reactors at any temperature."" They are susceptible to severe local attack and
pitting. Mild steel corrodes at a rate of about 20 mg/(cm”)(mo) in 140°F water containing
an oxygen concentration of 3.9 ml/l."
The corrosion of steels is very sensitive to the presence of chloride ions as well as to
pH and dissolved carbon dioxide and oxygen. The concentration of dissolved oxygen has
been found to be critical at higher temperatures in distilled demineralized water.
The primary corrosion process of a metal and water is thought to involve a reaction
between the metal and the dissolved oxygen present in the water. The reaction for iron
and oxygen takes place in a stepwise fashion:

Fe + 4O2 – Feo (2)

3 FeC) + %O2 -- Fe3O4 (3)

2 Fe3O4 + %O, —- 3 Fe2O3 (4)

The oxides formed are no doubt hydrated. The degrees of hydration depend on the condi
tions of formation and are not indicated in the above equations. Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 are stable
oxide forms of iron and are the usual corrosion products. These compounds are only
slightly soluble in water, even at high temperatures, and may be suspended in the coolant
as colloids or suspensions or may precipitate out as powdery deposits. FeC is not stable
in water in the presence of dissolved oxygen, readily oxidizing to Fe2O3 or FesO4.

STAINLESS STEELS

As a class, stainless steels are corrosion-resistant and versatile structural materials

for use in high-temperature water-cooled reactors.” They have been classified into
five groups for this discussion: (1) AISI 300 series -austenitic, (2) AISI 400 series
-martensitic, (3) AISI 400 series -ferritic, (4) precipitation hardening and (5) high-alloy
steels and heat-resistant alloys.
Stainless steels owe their corrosion resistance to the presence of chromium and nickel
as alloying elements. The austenitic and high-alloy steels have the highest corrosion
resistance of the stainless steels; recent tests indicate good corrosion properties at tem
peratures up to 700°F in degassed water. Corrosion increases slightly in oxygenated

214
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

water. The corrosion rates for austenitic and high-alloy stainless steels vary from
0.01 to 0.1 mg/(cm’)(mo) in demineralized 600°F water containing dissolved oxygen
(about 5 ml/l). Carbide precipitation at grain boundaries, caused by welding or heat treat
ment, does not affect the corrosion resistance of the 300 series in water up to 500°F. The
precipitation-hardening stainless steels are the next most resistant; they are slightly less
corrosion resistant than the 300 series steels but are susceptible to stress corrosion
cracking in high-temperature water. The martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are the
least resistant. These steels have good resistance up to 200°F in carefully degassed water.
With the exception of types 430, 442, 443, and 446, their general corrosion resistance is
poor in 500° or 600°F water; they are susceptible to pitting and galvanic attack. Table
1.11.7 presents a comparative tabulation of the corrosion resistance of stainless steels.

300 SERIES –AUSTENITIC

The austenitic AISI 300 series stainless steels have very high corrosion resistance in
high-temperature water; they are characterized by a high chromium-nickel content,
nominally 18–8, 25-12, and 25–20 (Cr-Ni) and a relatively low carbon content, 0.25 percent
or less. The stable austenitic phase gives ductility and corrosion resistance. Types 304,
309, 310, 316, 321, and 347 have the highest corrosion resistance” and are weldable
without appreciable loss of corrosion resistance.” Figures 1.11.6, 1.11.7, and 1.11.8
show weight-change vs time data for AISI type 347 stainless steel at various gas concen
trations. * Types 304, 309, 310, 316, and 321 behave in a similar manner.
In evaluating the behavior of a material, appearance as well as weight change should be
considered. The general corrosion effect noted for these materials in high-temperature
water is the formation or development of an adherent oxide film except in media contain
ing more than 50 ml of dissolved hydrogen per liter. With hydrogen addition, the specimen
appearance remains bright during exposure, indicating little or no film formation. In
media containing oxygen in amounts of more than 0.5 ml/liter, a thicker and darker oxide
builds up which eventually turns black. This oxide may appear dull and have a loose,
powdery overlay of corrosion product deposited from the system water.
Heat treatment after welding is unnecessary except as required to improve physical
properties. Intergranular or grain-boundary corrosion resulting from carbide precipita
tion in unstressed 300 series stainless steels is not experienced in high-temperature
water. Stresses in the range of 0 to 10,000 psi does not affect their resistance in water

400 SERIES.–MARTENSITIC

The martensitic 400 series stainless steels contain up to 2% percent nickel and 12 to
17 percent chromium. The hard martensitic phase is developed by heat treatment at 1700°
to 1900°F. These steels are not as resistant as the 300 series steels at 500° and 600°F in
oxygenated water. There is some evidence indicating that steels such as AISI type 410 are
more resistant at temperatures of 650° and 680°F than at 500°F. Figures 1.11.9 and
1.11.10 show weight-change vs time data for several of the martensitic steels. It is em
phasized that weight-change data alone does not allow complete evaluation of the behavior
of a material but must be considered with the appearance. The 400 series martensitic
steels tend to develop a thick, black oxide film and are frequently covered with heavy de
posits of corrosion product.

*The degassed water prepared for these tests was boiled and passed through a deoxygenating resin.
The resulting oxygen concentration was about a ni ml/l.

215
 CHAP. 1.11 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 1.11.7–Corrosion Resistance of Stainless

Steels in 500°F Distilled Water Compared to AISI Type 347

Same typical performance” Unsatisfactory performancef

302 403
303 405
304 410
304L 414
305 420

309 430t
310 431
316 440A
318 440B
321 440C
USS Stainless W 442t
Armco 17-4 PH 4431
Armco 17–7 PH 446t
Carpenter 20 501
Durinet 20

*“Same typical performance” indicates the same relative

corrosion resistance as shown by AISI type 347
f"Unsatisfactory performance” indicates a lower general
corrosion resistance than AISI type 347 and probable exclu
sion from general use in 500°F water
itests have indicated that these metals are the best of the
400 series ferritic. Under some conditions they show fairly
good resistance at 500°F

216
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

E 5+o.
o v.
5+0.1
or 2ml O2/1. H2O 3. 500ml He/I.H.O
s IFPM *
cº ch
E E

§z 0 3O FPS
9
ul O 3O FPS

q.
I
: =8–3. | FPM
O O
H.

§ £
O
uj-Ol | | | ūj-O. | | |
3 o 5OO IOOO 15OO > O 5 OO |OOO 15OO
, hr TIME,hr

E 401 5 +...o
O
3. O.2ml O2/1. HgC)
§ | FPM
S. (Note CHANGE of SCALE)
ch
E E

§ O DEGASSED
ul
O O º | FPM
z
q. <I
I I
O O
H. H.
à 3OFPS I
92
ul -Ol | | uj -l.O
> 0 5OO |OOO 15OO > O 5OO |OOO 15OO
TIME, hr TIME, hr

Fig. 1.11.6—Weight Change of AISI Type 347 Stainless Steel in Demineralized

Water Containing Various Gas Additions. Plotted from Babcock and Wilcox
data, Nov. 10, 1952. Dynamic loop tests: temperature, 500°F; pressure, 2000
psig.

217
CHAP. 1.11 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

+ O.I

E
o

3.
*
on
E O
uſ
o
z
<I
st
O
H-O.
5 -

ū 2 Samples
3:

-O.2 | | | | |
O |OOO 2OOO 3OOO 4OOO 5OOO

TIME, hr

+O.I

E 6OOo F
3. 3O FPS
º
*
On
E O
uſ
o
2
<ſ
I
O
H.-O.IH
5
uj 2 Somples
>

-O2 | | | | |
O IOOO 2OOO 3OOO 4OOO 5000

TIME, hr

Fig. 1.11.7–Weight Change of AISI Type TS347A Stainless Steel in De

mineralized Water at 500" and 600°F. Plotted from Babcock and Wilcox data,
Nov. 10, 1952. Dynamic loop test: pressure, 2000 psig, dissolved oxygen, 30
ml/l.

218
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

5or 2ml O2/1. H2O

wn

|S,4-O. T H
s | FPM
ul
O
2

:
O O

H.
I
92 3O FPS
ul

* -o | |
O 5OO |OOO 15OO

TIME, hr

E
3. + O. 1
ch
E
uſ
# o 3O FPS

<ſ He–s
§
H. | FPM
I
92
§ -o O |
5OO |
IOOO |
15OO

TIME, hr

Fig. 1.11.8—Weight Change of AISI Type TS347A Stainless Steel in De

mineralized Water Containing Various Gas Additions. Plotted from Babcock
and Wilcox data, Nov. 10, 1952. Dynamic loop test: temperature, 500°F;
pressure, 2000 psig.

219
CHAP. 1-11 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

+ O.5
pH-IO

| FPM

- I.O | | | |
O 5OO IOOO 15OO 2OOO
TIME, hr

+ O.5
E DEMINERALIZED
O
Cr
wº
^
Ca
E
uj
O
2
<ſ
IC
O
H.
st
9
u!
>

-I.O | | | |
O 5OO IOOO 15OO 2OOO

TIME, hr

Fig. 1.11.9—Weight Change of AISI Type 410 Stainless Steel (Hardened) in

Water Containing NaOH and in Distilled, Demineralized Water. Plotted from
Babcock and Wilcox data, Nov. 10, 1952. Dynamic loop test: temperature,
500°F; pressure, 2000 psig; dissolved oxygen, 2 ml/l.

220
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

5+o.5
§ pH - IO
o
E

§
2 O

:
O 3O FPS
H.
r -
—º-º-º:
-v- -v º

92
ºf -0.5 | L FPM -:
> O 500 |OOO 15OO 2OOO

TIME, hr

5or + O.5
§ DEMINERALIZED
E
Lil
o | FPM
2
<r
r
O
H.

5
ū -0.5 | | |
> O 500 IOOO 15 OO 2OOO

TIME, hº

Fig. 1.11.10—Weight Change of AISI Type 440C Stainless Steel (Hardened) in

Water Containing NaOH and in Distilled Demineralized Water. Plotted from
Babcock and Wilcox data, Nov. 10, 1952. Dynamic loop test: temperature, 500°F;
pressure, 2000 psig; dissolved oxygen, 2 ml/l.

400 SERIES – FERRITIC

The ferritic 400 series stainless steels contain 18 to 30 percent chromium and no nickel;
they are not hardenable by heat treatment or mechanical working. These steels have a
slightly higher corrosion resistance than the martensitic type 400 series steels, but the
corrosion resistance is not comparable to the 300 series steels. AISI types 430 and 446
are the most resistant of the ferritic stainless steels; type 442 and 443 are slightly less
resistant.
AISI 400 series metals are readily susceptible to pitting and local couple effects; if used
as working parts, they should be kept in motion for best service.

PRECIPITATION-HARDENING STAINLESS STEELS

The precipitation-hardening stainless steels contain small amounts of one or more al

loying elements such as titanium, aluminum, or copper. The most resistant alloys tested
are of the austenitic or essentially austenitic type.* In 500°F hydrogenated water (50 ml/l
or more of hydrogen) for periods up to 500 or 1000 hr, the weight-change rates range from
-0.4 to -1.5 mg/(cm”)(mo); after this initial period, the rate of weight change is small.

*Trade marks for steels tested are:

Armco Steel Corporation; Armco 17-4 PH, Armco 17–7 PH
United States Steel Corporation; USS Stainless W

221
CHAP. 1.11 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Corrosion is approximately 1 to 4 times more rapid than the 300 series in 500°F degassed
Water.
The precipitation-hardening steels hold up well as gear and bearing materials if kept in
motion. These metals show a tendency for galvanic attack in stagnant water, especially if
the ion-impurity concentration increases; in high-purity water, performance is more
satisfactory.

HIGH-AL LOY AND HEAT-RESISTANT STEELS

The high-alloy and heat-resistant steels contain alloying elements in amounts greater
than normally associated with 300 series, 400 series, or precipitation-hardening stainless
steels and possess high resistance to oxidation and thermal shock. Recent tests on two
alloys containing approximately 29 percent nickel, 20 percent chromium, 2 percent mo
lybdenum, 3 percent aluminum, and the balance iron" have indicated good corrosion re
sistance at temperatures up to 650°F.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CORROSION OF STAINLESS STEELS

Effect of Oxygen Concentration

The corrosion rate of stainless steels in high-temperature distilled water is markedly
dependent on the amount of dissolved oxygen present. Low rates are observed when no
oxygen is present. Corrosion increases rapidly with increasing oxygen concentrations
from a few tenths of a milliliter per liter to about 15 ml/l. Above this range, corrosion
increases slowly and has a tendency to level off until oxygen concentrations of the order
of magnitude of about 1000 ml/l are reached. At these higher concentrations, corrosion
decreases slightly.
The addition of hydrogen (50 ml/l or more) is effective in reducing corrosion. Many
stainless steels show no visible corrosion when tested at 500°F in water containing dis
solved hydrogen. It is postulated that the hydrogen effectively removes dissolved oxygen
from the water and is a means of deoxygenating a system. In operating systems containing
hydrogen, the most beneficial effects are obtained by introducing the desired amount of
hydrogen at room temperature before bringing the system to operating temperature and
pressure. The appearance of type 347 samples after test in 500°F water containing vari
ous gas additions is shown in Fig. 1.11.11.
The use of hydrogen in systems previously run under oxygen should be considered with
caution. There is some evidence that oxide scale previously formed under oxygen is
loosened and partially dispersed into the system-water stream by dissolved hydrogen.
The descaling is only partial, and stainless-steel surfaces are not completely deoxidized.
The role of hydrogen in high-temperature water systems is not completely understood at
this time; therefore, it is recommended that a complete evaluation be made before using
hydrogen in any contemplated system.

Surface Treatments

The cleanliness of the stainless-steel surface is an important factor in corrosion re

sistance. For maximum resistance, the surface should be machined clean with a sharp
clean tool or pickled in a nitric-hydrofluoric acid solution; oxide scale should be removed
before pickling. A scaled surface, or one which has been rough machined, has a much
lower resistance to corrosion.

* Trade marks for steels tested are:

Carpenter Steel Corporation; Carpenter 20
Duriron Company; Durinet 20

222
 :
TIME,
hours
hours
TIME, TIME,
hours
500 1000 1500
500
1000
1500
500
1500
1000
500
1000 1500

OxYGEN HYDROGEN-
OXYGEN-
DEGASSED
0.2
ml/liter ml/liter
2
500
ml/liter

1.11.11—Appearance
Fig.
Stainless
347
Type
AISI
of
Samples
Steel
Tested
Various
Under
Conditions
Gas
Demineralized
500°F
in
Photographs
Water.
of
samples
Babcock
at
tested
1953.
Feb.
Wilcox
and
tests
loop
Dynamic
2000
psig.

:
CHAP. 1.11 WATER-COOLED SystEMS

Effect of Nitriding
Stainless steels having nitrided surfaces show varying corrosion resistance. In some
instances, a nitrided surface will show extremely high resistance; in others, pitting and
spalling are prevalent and over-all corrosion resistance is low. Precipitation-hardening
steels that have been nitrided show corrosion resistances slightly superior to most other
nitrided Stainless steels. Data indicate that the corrosion resistance of nitrided steels
increases with temperature up to 500°F and varies inversely with the oxygen concentration
at room temperature. The presence of carbon dioxide in the water accelerates corrosion.
Increased pH or decreased resistivity increases the corrosion. Although general corro
sion resistance is unchanged by water velocity, localized attack and pitting apparently
decrease with increased velocity.
Surface treatments prior to nitriding and after nitriding are important. For best service,
it has been found that the surface should be lapped or ground after nitriding in order to
remove the top of the nitrided layer, sometimes known as “the white layer.” Passivating
the nitrided surface with nitric acid or dichromate solutions was not found to improve
corrosion resistance in 500° and 600°F water. The tendency of nitrided steels to pit, spall,
and accentuate couple effects demands thorough test before selection as reactor materials.

Effect of Heat Treatment

Heat treatments, as such, do not appear to affect the corrosion resistance of the 300
series stainless steels in high-temperature water. The 400 series and precipitation
hardening steels show slightly increased resistance in their hardened condition. Resist
ances of the high-alloy steels vary with heat treatment, depending on composition.

Velocity Effect
No appreciable effect of velocity has been noted on stainless-steel corrosion. Tests
have been made at water velocities up to 30 ft/sec at 500° and 600°F without any appreci
able erosion; higher velocities have not been investigated. Rates of weight change in
Figs. 1.11.6 through 1.11.10 show that high-velocity water (30 ft/sec) has more of a tend
ency to remove corrosion products than low-velocity water (1 ft/sec).

Use of Inhibitors

Inorganic inhibitors, such as hydroxides, chromates, molybdates, tungstates, and the

like, are effective in changing the corrosion characteristics of stainless steels. Hydrox
ides and ammonia or basic amine inhibitors are widely used in the boiler industry for
corrosion control. The addition of traces of certain polyfunctional acidic substances, such
as SiO2, W:Os, or borates, improves the resistance of most stainless steels.' Organic
inhibitors are probably unsatisfactory for use in high-temperature-water reactors be
cause of thermal and radiation instability. No experimental data are reported on specific
beneficial effects of inhibitors in high-temperature-water stainless-steel reactor sys
tems. In general, the use of inhibitors offers a possibility of improving corrosion resist
ance; tests on the effect of various inhibitors on corrosion of the materials must be made
in and out of reactors to establish feasibility.

THORIUM AND THORIUM ALLOYS

Thorium metal has inferior corrosion resistance. Rates of weight change vary from
—1.5 to approximately 4 mg/(cm°)(mo) in distilled water at temperatures of 212° to 284°F.
Rates of weight change increase sharply to approximately –500 mg/(cm”)(mo) at 350°F.

224
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

Ames” thorium shows a rate of weight change of approximately –5 mg/(cm”)(mo) at 160°F

in simulated river water flowing at 25 ft/sec and containing H2O2 (0.006N). The effect of
aeration or hydrogenation on corrosion is nil. The low corrosion resistance prevents the
use of unclad and unalloyed thorium in direct contact with water. Alloys of thorium con
taining additions of 1 to 2 percent beryllium, small amounts of silicon, or more than 5
percent niobium or iron have increased resistance.”
Thorium and thorium alloys corrode with the formation of an adherent, lustrous, pro
tective film or a porous coating of thorium oxide. If H2O2 is present in the water, an over
laying white floc is formed.
The method of surface preparation is important and may cause initial corrosion rates
to vary as much as 300 percent. The most satisfactory surface is one which is ground and
pickled. Anodizing thorium in a H2SO4–H3PO, bath produces an oxide film which is not
protective in boiling distilled water. Thorium can be coated by dipping at 1470°F in molten
aluminum (grade 2S). The corrosion resistance of the aluminum-coated thorium is ap
proximately the same as aluminum metal.

TITANIUM

Commercially pure titanium has good corrosion resistance up to 680°F in water and is
one of the most resistant metals.” In 500°F water, the rate of corrosion is about twice
as great in oxygenated as in degassed water. The average rate of weight change is about
0.03 mg/(cm”)(mo) in 600°F air-saturated water. Titanium is resistant in 750°F, 1500
psig steam but reacts with steam at 1500°F.”
Titanium is not ordinarily susceptible to couple effect. Exposure to high-temperature
water builds up an oxide film of high electrical resistance; the resultant film prevents
free flow of electrons from coupling metals and reduces the tendency of couple attack.
Titanium, as are most metals that are easily anodically polarized, is not usually suscep
tible to galvanic attack or couple effects.
Titanium should be machined clean or pickled in a hydrofluoric-nitric acid mixture.

URANIUM

Uranium has very low corrosion resistance in water;“T” consequently, the metal has
been clad for reactor use. The log of the rate of attack of unalloyed uranium varies
linearly with the reciprocal of the temperature from 100° to 440°F in hydrogen-saturated
water as shown in Fig. 1.11.12. The corrosion rate is approximately 1900 mg/(cm”)(mo),
i.e., 2.7 mg/(cm”)(hr) in boiling distilled water as shown in Fig. 1.11.12. In aerated water
at temperatures less than 160°F, the initial corrosion rate is low and less than in the hy
drogenated water at the same temperature (possibly because a temporary protective oxide
is formed in the air-saturated water). See Fig. 1.11.13. After longer exposure, this rate
increases.

ZIRCONIUM AND ZIRCONIUM ALLOYS

Zirconium of proper purity has high corrosion resistance and low thermal neutron
cross section. At 600°F in oxygenated water, unalloyed high-purity zirconium has a
weight change of about 0.01 to 0.1 mg/(cm°)(mo) for periods up to 6 months. Recently de
veloped zirconium alloys have shown good corrosion resistance at temperatures up to
650°F in water and 750°F in superheated steam.
The corrosion product for resistant zirconium exposed to high-temperature water is
black and adherent; that for non-resistant zirconium is white and powdery. On long ex

‘Prepared by Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.

225
CHAP. 1.11 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

| OOO

E
|-

| OO

s
-

|-

|O

s
-

O.

s
|-

|-

O.O | | | | | | | | | | | |
2O 2.5 3.O
|OOO o

== (T,”K)

Fig. 1.11.12—Corrosion Rate of Standard Uranium in Hydrogen-saturated

Water vs the Reciprocal of the Temperature. Reprinted from ANL-4862,
May 14, 1952.

226
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12
OO
4
:
O
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E
O
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= // Slope
O
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u_j 2OO
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LL
O
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— °C
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—
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°C
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–3.
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2|5
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50
2
O5
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TIME,

Water.
Distilled
Aerated
in
Uranium
Standard
of
— orrosion
1.11.13
CFig.
i
1952.
14,
May
ANL-4862,
from
Reprinted
§
CHAP. 1.11 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

posure to high-temperature water, zirconium exhibits what is referred to as “breakaway”

corrosion, i.e., a much increased corrosion rate after a period of relatively little corro
sion. The time required to reach the point of breakaway in 600°F water varies from less
than two weeks to more than two years depending on the purity of the metal and the surface
condition.

UNAL LOYED ZIR CONIUM

In high-temperature water, the corrosion resistance of unalloyed zirconium depends

mainly on impurity content. Two types of zirconium are available, sponge zirconium” and
crystal-bar zirconium.
The sponge zirconium produced until recently generally had a higher impurity content
than crystal-bar zirconium and was not as uniformly or as highly corrosion resistant as
crystal-bar zirconium. Corrosion tests at temperatures up to 500°F for periods up to 6
months resulted in rate of weight changes of about 0.01 to 0.2 mg/(cm’)(mo); above this
temperature, corrosion resistance may decrease rapidly. Sponge metal recently produced
by the Bureau of Mines has shown a very low impurity content and high corrosion resist
ance. Three grades, A, B, and C, are assigned to the sponge metal based on its final
position in the reaction vessel. The A and B grades contain iron as an impurity from the
retort.” C grade is, however, contaminated with most of the calcium and magnesium
from the reduction; these light-metal impurities are removed from C grade by distillation.
Crystal-bar zirconium is the purest unalloyed zirconium and shows a more uniform and
generally higher corrosion resistance than sponge zirconium.*** Tests at temperatures
up to 650°F show weight-change rates of 0.02 to 0.2 mg/(cm°)(mo).

AL LOYED ZIR CONIUM

Alloyed zirconium is not thought to have corrosion resistance superior to that of the
pure unalloyed metal. The resistance of pure zirconium is very sensitive to traces of im
purities, improper handling, or fabrication techniques. Alloys have corrosion resistances
which are not as sensitive to trace impurities as pure zirconium. Two general objectives
in alloying zirconium with regard to its corrosion resistance are:
(1) Decreasing the sensitivity of pure crystal-bar zirconium to trace impurities.
(2) Improving uniformity of the corrosion resistance of sponge zirconium.
These objectives are not intended to improve such physical characteristics as hardness,
ductility, weldability, and the like. Some of the more promising elements used in binary
alloys of zirconium, and the most promising composition ranges in tests are: 125

Element Weight-percent

Tin 1.5 to 5
Tantalum 0.1 to 0.5
Iron Trace to 0.25
Nickel Trace to 3
Niobium 0.5 to 3
Chromium Trace to 1.0

Other elements, when added to zirconium to form binary alloys, decrease corrosion
resistance. Results indicate that binary alloys of zirconium containing aluminum, beryl
lium, carbon, magnesium, nitrogen, and tungsten have low corrosion resistance over all
composition ranges. Tests on binary alloys of zirconium containing approximately 5 per
cent antimony,” arsenic, bismuth, calcium, cerium, copper, germanium, gold, iron, lead,
lanthanum, manganese, molybdenum, neodymium, praseodymium, vanadium, silver, and

228
CORFOSION CHAP. 1.11

zinc have lower resistance than unalloyed zirconium. Except for some narrow composi
tion ranges, binary zirconium-titanium alloys have low corrosion resistance. Two zir
conium-tin alloys have been extensively tested as possible cladding materials. One is a
binary alloy of sponge zirconium containing 2% percent tin.” The presence of tin has been
thought to prevent small amounts of nitrogen (about 200 ppm) from having deleterious ef
fects on corrosion resistance. The other is a sponge zirconium alloy containing 1.5 per
cent tin, 0.1 to 0.15 percent iron, 0.1 percent chromium, 0.05 percent nickel, and less
than 0.006 percent nitrogen.f This alloy is more resistant than the 2% tin alloy, and 2000
hr tests at 680°F have indicated a rate of weight change of 0.1 to 0.3 mg/(cm°)(mo). Tests
have also been run at 750°F in superheated steam for 2000 hr without film breakdown. The
750°F test is much more severe than the 680°F test.

GENERAL COMMENTS

The corrosion resistance of zirconium is thought to result from the formation of a thin
protective surface film tightly adherent to the metal surface and growing in thickness as
the metal corrodes.” The film, initially thin, shows interference colors from gold to
dark blue or green and as corrosion continues grows in thickness and finally turns black.
During the initial stages of corrosion, the thickness of the film may be approximated by
its color. The uniformity of color indicates uniform film thickness and uniform corrosion.
This is in contrast with aluminum which also protects itself by a thin film but suffers
from localized attack. Zirconium is not usually attacked by pitting.
Long exposure to high-temperature water may lead to film breakdown. At breakdown
the lustrous adherent black film turns white, becomes flaky or powdery, and loses the
protective ability. After film breakdown, further exposure results in accelerated corro
sion. The film is non-healing and does not repair after breakdown. Initial x-ray diffraction
studies of the thin colored-oxide film, the thicker black oxide, and the white oxide break
down product showed monoclinic zirconium dioxide. Recent studies give evidence of te
tragonal zirconium dioxide.”
SURFACE PREPARATION

Before use, the zirconium surface should be freed from impurities. This is best ac
complished by a clean machining followed by a pickle in a bath containing 35 percent by
weight nitric acid, 1 to 2 percent by weight hydrofluoric acid, and the remainder water;
this bath removes approximately 0.3 mil/min at 85°F. Removal of approximately 1 to 2
mils of zirconium surface is recommended. X-ray spectrometer line-broadening data
indicate that surface working by machining operations may extend approximately 2 mils
into the surface of the metal; corrosion resistance of a machined piece is best after this
metal has been removed. The resistance of pure zirconium metal is affected by its sur
face condition to a much greater extent than that of alloys such as Zircaloy 2.
In 500°F degassed distilled water, there is no apparent correlation between corrosion
resistance and the following finishes (pickled after finishing): rough machining, smooth
machining, screw threading, knurling, honing, polishing, and vapor blasting. Dry grinding,
polishing, sand blasting or other rough finishes without a subsequent pickle produce a
less-corrosion-resistant surface.

EFFECT OF WATER PURITY

Corrosion resistance has been found not to be dependent on pH in the range 5.5 to 8.5.
Tests indicate that dissolved oxygen or hydrogen, in amounts up to 200 ml/l has a tem

"zircaloy 1, a westinghouse Atomic Power Division designation.

f zircaloy 2, a Westinghouse Atomic Power Division designation.

229
CHAP. 1.11 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

porary effect on the corrosion resistance. From the weight-change data obtained from
samples tested in degassed water for comparative purposes, it is evident that dissolved
oxygen increases initial corrosion while dissolved hydrogen reduces it. After this initial
effect, corrosion proceeds at about equal rates in degassed, oxygenated, or hydrogenated
water.
Additions of small amounts (less than 0.1 molar) of NaNO3, Na2Cr2Ot, NaOH, KOH, or
LiOH have not shown appreciable effects on the resistance of zirconium in 500°F degassed
water. However, additions of NaF in amounts of 0.01M or greater cause greatly increased
corrosion.

EFFECT OF COUPLING

No appreciable galvanic effects have been noted in tests made on coupled zirconium. The
metal resists galvanic attack and does not accentuate this effect in other metals. As an
anode, zirconium polarizes readily to high values; as a cathode it polarizes to the same
approximate value as other metals. Coupling zirconium to noble metals does not appreci
ably affect the corrosion rate.

EFFECT OF VELOCITY AND STRESS

The resistance of zirconium to corrosion by 500°F water has been found not to be af
fected by the velocity of the water or the stress imposed. Specimens tested at water
velocities up to 35 ft/sec under stresses of 5000 psi have shown no effects attributable to
these conditions.

EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT

No appreciable effect has been noted.

EFFECT OF IRRADIATION

Data on samples of zirconium tested in high-temperature water in reactors indicate

that for engineering purposes irradiation does not affect the corrosion resistance. Inte
grated thermal neutron fluxes of up to 10° nvt have been experienced without effect; tests
have been made on samples in circulating water loops placed in reactors at water veloci
ties up to 10 ft/sec and maximum water temperatures of 540°F.

REFERENCES

1. ANL-4950, Dec. 15, 1952 (classified).

2. G. F. Mills and B. N. Dickinson, Oxygen Removal From Water by Amine Exchange Resins, Ind. Eng. Chem. 41, 1949, p 2842.

Aluminum

3. J. M. Bryan, Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys in the Food Industry, Dept. of Science and Industry Research (Brit.): Food In
vestigation, Special Report No. 50, London, 1948.
4. H. B. Linford, Literature Survey on the Corrosion of Aluminum in Dilute Solutions, Columbia University, DuPont Subcontract,
May 1, 1952.
. R. L. Loftness and M. H. Feldman, North American Aviation, Inc., NAA-SR-94, 1950 (classified).
. B. J. Borgmier, HW-21166, May 22, 1951 (classified).

..
.
9.
R. B. Briggs, CE-973, Oct. 9, 1943 (classified).
W. P. Jesse, M. C. Leverett, W. D. B. Spatz, and R. B. Briggs, Clinton Labs., CT-1440, May 15, 1944 (classified).
M. C. Leverett and R. B. Briggs, Clinton Labs., CE-1644 (A-2485), June 22, 1944 (classified).
10. A. O. Allen, M. G. Bowman, N. Goldowski, R. G. Larsen, and L. Treiman, CC-1677 (A-2413), July 6, 1944 (classified).
11. S. Kuniansky and R. B. Briggs, CT-1853 (A-2678), July 15, 1944 (classified).
12. R. B. Briggs, Clinton Labs., CE-2818, April 7, 1945 (classified).
13. J. E. Draley et al, CT-3027, June 19, 1945 (classified).
14. W. W. Binger, CT-3030. June 2, 1945 (classified).
15. R. B. Briggs, Clinton Labs., M-3893 (classified).

230
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

16. R. B. Briggs, Clinton Labs., M-3878 (classified).

17. D. G. Reid and L. P. Bornwasser, Clinton Labs., MONT-348, July 24, 1947 (classified).
18. J. E. Draley and W. E. Ruther, Aqueous Corrosion of 2S Aluminum at Elevated Temperatures, ANL 5001, Feb. 1, 1953.
19. ANL-4576, Jan. 31, 1951, pp 81-85 (classified).
20. J. L. English, Clinton Labs., ORNL-681, July 20, 1950 (classified).
21. R. B. Hoxeng. CT-3023, May 2, 1945 (classified).
22. Roy A. U. Huddle, BI-102, Oct. 26, 1946 (classified).
23. ANL-4664, July 19, 1951, pp 107-109 (classified).
24. ANL-4923, 1953 (classified).

Beryllium
25. H. R. Nelson, BMI-HRN-1, Oct. 1, 1947 (classified).
26. M. C. Udy, H. L. Shaw, and F. W. Boulger, BMI-T-14, July 15, 1949 (classified).
27. J. P. Howe et al., CT-752, Part III, June 26, 1943 (classified).
28. F. Foote et al, CT-M-3011, May 1945 (classified).
29. H. L. Logan and H. Hessing. Nat. Bu. of Stds. NBS-6, April 14, 1949 (classified).
30. Nat. Bu. of Std.s., NBS-P-12, Dec. 9, 1948 (classified).
31. J. L. English, ORNL-298, March 17, 1949 (classified).
32. J. L. English, ORNL-772, Jan. 23, 1951 (classified).
33. A. R. Olsen, ORNL-1146, April 1, 1952 (classified).
34. BMI-64, April 1, 1951, pp. 29-33 (classified).
35. J. Reed, ORNL-942, Jan. 9, 1953 (classified).

Chromium

36. M. Kolodney, Chromium Plating. Information Release 4, War Metallurgy Committee of the National Research Council, 1943.
37. W. L. Pinner, G. Soderberg, and E. M. Baker, Modern Electroplating. The Electrochemical Society, 1942, pp. 235-274.
38. Private Communication, D. J. DePaul and A. Squire, Westinghouse Atomic Power Division, Jan. 1953.

Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys

39. H. H. Uhlig. The Corrosion Handbook, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1948, pp 57-59.
40. K. Rose, Highly Corrosion Resistant Spring Material Finds Varied Use, Materials and Methods, Vol. 32, No. 3, Sept. 1950,
pp. 54-55.
41. R. F. Waindle, New Uses for Cobalt-Base Spring Alloy, Met. Prog. 56, No. 6, Dec. 1949, pp 808-811.
42. R. H. Hill. M. A. Cook, W. M. Fassell, and R. B. Parlin, Studies on Surface Chemistry: Progress Report on Research Project,
AECU-117. Nov. 27, 1950.

Copper and Copper Alloys

43. E. Voce, Copper and Copper Alloys: Technical Progress in 1949, Metallurgia 41, Nos. 242 and 243, Jan. 1949, pp. 96-101,
150-152.
44. Corrosion Resistance of Copper and Copper Alloys, Chem. Eng. 58, Jan. 1951, pp 108-111.
45. J. R. Freeman, Jr. and A. W. Tracy, Comparative Corrosion Resistance of Some Copper Alloy Condenser Tubes, Corrosion 5,
No. 8, Aug. 1949, pp. 245-248.
46. G. R. Hill, Corrosion of Copper in Aqueous Solution, Univ. of Utah, Tech. Report No. 1, NP-1256, Dec. 15, 1949.
47. C. L. Bulow, Wrought Copper and Copper-Base Alloys, Ind. Eng. Chem. 42, Oct. 1950, pp 1970-77.
48. C. R. Breden, S. Greenberg, R. M. Robinson, A. H. Roebuck, V. F. Saitta, and C. C. Scott, Water Corrosion of Structural Mate
rials, October 1948-June 1951, ANL-4519, July 15, 1951.
49. C. W. Borgmann and R. T. Koenig, Bimetallic Corrosion in Neutral Electrolytes; First Technical Report, Colorado University
Engineering Experiment Station, NP-3047; ONR BOS-2322, Dec. 1, 1947.
50. R. Settler, A Brief Survey of Stress and Corrosion Cracking in Brass, Sheet Metal Ind. 27, No. 274, Feb. 1950, pp 119-122.
51. J. T. Clenny, Stress Corrosion of Cast Bronzes Evaluated, Iron Age 167, No. 25, June 21, 1951, pp 85-89.

Gold and Platinum

52. H. W. Russell, H. R. Nelson, and R. W. Dayton, BMI-P-33, Oct. 1, 1950 (classified).
53. WAPD-MR-16 (modified) May 1, 1951 (classified).
54. C. R. Breden, S. Greenberg, R. M. Robinson, A. H. Roebuck, W. F. Saitta, and C. C. Scott, Water Corrosion of Structural Ma
terials, October 1948-June 1951, ANL-4519, Reactor Engineering Div., July 15, 1951, pp 62 and 123.
55. Hanford Works, HW-19301, Nov. 6, 1950 (classified).
56. BMI-P-33, Oct. 1, 1950 (classified).

Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys

57. Bibliography of the corrosion of Magnesium and Its Alloys, Dept. of Mines and Resources, Canada, Jan. 1949.
58. ANL-4755, Sec. IV, Jan. 30, 1952 (classified).
59. N. B. Harvey, The Corrosion and Protection of Magnesium Alloys, J. Birmingham Met. Soc., England 30, No. 1, 1950, pp 26-40.
60. Finishing Magnesium, Products Finishing 3, No. 3, London, Mar. 1950, pp 74-85.
61. M. Lewis and S. Goldsmith, HW-23082, Dec. 19, 1951 (classified).

231
CHAP. 1.11 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

62. Preparation of High Purity Magnesium and a Study of the Effect of Non-Metallic and Alkali Metal Impurities on the Corrosion
Characteristics of Pure Magnesium, Dow Chemical Co. Biennial Report, COO-85, Dec. 1, 1949-Nov. 30, 1951.
63. K. Lohberg, Corrosion of Intermetallic Compositions, Dow Annual Report COO-21 (15198) December 1, 1949-November 30.
1950, Z. Metallkunde, Germany, Vol. 41, No. 2, Feb. 1950, pp 56-59.
64. Magnesium Alloy Dissimilar Metal Corrosion, Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corp., Board of Trade, Tech. Inſ. and Docs. Unit.
ORR 360/50, PB99964, Report FGT-442, May 1946.

Nickel and Nickel Alloys

65. H. O. Teeple, Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys, Ind. Eng. Chem. 42, No. 10, Oct. 1950, pp 1990-2001.
66. Corrosion-Resistance of Stainless, Monel, and Nickel Castings, Materials & Methods 29, No. 5, May 1949, pp 79-81.
67. W. Z. Friend and F. L. LaQue, Corrosion-Resisting Nickel Alloys and Chemical Progress, Ind. Eng. Chem. 44, May 1952.
pp. 965-971.
68. BMI-726, pp. 43-56 of Progress Report for month of January 1952 (classified).
69. J. R. Gilbreath and O. C. Simpson, ANL-4427, Chemistry Division, Section C-II, July 28, 1950 (classified).

Silver and Silver Alloys

70. WAPD-MR-16 (modified) (classified).
71. ANL-4729, Feb. 1, 1952, pp 117, 118 (classified).
72. ANL-4795, Mar. 15, 1952, pp 103, 104 (classified).
73. ANL-4898, Sept. 15, 1952, p 56 (classified).

Plain-carbon and Low-alloy Steels

74. R. Corey and T. Finnegan, The pH, Dissolved Iron Concentration, and Solid Product Resulting From Reaction Between Iron and
Pure Water at Room Temperature, Proc. Am. Soc. Testing Materials 39, 1939, p 1242.
75. F. G. Frese, Effect of Oxygen on the Corrosion of Steels, Ind. Eng. Chem. 30, 1938, pp 83-85.
76. G. Skaperdas and H. Uhlig, Corrosion of Steel by Dissolved Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen, Ind. Eng. Chem. 34, 1942, p 748.
77. W. Whitman, R. Russell, and V. Altieri, Effect of Hydrogen Ion Concentration on the Submerged Corrosion of Steel, Ind. Eng.
Chem. 16, 1924, p 665.
78. H. H. Uhlig, The Corrosion Handbook, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1948, pp 120-143.

Stainless Steels

79. W. W. Whitman, Stainless Steel-Its Development and Use, Iron Steel Engr. 27, No. 11, Mar. 1950, pp 70-73.
80. M. G. Fontana, Fundamental Corrosion Research, Summary Tech. Report on Office of Naval Research Contract N6-ori-17.
T.O. II, May 10, 1949.
81. T. H. Arnold and C. V. Mills, Developments in Alloy Steels, Metallurgia 41, No. 242, Dec. 1949, pp 75-78.
82. R. L. Loftness and M. H. Feldman, North American Aviation, Inc., NAA-SR-94, 1950 (classified).
83. A. R. Olsen, The Corrosion Resistance of Various Stainless Steels in Aqueous Solutions in the Presence of Dower No. 50 Resin,
ORNL-804, Sept. 15, 1950.
84. ANL-4898, Sept. 15, 1952 (classified).
85. G. T. Colegate, The Corrosion of the Austenitic Stainless Steels, Metallurgia 41, Jan. No. 243, pp 147-150; Mar. No. 245,
pp. 259-262; Apr. No. 246, pp 305-308, May No. 247, pp. 362-366; 1950.
86. R. S. Stewart and S. F. Urban, Aluminum Decreases Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Stainless, Iron Age 166, No. 7, Aug. 17,
1950, pp. 91-95.
87. R. Franks, J. W. Juppenlatz, V. N. Krivolbok, F. L. LaQue, and E. A. Schoefer, Data on Corrosion and Heat-Resistant Steels and
Alloys- Wrought and Cast, ASTM Special Tech. Publ. No. 52A, May 1950.
88. C. W. Borgmann and R. T. Koenig, Bimetallic Corrosion in Neutral Electrolytes; First Technical Report, Colorado University
Engineering Experiment Station, NP-3047; ONR BOS-2322, Dec. 1, 1947.
89. H. Thielsch, Physical Metallurgy of Austenitic Stainless Steels, Welding Jour. 29, Dec. 1950, pp 5775-6215.
90. L. Piatti, The Influence of Precipitations at the Grain Boundaries on the Resistance of Chromium Nickel Steels to General
Corrosion, Engrs. Digest 11, No. 9, Sept. 1950, p 11.
91. A. Thomas, Extra Low Carbon Stainless Steel, Corrosion (News 'Section) 6, No. 5, May 1950, p 1.
92. H. W. Gillett, Present Knowledge of Low-Carbon 18-8, Am. Soc. Testing Matis. Special Tech. Publ. No. 93, pp. 41-54.
Symposium on Evaluation Tests for Stainless Steel, May 1950.
93. L. G. Cook, W. M. Campbell, and G. C. Lawrence, Chalk River Proj. PR-CE-13 (classified).
94. C. J. Lancaster, Corrosion Tests of Sixteen Materials in 500°F Water at High and Low Velocities, U. S. Naval Engineering
Experiment Station, E.E.S. Report 4a (21)966870, Nov. 18, 1952.

Thorium and Thorium Alloy

95. CS-I(T)-2498, Dec. 19, 1944 (classified).
96. A. R. Olsen, ORNL-1066, Dec. 19, 1951 (classified).
97. D. E. Hamley, ORNL-1090, Dec. 7, 1951 (classified).
98. J. E. Draley, ANL-4908, Oct. 3, 1952 (classified).
99. R. B. Briggs, Clinton Lab. M-3893 (classified).
100. J. G. Feibig, CT-C-2715, April 25, 1945 (classified).
101. J. W. Arendt, W. W. Binger, J. Hopkins, and F. Nelson, CT-C-3036, June 23, 1945 (classified).
102. CT-BMI-3054, June 1, 1945 (classified).

232
CORROSION CHAP. 1.11

Tº far furn

103. C. I. Bradford. J. P. Catlin, and E. L. Wemple, Properties of Wrought Commercially Pure Titanium Prepared by Arc-Melting
and Casting. Metal Progress 55, Mar. 1949, pp. 348-350.
134. W. L. Williams and W. C. Stewart, Fatigue and Corrosion of Sintered and Rolled Titanium, Metal Progress 55, 1949, p 348.
105. H. Adenstedt, Mechanical Properties, Weldability and Corrosion of Commercially Pure Titanium, Air Materiel Command,
AF-TR-5935. Oct. 1949.
106. M. G. Fontana, Fundamental Corrosion Research; Summary Technical Report, Ohio State University, NP-993, May 10, 1949.
107. E. C. Miller, ORNL-267, July 19, 1949 (classified).
108. Battelle Memorial Institute-Douglas Aircraft Co., Inc.-Project Rand, (RA-15080), April 2, 1948 (classified).
109. H. H. Uhlig. The Corrosion Handbook, John Wiley and Sons, 1948, p 329.

Uranium and Uranium Alloys

110. A. Dravnieks and H. J. McDonald, Electropotentials in Growing Halide and Oxide Layers on Metals, Trans. Electrochemical
Soc. 93, 1948, pp 177-191.
111. N. B. Pilling and R. E. Bedworth, Oxidation of Calcium and Magnesium, Jr. Inst. for Metals 29, 1923, p. 577.
112. A. S. Covert and M. Kolodoney, LA-313, June 18, 1945 (classified).
113. E. A. Gulbransen and J. W. Hickman, AIMME Trans. 171, 1946, p 330.
114. S. Katz, CT-2454, Nov. 11, 1944 (classified).
115. J. J. Katz and E. Rabinowtiz, Chemistry of Uranium, National Nuclear Energy Series, Div. VIII, Vol. 5, 1951, p 192.
116. A. B. Greninger et al, CT-1272, Part IV of report for month ending February 1, 1944 (classified).
117. J. E. Draley and G. C. English, CT-1943, July 1, 1944 (classified).
118. J. G. Feibig, CT-2715, April 25, 1945 (classified).
119. W. A. Mollison, G. C. English, and F. Nelson, CT-3055, June 23, 1945 (classified).
120. N. Benson, R. P. Straetz, and J. E. Draley, CT-3043, June 4, 1945 (classified).
121. G. Bitsianes, Alloys of Uranium and Silicon. Il. The Epsilon Phase, CT-3309, Mass. Inst. of Tech., June 1945.

Zirconium

122. K. M. Goldman, WAPD-MM-140, (shows A, B, and C sponge diagrams), Oct. 6, 1952, p 26 (classified).
123. F. B. Litton, Ten Zirconium Alloys Evaluated, Iron Age 167, No. 15, April 12, 1951, p 112.
124. G. Miller, Zirconium, Ind. Chemist 26, No. 309, 1950, p. 435.
125. Northwest Electrodevelopment Laboratory, Bureau of Mines, Albany, Oregon, BM II-39 (classified).
126. ISC-290, Sept. 20, 1952, p 12 (classified).
127. A. Charlesby. Ionic Currents in Thin Films of Zirconium Dioxide, Atomic Energy Research Establishment, M/R-1014, Sept. 23,
1952.
128. C. M. Schwartz, D. A. Vaughn, and G. G. Cocks, BMI-793, Dec. 17, 1952 (classified).

SELECTED READING LIST

SYMPosium ON water CORROSION, Ind. Eng. Chem. 44, No. 8, Aug. 1952, pp 1736-1795.
COMPARISON OF CORROSION PROPERTIES OF ZIRCONIUM, TITANIUM. TANTALUM, STELLITE 6, AND TYPE 316 STAINLESS
STEEL, E. Wick, Materials and Methods 35, (bibliog.) Jan. 1952, pp 115, 177.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC SURVEY OF CORROSION-1946-1947, National Assoc. of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, Texas, 1951.
CCRROSION GUIDE. E. Rabald, Elsevier Pub. Co., New York, 1951.

waſ ER CORROSION OF STRUCTURAL MATERIALs, Argonne National Laboratory, C. R. Breden, S. Greenberg. R. M. Robinson, A. H.
Rcebuck, V. F. Saitta, and C. C. Scott, ANL-4519, July 15, 1951.
CORROSION TESTS OF METALS AND CERAMICS, compiled by L. D. Yates, Chen. Eng. Report No. 9 Tenn. Valley Auth., Wilson
Dam, Ala., 1951.

CORROSION DATA SURVEY. G. A. Nelson. Shell Development Co., San Francisco, 1950.
ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY, J. M. Bryan, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1948.
CORROSION HANDBOOK. H. H. Uhlig. J. Wiley and Sons, New York, 1948.
METALLIC CORROSION. Passivity AND PROTECTION, U. R. Evans, Longmans, Green, New York, 1948.
CORROSION OF METALs, C. W. Borgmann. C. P. Larrabec, and W. O. Binder, Am. Soc. Metals. Cleveland, 1946.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC SURVEY OF CORROSION-1945, R. D. Misch, J. T. Waber, H. J. McDonald, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago,
Corrosion Research Lab., 1945.

ENGINEERING ALLOYs. N. E. Woldman and R. J. Metzler, First Edition Revised. Am. Soc. Metals, Cleveland, 1945.
COBR0sION RESISTANCE OF METALS AND ALLOYS, R. J. McKay and R. Worthington, Reinhold Pub. Corp., New York, 1936.
TH THEamochemistry OF THE CHEMICAL SUBSTANCEs, F. R. Bichowsky and F. D. Rossini, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New
York, 1936.

233
 CHAPTER 1.12

Calculation of Water Activity

Marshall Grotenhuis and J. W. Butler

In designing a water-cooled reactor, it is necessary to know the induced activity of the

water for shielding purposes. Several reactions leading to radioactive nuclides are possi
ble, and others lead to stable nuclides.
The most important reaction is the O*(n,p)N* reaction." This reaction has a threshold
energy of 9.5 mev and an effective energy of 10.3 + 0.7 mev.” The reaction cross section,
averaged over the fission spectrum, is 0.014 mb.*.* The half-life of the product, Niº, is
7.35 sec," and 8 rays of 3.8 mev (~40%), 4.3 mev (~40%), 4.6 mev (~2%), and 10.5
mev (18%)," and y rays of 6.2-7.0 mev (80%)*** are emitted.
The reaction O"(n,p)N" is also an important reaction." The threshold for this reaction
is 7.9 mev, and the effective energy is ~10 mev.” The half-life of the product, Nº", is 4.14
sec, and a 3.7-mev 8 and a 1-mev neutron are emitted.” The cross section for this re
action is estimated to be 0.01 barns” but with an uncertainty of a factor of ten.
The reaction O"(ny)O” produces a radioactive product" that has a half-life of 29.4 sec.”
It emits a 2.9-mev 3 (70%), 4.5-mev 8 (30%), and a 1.6-mev Y (70%)**. The thermal ab
sorption cross section for this reaction is 22 mb.” This reaction is not nearly as impor
tant as the O*(n,p)N" reaction in shielding work because the energy, as well as the rate of
emission, of the gamma-ray is much lower.
Other reactions possible in water are: H^(n,x)H*," which has as its product a weak 3
emitter (0.018 mev) and no y rays; O"(n,a)C“, also a weak 3-emitter (0.155 mev) with no
gamma-rays; and O"(n,y)O", O"(n,x)O", O"(n,c)C*, and H'(n,x)H* with stable products.
The differential equations governing the buildup of activity in a fluid circulating in a re
actor are, neglecting the burnup of active nuclides:

# = n()000–2A() (1)

#--NG) colo (2)

For many cases, the burnup of irradiated material is negligible. Under this condition,
the differential equation governing the buildup of activity is:

#-Noot)-xAſ) (3)

'References appear at end of chapter.

235
CHAP. 1.12 WATER-COOLED ST’STEMS

Rewriting Eq. (3):

# (ex.A(t)}=N, god) ex (4)

DIRECTION OF CIRCULATION
START ING POINT

T
tr
!c

( IRRADIATION
TIME)
L
;: - -
(TOTAL CYCLE
TIME)

Integrating Eq. (4) over one cycle of operation (see sketch), from:

t = (n-1) to to t = ntc

yields:

enºte A(ntc) – e'n-1)^le A(nte—tc) = Nog ſº drq (t) e^t (5)

n-19te

Let:

©(t) = $0 (ntc-tr = t = ntc.)

and:

q}(t) = 0

at all other times. Then Eq. (5) becomes:

enXtc A(ntc) – e(n-1) Atc A(ntc.—tc.) -Nº. (1—e-Atr) enXtc (6)

Defining:

Bn = A(ntc) e”

and substituting in Eq. (6):

Bn–Bm–1 = No oboº (1—e-A") emºte (7)

236
CALCULATION OF WATER ACTIVITY CHAP. 1.12

Summing up the recurring terms, assuming no initial activity [A(0) = 0):

n -

b.-Sºº (1-c-º); ept. j=1

(8)

B = Sºtº (1–e-”) exte 1-en\tc

A TeXt. (9)

— N60 p
"Q" ºſ! _xt., 1–e "c
Antº) === (1-e-") i-º-º: (10)

Equation (10) can be simplified if the number of cycles becomes very large:

—a-Atr
A(ntc) –- N0000 (1–e “) (n − co) (11)
^ (1—e-\te)

Also, if Atc (and hence Atl) is a very small number:

A(ntc.) - Noobo tr (1—e-nºtc.) (12)

A to

and finally if n becomes large and to is small:

Aſhtº) – ºr
A to
(n − 2) (13)

If it is desired to include the effect of burnup of the original atoms, an extension of the
method used in the derivation of Eq. (10) can be applied to Eqs. (1) and (2). An approximate
form of the result is:

Nno (ba6 - —not 1–en(\tc.- 0%tr)

Auto-sºº (1-c-º) cº-º: (14)

where:

1 < 0 < e ºbtr

Another treatment of this problem, including burnup, is given by Allard."

By means of Eqs. (10) through (14), the number of active atoms per cubic centimeter of
coolant may be calculated. It must be remembered that po was assumed not to vary with
time and also that bo is assumed to be a suitable average flux value. In the case of a thres
hold reaction, such as o°(n,p)N*, the determination of bo is more difficult and may have to
be done in part experimentally.”"
Equations (10) through (14) are also suitable for calculating radioactive atoms in coolant
owing to irradiation of impurities in the water if N is the number of atoms of impurity per
cubic centimeter of coolant. They can also be used for approximate calculation of activity
owing to corrosion products in the water if it is remembered that N is then a function of
time and that a suitable average value be substituted. For information concerning radio
active nuclides formed during neutron irradiation, see Volume 1, Chapter 1.2, Table 1.2.4,
or charts.”””

237
CHAP. 1.12 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

Nomenclature and Units

Symbol Definition Units

A(t) Active atoms per cubic centimeter in the system at time t Atoms/cm”
Number of complete cycles starting at the outlet of the ac
tive ZOne None
N(t) Atoms per cubic centimeter of material irradiated at Atoms/cm”
time t
Atoms per cubic centimeter of material irradiated at time
t = 0 Atoms/cm”
Total time to complete cycle Sec
Time in active zone Sec
Disintegration constant of active nuclide SecT"
q}(t) Neutron flux Neutrons/(cm”)(sec)
Cross section producing active nuclide under consideration Cm”

REFERENCES

Nuclear Data, NBS-499, 1950.

. Quarterly Progress Report, CF-3490, CF-1946 (classified).
E. Bleuler et al, B-zerfall von N*. Helva. Phys. Acta. 20, 1947, p 96.
. Quarterly Progress Report, CP-3574, 1946 (classified).
E. Bleuler et al, y-Strahlung von N”, Helva. Phys. Acta. 19, 1946, p. 421.
C. H. Millar et al. Gamma-rays from N*. Phys. Rev. 77, 1950, p. 742.
G. T. Seaborg and I. Perlman, Table of Isotopes, Rev. Mod. Phys. 20, No. 4, 1948.
. Charpie et al. On the Delayed Neutron Emitter N*'. Phys. Rev. 76, 1949, p 1255.
L. W. Alvarez, N”, a Delayed Neutron Emitter, Phys. Rev. 75, 1949, p 1127.
E. Hayward, The Energy Spectrum of the Delayed Neutrons from o”. Phys. Rev. 75, 1949, p. 917.

:
13.
A. H. Snell and N. W. Fulbright, Radiation from O’’. CP-1357, 1944.
E. Bleuler and W. Zunti, Die Zerfausenergien von o”. Na", Mg". Alº, and K*, Helva. Phys. Acta. 20, 1947, p 195.
L. Seren et al. Absorption Curve of 31 seco"Beta-rays and Cross Section for Production by Thermal Neutrons, Phys. Rev. 70.
1946, p 561.
14. G. A. Allard, Activation of a Fluid Circulating through a Reactor, KAPL-665, 1951.
15. J. J. Taylor, STR Shield Design, WAPD-23, 1951 (classified).
16. N. M. Smith, Shielding of the External Water Pipes in the High Pressure water Pile, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, CF-48-3-
264, 1948 (classified).
17. M. C. Leverett, Aluminum Activity in Pile Water, Clinton Laboratory, CE-1632, 1944 (classified).
18. F. E. Senftle and W. S. Leavitt, Table for Calculating Activities Produced by Thermal Neutrons, Nucleonics 6, No. 5, 1950.
19. H. R. Kroeger, Thermal Neutron Cross Sections and Related Data, Nucleonics 5, No. 4, 1949.

238
 CHAPTER 1. 13

Fuel-element Design”

Reactor performance is a function of fuel-element design. Once nuclear requirements

are satisfied, a fuel element is designed for efficient heat removal, mechanical stability,
stability of materials, and fabricability as required by the specific reactor design. For
example, power- and production-reactor fuel elements are designed to provide the maxi
mum rate of heat removal compatible with efficient reactor operation. Low-power, re
search-reactor fuel elements, on the other hand, are designed to permit flexibility in
loading, and heat removal is a less important consideration. In the first case, the trend
in fuel-element design is toward large surface-to-volume ratios; in the latter, design is
directed toward a unit for partial replacement or relocation of fuel elements or assem
blies. The importance of mechanical stability, materials stability, and fabricability have
been shown in previous chapters.
Fuel-element designs of water-cooled reactors which are in operation or under con
Struction are shown in Figs. 1.13.1 through 1.13.5. The specific reactors and correspond
ing figure numbers of the fuel-element designs are as follows:

Reactor Figure No.

Production
Hanford-type Reactor 1. 13.1
Savannah River (CP-6) 1. 13.2
Research
Argonne Heavy-water Reactor (CP-3') 1. 13.3
Materials Testing Reactor (MTR) 1. 13.5
Argonne Research Reactor (CP-5) 1.13.6

‘This chapter is abstracted from Fuel Elements for Nuclear Reactors by J. B. Anderson, w. H.
Cook, R. A. Daane, and R. E. Rice, ANL-4874, Nov. 1952.

239
CHAP. 1.13 water-cooled SYSTEMS

FUEL ELEMENT FUEL ASSEMBLY

TYPE: Slug

WELD

.330"

TE:

8.7O"

Al JACKET'
|
H - SLUG

33d 3%
—I- Ø
-— 1.440" .086" COOLANT ANNULUS

FUEL: Natural uranium

CLAD: 2S aluminum

CORE CONFIGURATION: Process tubes set in graphite-block stack with

square lattice spacing

COOLANT: H2O
MODERATOR: Graphite
REACTOR APPLICATION: Plutonium production (Hanford-type reactor)

Fig. 1.13.1 — Hanford-type Reactor.

240
f
FUEL-ELEMENT DESIGN CHAP. 1.13

FUEL ELEMENT FUEL ASSEMBLY

TYPE: Slug

I.08"OD, AI CAN

!"O.D. U-SLUG x 8" LONG

FUEL: Natural uranium

CLAD: 2S aluminum

CORE CONFIGURATION: Quatrefoil process tubes placed on hexagonal lattice.

COOLANT: D2O
MODERATOR: D2O

REACTOR APPLICATION: Plutonium producer–Savannah River

(CP-6)

Fig. 1.13.2—Savannah River Reactor (CP-6).

241
CHAP. 1.13 WATER -COOLED SYSTEMS

FUEL ELEMENT FUEL ASSEMBLY

TYPE : Rod
FUEL: 2 wi-% uranium - 90% U*)— -

aluminum alloy 0.850 in. diameter Al -

CLAD: Aluminum jacket 0.059 in. thick

| s
N

-- U-Al ALLOY

A3" a tano"
ſé. 850" F.002" |}- Al
.968"
`-

º
CORE CONFIGURATION: 116 2% U-Al rods + 2 special rods containing 29 in. of º
6% U-Al alloy grouped on 5% in. centers in 6 ft diameter × 7 ft 9 in. cffective -

height º
COOLANT: D2O -

MODERATOR: D2O º:

REACTOR APPLICATION: Argonne heavy water reactor (CP-3')

REFERENCE: ANL-WHZ-250

Fig. 1.13.3— Argonne Heavy-water Reactor (CP-3').

242.
FUEL-ELEMENT DESIGN CHAP. 1.13

FUEL ELEMENT FUEL ASSEMBLY

TYPE: Plate
FUEL: 10 to 20 wt-% uranium - 90% U" 2.996"—-
aluminum alloy, 0.021 in. thick
COMB O64"-- Hº- -— 188"
CLAD: Aluminum, 0.020 in. thick
15° -—O79"
LENGTH: Standard, 24% in. over-all
Outside, 28% in. over-all
Active, 23% in. over-all
WDTH: 2.845 in. before curving

§§

T-5 ~

.113"(ALL GAPS)
.O64"
BRAZED JOINTS 5.504"R.

OUTSIDE FUEL PLATE

STANDARD FUEL PLATE

CORE CONFIGURATION: Subassemblies grouped into slab; active core approxi

mately 9 in. wide by 27 in. long by 23% in. high; beryllium reflector

COOLANT: H2O
MODERATOR: H2O
REACTOR APPLICATION: Materials testing reactor (ARCO)
REFERENCE: ORNL-963

Fig. 1.13.4— Materials Testing Reactor (MTR).

243
CHAP. 1.13 WATER-COOLED SYSTEMS

FUEL ELEMENT FUEL ASSEMBLY

TYPE : Plate

2.83O"

URNACE BRAZE
FUEL: Approximately 10 to 20 wi-36 enriched
uranium (~90% U")—aluminum alloy,
0.020 in. thick

CLAD: 2S aluminum, 0.020 in. each side

LENGTH: Inactive and plates (2 each), 24% in.

Active plates (10 each), 23% in.

|-6"- 3'-6"--6"
CORE CONFIGURATION: Provisions for 17 subassem
blies as shown; reactor start-up will be made using H- D
the 10 to 20% enriched uranium-aluminum subassem
blies; estimated 12 required; two subassemblies added
later for burn-up compensation; three additional sub HD DD|D
assemblies available for initial loading; subsequent re
loadings to be made with less enrichment per subassem
bly to utilize all locations; subassemblies contained in
6-ft-diameter tank
D D D D
COOLANT: D.O
MODERATOR: D.O
REACTOR APPLICATION: Argonne research reactor (CP-5)
REFERENCE: Communication from J. M. West

Fig. 1.13.5— Argonne Research Reactor (CP-5).

244
 Section 2

LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

Prepared under the direction of

R. W. LOCKHART

ENGINEE RING AND PRODUCTION SECTION

KNO LLS ATOM IC POWER LABORATORY

245
,, ， ， ，, ， ，; ：, ’：’, ：, ſ: ，， ， ; ， ſ ºſ º ſi ： ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ，■
|-，
 Authors’ Preface

Two liquid-metal-cooled reactors have been built and operated; one other is under con
struction. As coolants for these reactors, mercury was chosen, because of its non-moder
ating nuclear properties, for the experimental Fast Reactor at Los Alamos, and sodium
potassium alloy (NaK) was chosen, because of its good elevated-temperature heat-removal
and low-moderating nuclear properties, for the Experimental Breeder Reactor at Arco.
Also under construction is the KAPL Submarine Intermediate Reactor (SIR) which is
cooled by sodium; this coolant was chosen for its high-temperature heat-transfer prop
erties and acceptable nuclear properties. An extensive program to develop the usefulness
of Na and NaK has been in operation for over six years at KAPL. During this development
period, an eight-million-Btu/hr non-radioactive heat-transfer system was operated for
tens of thousands of hours with top (simulated reactor) temperature above 850°F; some
runs were made up to 1200°F. Many other sites particularly ANL, ORNL, and Mine Safety
Appliance Company have contributed to the liquid-metal technology of SIR design.
In addition to these reactors, numerous studies have been made or are in progress, and
Some preliminary design has been completed on other proposed liquid-metal-cooled re
actors. These studies are mainly concerned with heat-removal properties at elevated
temperatures (power production) and acceptable nuclear properties (fast- and intermediate
Spectrum reactors). Most of the liquid-metal work has been conducted using Na and NaK,
a limited amount of work has been expended on Pb, Pb-Bi, and Li.
The objectives of this section of the handbook are:
(1) To summarize the physical properties and “know-how” of the application of liquid
metal coolants; (2) to discuss the advantages and problems of using liquid metals as heat
transfer fluids, particularly with respect to their application as reactor coolants (examples
of some of the possible cooling cycle arrangements are presented); (3) to present a sum
mary of liquid-metal components and design considerations.
The design data in this section include experimental or operating data as well as pre
dicted data, and reflects information available up to the end of December 1952. New and
improved component designs are being studied, and future editions of this handbook should
include information on such subjects as homopolar (generator-DC electromagnetic) pumps
and electromagnetic null pressure gauges that can be used at elevated temperatures.
Engineering units are used in all cases; where it was thought that CGS units would be
Convenient, dual units were used.
The editor wishes to express his appreciation to Miss Carol J. Ranney and Mr. Sheldon
K. Friedlander, his assistant editors, for their administration of the details of this section
Of the handbook, and to Mr. Thomas Trocki for his help in outlining this section and re
Viewing some of the chapters. Recognition is also due to Miss B. L. Jones and Mrs. E. R.
Supley who prepared most of the tracings, to the KAPL Engineering secretaries, and to
the KAPL engineers, physicists, and metallurgists for the assistance rendered to the
individual chapter authors.
Encouragement and information from Mr. A. P. Fraas (ORNL), Mr. H. Lictenberger and
Mr. M. Novick (ANL-EBR), and Mr. F. R. Lesch (SOO of the AEC) is acknowledged and
§ratefully appreciated.
Robert W. Lockhart

247
 CHAPTER 2.l

Liquid-metal Coolants for Nuclear Reactors

R. W. Lockhart

During the past decade, great effort has been expended toward obtaining a knowledge of
the physical properties of liquid metals and the necessary “know-how” which would permit
their use as heat-transfer media. Reports in the classified and unclassified literature de
scribe criteria for choosing such a coolant, and many of the early reports of the reactor
design groups describe criteria for a coolant for a nuclear reactor. The study of the
operation of a mercury heat-transfer system, such as a binary-coolant power plant, is an
example of elevated-temperature, liquid-metal, heat-transfer system technology carried
out prior to reactor heat-removal considerations. Liquid-metal-cooled reactors are the
EBR, LAPR, and SIR (see Section 8 of this volume).
A review" of completed and in-progress liquid-metal research indicates that the most
effort has been applied to the alkali metals, particularly sodium and NaK (sodium-potas
sium alloy); a limited effort, in decreasing order, has been accorded Li, Pb, Bi, Pb-Bi
alloy, and Hg. The results of this work indicate that Na and NaK rank high in the list of
elevated-temperature coolants. When a reactor is used for power generation, the conver
sion-system efficiency is a function of outlet temperature of the reactor coolant. In gen
eral, the choice of a coolant depends on many compromises involving the physical proper
ties of coolants. The choice of a nuclear reactor coolant emphasizes specifically those
properties that (1) provide extreme reliability of the coolant system, (2) permit removal of
heat from a concentrated heat source, and (3) affect the nuclear characteristics of the
coolant. Some of these considerations are discussed below.

NUCLEAR PROPERTIES

The nuclear properties, such as moderating ratio, absorption cross section, activation
(shielding required), and radiation stability, eliminate many coolants from further consid
eration.

MODERATING RATIO

If a thermal reactor is required, a coolant with high moderating ratio and low neutron
absorption is necessary. Although these specifications are satisfied by light or heavy
water, they do not exclude all liquid metals.
For an intermediate or fast reactor for mobile power plant or power breeder application,
low-moderating-ratio coolants can be considered. Liquid-metal coolants have been success

'References appear at end of chapter. ..

249
CHAP. 2.1 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

fully applied in these cases (e.g., the fast reactor at Los Alamos, the EBR at Arco, and the
SIR under construction at West Milton) and are, in fact, practically the only coolants that
will satisfy the nuclear and heat-removal requirements for these reactors. Hydrogenous
coolants would not be effective in such applications because of their moderating effect. The
thermal-neutron moderating ratios of some coolants are compared in Table 2.1.1.

Table 2.1.1 — Thermal-neutron Moderating Ratios of Some Coolants

Coolant Average loss of energy, § Moderating ratio,” (...) £

a

Be 0.21 150
H ~1 140
Na 0.085 0.76
K .051 .03

Hg .01 0
Li .26 0.006
Bi .0096 4.2
Pb .0097 0.39

*g, * scattering cross section; oa = absorption cross section

ABSORPTION CROSS SECTION

Since low critical mass is one of the important reasons for choosing a thermal reactor
and since absorption cross sections are larger for materials when lower-energy neutrons
are involved, many coolants that are practical for fast and intermediate reactors are not
satisfactory for thermal reactors.

RADIATION DAMAGE

Many non-metal coolant mixtures suffer serious radiation damage that transforms or
disassociates the molecules under the high reactor fluxes. Liquid metals are particularly
resistant to such damage because of their simple structure; a portion of the liquid-metal
coolant is activated, however, and transformed into another isotope, such as Na” to Mg”,
but the amount transformed per life of the reactor at the present design fluxes is small.

ACTIVATION

When liquid metal coolants become activated they emit characteristic y and/or 3 rays
that have to be attenuated by biological shielding. If neutron distribution in the reactor is
held constant, and the amount of coolant in this region is compared with the total amount
of coolant circulating, an estimate of the amount of shielding required for each coolant
can be obtained.

HEAT-REMOVAL PROPERTIES

The heat-removal capacity of a coolant is important to a reactor since a compromise

has to be made between the coolant flow rate, the temperature rise through the reactor,
and the volume of the reactor that can be made available for the coolant passages. A de
tailed discussion of the heat-removal properties of liquid metals is presented in Chapter

250
LIQUID-METAL COOLANTS FOR NUCLEAR REACTORS CHAP. 2.1

2.2. Generally, the specific heat per unit volume for liquid metals is lower than water, but
at comparable pressure and temperature conditions above the critical point of water (705°F),
most liquid metals are superior to water. This means that the use of liquid-metal coolants
will require a lower product of coolant velocity and temperature rise to remove a given
amount of heat.
High boiling points (or low vapor pressure) for liquid metals allow more flexibility in
operation; for instance, in near emergency cases, the reactor coolant outlet temperature
can be greatly increased without the possibility of a vapor burn-out.
Just above their respective melting points, liquid metals have relatively low viscosities,
and their hydraulic characteristics (except for density effect) are not too different from
those of water at ambient temperatures. Experience has shown that system pressure drops
can be predicted by applying accepted methods of correlation.

STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS TO CONTAIN LIQUID METALS

Because of the low vapor pressure of liquid metals, system pressures have been deter
mined by coolant-system pressure drops, which are usually less than 100 psi, and mini
mum absolute inlet pressure to the circulating pumps. Operating temperatures in excess
of 700°F are possible with little worry about local boiling or serious changes in physical
properties of the coolant.
The relatively high thermal conductivity of liquid metals not only minimizes the possi
bility of hot spots caused by local boiling and of large temperature gradients across coolant
ducts that might warp the structure or bind moving parts but also reduces the thermal film
drop to a nearly negligible value.
General statements about the thermal shock effect on structural material, corrosion, and
purification treatment required when liquid metals are used are more difficult to make at
this time, but such data are accumulating. These topics are treated in the following chap
ters of this section, but a more complete presentation of corrosion and purification is avail
able in the second edition of the Liquid Metals Handbook. It is stated in the literature with
out qualification that in a closed system liquid Na and NaK are simpler to maintain than
water for similar duty.

OTHER PROPERTIES

A freezing point above ambient temperature can be both an asset for a coolant as well as
a liability. It is sometimes desirable to let the system or portions of the system freeze so
that components may be replaced without draining the coolant system. Conversely, it is
normally a liability to have to maintain the complete system above the melting point of the
coolant before the coolant can be circulated.
The high electrical conductivity of the liquid alkali metals permits their use in com
pletely sealed pumps (AC or DC, electromagnetic type) and EM flowmeters.
The availability of liquid metals is given in the Liquid Metals Handbook. Since the volume
of a reactor coolant system is relatively small and recharging only infrequently required,
the actual cost of the coolant is low. Sodium is reported to be the least expensive (0.16 $/lb),
with lead, zinc, and aluminum slightly more. Potassium is considerably more expensive
(2.50 $/lb).”

CONCLUSIONS

Liquid-metals have the best combination and range of physical properties for application
as fast- or intermediate-spectrum nuclear-reactor coolants. The choice of the particular

251
CHAP. 2.1 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

coolant will depend on the application of the reactor. The following chapters in this section
will discuss the properties of liquid-metal coolants, the heat-transfer correlations used
with liquid metals, the purification, corrosion, and induced activities of some of the liquid
metals, the reaction between alkali liquid metals and water, the various reactor-cooling
and power-conversion cycles, the distribution and magnitude of heat generation in liquid
metal-cooled reactors, and the design and construction of reactors and associated heat
transfer systems.
Many of the systems and design details presented in this edition of Section 2, describe
equipment that was tested in the project Genie liquid-metal test system that was operated
by the KAPL. The presentation of one complete design seemed preferable to an attempt
to generalize on the basis of two or three existing experimental designs, and, on the basis
of this choice, much of the discussion is directed toward Na and NaK, since the most is
known about these liquid-metal coolants.

REFERENCES

1. D. W. Lillie, Report No. WASH-89, April 16, 1952 (classified).

2. Liquid Metals Handbook, 2d edition, R. N. Lyon, editor, Dep't of the Navy, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, June 1952. p 258.

252
 CHAPTER 2.2

Properties of Liquid Metal Coolants

R. D. Brooks

The physical properties of various liquid metals are listed in Table 2.2.1 in English
units and in Table 2.2.2 in metric units. The original references for most of these data
are given in Chap. 2 of the “Liquid Metals Handbook.” Unit prices as of 1951 are also in
cluded in Table 2.2.1.
Table 2.2.3 shows cross sections for the metals as they occur naturally, i.e., for the
usual mixtures of isotopes. The macroscopic cross sections were calculated at the
melting points.
In Figs. 2.2.1 to 2.2.8, the density, heat capacity, viscosity, and thermal conductivity are
plotted vs. temperature for most of the elements of Table 2.2.1. The grid for each plot is
marked in English units, but corresponding metric values are given on the opposite side
of every page. The curves labeled “NaK (56,44)” refer to the alloy composed of 56 wt-%
sodium and 44 wt-% potassium; a similar notation is used for the alloy composed of 22 wi
% sodium and 78 wt-% potassium.
Figures 2.2.9 to 2.2.12 show total cross sections as a function of neutron energy for
several selected metals, namely, Na, K, Li, Pb, Bi, and Hg, which are of most interest at
present. Similar plots for other metals can be found in Report AECU-2040.
A Mollier chart for mercury is given in Fig. 2.2.13. The original reference also in
cludes a table of the thermodynamic properties of mercury. These data were published in
1949 and are currently being reviewed by L. F. Epstein and coworkers at Knolls Atomic
Power Laboratory.

253
CHAP. 2.2
LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 2.2.1–Physical Properties of Liquid Metals (English Units)

(Liquid Metals Handbook, edited by R. N. Lyon, Department of the Navy and U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, NAVEXOS P-733, 2d ed., in preparation)
Latent
M Latent Boiling heat of Vapor
elting heat of point vapori
pressure Density
Atomic Atomic point, fusion, (760 mm Hg), zation,

Metal No. wt •F Btu/lb •F Btu/lb Mm Hºl •F •F Lb/cu ft

Aluminum 13 26.97 1220.4 173 4442 5500 1. 2799 1220 148.6

10 3218 1292 147.9
100 3778 1652 144.5
400 4280 2012 141.2

Antimony 51 121.76 1167 69.0 2624 690 1 1627 1184 405

10 1891 1292 403
100 2233 1472 398
200 2350. 1778 393
400 2487

Bismuth 83 209 520 21.6 2691 368 1. 1683 572 626.2

10 1953 752 619
100 2295 1112 603
200 24.17 1476 587
400 2552 1764 574

Cadmium 48 112.41 609 23.8 1409 515 1 741 626. 500

10 903 662 499
100 1132 752 495
200 1216 932 488
400 1312 1112 482

Cesium 55 132.91 83.2 6.78 1301 263 1. 532 83 114.9° t

10 729 211 112.2°
100 959 285 110.7°
200 1058 412 108.1*
400 1175

Gallium 31 69.72 85.86 34.5 3601 1825 1 2399 90 380.4

10 27.27 574 368.6
100 3139 1112 357.1
200 3285 1483 349.9
400 3443 2012 339.9

Indium 49 114.76 313 12.26 3789 841 1 2280 327 438.6

10 2671 381 437.1
100 3193 442 435.4
200 3385 520 433.2
400 3600 572 431.8

Lead 82 207 621 10.6 3159 369 1 1809 752 656

10 21.33 932 649
100 2583 1112 641
200 2746 1472 627
400 2932 1832 612

Lithium 3 6.94 354 284 2403 8420 1 1373 392 31.7

10 1634 752 30.6
100 1983. 1112 29.6
200 2113 1472 28.5
400 2257 1832 27.5

Magnesium 12 24.32 1204 148 2017 2400 1 1150 1204 98.1

10 1296 1252 96.8
100 1668 1292 95.9
200 1773 1328 94.3
400 1893 1382 91.8

254
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.2

Table 2.2.1—(Continued)

Volume

Thermal Electrical ºº Unit pri

Specific heat Viscosity conductivity resistivity sº º,
•F Btu/(lb)(°F) •F | Lb/(ft) (hr) •F Btu/(hr)(ft)("F) °F pu-ohms volume $/lb

1220- 0.259 1292 7.0 1292 59.8 1214 19.6 6.6 0.22
1832 1472 3.4 1454 T0.2 1238 20.5
1355 21.3
1485 22.4
1598 23.2

1202- 0.0656 1296 3.14 1166 12.6- 1160 117.00 –0.94 0.44
1742 1474 2.69 12 1292 117.65
1652 2.41 1346 1472 120.31
1836 2.19 562 123.54
1652 131.00

520 0.0340 579 4.02 572 9.9 572 128.9 -3.32 2.25
752 .0354 844 3.10 752 8.95 752 134.2
1112 .0376 1112 2.41 932 8.95 1112 145.25
1472 .0397 1112 8.95 1382 153.53
1832 .04.19 1292 8.95

610- 0.0632 662 5.74 671 25.6 617 33.7 4.74 2.55
1292 752 5.23 676 25.4 752 33.7
932 4.45 716 25.4 932 34.12
1112 3.73 815 28.8 1112 34.82
1292 35.78

83 0.060 83 1.655* 83 10.6 86 36.6 2.6 4.00/gm

211 1.150* 99 37.0
285 0.9837.*
412 .8090°

55- 0.082 127 4.583 85.86 17- 85 25.9 —3.1 2.50/gm

392 574 2.490 22 86 27.2
756 2.125 114 28.4
932 1.963
1483 1.579

314 0.0652 313 22- 309 29.10 2.5 32.8

29 359 30.11
432 31.87
536 34.84

621 0.039 826 5.121 626 9.4 621 94.6 3.6 0.17
752 .037 853 4.983 752 9.2 752 98.0
932 .037 1024 4.114 932 ,8.95 1112 107.2
1298 3.265 1112 8.7 1472 116.4
1551 2.868 1292 8.7 1832 125.7

392 1.40 362.1 1.432 424- 22 446 45.25 1.5 11

572 1.23 379.8 1.391 451
752 1.09 420.8 1.308
932 1.00 483.4 1.190
545.9 1.098

1204 0.317 98.4 4.2 0.245

1341 .321 103.2
1701 .332 114.2
1881 .337 127.5
2048 .342 135.5

255
CHAP. 2.2 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED.SYSTEMS

Table 2.2.1–(Continued)

Latent
Latent Boili heat of
Melting heat of º vapori- Vapor
Atomic Atomic point, fusion, (760 mm Hg), zation, pressure Density
Metal No. wt •F Btu/lb •F Btu/lb | Mm Hg | •F •F | Lb/cu ft

Mercury 80 200.61 –37.97 5.0 675 125 1. 259 –4.0 851.9

10 363 68 845.7
100 503 212 833.6
200 555 392 818.8
400 613 572 804.2

Potassium 19 39.096 147 26.3 1400 893 1 648 212 51.1

10 829 482 48.9
100 1078 752 46.6
200 1175 1022 44.4
400 1285 1292 42.2

Rubidium 37 85.48 102 11 1270 382 1 561 100 91.93"

10 729 212 90.04°
100 966 285 88.84*
200 1056 354 87.73°
400 1162 428 86.58°

Sodium 11 22.997 208 48.8 1621 1810 1 824 212 57.9

10 1018 482 55.6
100 1285 752 53.3
200 1386 1022 51.0
400 1499 1292 48.7

Thallium 81 204.39 577 9.06 2655 342 1 1517 584 704.8

10 1801 620 702.6
100 2.185 626 702.3
200 2325 632 702.6
400 2487

tin 50 118.70 449 26.1 4.1.18 1030 1 2718 768 426.6

10 3097 973 422.1
100 3574 1065 420.1
200 3745 1198 416.7
400 3931 1299 414.5

Zinc 30 65.38 787 44 1663 755 1 909 787 432.0

10 1099 1112 425.1
100 1357 1472 410.2
200 1450
400 1551

Sodium- 28.1 66.2 1517 1 720 212 55.3

potassium alloy (calc.) 10 914 482 53.1
56 wt-% Na, 100 1180 752 50.8
44 wt-% K 200 1285 1022 48.6
400 1400 1292 46.3

Sodium- 33.9 12 1443 1. 671 212 52.9

potassium alloy (calc.) 10 856 482 50.6
(near eutectic) 100 1117 752 48.4
22 wt-% Na, 200 1218 1022 46.1
78 wt-% K 400 1330 1292 43.9

Lead-bismuth 208 257 3038 392 653

alloy (eutectic) (calc.) 752 636
44.5 wt-% Pb, 1112 619
55.5 wt-% Bi 1472 602
1832 584

*E. N. da C. Andrade and E. R. Dobbs, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, A211: 12-30 (1952)

256
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.2

Table 2.2.1 — (Continued)

Volume

Thermal Electrical .º Unit pri

Specific heat Viscosity conductivity resistivity .d º,
•F | Btu/(lb)(*F) •F Lb/(ft)(hr) •F | (Btu/(hr)(ft)(*F) | *F pu-ohm volume $/lb

32 0.03334 –4.0 4.48 32 4.74 122 3.6 2.56

212 .03279 32 4.07 140 5.59 212
392 .03.245 68 3.75 248 6.31 392
572 .03234 212 2.93 320 6.75 572
842 .03.256 392 2.44 428 7.33 662

167 0.1956 157.3 1.25 392 26.0 147 13.16 2.41 2.50
392 .1887 333 0.801 572 24.5 302 18.70
752 .1826 482 .624 752 23.1 482 25.00
1112 .1825 752 .462 932 21.7 572 28.2
1472 .1884 1292 .329 1112 20.5 662 31.4

102- 0.0913 100 1.630° 102 17 122 23.15 2.5 4.50/gm

258 212 1.172* 122 18 167 25.32
284.9 1.000° 212 27.47
354.2 0.8794*
428.2 .7826*

212 0.3305 218.7 1.66 212 49.71 212 9.65 2.5 0.16
392 .3200 334 1.22 392 47.10 392 13.18
752 .3055 482 0.922 572 43.76 482 14.90
1112 .2998 752 .651 752 41.15 572 16.70
1472 .3030 1292 .440 932 38.61 662 18.44

578- 0.0367 662 14.3 577 74.0 3.2 12.50

932

482 0.0580 464 4.62 464 19.4 449 47.6 2.6 1.03
2012 -0758 572 4.04 558 19.6 752 51.4
752 3.34 783 19.1 1112 56.8
932 2.86 928 18.9 1472 62.7
1112 2.54 1832 68.6

787 o. 1199 842 7.67 932 33.4 787 35.3 6.9 0.18
1112 .1173 932 6.73 1112 32.9 932 35.4
1472 .1076 1112 5.42 1292 32.7 1112 35.0
1652 .1044 1292 4.55 1282 35.65
1832 .1012 1472 35.70

212 0.269 219 1.32 212 14.9 122 33.0 2.5 2

572 .255 334 0.997 392 15.3 212 35.5
932 .249 482 .765 572 15.7 302 38.0
1112 .248 752 .557 752 16.0 392 41.0
1472 .253 1292 .390 932 16.3

32 0.238 219 1.13 212 14.1 122 37.5 2.5 2

392 .217 334 0.869 752 15.4 212 41.0
752 .210 482 .675 302 44.0
1112 .209 752 .496 392 47.0
1472 .213 1292 .353

291- 0.035 630 4.11 320 5.3 392 113 0.6

676 842 3.34 392 5.6 572 118
932 3.12 464 5.8 752 123
1022 2.98 572 6.3 932 128
1112 2.83 608 6.5

257
CHAP. 2.2 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 2.2.2—Physical Properties of Liquid Metals (Metric Units)

(Liquid Metals Handbook, edited by R. N. Lyon, Department of the Navy and U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, NAVEXOS P-733, 2d ed., in preparation)

Latent
Latent Boiling heat of Vapor
Melting heat of point vapori
point, fusion, (760 mm Hg), zation, pressure Density
Metal •C cal/gm •C cal/gm | Mm Hg •C •C | Gm/cc

Aluminum 660.2 96 2450 3050 1 1537 660 2.380

10 1770 700 2.369
100 2081 900 2.315
400 2360 1100 2.261

Antimony 630.5 38.3 1440 383 1 886 640 6.49

10 1033 700 6.45
100 1223 800 6.38
200 1288 970 6.29
400 1364

Bismuth 271.0 12.0 1477 204.3 1 917 300 10.03

10 1067 400 9.91
100 1257 600 9.66
200 1325 802 9.40
400 1400 962 9.20

Cadmium 321 13.2 765 286.4 1 394 330 8.01

10 484 350 7.99
100 611 400 7.93
200 658 500 7.82
400 711 600 7.72

Cesium 28.5 3.766 705 146.0 1 278 28.4 1.841*

10 387 99.6 1.797*
100 515 140.5 1.773*
200 570 210.9 1.732*
400 635

Gallium 29.92 19.16 1983 1014 1 1315 32.4 6.093

10 1497 301 5.905
100 1726 600 5.720
200 1807 806 5.604
400 1895 1100 5.445

Indium 156.4 6.807 2087 468 1 1249 164 7.026

10 1466 194 7.001
100 1756 228 6.974
200 1863 271 6.939
400 1982 300 6.916

Lead 327.4 5.89 1737 204.6 1. 987 400 10.51

10 1167 500 10.39
100 1417 600 10.27
200 1508 800 10.04
400 1611 1000 9.81

Lithium 179 158 1317 4680 1 745 200 0.507

10 890 400 .490
100 1084 600 .474
200 1156 800 .457
400 1236 1000 .441

Magnesium 651 82.2 1103 1337 1 621 651 1.572

10 702 678 1.55
100 909 700 1.536
200 967 720 1.51
400 1034 750 1.47

258
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.2

Table 2.2.2—(Continued)

Thermal
conductivity Electrical Surface
Specific heat Viscosity Cal resistivity tension

•C | Cal/(gm)(*C) •C | Cp °C (sec)(cm)(*C) •C | pu-ohms cDynes/cm

660- 0.259 700 2.9 700 0.247 657 19.6 750 520
1000 800 1.4 790 .290 670 20.5
735 21.3
807 22.4
870 23.2

650- 0.0656 702 1.296 630 0.052- 627 117.00 635 383
950 801 1.113 730 0.05 700 117.65 675 384
900 0.994 800 120.31 725 383
1002 .905 850 123.54 800 380
900 131.00

271 0.0340 304 1.662 300 0.041 300 128.9 300 376
400 .0354 451 1.280 400 .037 400 134.2 350 373
600 .0376 600 0.996 500 .037 600 145.25 400 370
800 .0397 600 .037 750 153.53 450 367
1000 .04.19 700 .037 500 363

321- 0.0632 350 2.37 355 0.106 325 33.7 330 564
700 400 2.16 358 .105 400 33.7 370 608
500 1.84 380 .105 500 34.12 420 598
600 1.54 435 .119 600 34.82 450 611
700 35.78 500 600

28.5 0.060 28.4 0.6837* 28.5 0.044 30 36.6

99.6 .4753* 37 37.0
140.5 .4065°
210.9 .3343*

12.5- 0.082 52.9 1.894 29.92 0.07- 29.75 25.9 30- 735
200 301 1.029 0.09 30.3 27.2 40
402 0.8783 46.1 28.4
500 .81.13
806 .6524

156.4 0.0652 156.4 0.09- 154.0 29.10 170- 340

0.12 181.5 30.11 250
222 31.87
280.2 34.83

327 0.039 441 2.116 330 0.039 327 94.6 350 442
400 .037 456 2.059 400 .038 400 98.0 400 438
500 .037 551 1.700 500 .037 600 107.2 450 438
703 1.349 600 .036 800 116.4 500 431
844 1.185 700 .036 1000 125.7

200 1,40 183.4 0.5918 218- 0.09 230 45.25

300 1.23 193.2 .5749 233
400 1.09 216.0 .5406
500 1.00 250.8 .4917
285.5 .4548

651 0.317 681 563

727 .321 894 502
927 .332
102.7 .337
1120 .342

259
CHAP. 2.2 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 2.2.2—(Continued)

Latent
- Latent Boiling heat o: Vapor
Melting heat of point, vapori- pressure Density
point, fusion, (760 mm Hg), zation,
Metal •C cal/gm •C cal/gm | Mm Hg | •C •C | Gm/cc

Mercury –38.87 2.8 357 69.7 1 126.2 –20 13.645

10 184.0 20 13.546
100 261.7 100 13.352
200 290.7 200 13.115
400 323.0 300 12.881

Potassium 63.7 14.6 760 496 1 342 100 0.819

10 443 250 .783
100 581 400 .747
200 635 550 .7.11
400 696 700 .676

Rubidium 39.00 6.1 688 212 1 294 38.0 1.4725*

10 387 99.7 1.4423*
100 519 140.5 1.4230°
200 569 179.0 1.4053*
400 628 220.1 1.3869*

Sodium 97.8 27.05 883 1005 1 440 100 0.928

10 548 250 .891
100 696 400 .854
200 752 550 .817
400 815 700 .780

Thallium 303 5.04 1457 189.9 1 825 306.5 11.289

10 983 326.7 11.254
100 1196 330.0 11.250
200 1274 333.5 11.254
400 1364

Tin 231.9 14.5 2270 573 1 1492 409 6.834

10 1703 523 6.761
100 1968 574 6.729
- 200 2063 648 6.671
400 2169 704 6.640

Zinc 419.5 24.4 906 419.5 1 487 419.5 6.92

10 593 600 6.81
100 736 800 6.57
200 788
400 844

Sodium- 19 825 1 382 100 0.886

potassium alloy: 10 490 250 .850
56 wt-% Na, 100 638 400 .814
44 wi-4. K 200 696 550 .778
400 760 700 .742

Sodium- -11 784 1 355 100 0.847

potassium alloy: 10 458 250 .811
(near eutectic) 100 603 400 .775
22 wt-% Na, 200 659 550 .739
78 wi-96 K 400 721 700 .703
Lead-bismuth 125 1670 200 10.46
alloy (eutectic): 400 10.19
44.5 wt-% Pb, 600 9.91
55.5 wt-% Bi 800 9.64
looo 9.36

*E. N. da C. Andrade and E. R. Dobbs, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, A211: 12-30 (1952)

260
s
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.2

Table 2.2.2—(Continued)

Thermal
conductivity Electrical Surface
Specific heat Viscosity Cal resistivity tension

•C | Cal/(gm)(*C) •C Cp •C (sec)(cm)(*C) •C pu-ohms °C | Dynes/cm

0 0.03334 –20 1.85 0 0.0196 50 98.4 20 465

100 .03279 0 1.68 60 .0231 100 103.2 112 454
200 .03.245 20 1.55 120 .0261 200 114.2 200 436
300 .03234 100 1.21 160 .0279 300 127.5 300 405
450 .03.256 200 1.01 220 .0303 350 135.5 354 394

75 0.1956 69.6 0.515 200 0.1073 64 13.16 100- 86

200 .1887 167.4 .331 300 .1013 150 18.70 150
400 .1826 250 .258 400 .0956 250 25.00
600 .1825 400 .191 500 .0898 300 28.2
800 .1884 700 .136 600 .0846 350 31.4

39- 0.0913 38.0 0.6734* 39 0.07 50 23.15

126 99.7 .4844* 50 .075 75 25.32
140.5 .4.133* 100 27.47
179.0, .3634*
220.1 .3234*

100 0.3305 103.7 0.686 100 0.2055 100 9.65 100 206.4
200 .3200 167.6 .504 200 .1947 200 13.18 250 199.5
400 .3055 250 .381 300 .1809 250 14.90
600 .2998 400 .269 400 .1701 300 16.70
800 .3030 700 .182 500 .1596 350 18.44

303- 0.0367 350 0.059 303 74.0 327 401

500

250 0.0580 240 1.91 240 .08 231.9 47.6 300 526
1100 .0758 300 1.67 292 .081 400 51.4 350 522
400 1.38 417 .079 600 56.8 400 518
500 1.18 498 .078 800 62.7 450 514
600 1.05 1000 68.6 500 510

419.5 0.1199. 450 3.17 500 0.138 419.5 35.3 510 785
600 .1173 500 2.78 600 .136 500 35.4 550 778
800 .1076 600 2.24 700 .135 600 35.0 600 768
900 .1044 700 1.88 700 35.65 640 761
1000 .1012 800 35.70

100 0.269 103.7 0.546 100 0.06.17 50 33.0 19- 110

300 .255 167.5 .412 200 .0633 100 35.5 250 100
500 .249 250 .316 300 .0648 150 38.0
600 .248 400 .230 400 .0662 200 41.0
800 .253 700 .161 500 .0675

0 0.238 103.7 0.468 100 0.0583 50 37.5 – 11- 120

200 .217 167.5 .359 400 .0636 100 41.0 250 110
400 .210 250 .279 150 44.0
600 .209 400 .205 200 47.0
800 .213 700 .146

144- 0.035 332 1.7 160 0.022 200 113 800 367
358 450 1.38 200 .023 300 118 1000 356
500 1.29 240 .024 400 123
550 1.23 300 .026 500 128
600 1.17 320 .027

261
CHAP. 2.2 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 2.2.3—Cross Sections of Naturally Occurring Mixtures of Isotopes

(Neutron Cross Sections, edited by D. J. Hughes, AECU-2040, May 15, 1952, and
“GE Chart of the Nuclides”)

Thermal-pile-neutron Macroscopic cross

cross section, barns section at m.p., cm
Element 10* Nuclei/cc at m.p. Absorption Total Absorption Total

Aluminum 0.0530 0.22 1.6 0.012 0.085

Antimony .0321 5.3 9.6 .17 .31

Bismuth .0290 0.032 9 .00093 .26
Cadmium .0429 3100 3100 130 130
Cesium .00831 29 50 0.24 0.4
Gallium .0525 2.8 - 7 .15 .4
Indium .0341 190 192 6.48 6.55
Lead .0306 0.17 11 0.0052 0.34
Lithium .0441 67 68 2.95 3.0
Magnesium .0389 0.059 3.6 0.0023 0.14

Mercury .04.09 360 370 14.7 15.1

Potassium .0128 2.0 3.5 0.026 0.045
Rubidium .0102 0.70 13 .0071 .13
Sodium .0243 .49 4.5 ,012 .11
Thallium .0334 3.3 17 .11 .57
Tin .0353 0.6 5 .02 .18
Zinc .0638 1.0 4.6 .06 .29

262
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.2

TEMPERATURE, "C
IOO 3OO 500 7OO 900
2OO | | | T T I I |

— 3

175

15O *~
*-

*-

125 2

>
-
IOO N-~ 3
Y
E NG §

º |-Rº. ;
;
75 O

— I
*
*- *- "-

----- No
====#. H-_Nok
(56, 44)
(22,78)
K

Li T
25

O
O 2OO 400 6OO 8OO |OOO |2OO | 4 OO 16OO 18OO 2OOO
TEMPERATURE, *F

Fig. 2.2.1— Density as a Function of Temperature for Various Liquid Metals

(Low Range). Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, July 14, 1952.

263
CHAP. 2.2 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

TEMPERATURE, "C
|OOO IOO 3OO 5OO 7OO 900
| | | I I I T I I

9 OO -H 14

Hg -

8 OO `s

– 12

*-
7 OO F#-L-L-

S. -T-- T-H Pb — to on
> 6OO T-- T T-- *- f
Pb-Bi -

z - ul
ul O
O

*-
50 O T- 8

- |n
-

TT-H-- E- Zn
E
4 OO Sn Sb

—H6
Go

3OO

— 4

2OO
2OO 4OO 6OO 8OO IOOO |200 14OO 16OO 18OO 2OOO
TEMPERATURE, “F

Fig. 2.2.2— Density as a Function of Temperature for Various Liquid Metals

(High Range). Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, July 14, 1952.

264
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.2

TEMPERATURE, "C
O. I IOO 3OO 500 7OO 900
- I | T | I I | T | |

Rb
.09

Go

.O8

O7 L _PT
#
- LT LT Sb

ce LT
S. _T
S.O6 Sn
o _>
“s,
ſº
2.

g .O5
\
-

do

r: -T
-

º: Hg
Pb - Bi
as "
=~
|-

O - _º-
ul
0.
ºn .O3

O2

..Ol

O
O 2OO 40O 6OO 80O |OOO I2OO |400 |6OO |8OO 2OOO

TEMPERATURE, “F

Fig. 2.2.3— Specific Heat as a Function of Temperature for Various Liquid

Metals (Low Range). Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, July 14,
1952.

265
CHAP. 2.2 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

IOO 3OO
TEMPERATURE"C
5 OO 7OO 9 OO
I | | I | I | I | T

|.4 w

1.2

I.O
S
| |-T L_1-14-FFT
x~r-
r- —
g T
#oss
> No L-"
Co S L-T
3. NG Mg _--T
£ 30 T
N
=
do No K (56,44)

Hº S
« N- Al
# T
o 25
ū.
G
ul
sº
0.
on NG
- 2O
*~
K T--— L-T

15

Zn

T
... O 2OO 4 OO 6OO 8OO |OOO |2OO T+=l—
14OO 16OO 18OO 2OOO

TEMPERATURE, *F

Fig. 2.2.4— Specific Heat as a Function of Temperature for Various Liquid

Metals (High Range). Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, July 14,
1952.

266
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.2

TEMPERATURE, “c
2.or-3 • IOO 2OO 3OO 4OO 5OO 6OO 7OO
vTT I | | | | I
– O.8

- .7

1.6
Rb

| \ —H .6

~ 1.2 \ - .5
5.
s
*-
\ Li
Ch.
\ ©

• r- :
t - “g
wn O
8 wo
to
>

-
4
N s
Sss
SEEºgave
T
No

NoK (56,44)
1.
- .2

— ..
>

O -

O 2OO 4OO 6OO 8OO IOOO 12OO |4OO

TEMPERATURE, *F

Fig. 2.2.5–Viscosity as a Function of Temperature for Various Liquid Metals

(Low Range). Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, July 14, 1952.

267
CHAP. 2.2 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

TEMPERATURE, "C
O |OO 2OO 3OO 400 500 6OO 7oo
e H- I I I I I |

\ \ —125

l N
- \ N Zn
— 2.0

| 4

3
\

SS
N
P
.5

|
|Hg
Ns
s Sn

QB
- |.0

O 2OO 400 6OO 800 IOOO I2OO 1400

TEMPERATURE, *F

Fig. 2.2.6–Viscosity as a Function of Temperature for Various Liquid Metals

(High Range). Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, July 14, 1952.

268
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.2

TEMPERATURE, *c
20 + |OO 2OO 3OO 4OO 5OO 6OO 7OO
I | | I | | | I
_* T- Sn — OO8"
T

— O7

I6

– O6

º: T
8.
<>
St. -

-
N T-$º - o
O5 °
= 12 º

º 3.
> YS
E 3
> -

*-
o
->
T A – 0.4 ×
E

O P a
—l 5
#8 O
gº Hg —l

# 2- – 03;
H.
ar
L^ ul
-C
H.
º-L^
-

— .O2

— Ol

O
O 2OO 400 6OO 8OO IOOO |2OO 14OO
TEMPERATURE, *F

Fig. 2.2.7— Thermal Conductivity as a Function of Temperature for Various

Liquid Metals (Low Range). Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory,
July 14, 1952.

269
CHAP. 2.2 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

TEMPERATURE, "C
50-% |OO 2OO 3OO 4OO 500 6OO 7OO
I | I | | I
– 0.20

4O *S o

– 15 a.
o
- §:
§:
t Zn
5
3.

ºc :
s s
o
- 3O - O
--
co >
- E
r >
- H.
> N- O
H.
O |- `-- -)
O
->
O
z
T- — .10 Z
O

O
O --
-

Li T O

4.
z:
:: 20
`-k º
>
0.
Cº. º
ul - H.
# NoK (56,44)
*

-"
–HTNax(22,78)
_-T
— ,05

|O

O
O 2OO 400 600 8OO |OOO 1200
–
|400
TEMPERATURE,”F

Fig. 2.2.8– Thermal Conductivity as a Function of Temperature for Various

Liquid Metals (High Range). Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory,
July 14, 1952.

270
 :
IOOO

||
|
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|
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O.
O.O.
O
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Fig.
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and
K,
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for
Energy
Neutron
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|
|
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15,
May
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NEUTRON

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and
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Na,
for
Energy
Function
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as
Section
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Fig.
Sections,
1952.
15,
May
AECU-2040,
Cross
Neutron
on
Based
Neutrons).
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IOOO

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1952.

||
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IoE

+
|||||
||| ||
I IOO
I O
|O.I
O.O1
O.O.O.
e
m v
ENERGY,
NEUTRON

and
Bi,
Pb,
for
Energy
Neutron
of
Fasunction
aSection
2.2.12–Cro
Fig. ss
15,
May
AECU-2040,
Sections,
Cross
Neutron
on
Based
Neutrons).
(Fast
Hg
1952.
 PROPERTIES OF LIQUID METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.2

3
i II5

IIO

IO5

IOO

95

90

. 85

80
:
; 75

70
O3O O9C IOO .IIO .I2O .30 J40 .150 .I6O 17O J80 .190 .2OO .20 220

ENTROPY, Btu/(Ib) (“F)

Fig. 2.2.13–Total Heat-Entropy Diagram for Mercury. Reprinted from
Thermodynamic Properties of Mercury Vapor, by L. A. Sheldon, Paper No.
49-A-30, presented at 1949 ASME Annual Meeting in New York, Nov. 27
: to Dec. 2, 1949; Mech. Eng. 71: 1052 (1949). By permission from American
Society of Mechanical Engineers.

275
CHAP. 2.2 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

SELECTED READING LIST

NEUTRON CROSS SECTIONS, edited by D. J. Hughes, AECU-2040, May 15, 1952.

THE VISCOSITIES OF LIQUID LITHIUM, RUBIDIUM AND CESIUM. E. N. da C. Andrade and E. R. Dobbs, Proc. Roy. Soc. London,
A211: 12-30 (1952).

LIQUID METALS HANDBOOK, edited by R. N. Lyon, Department of the Navy and U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, NAVEXOS.
P-733, 1st ed., June 1, 1950; 2d ed., June 1952.

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF MERCURY WAPOR. L. A. Sheldon, Paper No. 49-A-30, presented at 1949 ASME Annual Meeting
in New York, Nov. 27 to Dec. 2, 1949. Mech. Eng., 71; 1052 (1949).
CHART OF THE NUCLIDES, prepared by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, General Electric Company.

276
 CHAPTER 2.3

He at-transfer Correlations for Liquid Metals

R. D. Brooks and S. K. Friedlander

Heat-transfer correlations applicable to liquid metals are summarized in Table 2.3.1.*

It will be noted that most of these expressions are based on theory and have not been con
firmed experimentally. The correlations for pipe, parallel-plate, and annular flow under
turbulent conditions were obtained from analyses of the Martinelli type with the assump
tion that EH = EM; they apply far downstream from the inlet where the temperature distri
bution is fully developed. Similar derivations for flow in non-circular ducts have been de
layed because of a lack of information on velocity profiles; the correlations tabulated for
these cases are based on slug flow.
The equations for laminar flow were derived from the Fourier-Poisson equation assum
ing a parabolic velocity distribution and neglecting the variation of the fluid properties with
temperature. For oils and other fluids of high Pr, these expressions are generally modi
fied empirically to correct for the variation of viscosity with temperature; this effect is
probably of less importance in the case of liquid metals.
Prandtl numbers for some of the liquid metals have been calculated from the data of
Chapter 2.2. These are plotted in Fig. 2.3.1.

TURBULENT FLOW THROUGH PIPES

Studies of heat transfer by forced convection have been made for the flow of mercury,
lead-bismuth, and NaK through tubes. Of the three metal systems, mercury has been most
thoroughly investigated by several different techniques in tubes ranging from 0.05-1.5 in.
1D. A somewhat smaller number of tests have been made with lead-bismuth, while only
two independent studies have been reported for NaK.
In general, the results for NaK and some of those for mercury are adequately cerrelated
by the Lyon-Martinelli equation, which is plotted in Fig. 2.3.2 with some of the experimen
tal data. The results for lead-bismuth and some of those for mercury have generally fallen
below the theoretical line, most of the points being 25 to 50 percent less than predicted.
This deviation from theory and the variation in results observed by different investiga
tors is often ascribed to a “thermal contact resistance” between solid surfaces and the non
Wetting liquid metals, mercury and lead-bismuth. There is still considerable uncertainty
concerning the value of this resistance, and the relative contribution of the scale or oxide
film is not clearly understood; apparently, the addition of wetting or gettering agents in
creases the heat-transfer coefficients of these non-wetting liquid metals.
Several cooling runs have been made with sodium flowing down inside vertical tubes.”
T

*A definition of all nomenclature as well as references on the theory of liquid-metal heat transfer
* given at the end of this chapter.

277
§ Metals
Liquid
for
Correlations
2.3.1—Heat-tr
Table ansfer :
on
Based
of
Type Thermal Estimated

flow EH
conditions Correlation Theory Exp. accuracy Reference
Duct

Pipe Turbulent EM
to
Eqqual
Constant .025(Pe)"."
7+0=Nu x x good
Very (1)(2)
text)
(see
Turbulent EM
to
Equal
tw
Constant 0+
= .025(Pe)"."
.8
4Nu x Good (3)
Pipe
(unbaffled)
side
Shell Turbulent
1.2(Pe(AF/AH)*.*.*
6=Nu Good (4)
Pe
based
and
Nu
(both
tube
D)
on
plates
Parallel Turbulent EM
to
Equal
through
Heat .02(Pe)"."
.8
0+=5Nu Good (5)(6)
plate
one 2=d)
De
on
(based
EM
to
Equal
through
Heat 0+ 0.5
1Nu
=.036(Pe)"." Good Seban;”
from
Derived
plates
Parallel Turbulent
plates
both 2=d)
De
on
(based also
reference
this
each
at
with for
m
a othod
suggests
tem
same
Q's,
h's,
determining
perature heat
flow
with
t's
and
plates
both
through
at
different
when
temperatures
Annuli Turbulent .4,
flat
1use
Do/Di
<For (7)
correlations
plate
EM
to
Equal
q
Constant Pe)(Do/D1)**
.0175
5.25
+0=(Nu Little (8)
inner
through =
De
on
based
Pe
and
(Nu
wall-outer D-i)
Do
insulated
wall
to
cylinders
flow
Cross Turbulent
.Pe"."
=80
Nu Fair (9)
Pipe Laminar 0
q
Constant 4
=.36
Nu x Unknown (10)(11)
Laminar 0
tw
Constant =.615(Pe)”
1(D/x)”
Nua Unknown (11)
Pipe
>
1 0
(D/x)
Pe
for
t+=i/2)
wº-(t1
Ata
on
based
cross Slug 0
q
Constant Atm
-
(
6
on
Nubased Unknown (12)
Rectangular
Section
+bDe
= )ab/a
2and
timw-tim
kl,
tim
to
q
= /12
Atcomer
cross
Triangular Slug 0
q
Constant -
=(
4imw
Atm
ton
Nubased Unknown (12)
Section a/3)
2and
=
De
tn
V3kL
tim
to
- /4
qAtcorner
Right-triangularSlug 0
q.
Constant -
=
m
At
ton
(
3
Nuw
based Unknown (12)
Section
cross 0
=
De.637a)
and
tn
to
0tim
corner
45°,
*At.2364/kl
Natural
convection Laminar +
[Pr/0.952
.53
P0Nu
=r]'. 10%
+ (13)(14)
horizontal
from Pr)4
(Gr.
cylinders

‘References
chapter
of
end
at
appear
HEAT-TRANSFER CORRELATIONS CHAP. 2.3

09

08

.07 Li

06

N=G=G=t_x +=3=#3–2– ====

.03

.02 \ NPb
Pb-81

.OI N \ NS=[-.
NS S. S. T-Is.
NS No
SD- Nak(56,44)
Nak (22A78)

O
O 2OO 4OO GOO 3OO |OOO 12OO 14OO
TEMPERATURE,”F

Fig. 2.3.1— Prandtl Number as a Function of Temperature for Various Liquid

Metals. Submitted by KAPL, Aug. 15, 1952.

279
CHAP. 2.3 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

IOO. l I I 1 L 1 l i 1 1 l I I I i l 1. 1 L 1
i I T-I I I-I-I-I-I i i T-I i I I-T-I-
9–l- --

8–4– – Lyon - Mortinelli Eq. --

7–4– -

Hg (non - wetted )

2- --

|b, Pb - B i (non - wetted)

1.54- +

| 1 I I | I I | | | | l | I I I | | | |
1.5 2 2.5 3 4. 5 6 7 8 9 lo 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 .5 s 7 s s 10
IO 2 IO 3 IO

PECLET MODULUS Ovpc/k

Fig. 2.3.2— Nusselt Numbers for Turbulent Flow Inside Tubes. Reprinted
from Liquid-Metals Handbook, Chapter 5, R. N. Lyon and H. F. Poppendiek,
June 1952. Legend: la = Ref. (15); 1b = Ref. (15); 1c = Ref. (15); 2a = Ref. (16);
2b = Ref (16); 3 = Ref. (17); 4a = Ref. (18); 4b = Ref. (18); 5 = Ref. (19); 6 =
Ref. (20); 7 = Ref. (21); and 8 = Ref. (22).

280
HEAT-TRANSFER CORRELATIONS CHAP. 2.3

The heat transfer coefficients at low velocities were considerably higher than those for
similar tubes in the horizontal position. This effect is thought to result from the increased
velocity of the cooler, heavier fluid descending near the wall, compared with that of the
main body of the fluid.

FLOW THROUGH HEAT-EXCHANGER SHELLS

Calculated values from the correlation given in Table 2.3.1 are plotted in Fig. 2.3.3
along with experimental points. This equation is based on a series of tests with a horizon
tal shell-and-tube heat exchanger and two horizontal shell-and-tube evaporators. In each
case, NaK flowed parallel to the tubes through an unbaffled shell. The heat-exchanger
tubes were 54-in. OD* and those of the evaporator 1%-in. OD* while the shells were about
1 ft in diameter.
An equation suggested by Donohue” has been used successfully by Tidball” to correlate
his data for small, baffled exchangers (%-in.-OD tubes and 0.87-in.-ID shell).

FLOW THROUGH NONCIRCULAR DUCTS

Table 2.3.1 includes several correlations for slug flow in noncircular ducts with heat
transferred only by conduction. In the original reference, Claiborne also gives solutions
for ducts with elliptical and circular cross sections. He concludes that slug flow solutions
approximate liquid metal systems with Pe s 100.
Eckert and Low” have calculated temperature distributions in the fluid and in the walls
of heat exchangers consisting of staggered series of rectangular or triangular passages.
Their solutions are based on velocity profiles experimentally determined by Nikuradse and
on the assumption of negligible eddy diffusivity of heat.

NATURAL CONVECTION

Figure 2.3.4 shows Eckert's theoretical curve for natural convection from a horizontal
cylinder; the trends shown by the experimental data of Bonilla and co-workers are also
shown. Lead-bismuth eutectic, lead, bismuth, sodium, and NaK were studied using tubes
ranging from / to 1% in. in diameter. Bonilla's results suggest that at high heat flow rates
a turbulence develops around the tube with values of Nu larger than would be predicted from
Eckert's theory. In tests with mercury under wetting and non-wetting conditions, no change
was noted in the heat-transfer coefficient.
When a fluid having a fully developed velocity distribution enters a region the walls of
which possess a new temperature distribution, the heat-transfer coefficient and boundary
layer thickness adjust themselves to values characteristic of the new distribution. The
distance which the fluid must flow before the coefficient and boundary layer thickness are
within 1 percent of their final values is the “thermal entry length.” Figure 2.3.5 shows
how the average Nusselt number varies with Pe (D/x) for parabolic- and uniform-velocity
profiles. These curves were determined from the Graetz".” “theory which neglects
the variation in fluid properties with temperature. Poppendiek” has calculated point heat
transfer coefficients for Pe (D/x) above 1000 for turbulent flow with a velocity profile based
on the 4 power law. Heat transfer was assumed to occur by conduction alone, although a
method is proposed for extending the conduction solutions to cases where the eddy diffu
Sivity is small but not negligible.

*This includes an annulus for static liquid metal.

281
§ #——4—#–
#—#—4
#—#–4–4 4–4–4–4
—#———
–4–5–4–—–4.
4 I
3.
G :
}|OO
+9
9-
+6
0--
+7
7+-
+6
Gº-
+5
5..GO
(#)']
|size *

•AuT N
-
+4
4+-

+3
34-

--2
24-
O

--
z

&
eg
!I
IO-O
+9
-
+0
84-
+7
7--
+6
6+
+5
5+-

+4
4+

+3
3--

exchanger
heat
ound
xR+2
tube
2+-
evaporator
circulation
Forced
B.
evoporotor
circulation
N
Ootural

4!I|— I
l
L
l
4.II1.11l
1!—-
AT&T;
;#
;AT&T;
%
;TöT&T;
#Tº -O
W
-v-2
§s
I.O
2AF
..O10
l
.OOl
(ºn
Pe
con
Natural
for
Numbers
– usselt
2.3-3
NFig. a
H orizontal
from
vection
by
Submitted
Cylinder.
1952.
15,
Aug.
KAPL,

/
HEAT-TRANSFER CORRELATIONS CHAP. 2.3

ICO lo
9 -

8 -

7 -

5 -

s -

Eckert Theory
al- P l l -

Nu-O,53 ####terroº

IO 7
9 º- -

6H- -

7 - -

-> -

2- -

Na K(56,44)
| | 7
9 -

0. -

7. -

6 --

5 -

3H- -

2}- -

| G#. The&. J
Pr
Pr)

I |O IO2 IO3 IO4 IO6 IO6 IO7

Fig. 2.3.4— Nusselt Numbers for Natural Convection from a Horizontal

Cylinder. Submitted by KAPL, Aug. 15, 1952.

283
CHAP. 2.3 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

IOO . H–H–H–H +-HHHHHH +-HHHHHH

9 -

8 +
--

6 -

5 -

4H- -º-

3H- +

2H- {\oº -

IO I
9H.
_T º
Lºſ
_T +

ºf ~ I
e 6F -
-
-> |-
2 5

4t- +

3H- --

2H- l

+
+
+

3 H. -

2}- -

10, 1 _l 1–1–1–1–1–1 l I I I I I I I I I I I I I-1–1–

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 | 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 |
I IO |OO 1000
D
Pe ( ;-)

Fig. 2.3.5–Nusselt Numbers for Thermal Entry Regions. Submitted by KAPL,

Aug. 15, 1952.

284
HEAT-TRANSFER CORRELATIONS CHAP. 2.3

NOMENCLATURE

3.2

Gr = Grashof number, º
Nu = Nusselt number, hD/k
Nua = Nusselt number based on average temperature difference, t = tw -***
Pe = Peclet number, DVpc/k
Pr = Prandtl number, Cu/k
a = Side of rectangle or triangle, ft
b = Side of rectangle, ft
AF = Flow area in shell of exchanger, parallel to tube axis
AH = Area for heat transfer based on outside diameter of tubes
B = Coefficient of volumetric expansion, 1/*F
c = Specific heat, Btu/(lb)("F)
d = Distance between parallel plates, ft
D = Diameter, ft
De = Equivalent diameter = Do-Di for annulus, ft
Di = Inner diameter of annulus, ft
Do = Outer diameter of annulus, ft
EH = Eddy diffusivity of heat, K/cp
EM = Eddy diffusivity of momentum, pl/p
g = Acceleration due to gravity, ft/secº
h = Heat-transfer coefficient, Btu/(hr)(ft)*(F)
k = Thermal conductivity, Btu/(hr)(ft) (F)
L = Duct length, ft
p = Wiscosity, lb/(hr)(ft)
W = Welocity, ft/hr
q = Heat flux, Btu/(ft)*(hr)
p = Density, lb/ft”
At = Temperature difference, “F
tm = Mean temperature, *F
tw = Wall temperature, *F
twm = Mean wall temperature, *F
ti = Initial temperature of fluid, “F
t; = Final temperature of fluid, “F
x = Distance from duct entrance, ft

REFERENCES

1. R. C. Martinelli, Heat Transfer to Molten Metals, TASME 69, 1947, p. 947.

2. R. N. Lyon, Liquid Metal Heat Transfer Coefficients, Chem. Eng. Progr. 47 (2), 1951, p 75.
3. R. A. Seban and T. Shimazaki, Heat Transfer to a Fluid Flowing Turbulently in a Smooth Pipe with Walls at Constant Tempera
ture, Contract N7-onr-29523, Phase (2), Project NR35324, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley, Calif., 1949.
4. R. D. Brooks and A. L. Rosenblatt, Design and Performance of Liquid Metal Heat Exchangers and Steam Generators for Nuclear
Power Plants, Preprint of paper to be published in TASME, 1952.
5. R. A. Seban, Heat Transfer to a Fluid Flowing Turbulently Between Parallel Walls with Asymmetric Wall Temperatures,
TASME 72, 1950, p 789.
3. W. B. Harrison and J. R. Menke, Heat Transfer to Liquid Metals Flowing in Asymmetrically Heated Channels, TASME 71, 1949,
p 797.
7. R. W. Bailey, Heat Transfer to Liquid Metals in Concentric Annuli, ORNL-521, June 13, 1950, 45 pp.
. R. N. Lyon, Liquid Metals Handbook, 2d ed., Chap. 6, June 1952.
9. R. C. Martinelli, unpublished notes, Aug. 10, 1948.
10. R. H. Norris and D. D. Streid, Laminar Flow Heat Transfer Coefficients for Ducts, TASME 62, 1940, p 525.

285
CHAP. 2.3 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

11. T. B. Drew, Mathematical Attacks on Forced Convection Problems: A Review, TAIChE 26, 1931, p 26.
12. H. C. Claiborne, Heat Transfer in Non-circular Ducts, ORNL-985, May 14, 1951, 43 pp.
13. s. c. Hyman, C. F. Bonilla, and S. W. Ehrlich, Natural Convection Transfer Processes, Preprints of Papers for Heat Transfer
Symposium, AIChE, Dec. 1951.
14. E. R. G. Eckert, Introduction to the Transfer of Heat and Mass, 1st ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, p 158.
15. H. A. Johnson, J. P. Hartnett, W. J. Clabaugh, Heat Transfer to Molten Lead-Bismuth Eutectic in Turbulent Pipe Flow, Preprints
of Papers, Heat Transfer and Fluid Mech. Inst., UCLA, June 1952.
16. T. c. Doody and A. H. Younger, Heat Transfer Coefficients for Liquid Mercury in Forced Convection, Preprints for Heat Transfer
Symposium, 44th Ann. Mtg., AIChE, Dec. 1951.
17. B. Lubarsky, Experimental Investigation of Forced Convection Heat Transfer Characteristics of Lead-Bismuth Eutectic, NACA
E51G02, Sept. 20, 1951.
18. S. E. Isakoff and T. B. Drew, Heat and Momentum Transfer in Turbulent Flow of Mercury, Preprints for Heat Transfer Discussions,
London, England, 1951.
19. L. M. Trefethen, Heat Transfer Properties of Liquid Metals, ORNL. NP-1788, July 1950.
20. R. A. Seban, Heat Transfer Measurements in Lead-Bismuth Eutectic in Turbulent Pipe Flow, Contract N7-onr-29523, Phase (2),
Project NR35324, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley, Calif., June 15, 1950.
21. Heat Transfer Properties of Mercury, At. Energy Res. Est. Min. of Sup., Harwell, Berks, June 1950.
22. R. C. Werner, E. C. King, and R. A. Tidball, Heat Transfer with Sodium-Potassium Liquid Alloys, presented at Ann. Mtg.
AIChE, Pittsburgh, Pa., Dec. 1949.
23. R. D. Brooks and A. L. Rosenblatt, Design and Performance of Liquid Metal Heat Exchangers and Steam Generators for Nuclear
Power Plants, Mech. Eng., 75: 363-368, May 1953.
24. D.A. Donohue, Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop in Heat Exchangers, IEC 41, 1949, p 2499.
25. R. A. Tidball, Performance of Small Liquid Metal Heat Exchangers, Preprints of Papers for AIChE Heat Transfer Symposium
Dec. 5, 1952, p 199.
26. E. R. G. Eckert and G. M. Low, Temperature Distribution in Internally Heated Walls of Heat Exchanger with Noncircular Flow
Passages. Using coolants with very Low Prandtl Number, Nat. Adv. Com. for Aer. Naca TN-2401, Wash. July 1951.
27. H. F. Poppendiek, Forced Convection Heat Transfer in Thermal Entrance Region, Parts I and II, ORNL-913, May 20, 1952, 29 pp.
28. H. F. Poppendiek, Forced convection Heat Transfer in Thermal Entrance Region, Parts I and II, Ibid., ORNL-914, June 11, 1952.
22 pp.

SELECTED READING LIST

THEORETICAL PAPERS
LIQUID-METALS HANDBOOK, Chapter 6, R. N. Lyon, Department of the Navy and U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, 2d Edition.
June 1952.

HEAT TRANSFER TO MERCURY, D. L. R. Bailey, W. F. Cope, G. G. Watson, Heat Div. Paper No. 13, ME Res. Lab., East Kilbride.
Glasgow, July 1952.
liOUID METAl HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTs, R. N. Lyon, TAIChE 47, 1951, p 75.
A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF THE ANALOGY OF TRANSFER OF WORTICITY TO THE TRANSFER OF HEAT FLUIDS OF LOW
PRANDTL NUMBER, R. G. Kennison, Jr., Ms Thesis, RPI, May 25, 1950.
HEAT TRANSFER PROPERTIES OF LIQUID METAls, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., L. M. Trefethen, NP-1788, July 1950.
HEAT TRANSFER TO MOLTEN METALS, R. C. Martinelli, TASME, 69, 1947, p. 947.

286
 CHAPTER 2.4

Handling of Liquid-metal Coolants

W. H. Bruggeman and H. E. Stone

The principal handling problems encountered when liquid metals are used as reactor
coolants are the results of corrosion, extreme chemical activity (particularly in the case
of alkali metals), and induced radioactivity. Radioactive damage to the coolant does not
occur since the liquid metals are monatomic.

PURIFICATION OF ALKALI METALS AND INERT BLANKET GASES

(W. H. Bruggeman)

Purity requirements and purification techniques for liquid-metal reactor coolants are
well established only for sodium and NaK. Although it is reasonable to believe that many
of these purification techniques are applicable to lithium, purification of this coolant is
complicated by the necessity to remove corrosive LisN. Purification techniques for lead,
lead-bismuth, and gallium have not been developed sufficiently to warrant detailed discus
Sion at this time.
Metallic sodium is produced by the electrolytic decomposition of NaCl in the presence of
CaCl2. The metal thus produced is filtered at the melting point to reduce the calcium con
tent to 0.04 percent and to remove chlorides. Although most experience has been obtained
with DuPont sodium, check analysis of the National Distillers’ product indicates that its
impurity content is comparable. As a commercial-grade product, metallic sodium is un
usually pure.
The Mine Safety Appliances Company produces NaK by the high-temperature reaction of
Sodium with potassium chloride. The excess chloride is removed by filtration, and the re
Sulting NaK is distilled to enrich the potassium content. As a result of the distillation step,
NaK is generally somewhat lower in high-boiling impurities and, since it is packaged under
inert gas, is less contaminated with oxides than sodium.
Table 2.4.1 shows the average impurities content of DuPont sodium and the NaK charge
of the Experimental Breeder Reactor. These analyses do not include oxygen values which
Vary as a result of contamination by atmospheric oxygen.

THE EFFECT OF SPECIFIC IMPURITIES IN SODIUM AND NaK

NUCLEAR POISONS

On the basis of the average impurities content shown in Table 2.4.1 and assuming the
total rare-earth content to be gadolinium, the impurities contribute less than % percent to
the thermal cross section of pure sodium. Nuclear poisons not shown in the sodium assay
are not expected to be present in sufficient quantity to appreciably alter this figure. Be
cause commercially available sodium and NaK have a minimum of high-cross-section im
purities, removal of these impurities is not required.

287
CHAP. 2.4 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

IMPURITIES WHICH ACTIVATE

Trace impurities in sodium, however, cause a certain amount of contaminant activity to

build up. For example, a test sample of commercial sodium was irradiated in a neutron
flux for 30 days. After the sodium activity had decayed to 10" of its initial value, an im
purity gamma-activity appeared with a half-life of about 50 days. This relatively long
lived residual activity indicates that systems must be designed so that they may be com
pletely drained to allow accessibility for maintenance.

Table 2.4.1–Impurities in Commercial Sodium and NaK

Average analysis Analysis of MSA

of core of DuPont NaK in EBR

Impurity brick sodium, ppm primary circuit, ppm

Al 1.7 3.0
B 2 1
Bi <1
Ba 2 2
C 40
Ca 350 30
Col <1 <1
Cl 190 15
Co <1 <1
Cr <1 <1
Cs 2 1
Cu <1 5
Fe 0.5 2

Hg 2 <2
K 150 (77.7%)
Li 67 235
Mn <1 <1
Ni <1 <1
P 11 20
Pb <1 4.8
S 35 34
Si 21 <1
Total rare- < 0.5
earth elements

HYDROGEN MODERATION

The presence of hydrogen in the coolant of an epithermal reactor system might cause
excess reactivity as a result of moderation. The hydrogen content of brick sodium is gen
erally about 0.006 weight-percent.* In addition, hydrogen (as NaH) can form in the coolant
by contact with impurities in the inert blanket gases or (as NaOH) by contact with water.
Little is known regarding the solubility of NaOH or NaH in sodium; however, the removal
of hydrogen is relatively simple owing to the decomposition of NaH and NaOH at high tem
peratures. Excess hydrogen can be satisfactorily removed by heating the liquid to 800°–
900°F under a vacuum or inert-gas purge.

*Analytical procedure by Pepkowitz and Proud."

*References appear at end of chapter.

288
HANDLING OF LIQUID-METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.4

IMPURITIES AFFECTING CORROSION

The corrosion of structural materials by sodium and NaK is discussed later. In general,
oxygen, carbon, and (to a lesser extent) calcium are important.

Oxygen
The reaction of sodium with oxygen yields the monoxide, Na2O, which is extremely cor
rosive when pure. For temperatures up to 1000°F, sodium containing up to 0.02 weight
percent O, causes negligible corrosion with stainless steels. A more serious effect, how
ever, is plugging of the system owing to the low solubility of Na2O in Na.

Carbon

Additions of carbon to sodium result in carburization of the stainless-steel surfaces,

but little work has been done on the behavior of carbon in sodium and on possible methods
of removal. Carburization has not been observed with filtered commercial sodium unless
carbon compounds were specifically added or unless the sodium was in contact with both
carbon steel and stainless steel. In view of this, sodium- and NaK-cooled stainless-steel
reactor systems should be designed to prevent carbon or oil additions to the coolant.

Calcium

Nickel forms intermetallic compounds with sodium containing free calcium. This has
not been observed when commercial sodium is used (where the bulk of the 0.04 percent Ca
is probably oxidized to CaO) or with NaK (where the Ca content is reduced to a low value
by distillation). The attack on nickel components would be expected, however, if calcium
were used as a getter for Na2O. At temperatures above 1000°F, calcium-gettered sodium
may also attack high-nickel alloys.

PLUGGING CAUSED BY ALKALI OXIDE

The solubility of Nazo in sodium” and NaK is shown in Fig. 2.4.1. (In NaK, the sodium
is preferentially oxidized, and apparently the NaK composition does not govern the solu
bility.) Figure 2.4.1 illustrates the relatively low solubility of oxide in alkali metal as well
as the positive solubility coefficient and can be used to determine the amount of insoluble
oxide in a system when the oxygen concentration, system temperature, and system volume
are known.
Plugging can take place wherever insoluble alkali oxide is present. The mechanism is a
combination of diffusion of oxide to cold walls, where deposition occurs, and of precipita
tion in the main fluid stream with subsequent crystal growth in cold restricted passages.
The plugs are composed of a mixture of approximately 20 weight-percent NazO and 80
weight-percent sodium; thus, a relatively large plug can form with a small amount of in
Soluble oxide.
The amount of oxygen which will cause plugging in a given system depends on many
factors. The volume of sodium or NaK in the system is important since a small percentage
of insoluble oxide in a large sodium charge may be sufficient to plug small passages. In
general, all cold-zone passages less than 0.5 in. in diameter should be considered as pos
sible regions of plugging.
In view of the uncertainties regarding plugging, the only guarantee of protection is to
Operate with an oxide content below saturation at the lowest operating temperature. Since
this may involve special precautions in applying the handling and purification techniques
described herein, this criterion should be adopted only when necessary. Systems where
Some plugging is not serious do not require such stringent purity specifications.
Certain design features will minimize plugging if the oxide concentration should unavoid

289
CHAP. 2.4 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

O.12

.O3

O7
/

i .O6

Sodium
(KAPL data)

.O3 24
.O2
Z P’
2"
Ne!'

24-1
_1 º

|=HT
2OO 3OO 4OO 5OO 6OO 7OO 80O 900 IOOO
TEMPERATURE,”F

Fig. 2.4.1—Oxygen Solubility in Sodium and NaK (22:78) as a Function of

Temperature. Submitted by the Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, Sept. 5, 1952.

290
HANDLING OF LIQUID-METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.4

ably rise above the desired limit. Included in these features are a minimum of restricted
passages and the location of necessary restricted passages (streamlined, if possible) in
warm zones. Cold stub ends should have a low temperature gradient per unit length and
should be placed vertically to minimize oxide accumulation.

PURIFICATION OF LIQUID SODIUM AND NaK

Sodium is commercially available in 1-lb, 2%-lb., Or 12%-lb bricks or, for very large
quantities, cast in rail tankcars. The usual specification to which the sodium is sold is
0.04 percent calcium and 0.005 percent Cl, maximum. Variation of other trace impurities
from those values given in Table 2.4.1 is normally quite small. To avoid the possibility of
carburization, brick sodium should be purchased “dry mold,” that is, without kerosene
which is used as a mold release agent in the casting process.

MELT STATION

Brick sodium should be liquefied in a melt tank and pressured through a metallic filter
element into the reactor system or the reactor system storage tank. Because of the ac
cumulation of oxide from the brick crust, the melt tank should be designed for convenient
cleaning. This can be accomplished by providing a large opening in the top (to vent H2 from
the sodium-water reaction) and by designing the unit to be relatively portable.
At KAPL, the filters used have been made of sintered stainless steel with an average
porosity of 10 microns (similar to those supplied by the Micro-Metallic Corp.). On occa
sion, a 5-micron filter is used in series with the first filter, although the necessity for this
has not been established. It should be possible to process about 500 lb of brick sodium per
cubic foot of melt-tank volume before it is necessary to remove the excess oxide dross
from the melt tank. The sintered metal filter tends to crack if sodium is frozen and re
melted in the pores.
The throughput of the 10-micron metal filter varies as the filter cake builds up. An
average throughput, however, at 230°F and 15-psi differential pressure is 5 lb of Na/(min)
(ft).” This melting and filtration (several degrees above the melting point) will remove the
bulk of the alkali oxide and any additional insoluble material.
NaK is supplied by the Mine Safety Appliances Company in 230-lb containers. The
specification on freezing point can be met to within 1°F. Since this material is shipped
under inert gas, less oxide is present, and since the alloy is liquid at room temperature,
no melting equipment is required. A sintered metal filter should be used between the ship
ping container and the vessel being filled.

OXYGEN-REMOVAL EQUIPMENT

Although the melt-station equipment can supply low-oxide sodium, periodic repurifica
tion of the coolant is necessary to remove oxide during system operation. Such repurifica
tion is required because it is impractical to remove all traces of H2O and O2 from a sys
tem prior to filling, because atmospheric oxygen tends to enter a reactor system during
refueling or repair, and because of trace oxygen contaminants in the inert-gas blanket.
In addition to purifying the sodium or NaK charge, it is important that the entire system
be thoroughly cleaned. Merely purifying the charge or introducing a fresh batch into con
taminated equipment does not assure adequate purity in the circulating system. The most
Satisfactory method of cleaning both the system and the liquid metal is to purify a by-pass
flow of the coolant while the system is maintained at an elevated temperature so that the
oxide solubility is high. This may be accomplished by use of a “cold trap,” for example,
the Test Cold Trap (Fig. 2.4.2), which operates as follows:
The system is heated to 600°–750°F to dissolve precipitated oxide, and a by-pass coolant
flow of 20 gpm is removed from the system either by pump or by means of a system pres

291
CHAP. 2.4 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS
2

No INLET
No OUTLEI
(TUBE SIDE 7OO"F)
ECONOMIZER
(SHELL SIDE 750°F)

DOWTHERM A INLET - i DOWTHERMA

oùTET`- (TUBE SIDE 350°F) * Nº EH

ORFICE IN PIPE—— L–OUTLET

(SHELL SIDE 400°F)

: STAINLESS STEEL
WOOL PACKING |:|
COOLING AND
§§ºg- ||º
\~
TANK
\s
N. S
No K THIRD FLUID

APPROXIMATE OVERALL DIMENSIONS (UNINSULATED AND UNSHIELDED) 4 X 3 FT. DIA.

Fig. 2.4.2—Test Cold Trap. Submitted by the Knolls Atomic Power

Laboratory, Sept. 5, 1952.

292
HANDLING OF LIQ (D-METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.4

sure differential. This hot sodium is cooled to 350°F in a regenerative heat exchanger by
the effluent sodium from the cold trap; the “dirty” liquid metal from the system is passed
through the shell side of the exchanger to prevent plugging. As a result of the rapid de
crease in temperature, large numbers of very small Na2O crystals are formed.
The sodium next passes to the crystallizing tank where it is cooled to 300°F by Dowtherm
cooling coils. This unit is primarily a low-velocity section filled with stainless-steel wool.
Here, the crystals of sodium oxide grow and deposit on the steel wool. For residence
times of 5 min or more, the cold trap approaches an efficiency of 100 percent; i.e., the
discharge is saturated at the temperature of the crystallizing tank.
The oxide capacity of the cold trap is at least 10 weight-percent Na2O based on crystal
lizer-tank volume. Although stainless-steel wool of 3-mils fiber-diameter packed to a
*nsity of 15 lb/ft has been used successfully, knitted-type, stainless wire is recommended.
This material, which is similar to York Company packing, is preferred, since there is less
*ndency for wire-fracture with subsequent introduction of loose ends into the system.
- An important consideration for satisfactory operation is the location of the coldest spot
in the crystallizing tank. Since the oxide will concentrate at this point, it should not be lo
cated at the tank discharge or similar places where oxide deposition may result in plugging.
Cold traps for different systems may have quite different configurations. The Test
Cold Trap was designed for intermittent use, for compactness, and for ease of replace
*nt when filled. Continuous units need not operate under such large temperature differ
*8 or flow velocities and as a result may not need the economizer. If large oxide ca
*ities are required, the crystallizer volume must be increased. Systems which have a
*rage tank that operates at lower temperatures than the main fluid and through which a
small by-pass is always directed have a build-in cold trap already available. If properly
designed, this arrangement is satisfactory even without the steel-wool packing; however,
*ner or later the problem of removing the accumulated oxide from this larger vessel
must be faced.

SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS of sodium AND NaK

Sampling of alkali metals to analyze for components not present in the atmosphere can
t done with such standard apparatus as the thief tube, taking precautions to prevent burn
"g in air. However, sampling for determination of oxygen or other atmospheric compo
*nts requires special techniques. A device developed at KAPL for this purpose is de
*ribed by Bruggeman and Billuris." This instrument is an inert-gas-filled steel box
through which is passed a stream of the sodium to be sampled. The temperature of the
*mpling stream is maintained above that of the liquid metal being sampled to prevent ox
* precipitation. Manipulators are attached for transferring sample cups from under the
"wing stream into a sample carrier.
The oxide composition of the sample is determined by a modification of the Pepkowitz
Judd mercury-extraction procedure." The sample is extracted with mercury until no sodi
"m is present in the amalgam discharged from the extraction chamber. The Na2O which
*mains behind is dissolved in water and titrated.

INERT-GAS PURIFICATION
Owing to their reactivity, all free sodium or NaK surfaces must be blanketed with inert
£18. The gas purity required for this purpose is a function of the volume of gas in contact
with liquid metal and the operating time between liquid metal repurifications. In general,
however, it is desirable to use the purest gas conveniently available. Argon, nitrogen, and
helium have been used as blanket gases. Helium is preferred in reactor systems because
it does not become radioactive. The cost of the highest grades of these gases in standard
ºff'cylinders is shown in Table 2.4.2.

293
CHAP. 2.4 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

These gases are generally available in either the lamp grade or high-purity grade to an
impurity specification of less than 50 ppm (except for the nitrogen contained in argon). A
somewhat lower cost for helium ($1.30/100 cu ft) can be realized by purchasing the gas
directly from the Bureau of Mines in 200,000-SCF rail cars (at 220 psig). The prices do
not include shipping or handling charges.
Although Bureau-of-Mines helium is sold only to a method-of-manufacture specification,
viz., double-charcoal purified, the impurity content shown in Table 2.4.3 generally can be
expected.

Table 2.4.2– Cost of Inert Gases

Gas $/100 cu ft

N2 1.01
He 4.56
A 11.50

Table 2.4.3—Impurities in Bureau-of-Mines Helium

Impurity Concentration, ppm

CO2 6
A 0.5

H2 .3
N2 16
CH4 0
O2 10–20
H2O 5–10

If a transfer compressor is required for handling the gas, a water-lubricated unit supple
mented by high-pressure drying with a suitable desiccant is recommended.
For additional removal of oxygen or water vapor, a NaK bubbler can be used. This is a
tower packed with stainless-steel wool and filled with NaK. The tower is electrically
heated to 500°F to promote the reaction of oxygen and water vapor with the NaK. The bub
bler should be supplemented by a vapor trap.

WAPOR TRAPS

One of the problems associated with handling effluent gases from high-temperature,
metal-cooled reactors is the entrainment of liquid-metal vapor. In addition to such vent
gases carrying radioactivity to the atmosphere, sodium vapors condense and freeze, caus
ing plugging at various types of fittings. The liquid-metal vapor can be removed by passing
the gas through a NaK-filled, stainless-steel wool-packed column. The column should be
cooled to 100°F and contain at least 18 in. of packing, the bottom 6 in. of which are covered
with NaK. The column should operate below the loading or flooding point at the rated gas
flow. When used to remove sodium vapor, a potassium-rich NaK should be employed to re
tard the elevation of the melting point of the NaK as sodium is absorbed. In operation,
these units decrease the liquid-metal content of the vent gases to that corresponding to the
equilibrium vapor pressure at the operating temperature of the vapor trap.

294
HANDLING OF LIQUID-METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.4

CORROSION*

One of the major factors limiting the development of high-temperature engineering sys
tems is the inability of materials to withstand attack by liquid metals. The process of at
tack is generally termed corrosion although the phenomenon seems to be quite different
from that of the common electrolytic corrosion.
Two of the most troublesome manifestations of attack by liquid metals are self-welding
and thermal-gradient transfer. Self-welding is probably caused by diffusion across the
contact interface with reduction of surface oxides and contact stresses contributing to the
process. It generally increases with temperature and with the pressure under which the
solid surfaces are held. Self-welding may be a major factor in the determination of the
upper temperature of a liquid-metal system because of interference with the operation of
valves, pumps, and flanged joints.
“Thermal-gradient transfer” is the term used to describe the transport of material from
one region of a liquid-metal system to another; it results from the co-existence of a tem
perature gradient and an appreciable temperature coefficient of solubility. Even though the
actual solubility is low, large amounts of a solid component may be dissolved from the zone
of higher solubility and precipitated in the zone of lower solubility. This continual removal
results in corrosion in some areas and plugging in others.
Evaluation of corrosion data is based in this discussion on the following criteria:

Rate of attack,
mils/yr Rating

<1 Good
1–10 Limited
> 10 POOr

A summary of the resistance of materials to liquid metals is shown in Fig. 2.4.3. Four
bar-charts (Figs. 2.4.4 through 2.4.7) are included showing the resistances of various ma
terials to attack by sodium and NaK, mercury, lithium and lead-bismuth. These bar charts
represent, for the most part, only a limited number of relatively small-scale, laboratory
tests. The data do not in themselves warrant final selection of a material for a given ap
plication, but they can be used to eliminate many materials from consideration. The actual
design of liquid-metal heat-transfer systems, particularly at higher temperatures, should
be based on an experimental study duplicating the contemplated operating conditions.

SODIUM AND NaK

The resistances of various materials to attack by sodium and NaK are summarized in
Fig. 2.4.4. It should be noted that the alloys of sodium and potassium behave similarly to
ward container materials throughout their entire composition range.
Recent engineering experience with sodium and NaK at high temperatures indicates that
a large number of ordinary metals of construction can be used successfully as container
materials. The 18–8, austenitic stainless steels are most widely used at present for NaK;
of these, the columbium-stabilized type-347 is preferred because of its superior welding
characteristics and greater metallurgical stability in the 1000°–1500°F range. Types 310
and 316 have been preferred by some investigators while Inconel X and a nickel-chromium
alloy, Nichrome V, also resist attack by sodium or NaK. High-temperature, cobalt-base

*This discussion is abstracted from the 2nd edition of the Liquid-Metals Handbook, June 1952.

295
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qedus ! 11uloso | rw | bh | po | uz | nv 13 w Qinol".
bwin:--

296
18|qsºsſe•
|
 -
*-
-
-
-
"-
"
-
*
- -------

nickel
and
Alloy
Nick-ı
Cr,
Fe,
(with
Mo.)

Alloys
Nickel
Copper)
(with

Gold,
Plotinum,
Silver

Titonium

Zirconium

NON-METALS

(dense)
Alumino

(dense)
Graphite

(dense)
Beryllic

Magnesio
(crucible)

and
Porcelain
Silicates
other

777,772
-
-- l
%
&
&
Z
Z zzłż
Gloss
Pyrex
=Z

and
Titonio
Zirconio

Quartz
Fused
r
-
-

Rotings
Resistance
refer
ratings
(These
resistance
liquid-metal
to
temperoture-dependent
not
only-
mechonicol
metollurgical
or
strength
stability.
further
for
text
see
L--
discussion.):
IT
Good
resistance;
III-limited
resistance;
Z—poor
resistance.
unknown
C–
freezes
[S2]-Liquid
this
above
temperature,
triongle
in
shading
of
degree
indicates
of
liquid
to
resistance
point.
melting
the
*Indicates:
TPoor
good
potassium,
with
t-
sodium;
with
ungsten,
Inconel,
f-
good;
limited.

Condensed
2.4.3—
Fig.
Resistance
of
Summary
Materials
at
Metals
Liquid
to
and
600°C,
300°C,
:
Reprinted
800°C.
Liquid-Metals
from
R.
by
Edited
Handbook,
Department
Lyon,
N.
and
Navy
the
of
Commission,
Energy
Atomic
S.
U.
2nd
1952.
June
Ed.,
CHAP. 2.4 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

ferous Metals •c—'ſ E- - I-II I -T - T

Nick

Coppel and Copper—Alloys

CoPPºt Lºlºtrolyticl

Bross tºo Zn).

Baractory–Malala

Tungsten
Yanodium_
Zirconium
Chromium
9the Metols

Co_and_Hig

Sb, Bl, Cd, ca, Au, Pb, Se,

Nºn-metals (Refractory behavior varioble, depends

on purity, density, environment.
Aleºs (Sapphire à Alundum)
B-Q_ivery

Graphitº- high Dºnnity

°F-, **__*__*** **__* , tº , "Pº , **
RESISTANCE RAT in Gs.
(These retings refer to liquid-metal resistance only— - Good- Consider for long-time use
not to temperature-dependent mechanical strength or metailurgical - Short-time use only
s?obllify. See text for further discussion.) Z R- No structural possibilities
ſ LUNknown- Information inadequate

Fig. 2.4.4— Resistance of Materials to Liquid Sodium and Sodium—Potassium

Alloys. Reprinted from Liquid-Metals Handbook, Edited by R. N. Lyon, Depart
ment of the Navy and U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, 2nd Ed., June 1952.
HANDLING OF LIQUID-METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.4

•c——H
Ferrous Metols 3OO 4OO 500 600 700 800 900

Pure Iron
Low-Corbon Steel Aſ IIIDZZZZZZZZZZ
[−I-T—I-
Low-Chromium Steel (4130)
Ferrific-Chromium Stoinless Steel --all
Austenific Cr-Ni Stoinless Steel AIII IIIDIIIII./ZZ

Nonferrous Metols

Al, Bi, Cd, Pb, Mg,Ft. Au, Aq,Si,Sn,Zn 22.2%22

Beryllium, Chromium, Vanadium [ I I I I = |222.
Zirconium, Titonium I
Columbium. Tonto lum. Molybdenum
LLI–
Nickel and Nickel-base Alloys III III III ZZZZZZ
Cobolt-Bose Alloys D22222222222222222

Non-Metols
Quortz III.Z. ZZ2 2. Z ZZ
Gloss ond Silicotes PZ. Z2 ZZ
Grophite FZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
Rubber ond Plastics Z Z.
MgO [III IIIIzº |
5OO 7OO 900 IIOO 13OO 1500

*F-1––––––––––––

Resist once Ratings: -- GooD- Consider for relatively

long-time use.
- (These rotings refer to [IIIII - LIMITED - Short-time use only.
liquid-metal resistance only—
not to temperature-dependent {Z– Poor - No structural possibilities.
mechanical strength or metal
lurgical stability. See text for Cl- UNKNowN- Information
further discussion.) inodequote.

Fig. 2.4.5— Resistance of Materials to Liquid Lithium. Reprinted from

Liquid-Metals Handbook, Edited by R. N. Lyon, Department of the Navy and
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, 2nd Ed., June 1952.

299
CHAP. 2.4 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

°C–- I I I | | | | i
O IOO 200 300 400 50o 6oo 7oo goo

Ferrous Metals
Ferrous Metals [Ti and Mg in HQ)—
Low-C Steel -

Low-C Steel + O.L to 4 Al

Low-C Steel + - 4 Cr -

5 Cr Steel
Low-C Steel + 0.5 Mo
w- teel +
w- t + 1 to -

-
+ +

Nitrolloy (1.23 Al, 1.49 Cr) -

| + 5.7 Cr + 1
Low-C Steel + - 4.5 Cr + - 4.5 Mo
Low-C Steel + 5.7 Cr & 1.2W -

+ +
+ + -

Sicromo 5 S (5 Cr, 0.5Mo, 1.5 Si).

-
- -

Types 304 and 310 S. S. (Cr,

High Ni-Fe and Ni-Cr-Fe Alloys
Ferrific Stainless Steels (Cr)

Nonferrous Metols
Tungsten
Molybdenum

Beryllium -

Io, Cb, Si, Li,

Ni,
Cobolt ond Stellife
Pl, Mn, –21 –
A!, Bi, Cd, Ce, Au, Pb, Mg, Ag, Sn,

Non-Metals
Gloss -

Ceramics
Grophite (C) ---

o 200 4oo 6oo soo looo 12'oo 1400

f"—l 1–1–1 || | | | | | | | | | |
Resistance Ratings.
(These rotings refer to liquid
- GOOD- Consider for relatively long-time use.
metol resist once only— not to temp- IIIIII - LIMITED - Short-time use only.
eroture-dependent mechanicol strength - POOR- No structural possibilities.
or metollurgico I stobility. See text - UNKNOWN- Information in adequote.
for further discussion.) D - Dynomic mercury horp tests ond industrial boiler tests.
D - Dynomic mercury horp tests.
s — Stotic mercury tests.

Fig. 2.4.6–Resistance of Materials to Liquid Mercury. Reprinted from

Liquid-Metals Handbook, Edited by R. N. Lyon, Department of the Navy and
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, 2nd Ed., June 1952.

300
HANDLING OF LIQUID-METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.4

alloys, such as Haynes Alloy 25 and Allegheny Ludlum's V-36, have shown excellent re
sistance to sodium as well as good high-temperature strength.
During the last few years, a large amount of laboratory work has been done on the ef
fects of temperature, impurities, thermal gradients and fluid velocity on corrosion by
sodium and NaK. The results of these experiments are not in all cases directly comparable,
since variables now known to be important were not always properly controlled. Some of
the more recent data from static tests under closely controlled and comparable conditions
are summarized in Table 2.4.4. The data in this table are largely limited to tests conducted
at temperatures up to 932°F. Additional work has also been done on corrosion by sodium
up to 2000°F and higher. In general, the materials which resist sodium at 1000°F also re
sist it at higher temperatures in static tests.
One of the most important factors affecting corrosion is oxygen content. The presence
of oxygen in sodium in amounts less than 0.01 percent apparently has no serious conse
quences in stainless-steel systems up to 1000°F. In greater percentages, the oxygen,
probably present as dissolved Na2O, accelerates attack although it does not increase the
solubility of the container material in sodium. This increased rate of attack is particularly
serious in circulating systems because of thermal transfer. Both the corrosive action and
the oxide solubility increase with temperature.
Many non-metallic materials have been subjected to static tests in sodium to study their
possible use as valve seats, bearings, and insulators. Table 2.4.5 shows the results of
selected static tests on a number of ceramic materials using aged and filtered sodium;
Table 2.4.6 gives similar data for cemented carbides. Beryllia, zirconia, magnesia,
alumina, molybdenum disilicide, and many cemented carbides resist sodium attack if suf
ficiently dense but are penetrated if porous. Temperature of test, character of ceramic
binder, particle size, and firing temperature also affect corrosion. High-density material
produced by hot pressing or by fusion may be susceptible to spalling rather than corrosion.
The elements, antimony, bismuth, cadmium, calcium, copper, gold, lead, selenium,
silicon, silver, sulfur, and tin, are unsuitable as container materials because of high solu
bility in sodium and potassium. Magnesium has limited resistance to NaK at very low
temperatures.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HANDLING THE REACTION

BETWEEN ALKALI-TYPE LIQUID METALS AND WATER*

A study of the reaction of liquid metals with water has been carried on by the Mine
Safety Appliances Company for approximately four years using NaK except for a few tests
with sodium and potassium. All of the experiments have been made in closed, stainless
Steel containers.
The reaction of a liquid metal and superheated steam showed no hazardous results. The
most dangerous condition found exists in that section of an exchanger or boiler where liquid
water and liquid metal may come together. From the information obtained to date, the fol
lowing recommendations for handling the reaction are suggested:
(1) The liquid metal should be under pressure to minimize agitation at the reaction zone
caused by hydrogen bubbles formed when water contacts the liquid metal; this permits con
tinuous and uniform mixing of the liquid metal and water. The optimum pressure was
found to be 200 psi or higher; however, 50 psi is deemed safe.
(2) If the liquid metal is at 600°F or higher, the formation of intermediate reaction prod
ucts is greatly reduced. The accumulation of intermediate reaction products containing
hydrogen can cause rather violent reaction in the presence of excess liquid metals.
(3) No difficulty has yet been experienced in venting the generated hydrogen through a
relief valve when the above values of pressure and temperature are maintained.

"Memo by E. C. King, MSA.

301
 ----- - ~~~~ ~~~~ ------------ -- - - - - - -- -
LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

- - - -:
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40
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| 111 I ı ı ı ı ı （ （ （ （ （ （ （ （ （ （ （ （ （ （ （
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ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
CHAP. 2.4

302
 (G)
Gianhuis
Glass
Vvcor

Y
ISMUTH-
TECTI
Metals
Eerrous
Lion
-
-

Steel
tigh-Cl
-

(25Gſ,
20M
S.S.
310
Iype
-

-
-
-
-
->
-

::::::::= –
tiostelloy—A-B-Q

(1301-6.5
fel
Inconel
Monel
:
Bross,
Copper,
Manganese
and
Nickel
Non-Metals
Glass
Eyrex
-

LOY
AL
BISMUTH-LEAD-TIN
EUTECTIC
Metals
Eerous

Gray

Metals
Nonferious

Ber

Non-Metals

*F–- --~~
12

Rotings:
once
Resist
use.
long-time
__GooD
Consider
–
for
only-
once
resist
liquid-metol
to
refer
roting
(These
only.
use
IIl_LIMLLED-
Short-time
III
possibilities.
metollurgical
or
Ø_Poofl-
structural
No
temperature-dependent
strength
mechanicol
to
not
discussion.)
further
for
text
See
stobility.
inodequote.
Informotion
-

Eutec
Bismuth-Lead,
Bismuth,
Eutectic
and
Lead,
Liquid
to
2.4.7-
Materials
of
Resistance
Fig.
:
De
Lyon,
N.
R.
by
Edited
Handbook,
Liquid-Metals
from
Bismuth-Lead-Tin
Reprinted
Alloy.
tic
1952.
June
Ed.,
2nd
Commission,
Energy
Atomic
S.
U.
and
Navy
the
of
partment
CHAP. 2.4 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 2.4.4 – Resistance of Some Metals to Attack by Sodium and NaK

in Static Corrosion Tests (KAPL)

(Stainless-steel vessels used except where otherwise noted)

Metal | Temp., "C Resistance

Aged and filtered (5-11) sodium, probably containing 0.005–0.01% oxygen

Aluminum, 99.99% pure 427 Poor

Aluminum, 99.99% pure 500 Poor
Aluminum alloy 3S, 24S, 52S, 75S, 750 427 Poor
Aluminum bronze, cast 427 Good”
Armco iron 500 Good
Armco 17–7 PH stainless steel 427 Good”
Beryllium, warm-extruded rod 500 Good
Beryllium, chromium-plated 500 Good"
Fernico 500 Good
Inconel X 500 Good
Monel 500 Good
80Ni–20C r 500 Good”
Nickel, “L” 500 Good
Nickel (%% Zr) 500 Good
Nickel (%% Zr in Ni container) 500 Good
Nitrided Nitralloy 500 Good"
Nitrided 347 500 Good"
SS 303, 304ELC, 321, 347, 500 Good
347 (+Ta), 347(carburized), T347(cyanided)
Low-to-medium chrome-steel alloys
1Cr : 0.5MO 500 Good
1Cr : 1 MO : 0.25V 500 Good
2Cr : 0.5MO 500 Good
2.25Cr : 1.Mo 500 Good
3Cr : 1.5Si : 0.5MO 500 Good
5Cr : 0.5MO 500 Good
5Cr : 0.5Mo: 0.5Ti 500 Good
5Cr : 1.5Si : 0.5Mo 500 Good
7Cr. : 0.5Si : 0.5MO 500 Good
Carbon (0.5Mo) 500 Good
AISI-1019 steel 500 Goodt
Zirconium 500 Good
982 r : 2A1 500 Good
982 r : 2Fe 500 Good
932 r : 71Mo 500 Good
92Zr : 8Cr 500 Good
90Zr : 10Ti 500 Good

Distilled sodium

Aluminum, high-purity 450 Good

Aluminum, high-purity 500 Poort
Aluminum alloy 2S 450 Good
Aluminum alloy 2S 500 Poort
Stainless steel, 347 450 Good

Calcium-gettered sodium, probably containing less than 0.005% oxygen

Aluminum, 99.99% pure 427 Poor
Aluminum alloy 3S, 24S, 52S, 75S, 750 427 Poor
Aluminum bronze, T-224 427 Good

304
HANDLING OF LIQUID-METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.4

Table 2.4.4–(Continued)

Metal | Temp., "C Resistance

Beryllium, extruded 500 Good”

Beryllium, sintered 500 Good"
Copper, OFHC (in SS container) 427 Good"
Copper, OFHC (in Cu container) 400 Good
Durimet 20 427 Good
Inconel X 500 Good
Mechanite 427 Decarburized”
Monel, S 427 Good”
Nickel, L 500 Good
Ni-Mn, 40–60 500 Good”
Ni-Mn, 80–20 500 Good”
Ni Resist 427 Decarburized
Nitrided 347 stainless steel 500 Good
Tantung-Ni, 30–70 500 Good”
Tantung A166, A171, A192, A166 Spring 500 Good"
Titanium 500 Good”
Vanadium 500 Good!
Zirconium 427 Good"
Zirconium 500 Good
SS, 302, 304, 310 (25 Cr-20 Ni), 316, 500 Good
321, 347, 35-15-Ni-Cr
SS, 416 427 Good”
SS, 440 C 427 Good”
52100 Steel 427 Good”
6-6-2 high-speed tool steel 427 Good"
18–4–1 high-speed tool steel 427 Good”

Gettered by calcium additions to test container

Beryllium, extruded 500 Good
Beryllium, sintered 500 Good
Nickel, A (2% Ca added) 500 Limited
Nickel, A (10% Ca added) 500 Poor
Nickel, L (0.1% Ca added) 500 Good
Stainless steel, 347 500 Good

Filtered (5-u) NaK (56K:44Na)

Aluminum, high purity 450 Good
Aluminum alloy 2S 450 Good
Stainless steel, 347 450 Good

*Tested in individual stainless-steel cans

fDecarburized
*Flat specimens spaced "As in. from flat plates of stainless steel
§Tested in individual nickel cans

305
CHAP. 2.4 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 2.4.5— Resistance of Selected Ceramics to Attack by Aged and Filtered Sodium

Ceramic Resistance

(Mole compositions except as indicated) 500°C (932°F) 750°C (1382°F)

Artificial periclase crystal Good Good

BeO Good - - -

Stabilized ZrO2 Limited - - -

1BeO : 1Al2O3 Good - - -

1MgO :4ZrO2 Good Poor

1MgO : 8BeO: 1Al2O3 Good Limited
160BeO: 2A1, Os: 1Tho, + 2% CaO Limited Limited
76BeO:4Al2O3:202 ro, + 2% CaO Good Good
3MgO : 90BeO: 1zro, Good Limited
Hot-pressed synthetic mica Disintegrated
TiN Spalled - -

TiC, Disintegrated - -

CaZrO3 Poor -

CiO Disintegrated - - -

ZnO
TiC Cracked - - -

Be2C (swelled due to hydration after test) Limited - -

MoSiz Disintegrated -

B,C, TaC, TiC, VC, ZrC Good

Silicon carbide crystals, SiC Good - - -

Mixed carbides, B,C and SiC Limited -

Carbon-titanium mixed borides Good - - -

Zirconium boride, ZrB, Limited

Calcium boride, CaBs Poor -

Zirconium nitride, Zrn Good -

Beryllium nitride, Be3N, Limited

Titanium nitride, TiN Poor - - -

Beryllium oxide, BeO Good

Chrysoberyl, BeO-Al2O3 Good - -

Spinel (hot pressed), MgO-Al2O3 Limited - - -

Zirconium stab. with CaO Limited - - -

(4) It is recommended that all hydrogen relief be made from the water or steam side of
the system if possible (see item 5). Very high temperatures have been experienced when
water is forced for any length of time into areas of excess liquid metal.
(5) To adopt recommendation (4), liquid-metal systems must be designed to withstand
full steam pressure until either the reaction area can be isolated from the rest of the sys
tem by quick-closing valves or all the water can be removed from the reaction.
(6) A dump valve or similar device should be included in the system to dump the water
from the lowest point of the boiler or exchanger. This valve could be actuated by a sudden
increase in pressure in the liquid-metal system.

INDUCED ACTIVITY

(H. E. Stone)

When the coolant passes through the core, reflector, and thermal blanket of a reactor, it
is exposed to a neutron flux which may reach a value of 10"/(cm”)(sec). As long as the
coolant is in the flux, there is a continuous birth of radioactive atoms and also a continuous
decay. After the fluid leaves the reactor, the activation stops although the decay continues.

306
HANDLING OF LIQUID-METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.4

Table 2.4.6-Resistance of Cemented Carbides to Attack by Aged and Filtered Sodium

Resistance
,--

500°C 750°C*
Nominal composition, % (932°F) (1382°F)

30Ni: 8CbTiTacs: 62TiC Good Limited

20Ni:15CbTiTacs: 55Tic Poor - - -

20Ni: 8CbTiTac, ; 72Tic Good Good

20Co.: 80TiC Good - - -

20Co.: 15CbTiTac, ; 65TiC Good - - -

5Co.: 15CbTiTacs: 80tic Limited • * *

100TiC Good Good

Co Bonded WC Good Good
20Fe i 80TiC Good - - -

10Co: 8CbTiTacs: 82TiC Good Limited

30Ni : 70TiC Good Limited
20Ni : 80TiC Good - - -

20Ni:15CbTitac, ; 55tic Good - - -

*The initial weights for the specimens which were rerun in sodium at 750°C were
taken as their final weight after the 500°C run. This may have introduced some error.

Table 2.4.7—Induced Activities from Some Coolant Metals

Thermal Radioactive
Natural cross product of Energy of Number y's
element, section, (n,\) 7 radiation, per neutron
Isotope % barns reaction Half-life mew capture

una” 100 0.48 una” 14.9 hr 2.76, 1.38 1 each

isk* 6.8 1 isk* 12.4 hr 1.51 0.25
96% 4%
sºhg" 0.155 2900 *Hg" 23 hr 0.13, 0.16, 0.27 1 each
64 hr 0.08 1 each
*Hg.” 10.1 20 *Hg” 44 min 0.37 1

shg” 29.6 2.4 schg” 51 days 0.28 1

sLi' 92.6 0.033 sLi” 0.88 Sec 13.4-mev 8 and
Bremsstrahlung

This decay or induced activity poses a shielding problem for the external heat-transfer
system; it is most serious for high-energy gamma radiation or Bremsstrahlung. Table
2.4.7 shows the gamma- or X-radiation to be expected from some activated coolant metals.
General expressions can be derived for the specific activity of a fluid circulating through
a neutron flux. These equations can be simplified under equilibrium conditions, i.e., when
the number of atoms being activated is equal to the number of decaying atoms:
In all cases:

A(t) = A(t) e-A(t-t') (1)

T A(t')
K-ºn [1-e-" -AI"T" - ??
t’)] (2)

307
CHAP. 2.4 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

For cyclical irradiation:

General Expressions
After k cycles:

x NF o [1 - e-(Foº x) tº ) [1 - e-ſk” 1)(Fot **T)]

Ak(t)= FIR 1 — e-(Fotº + AT) (3)

At equilibrium:

r A NF or / 1 — e-(For + A) tº

FO & KX

After k cycles:

*\ - (1 – e-At”) 1 – e-(k+1) AT
A.(t)-NF • ====- (5)

At equilibrium:

º 1 — e-At'
A.(t') = NF "TI-XF (6)

For 3 & X and X T & K1

After k cycles:

t"
A.(t) = NF of [1 – e-(k+1) AT] (7)

At equilibrium:

t"
A.(t') = NF o-F (8)

From these equations it can be seen that the activity of a coolant depends on the follow
ing variables:
(1) Macroscopic capture cross-section (nuclei/cc x cross section in cm”), the probability
of a neutron capture in the element—this is energy dependent.
(2) Neutron flux and spectrum, as this affects the capture cross section.
(3) Half-life of the radioactive isotope—the longer the half-life, the longer it takes to
arrive at the equilibrium condition. A longer half-life also indicates a slower decay of the
radioactive isotope.
(4) Circulation time of the coolant.
(5) Fraction of circulation time spent in the neutron flux.
In order to compare fluids from an activation point of view, all of the above parameters
should be varied. For sodium and potassium, however, one can assume that the neutron
flux, neutron spectrum, circulation time of coolant, and fraction of time spent in the radi
ation zone are equal.
From the values in Table 2.4.7, the ratio of the specific activity of sodium to that of
potassium is found to be 12.6. A better indication of shielding requirements can be ob

308
HANDLING OF LIQUID-METAL COOLANTS CHAP. 2.4

tained from the “dose” rate or energy flux as approximated by a semi-infinite sea of cool
ant:

AE 1
D=== (9)

Thus:

[… ;
DNa = A Na 30.9 + 1.38 i* = 28.8 A Na

DK = ax(# *). 1.51 X

22.4 2.11 AK -
AN x 2.11 = 0.168 A Na
i.
and:

DNa 28.8
# - šiš-17,

NOMENCLATURE

A = Specific activity; disintegrations/(sec)(cm” of fluid)

A(t') = Value of A at the outlet from the neutron flux
A(t) = Value of A as a function of time outside the neutron flux
A = Average value of A outside the neutron flux
F = Neutron flux in energy range under consideration; neutrons/(cm”)(sec)
k = Number of circulation cycles undergone by the cm” of coolant under consideration.
n = Number of activated nuclei under study per cm” of fluid.
N = Total number of nuclei under study per cm” of fluid.
t = Time measured from the instant the cm” of fluid under consideration enters the
neutron flux; t starts at zero again whenever the cin” of fluid re-enters the flux.
t' = Time of exposure of each nucleus in neutron flux; sec.
T = Period of complete circulation cycle, i.e., time between two successive entrances
of a particular nucleus into the neutron flux, assuming that all of the nuclei circu
late at the same rate; sec.
A = Disintegration constant of activated nuclei (A = 1 mean life = 0.693/half-life); sec"
O = Capture cross section of nuclei under consideration in energy range considered
(where o is assumed constant); cm.”
D = Dose rate; mev/(cm”)(sec)
E = Energy of gamma ray; mev
1 = Mean free path of gamma ray; cm

REFERENCES

. L. P. Pepkowitz and E. R. Proud, The Determination of Hydrogen-A New Universal Gasometric Method, KAPL-1, Sept. 1947, 4 pp.
2. Progress Report No. 42, Section III, Reactor Materials, KAPL-298, Jan. 1950, 39 pp.
3. S. L. Walters, Maximum Oxygen Content of Flowing Eutectic NaK in a Stainless Steel System, Tech. Rep. No. VIII, Mine Safety
Appliance Co., NP-1942, Nov. 20, 1950, 14 pp.
4
. W. H. Bruggeman and G. Billuris, Sampling of High-temperature Alkali Metals, AECU-2143, 16 pp. Unclassified.
5. L. P. Pepkowitz and W. C. Judd, Determination of Sodium Monoxide in Sodium, Anal. Chem. 22, 1950, p 1283.

309
CHAP. 2.4 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

SELECTED READING LIST

PURIFICATION

INTERIM REPORT ON COLD TRAP INVESTIGATIONS, Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, B. G. Voorhees and W. H. Bruggeman.
KAPL-612, Oct. 1, 1951, 36 pp.

CORROSION

PROBLEMS IN THE USE OF MOLTEN SODIUM As A HEAT TRANSFER FLUID, Jour. Met. and Cer., L. F. Epstein and C. E. Weber,
TID-70-Part II, No. 6, Jan. 1951, 36 pp.
RESISTANCE OF MATERIALS TO ATTACK BY LIQUID METALS, Argonne National Laboratory, L. R. Kelman, W. D. Wilkinson, and
L. Yaggee, ANL-4417, July 1950, 139 pp, Unclassified.
PROBLEMS IN THE USE OF MOLTEN SODIUM ASA HEAT TRANSFER FLUID, Jour. Met. and Cer., L. F. Epstein and C. E. Weber,
TID-67-Part I, No. 3, May 1949, 85 pp.

INDUCED ACTIVITY

ACTIVATION OF A FLUID CIRCULATING THROUGH A NEUTRON FLUX, Knolls atomic Power laboratory, G. A. Allard, Kapl–665.
Dec. 14, 1951, 16 pp, Unclassified.

310
 CHAPTER 2.5

Reactor Cooling and Power Conversion Cycles

T. Trocki and R. W. Lockhart

The operating conditions of a nuclear power-conversion system are a compromise be

tween the requirements of the application and the limitation of the nuclear reactor. The ap
plication requirements vary according to whetner the power plant is mobile or stationary
or whether power or fuel production is the prime objective. The limitations of the nuclear
reactor are similar to those of other heat sources except that they are more stringent be
cause of the nuclear properties of the constituents, the difficulty of repairing or inspecting
fixed reactor components because of radioactivity, or self-destruction (over-temperature)
of the reactor core if the coolant is lost. Since liquid-metal cooling is more advantageous
at higher temperatures, it has been studied mainly with respect to power production or for
application to dual purpose reactors. However, the fact that liquid metals possess nuclear
properties which might make them attractive for cooling a fast-spectrum fuel-production
reactor near ambient temperatures should not be overlooked.
Since a reactor coolant not only becomes radioactive but for some applications is also
not chemically compatible with the water-steam power-conversion cycle, intermediate heat
transfer cycles, usually utilizing liquid metals, are used to isolate physically and/or nu
clearly the reactor and the power-conversion cycles. Liquid metals posses physical prop
erties which allow high rates of heat transfer and therefore small heat-transfer equipment.
From a heat-transfer and power-production standpoint, the temperature rise of the re
actor coolant is a design feature. To remove the same amount of heat from a given reac
tor, water usually requires the lowest temperature rise; liquid metals, because of their
relatively lower specific heat, usually require a temperature rise several times as large,
and gases require an even larger temperature rise. The design temperature rise results
from a compromise among the following factors:
(1) Percentage of coolant in reactor core.
(2) Reasonable pressure drop and pumping power.
(3) Allowable upper and lower coolant operating temperatures, or allowable temperature
difference (as for thermal shock).
The maximum operating temperature for liquid metals is limited either by the corrosion
or strength of the structural materials. The lowest allowable operating temperature or the
maximum temperature difference can be set by one of the following factors:

(1) Solidification or separation point of the coolant.

(2) Corrosion by mass transfer between hot and cold portions of the cycle.

311
CHAP. 2.5 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

(3) Precipitation of impurities in the cold portion (such as sodium oxide from sodium at
low temperature).
(4) Maximum allowable thermal shock upon reactor scram.

BASIC CYCLE EQUATIONS

Present applications of liquid-metal heat-transfer systems have been designed to deliver

the heat to steam power-conversion systems. The following basic equations apply. The re
actor heat output:

Q = WCP (tout –tin)

or in heat exchanger terms:

Q = QIHE = QS + Q E + QF

Or:

Q = (UA)IHE Atlm IHE

Or:

Q - (UA)s At lms t (UA).E At ImE + (UA) F Atlm F

Applications of these relationships are illustrated graphically in Figs. 2.5.1 through 2.5.4
and will be described in the following text. The first equation is basic for any single-phase
coolant and indicates the relationship of the term that it contains. The remaining equations
indicate the heat-exchanger relationships.
Figure 2.5.1 is an example of the effect of reactor outlet temperature and reactor cool
ant temperature rise on the required total steam-generator area. It is evident that
Smaller heat-transfer areas are required at higher reactor outlet temperatures and lower
reactor coolant temperature rise. The steam-drum pressure was held constant for this
comparison; the corresponding cycle diagram appears in Fig. 2.5.2. Similar curves can
be calculated for any steam generator using the fourth equation. This curve can be used
for an intermediate heat-exchanger system if the specifications indicated on the curve are
maintained when the reactor symbols are replaced by intermediate fluid.
The following description of typical cycles illustrates some of the possible compromises
that have been made to remove heat and generate power from a nuclear reactor.

TYPICAL CYCLES

The simplest reactor cooling cycle consists of a single fluid system which heats the
fluid passing through the reactor and delivers its energy directly to a heat sink or power
conversion unit. Many of the existing non-power-production and experimental reactors are
of this type (e.g., the Fast Experimental Reactor at Los Alamos which uses liquid-metal
mercury cooling).
Water- and liquid-metal-cooled power reactors that are under construction may have
two cycles between the reactor and the power-conversion unit. This added system isolates
the radioactivity of the reactor coolant from the power-conversion cycle and allows dif
ferent coolants or different purities of coolant to be used in each cycle. Fig. 2.5.2 shows
the liquid-metal cycle and temperature conditions for a typical two-cycle system at rated
power.

312
REACTOR COOLING AND POWER CONVERSION CYCLES CHAP. 2.5

2OOO
|
Us = 150 P = 500 psio
UE = 300 Pc = 2.5 psia
A UF = 250 T = 600 F

Q = 52 x 10° stu/ht
(w Cp) primary • (w CP) steam

16OO

14 OO

12OO

| OOO

6OO

4OO

2OO

650 850 900 950 |OOO

REACTOR OUTLET TEMPERATURE, *F

Fig. 2.5.1 — Predicted Effect of Reactor Outlet Temperature and Coolant Tem
perature Rise on Steam Generator Area for a Particular Application. Submitted
by KAPL, Feb. 12, 1953.

3.13
CHAP. 2.5 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

7OO

6OO £&M4s Y
DIU
5OO

STEAM

i 4OO

3OO

2OO
O 2O 4O 6O 8O IOO

% OF TOTAL HEAT LOAD

SUPERHEATER
|-------------

REACTOR No
EVAPORATOR

WVVVVVVVVVM-1 STEAM
;
; FEEDWATER
| i.HEATER—i.......... <-
i-V//www

Fig. 2.5.2–Predicted Liquid-metal-water Cycle and Temperature Condition for

a Particular Application. Submitted by KAPL, Feb. 12, 1953.

314
REACTOR COOLING AND POWER CONVERSION CYCLES CHAP. 2.5

6OO

5OO

4OO

| 3OO

2 OO

| OO

O 2O 4O GO 8O |OO

% OF TOTAL HEAT LOAD

SUPERHEATER
AAAAAAAAAA
www.www.www.ww

EVAPORATOR
AAA AAAAA

REACTOR Nak No K lºſ STEAM

FEEDWATER

|
i HEATER

INTERMEDIATE
HEAT EXCHANGER

Fig. 2.5.3 – Intermediate-cycle System; Operating Temperature Conditions for

EBR. Submitted by KAPL, Feb. 12, 1953.

315
CHAP. 2.5 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

2OOO

Ultix - 2000 P = 500 psig

Us = 1 50 Pc = 2.5 psio.
| 800
UE a 3OO T = 6 OO F

Ur = 250 Q - 52 x 10"/stu hr
(w Cp) PRIMARY * { w Cp) secondary

16OO

14OO

12OO
ToTAL AREA_- /

: IOO O

&º
8OO sº

6OO

4OO N

\k. r
&XCHAWGé
R

2OO
**

O 6O 8O IOO I2O |40

T reactor outlet -T max secondary coolant

Fig. 2.5.4 – Calculated Steam-generator and Heat-exchanger Areas as a Func

tion of the Difference Between Reactor Outlet Temperature and the Maximum
Temperature of the Secondary Coolant. Submitted by KAPL, Feb. 12, 1953.

316
REACTOR COOLING AND POWER CONVERSION CYCLES CHAP. 2.5

INTERMEDIATE-CYCLE SYSTEM

NO POWER CONVERSION OF INTERMEDIATE CYCLE

To reduce the volume of the primary (radioactive) coolant system, which in turn reduces
the weight, volume, and cost of the coolant shielding, intermediate liquid-metal cycles have
been inserted between the primary liquid-metal system and the steam system. This addi
tional system reduces the danger of radiation damage to, or chemical reaction with, the
water system, at the expense of additional equipment.
The Experimental Breeder Reactor cooling system is an example of this intermediate
cycle system (see Fig. 2.5.3). The temperatures shown represent operating power-produc
tion conditions. The cycle temperatures are reduced when power production is not required.
The EBR-reactor and intermediate-cycle coolants are eutectic NaK.
Intermediate-cycle systems have the cycle disadvantages of larger temperature differ
ences between the reactor outlet and the upper temperature of power conversion of the heat
sink. It is practical to design the intermediate cycle with about the same water-equivalent
flow rate as the reactor cycle, (WCp)reactor = (WCp)intermediate. If they are equal, the
temperature level loss is the same as the log mean temperature across the intermediate
heat exchanger (about 50° to 150°F).
The minimum total intermediate heat-exchanger and steam-generator area or the mini
mum intermediate heat-exchanger area can be calculated. An example of the solution pre
sented in a design study is shown in Fig. 2.5.4.

POWER -CONVERSION OF INTERMEDIATE CYCLES

This system consists of the “basic-cycle” system firing a binary mercury-steam power
conversion system. This binary power cycle is the most efficient cycle used commercially
for any size plant. Figure 2.5.5 compares mercury and steam plant net heat rates; the
lower the heat rate or the higher the plant efficiency, the greater is the power produced per
kilogram of fuel fissioned. A reactor binary power-production system is illustrated in Fig.
2.5.6. A liquid-metal outlet temperature of about 1100°F would be required to make this
system feasible; an outlet temperature of 1200° to 1800°F would make this system very at
tractive.

NOMENCLATURE

A = heat transfer area, ſt”

Cp = specific heat of primary coolant, Btu/(lb)(*F)
E = evaporator
F = feedwater heater
IHX = intermediate heat exchanger
Q = heat-transfer rate Btu/hr
S = superheater
U = over-all heat-transfer coefficient, Btu/(hr)(ft”)(“F)
W = velocity, ft/hr
W = mass flow rate of primary coolant, lb/hr
t = temperature, *F
Atlm = log mean temperature difference, “F
p = density, lb/ft”
AtR = temperature rise across the reactor

317
CHAP. 2.5 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

STEAM PLANTS

RY PLANTS

O KO 20 30 40 50 60 7.O 80 90 KOO I IO I2O 130 k$O 150 160

UNIT CAPACITY-KW x IOOO

Fig. 2.5.5 - Comparison of Mercury and Steam Plant Net Heat Rates. Re
printed from Mercury-steam Power Plants, by H. N. Hackett, Mechanical
Engineering 73, 1951. By permission from American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.

3.18
 COOLANT
P
- RIMARY
-MERCURY
---WATER
BOILER
MERCURY

lb/hr
410,000

REACTOR

CONDENSER
MERCURY
WATER
EVAPORATO
AND R
psio
1.5
F
485

---> -- F-WW
WwissHE5F
AAAAAAAAAAAAA
www.www.www.WWWW
Ib/hr
52,OOO
SUPERHEATER
HEATER
FEEDWATER :
by
Submitted
system.
Mercury-wat
Binary
with
Cycle
2.5.6—Powe
Fig. er
r
1953.
12,
Feb.
KAPL,
 CHAPTER 2.6

Mechanical Components and Design Considerations

REACTOR COMPONENTS
(J. H. Germer and C. R. Stahl)

FUEL ELEMENTS

REQUIREMENTS OF A FUEL ELEMENT

A fuel element is the basic unit which furnishes heat in an atomic power reactor. The
element must be designed to work at reasonable stresses and internal temperatures. It
must not be corroded by the coolant, nor should the fuel material corrode its container.
In order that it may transmit a large amount of heat, it must have a large surface area
and must have a low resistance to the coolant flow.
The fuel element should allow a reasonably large fraction of the fuel to be fissioned.
Since some of the fission products are stable gases, the fuel element must be able to con
fine these gases either inside the fuel-element container or internally within the fuel solid.
Evolution of these gases into the coolant stream is hazardous because of their inherent
radioactivity.
From a nuclear standpoint, the fuel element should not contain excessive amounts of
materials which readily absorb neutrons (B, Cd, Mn, Li, Co, and the like). The fuel should
not be present in such large concentrations that it shields neutrons from itself. Finally, it
is desirable that the fuel element should not become more reactive as its temperature or
power increases.
As a structure, the fuel element must be reasonably easy and economical to fabricate,
and it must be sufficiently sturdy to withstand any mechanical or fluid loads imposed upon
it. Usually, it must also be replaceable in the reactor. To eliminate handling tremendous
numbers of small individual fuel elements, the smaller elements are ordinarily assembled
into fuel rods as units.

GENERAL TYPES OF FUEL ELEMENTS

(1) Homogeneous. In a homogeneous reactor, there are no individual fuel rods. The
fuel is combined with the coolant, and the core consists essentially of an enlargement in
the coolant stream. The fuel may exist as a solution in the coolant or as a slurry of a
Solid material in the coolant liquid.
(2) Liquid Fuel Cooled by Secondary Fluid. The fuel liquid in this case is not circulated
but is present either inside or outside of tubes, from the other side of which the coolant
liquid removes the heat. The fuel element may be an integral unit which can be removed
individually, or it may be a permanent part of the reactor refueled by draining the fuel
liquid.
(3) Laminated Fuel and Structural Material. Such materials as uranium-zirconium
alloy clad on both sides with zirconium have been used with success. At present they are

321
CHAP. 2.6 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

used only in water-cooled reactors, but they could be applied to liquid-metal-cooled re

actors.

(4) Metal-filled Tubes. This type is used as rather large elements in natural-uranium
reactors but could be used in small, high-flux fuel elements. The use of a solid metal
solves the gas-storage problem, since gaseous fission products are retained within the
structure of the fuel. If the fuel element is to generate a high heat flux, there should be an
intimate bond between the fuel and the tube. The fuel may be present either in the form of
uranium metal or as an alloy such as uranium-zirconium. If a high percentage of fuel
burnup is required, a dilute fuel alloy is preferred, since high burnup in uranium metal
causes its disintegration.
(5) Powder-filled Tubes (Pins). This type of fuel element allows large burnup since
disintegration of the fuel is not a problem; also, high temperatures in the fuel are less of
a problem since they do not directly cause thermal stress. Normally, fission-product
gases will be evolved from the powder, thereby requiring the element to be built as a
pressure container.

CONTROL ELEMENTS

TYPES OF CONTROL

The power level of a reactor varies as the rate of fission. The power remains constant
whenever the rate of neutron generation in the fission process is equal to the rate of neu
tron fission capture plus the neutrons lost through leakage and non-fission capture. When
ever this neutron balance is maintained, the reactor is said to be “at critical.” If the rate
of fission-neutron production is greater than the loss, the reactor is “above critical,” and
the power level rises. If it is less, the reactor is “below critical,” and the power falls.
The purpose of the control element is to regulate this neutron balance. From the regu
lation standpoint, there are three basic types of controls which are often superimposed on
a single control element.

(1) Fine Control. Maintains the reactor accurately “at critical,” except when power is
to be raised or lowered. Action may be rapid, but only over a small amplitude, and it may
be operated automatically.
(2) Shim Control. Slowly regulates the control point over a wide range to compensate
for large, long time effects such as fuel burnup and fission-product poisoning.
(3) Safety Control (or “scram”). Rapidly shuts down the reactor in an emergency by
causing it to be “below critical.” This is usually accomplished both manually and automati
tically in case of too high a power level.

METHODS OF CONTROL

The neutron balance may be controlled by any of the following methods:

(1) Inserting neutron-absorbing rods into the reactor core (the usual method on thermal
reactors).
(2) Inserting neutron-absorbing rods between the core and reflector.
(3) Removing fuel from the core.
(4) Moving portions of the reflector (either liquid or solid) which surround the core.
(5) Adding fluid poison to the coolant.
(6) Adding to the reactor core a “burnable poison” which is consumed at a rapid enough
rate to compensate for the loss of reactivity.
(7) Removing moderator (such as heavy water) from core.

322
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS CHAP. 2.6

OTHER REACTOR COMPONENTS

SEALS

Normally, a reactor container must be penetrated to operate the control elements and
to refuel. The control elements are usually operated through either rotating or recipro
cating shafts. All such penetrations must be sealed to prevent the entrance of air and the
exit of radioactive gases or coolant fluid. When liquid sodium is used as the coolant, seal
construction is particularly important, since air which reacts strongly with sodium would
thereby contaminate the system.

WELDED SEALS

A welded seal provides positive static sealing but may be inconvenient to remove. Gen
eral practice has been to rely upon bolts for mechanical strength and to provide thin lips
which can be welded without heating the body of the metal excessively.

Frozen Static Seals

When a coolant liquid with a melting point above ambient temperature is used, static
sealing may be accomplished by allowing the liquid to freeze. This requires control of the
temperature of the frozen zone. When the seal is to be removed, the frozen seal must be
melted, but at the same time, the gas pressure must be maintained in order to prevent the
liquid from freezing at a higher level. Melting may be accomplished electrically or by
allowing the unit to heat from radioactive decay.
A frozen sodium seal should be blanketed by an inert gas to prevent corrosion of the
Sodium.

Frozen Rotating Seal (Fig. 2.6.1)

If the temperature gradient is maintained along the length of a frozen seal and if the
other design conditions are favorable, a shaft will be free to rotate in the seal with low
friction. Sodium under relatively high pressures has been sealed in this way. This type of
seal cannot be relied upon, however, to seal against gas in the liquid metal.

Rubber Boot Seals (Fig. 2.6.1)

This seal system consists of a “rubber boot” in series with two rotating O-ring
Seals. A helium blanket is confined between the liquid-metal level and the seal to prevent
Sodium from reaching a level which would cause it to freeze. The rubber boot is a cy
lindrical piece of Type-GN Neoprene rubber of about 40 Durometer hardness, 4% in. OD,
3', in. ID, and 14%; in. active length. The lower end is bonded to the rotating shaft,
while the upper end is bonded to the stationary container. To enable the rubber boot to
withstand a differential pressure on either side, metal rings are added for support. These
rings are % in. wide and are located on the inside and outside of the boot. The surface in
contact with the rubber has rounded edges and is chrome-plated to reduce friction and
wear between the rings and the boot. To enhance the bearing sliding characteristics be
tween adjacent rings during twisting of the boot, alternate rings are made of bronze, so
that a bronze:chrome-plated carbon-steel bearing surface exists between rings. A thin
film of molybdenum disulfide is used as a lubricant. This seal was designed for 140° ro
tation. Leakage through the boot is caused only by diffusion and can be calculated from its
diffusivity of 9 x 10" cm”/(min)(cm)(cm Hg). It is independent of flexing:
cm.” diffusivity x area (cm”) x pressure across seal (cm Hg)
Leakage -
min
- -

thickness (cm)
-

323
CHAP. 2.6 LIQUID-METAL–COOLED SYSTEMS

BOND
D
D
RUBBER H
|
METAL
RINGS 2.
H $ MERCURY

BOND f
2%
N GAS PRESSURE

SHAFT

*—SHAFT
Lt.”
RUBBER BOOT SEAL LIQUID TRAP SEAL

INERT GAS

SHAFT —º-
COOLING
COIL

FROZEN
METAL
is<- N
N
BELLOWS

BALL JOINT
HOT LIQUID
METAL UNDER
PRESSURE N
N *~ SHAFT
FROZEN ROTATING SEAL WOBBLE SEAL

Fig. 2.6.1—Four Types of Seals Used in Reactors. Submitted by Knolls Atomic

Power Laboratory, Feb. 27, 1953.

324
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS CHAP. 2.6

Liquid Trap Seals (Fig. 2.6.1)

A positive, diffusion-free seal can be made by requiring that any leakage gas pass
through a trap filled with mercury or other liquid of extremely low gas diffusivity. Low
pressure can be sealed with a seal in the form of a manometer; higher pressures can be
sealed by a combination of liquid and a conventional sealing member.

Wobble Seals (Fig. 2.6.1)

Positive sealing of a reciprocating shaft can be accomplished with a welded metal bel
lows, but this method does not lend itself to a direct rotational seal. A rotating seal, how
ever, can be made by converting rotational motion into a wobble motion or a reciprocating
motion, passing it through a metal bellows, and then converting back to rotational motion.
This seal tends to be rather bulky and to have a limited torque and thrust capacity.

BEARINGS

Only bearings operating under conditions unique to reactor operation and associated with
liquid-metal-cooled reactors are considered here. Important factors in the design of such
bearings are compatibility of the bearing materials, friction, stability under irradiation,
and ease of manufacture.

Compatibility of Materials
Two materials which have been found to give satisfactory service in liquid metal for
intermittant, light-load service are Type-138A Kennametal on 779 Carboloy. Bearings
made of these materials have been run in sodium at 850° to 950°F under a loading of 50 psi
with good results; the maximum friction coefficients found under these conditions were
0.31 running and 0.53 static.

Journal-Bearing Design

Reduction of Thermal Stresses

Since bearing materials which differ from the structural material (stainless steel) must
be used, differential thermal expansion between materials could result in severe thermal
stresses. This effect is eliminated by the design shown in Fig. 2.6.2 which makes use of
conical surfaces. In this bearing, any dimensional change produced by temperature vari
ation is radial from the “origin” which is located on the shaft center line. This eliminates
any variation in the tightness of the bearing in its support as a result of relative thermal
expansion. The only stresses introduced by a differential thermal expansion between the
bearing and the shaft will be sliding stresses at the bearing-shaft interface owing to rela
tive expansion between the bearing and the shaft materials.

Allowance for Misalignment

To minimize the effects of misalignment, the inner (journal) bearing surface is made
slightly convex (15 in. radius). Small misalignment is possible with only a slight amount
of curvature (less than spherical); a spherical surface would produce higher contact
stresses but would be capable of large misalignment.

Clearance

The bearing was designed to give 0.0135 in. to 0.0145 in. diametrical clearance on the
4.5-in. contact diameter. This is based upon permissible play and freedom from binding.

325
CHAP. 2.6 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

_L'"
4# DIA.

Fig. 2.6.2– Journal Bearing. Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory,

Feb. 27, 1953.

326
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS CHAP. 2.6

Materials

The inner race is made from 138A Kennametal and the outer race of 779 Carboloy.

Anti-Friction Bearings
Ball and roller bearings can be used if they are constructed of materials which will re
main hard at high temperatures (such as 18–4–1 tool steel). They should be designed so
that there is a minimum of sliding of the various parts of the bearing on each other. To
accommodate axial and angular misalignment as in the journal bearing (Fig. 2.6.2), sev
eral bearing designs anti-friction have been developed (Figs. 2.6.3, 2.6.4, and 2.6.5).
For small-angle oscillations, conventional needle bearings of 18–4–1 tool steel have been
Successful.

THERMAL SHOCK SHIELDS

(R. J. Fritz)

NEED FOR SHIELDS

It is well known that thermal gradients in structural members cause thermal stresses
owing to unequal expansion of the various elements of the structure. When the thermal
gradients are transient instead of steady state, determination of these stresses at any
instant is unchanged. In the operation of nuclear reactors, where large quantities of heat
are transferred to a fluid heat-transfer medium, thermal transients are generated in the
fluid coolant and hence in the associated reactor structure when a constant relationship
between the reactor power and the coolant flow rate is not maintained.
Probably the most severe thermal transient is caused by an emergency shutdown or
scram of the reactor. Reactor power will generally decay more rapidly than the coolant
flow rate decreases causing transient thermal stresses in the structure owing to the
quenching action of the coolant. In systems using fluid capable of transferring very high
transient heat flux rates, rather severe thermal gradients may be induced in the enclosing
structure, depending on the coolant temperature changes involved. As the thermal tran
sients are propagated into the material of the structure, the gradients are reduced or
dissipated.
The presence of thermal gradients in a structural plate, which is restrained against
bending, or in the wall of a long circular cylinder causes thermal stresses given by:

°, -2, -#; (To – T) (1)

where ox and oy are biaxial stresses tangential to the surface taken in the principal direc
tions. Equation (1) is not valid near the edges of the plate or cylinder. In the case of a
cylinder, x and y are taken in the longitudinal and circumferential directions. The stress
in the direction normal to the surface may normally be neglected. E is Young’s modulus;
a, the coefficient of linear thermal expansion; and pu, Poisson ratio for the material. The
quantity Eo/1–11 is approximately 360 psi/*F for austenitic steels and about 220 psi/*F for
ferritic steels. The temperature distribution in the structure will be generally a function
of time and the normal distance from the coolant surface. To is the average temperature
of the plate or cylinder wall, and T is the temperature at the point for which the stresses
are being evaluated. For a plate, the average temperature is given by:

T. =}| ſº tºod, (2)

327
CHAP. 2.6 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

INNER RACE

BALLS

OUTER RACE
BALLS FOR
LONGITUDINAL
MOVEMENT
OUTER RING RETAINING RINGS

Fig. 2.6.3—New Departure Bearing. Reprinted from Babcock and Wilcox

Rept. 5065, J. S. Gilhart and W. Market, Jr., Rolling Contact Bearings for Os
cillating Service in High-temperature Sodium, Oct. 30, 1952.

|NNER RACE —
ROLLERS– wº
º
RETAINER—

OUTER RACE *
% a'

Fig. 2.6.4–Shafer Bearing. Reprinted from Babcock and Wilcox Rept. 5065,
J. S. Gilhart and W. Market, Jr., Rolling Contact Bearings for Oscillating Ser
vice in High Temperature Sodium, Oct. 30, 1952.

328
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS CHAP. 2.6

OUTER RACE

BALLS

RETAINER PLATES
|NNER RACE

SHAFT

Fig. 2.6.5—De Groh Bearing. Reprinted from Babcock and Wilcox Rept.
5065, J. S. Gilhart and W. Market, Jr., Rolling Contact Bearings for Oscillating
Service in High Temperature Sodium, Oct. 30, 1952.

where T(x) is the temperature distribution as a function of the thickness coordinate x.

For a cylindrical shell:
b
Tº = wº ſ rT(r)dr (3)

where b and a are the outside and inside radii of the shell and T(r) is the temperature dis
tribution as a function of the radial coordinate r. For a pipe where the diameter is much
larger than the wall thickness, Eq. (3) will reduce to Eq. (2).
This relation gives the actual stress if the proportional limit of the material is not ex
ceeded. Otherwise, it gives merely an index to the thermal-shock severity.
When a thermal transient is impressed on the surface of a structure, the thermal gradi
ents are most severe near the surface and become less severe with increasing distance
from the surface. If it is desired to protect the structure from thermal-shock stresses,
putting thin laminations or thermal shields between the coolant surface and the structure
will filter out or attenuate severe gradients. It is possible by choosing the thickness of
these laminations to limit the thermal stress in the structure.
A procedure that may be used to estimate the thermal stresses is as follows:
(1) Determine the transient-temperature distribution in the structure wetted by the
coolant. This temperature distribution is plotted with the distance normal to the wetted
surface as abscissa and time as a parameter.
(2) Determine the average temperature of the lamination To, by Eq. (2) or (3), whichever
applies. Equation (2) can be solved graphically by finding on the temperature-vs-distance
plot the rectangle that gives the same area as the actual temperature distribution. The

329
CHAP. 2.6 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

height of the rectangle is the average temperature, To, and the base is the plate thickness.
By a cut-and-try method, one can determine the lamination thickness to limit the maxi
mum transient stress to a specified value. The problem is then to support these lamina
tions so as to accommodate their shrinkage relative to their supports.

DESIGN BASIS FOR SHIELDS

DETERMINATION OF THERMAL SHOCK STRESS LIMITATIONS

The term “thermal shock” implies a thermal transient severe enough to cause failure
within only a few cycles or even a single cycle. Fatigue failures may also occur after
many cycles of fast- or slow-cycling of more moderate thermal stresses. Moreover, a
thermal transient that causes a fatigue failure in one structural geometry could, in a dif
ferent structural geometry, cause failure within only a few cycles. Hence, there is no
inherent characteristic of the thermal transient that identifies it as being critical either
from thermal-shock or thermal-fatigue standpoints.
Thermal stresses differ from the ordinary engineering stresses in that they represent
a strain input rather than a load input. To accommodate very large thermal stresses such
as those which may occur in a high specific-power nuclear reactor, extra care must be
exercised in design to anticipate those factors that cause loss of ductility or embrittlement
of the structure, such as corrosion, galling, stress concentrations, high stress gradients,
low-quality material, poor welds, time-temperature aging, and nuclear radiation damage.
Notches, weldments, and structural discontinuities (as flanged pipes) which are present
in power-plant structures cause loss of ductility. To test these factors, a thermal-shock
test program has been jointly undertaken by Mine Safety Appliances Company and the
Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory. The first specimen to be tested was a section of butt
welded 8-in., Schedule-40 (0.322-in. wall) stainless-steel (Type-347) pipe. The inside
pipe surface was quenched 2500 times with NaK from 850°F to about 400°F in about one
second. The pipe did not exhibit any operational deficiencies. Radiographic and liquid
penetrant tests did not reveal any defects. Subsequent examination by microphotographs,
however, revealed that cracks that had formed during welding in the root section between
the pipe and backup ring had propagated during the test. Cracks extending about 0.010 in.
into the 0.322-in. wall were observed. This test provided evidence of the detrimental
features of leaving backing rings in thermally-shocked butt-welded pipes.
Stresses (produced by thermal shock) in excess of the yield strength may be permitted
in design provided the severity of the stress and the number of repetitions of thermal
shock are known. When plastic flow of the metal results from severe thermal stress
brought about by a particular reactor operating condition, a change in operating conditions
can lead to a reversal both in stress and plastic flow. Consequently, the cycling of these
operating conditions may result in failure by fatigue in severely loaded components. An
experimental program * is being carried out at KAPL to assess the seriousness of the
phenomenon and to reliably determine a satisfactory basis for design. Thin-walled, tubu
lar, test specimens are subjected to cyclic uniaxial stresses induced by thermally shocking
the specimen and constraining the specimen longitudinally. The temperature cycle is es
sentially a square wave with time. Heating is accomplished electrically with the specimen
serving as its own resistance, and cooling is done with an air blast. The “hold time” is
the time for which both the maximum and minimum temperatures are maintained in each
cycle and is adjustable over limits. Test conditions have covered a wide range of thermal
shock varied in magnitude, mean temperature, and cycling period.

*Details of this program are described in An Apparatus for the Study of the Effects of Cyclic Ther
mal Stresses on Ductile Metals, Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, L. F. Coffin, Jr. and R. P. Wesley,
KAPL-830, Oct. 27, 1952, Unclassified.

330
 :

—maſſ-min–
TEMPERATURE
MEAN
=
|
2.6.6—Influence
Fig.
Stainless
347
Type
Life
on
Constraint
Uniaxial
with
Cycling
Thermal
of
T
+
T...... | 26*
10^
4
4/MIN.
CYCLING
OF
FREQUENCY

TUBE
UNIFORM
ANNEALED
-O-
TEMPERATURE
MEAN
°C
350 |

O |

o—es |
|
|
|

Laboratory,
Power
Atomic
Knolls
by
Submitted
Steel.
1953.
27,
Feb.
|2
4 cycles
LIFE,

OO
|

7oo 6OO 500 4OO 3OO 2OO |OO

§
CHAP. 2.6 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

24,OOO

22,000

2O,OOO
T--~ + T
MEAN TEMPERATURE = −lºg-ºn
Tmox - Timin = 300 °C
18,OOO

16,000
No

# 14,000 a\
Im)
– N O

§ N
C 12 OOO fa.

H. T' N
(ſ) O
uſ
$2 ſoooo O
N.3
N O
>- *

O O N
N. N- 8
8OOO *—

O O

6OOO
O

4OOO

2OOO

O
|OO 2OO 3OO 4 OO 50C

MEAN TEMPERATURE, “c
Fig. 2.6.7—Effect of Mean Temperature on Cycles-to-failure for Thermally
cycled Type 347 Stainless Steel. Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory,
Feb. 27, 1953.

332
 14,OOO T-I-T-TTTI ||I |

12,000
o
TIME
HOLD
x
2
=
CYCLE
OF
PERIOD

=200
°C
Tmin
500
Tmox=

IO,000
s:
Jºss
8OOO d

*-
`s
o
6OOO
3

4OOO

2OOO

H–H =H
sec
TIME,
HOLD

347
Stainless
Type
Thermally-cycled
for
Cycles-to-failure
on
Time
Hold
of
2.6.8–Effect
Fig.
:
Feb.
1953.
27,
Laboratory,
Power
Atomic
Knolls
by
Submitted
Steel.
CHAP. 2.6 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

A fairly thorough investigation of annealed Type-347 stainless steel has been carried
out. Figure 2.6.6 shows the effect of the magnitude of repeated thermal shocks (Trnax
Tmin) in producing fatigue failures for this material. Here, the mean temperature [(Tmax -
Timin)/2) of the shock is maintained at 350°C (662°F) with about 4 cycles of thermal shock
per minute. Variation of the mean temperature while maintaining a thermal shock, which
is fixed in magnitude (300°C), is shown in Fig. 2.6.7. Finally, in Fig. 2.6.8, the influence
of the frequency of cycles on cycles-to-failure for a particular magnitude of thermal shock
is shown.

RESIDUAL HEAT REMOVAL

[D. J. Oakley and G. E. Tate (Foster Wheeler)]

Residual or emergency cooling systems are required for any reactor that will produce
sufficient heat, if the coolant flow is interrupted, to damage the structure by the effects of
high temperature. Reliable systems have been designed and tested either to add coolant
to a system or to implement circulation and heat removal from the reactor, or both. If
the integrity of the reactor cooling system is high, the first problem can be dismissed.
It is preferable to prevent a loss of coolant rather than to have a reservoir system with
only a limited life.

SELECTED READING LIST

Reactor Components

ROLLING CONTACT BEARINGS FOR OSCILLATING SERVICE IN HIGH TEMPERATURE SODIUM. J. S. Gilhart and W. Market, Jr.,
Babcock and Wilcox Company, Rept. No. 5065, Oct. 30, 1952, 26 pp (classified).
INTERIM REPORT: CONTROL ROD GAS SEALs, W. A. Heywood and C. J. Hibbert, Knolls Atomic Power Lab., KAPL-669, Jan. 14,
1952, 83 pp,

Thermal Shock Shields (Thermal Stresses)

References specifically on thermal-shock shields as such are nonexistent. However, since thermal shock is but a special case of
thermal stress the following works are recommended.

TEXTBOOKS

CONDUCTION OF HEAT IN SOLIDS, H. S. Carslaw and J. C. Jaeger, Oxford Press, 1947.

THEORY OF ELASTICITY, S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, McGraw-Hill, 1951. Chapter 14 contains a thorough discussion of
thermal stresses and their analysis. Discusses work by earlier authors on plates (Goodier, 1936; J. P. Den Hartog, 1936), cylindrical
shells and cylinders (Den Hartog, ibid; C. H. Kent, 1931), modern general methods of analysis (M. A. Biot, 1935; Goodier. 1937;
N. O. Myklestad, 1941).
HANDBOOK OF EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS, M. Hetenyi, John Wiley and Sons, 1950. Section S of Chapter of Analogies
discusses Biot's work (1935) in reducing two-dimensional therinal stresses to dislocation theory; also suggests mechanical testing
methods for thermal stresses.

HIGH-TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES OF METALS, Parker et al, Amer. Soc. Metals, 1950.

PROPERTIES OF METALS AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES, G. V. Smith, McGraw-Hill, 1950.

WARMESPANNUNGEN, E. Melan and H. Parkus, Springer, Wien (announced for 1953).

SUMMARY REPORTS

BEHAVIOR OF METALS UNDER CONDITIONS OF THERMAL STRESS, S. S. Manson, Heat Transfer Symposium, Univ. of Mich., 1952.
THERMAL FATIGUE AND THERMAL SHOCK, H. Thielsch, Welding Res. Council Bull.

RECENT PAPERS AND REPORTS CONCERNED MOSTLY WITH ANALYSIS AND ELASTIC BEHA VIOR

THERMAL STRESSES IN SPHERES AND CYLINDERS PRODUCED BY TEMPERATURES VARYING WITH TIME, C. H. Kent, Trans.
ASME, 1932.

334
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS CHAP. 2.6

STRESSES IN BOILER TUBES SUBJECTED TO HIGH RATES OF HEAT ABSORPTION, W. L. De Baufre, Trans. ASME, 1932.

THERMAL STRESSES IN LONG CYLINDRICAL BODIES, B. E. Gatewood, Phil. Mag., 1941.

ON THERMAL STRESSES, STRAINS, AND WARPING, F. H. Murray and G. Young, AECD-2960, 1944.
THERMAL STRESSES AND STRAINS IN A FINITE CYLINDER WITH NO SURFACE FORCES, F. H. Murray, AECD-2966, 1945.
THERMAL STRESSES IN A RECTANGULAR PLATE CLAMPED ALONG AN EDGE, B. J. Aleck, J. A. M., 1949.

STRESSES IN LONG, THIN-WALLED CYLINDERS, DUE TO AN AXIAL TEMPERATURE GRADIENT, G. Horvay and W. P. Manger,
KAPL-390. 1940.

THERMAL STRESSES IN PERFORATED Plates, G. Horvay, Proc. First Nat’l. Congress of Applied Mech., KAPL P-780, 1950.
THERMOELASTIC STRESS IN THE SEMI INFINITE SOLID, R. D. Mindlin and D. H. Cheng, J. A. Ph., 1950.
THE EFFECT OF NON-UNIFORM TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTIONS ON THE STRESSES AND DISTORTIONS OF STIFFENED-SHELL
STRUCTURES, R. R. Heldenfels, NACA-TN2240, 1950.

NUMERICAL METHOD FOR STRESS ANALYSIS OF STIFFENED-SHELL STRUCTURES UNDER NON-UNIFORM TEMPERATURE DIS
TRIBUTIONS. R. R. Heldenfels, NACA-TN2241, 1950.

STRESSES IN PIPE BUNDLES, H. Poritsky and G. Horvay, J. A. M., 1951.

TEMPERATURE AND STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SPHERES, RODS, TUBES, AND PLATES IN WHICH SOURCE IS WITHIN THE
BOUNDARIES OF THE SOLIDS, J. C. Carter, ANL-4690, 1951.

TEMPERATURE STRESSES IN IRREGULAR SOLIDs, R. D. Hoyle, Nature, 1951.

BIHARMONIC RELAXATION METHOD FOR CALCULATING THERMAL STRESSES, A. G. Holms, NACA-TN2434, 1951.

TRANSIENT THERMAL stresses IN CIRCULAR DISKS, G. Horvay, KAPL-518, 1951.

STRESSES IN PERFORATED SHEETS DUE TO NON-UNIFORM HEATING, G. Horvay, Kapl-566, 1951.
THE PLANE STRESS PROBLEM OF PERFORATED PLATES, G. Horvay, J.A.M., KAPL P-769, 1952.
EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL DETERMINATION OF THERMAL STRESSES IN A FLAT PLATE, R. R. Heldenfels and M.
Roberts, NACA-TN2769, 1952.

TRANSIENT THERMAL STRESSES, M. Heisler and E. Martin, NAA-SR-176, 1952.

A GENERAL METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF THE THERMAL STRESSES IN A COMPOSITE MEDIUM. J. Brandstatter, NAA-SR-184,
1952.

SIMILARITY LAWS FOR STRESSING HEATED WINGS, H. S. Tsien, L.A.S., 1953.

THERMAL BUNDLING OF PLATES, M. L. Gossard, P. Seide, and W. M. Roberts, NACA-TN2771, 1952.

THERMAL STRESSES IN A PARTIALLY CLAMPED ELASTIC HALF-PLANE, J. H. Huth, J. A. Ph., 1952.

TRANSIENT THERMAL STRESSES IN DISKS AND CYLINDERS, G. Horvay, Paper to be presented at Los Angeles meeting of the
ASME, 1953.

RECENT PAPERS AND REPORTS CONCERNED MOSTLY WITH PLASTICITY, CREEP,

FATIGUE, SHOCK, AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND DATA.
APPLICATION OF BAILEY's THEORY OF TUBE STRESS CALCULATIONS, C. O. Rays, Proc. Am. Petroleum Inst., Vol. 19, 1938.
cyclic HEATING TEST OF STEAM PIPING JOINTs BETWEEN FERRITIC AND AUSTENITIC SHElls, H. Weisberg. Trans. ASME,
1949.

ANALYSIS OF ROTATING DISKS OF ARBITRARY CONTOUR AND TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN THE REGION OF PLASTIC
DEFORMATION, S. S. Manson, Proc. First Nat’l. Congress of Applied Mech., ASME, 1950.
SAFETY MARGINS AND STRESS LEVELS IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE EQUIPMENT, E. L. Robinson, Trans. ASME, 1951.

ExPERIENCE wrth AUSTENItic stEEls IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE SERVICE IN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY, M. E. Holmberg, Trans.
ASME, 1951.

CENTRIFUGAL AND THERMAL STRESSES IN DISKS, AND STRESS CHANGES DUE TO PLASTIC FLOW AND CREEP, R. L. Brooking,
J. Brown, and B. R. Atkins, Nat’l. Gas Turbine Establishment (Great Britain), Report R-122, 1952.
AN APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF CYCLIC THERMAL STRESSES ON DUCTILE METALS, L. F. Coffin and R. P.
Wesley, KAPL-830, 1952.
STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF CYCLIC THERMAL STRESSES IN A DUCTILE METAL, L. F. Coffin, KAPL, 1953.

THERMAL-SHOCK AND OTHER COMPARISON TESTS OF AUSTENITIC AND FERRITIC STEELS FOR MAIN STEAM PIPING, W. C.
Steward and W. G. Schreitz, ASME Transaction, Oct. 1950.

335
 CHAPTER 2.7

Design and Construction of

External Heat-transfer System

The technology of sodium and NaK heat-transfer systems is comparatively well devel
oped; both large- and small-scale systems have been operated over extended periods at
temperatures up to 1000°F with a fluid temperature rise as high as 300°F. Power plants
with mercury as the working fluid have been operated successfully for many years.
Lithium and lead-bismuth coolants, on the other hand, have been studied only in small
scale laboratory systems.
Most experience with liquid metals has been limited to non-radioactive systems. To
date, two liquid-metal-cooled reactors have been operated, viz., the NaK-cooled Experi
mental Breeder Reactor (EBR), which is a dual-purpose installation of power-plant scale,
and the mercury-cooled fast-reactor at Los Alamos, from which the heat is removed
without power production. Although transfer of radioactive material with liquid metal as
the carrier has been noted in laboratory experiments, it was not observed at EBR after
approximately 12 megawatt-days of operation.
The design and construction of liquid metal systems is based upon established high
temperature practice with special provisions for the unusual properties of the liquid
metals:
(1) It is most important that the system be completely leak-tight to prevent escape of
radioactive and/or chemically active coolant, or in-leakage of air. This requirement af
fects every component and is most significant in the design of pumps and valves, which
entail shaft penetrations into the system. All-welded construction is recommended for
piping and heat exchangers, and leak testing with sensitive instruments, such as the helium
mass spectrometer, is advisable both during and after fabrication.
(2) A high degree of system cleanliness is essential. Internal surfaces must be kept free
of welding scale, cutting oils, and dirt during assembly; the completed system should be
degreased with an appropriate solvent, then flushed out and thoroughly dried.
(3) For metals with high melting points, e.g., sodium, lithium, or lead-bismuth, freezing
and plugging difficulties are encountered, particularly in small lines, and provision must
be made for preheating the entire system before circulation is started.

HEAT EXCHANGERS AND STEAM GENERATORS

(D. B. Nelson)

Units for the exchange of heat from one liquid metal circuit to another are used to 1so
late a reactor coolant from a non-radioactive system. These “intermediate heat ex
changers” must be specially constructed to prevent leakage between circuits should the
reactor coolant become highly radioactive. Since their normal operating pressures are
low (less than 100 psi), some latitude in design configuration is available.

337
 º
CHAP. 2.7 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

For liquid metal steam generators, the potentially violent reaction between water and
the alkali metals necessitates special construction features. Moreover, design latitude is
considerably restricted since steam pressures of 400-600 psi may be required.
Thus, most liquid-metal heat-transfer units, whether exchangers or steam generators,
have been designed so that simultaneous faults in two separate circuits must occur before
the fluids can mix. Several such installations have been operated in the Alplaus Heat
Transfer Test System at the Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory. In these units, the conven
tional shell-and-tube configuration has been modified to include concentric tubes joined to
individual tube sheets with a static liquid (thermal bond) in the annulus between tubes and
in the space between tube sheets; sodium has been used as the static fluid in the heat ex
changers and mercury in the steam generators. Leakage from either circuit can be de
tected from a variation of the pressure or the volume of the static fluid. Thermal expan
sion is taken up by bellows expansion joints or by using free-mounted hairpin tubes.
A heat exchanger and steam generator of different designs are used in the power con
version system of the Experimental Breeder Reactor.” The heat exchanger is of the
shell-and-tube type with hairpin tubes of “L” nickel and with seal-welded mechanical
joints. The steam generator is composed of concentric nickel tubes; the annular spaces
are filled with copper provided with minute longitudinal flutes to allow passage of gas. The
presence of metal vapor or oxides in the gas permits detection of leaks.
Duplex tubes without an intermediate bonding medium and either with or without detec
tion flutes are also under development.”
Completely separate circuits can also be maintained by passing each fluid through its
own set of tubes. The two sets are intermeshed to form a bundle immersed in the static
fluid which provides the thermal bond between the tubes. Differential expansion between
the outer shell and both sets of tubes is absorbed by bending of the hockey-stick-shaped
tubes (Fig. 2.7.1). Such units yield high over-all heat-transfer coefficients at relatively
low pressure drops, since all circulation is inside tubes. Still further reduction in size
has been gained by flattening the tubes to approach a flat-plate configuration. Shell-and
tube units of single-walled tube construction have been used in numerous cases where less
assurance of leak tightness was required.
The performance of two liquid metal heat exchangers is illustrated by Fig. 2.7.2. The
data" are for sodium-to-NaK heat exchangers designed for 8 x 10'Btu/hr rating at a log
mean temperature difference of 70°F. The over-all heat-transfer coefficient is plotted
against flow rate when the ratio

W. c
ºak
WN Pisk or AtNak
c
“Na = 0.77, 1.0, and 1.3
a PNa

where W = mass flow rate, lb/hr

cp = specific heat, Btu/(lb)(°F)
At = temperature rise, “F

These exchangers employed “L” nickel tubes and a sodium-filled annulus to obtain maxi
mum thermal conductance of the walls and thereby capitalize on the high, liquid-metal,
heat-transfer coefficients. Wall resistance still represents 30 to 50 percent of the total.
Steam-generator performance is illustrated by the Fig. 2.7.3 evaporator and super
heater data of units described by Brooks and Rosenblatt." These are of concentric-tube
construction with static mercury as the thermal bond. The steam circuits differ in that
one is natural circulation and the other forced circulation. The values obtained indicate
the general experience in producing steam at 500 psia and superheating to 760°F.

*References appear at end of chapter.

338
 339
CHAP. 2.7

ºzg6I ºg ºndºs “ÁIoşe Ioqeri Jºaoa oſuqoqw siloux. Aq peqąpuu

-qns ºqueueºuer Iv,…xſoņs-Keyſ ooH, , q !paa Jeſusųoxºſ ſee H ºg eſpeurequI eqn4-481） - I º Lºz *8ț¢I
EXTERNAL HEAT-TRANSFER SYSTEM
CHAP. 2.7 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

to
8
o STATIC No “N STATIC No.

\
No 3 No F.
O
I. \
c
o T
- --> No
Nok K Nok § 3.
wo -

I.O32" !
86 Nok TUBES Ł
4. No TUBES -
HEAT TRANSFER AREA = 59.6 SQ FT --.43" I.D.

--.50"O.D.
H FLAT TUBE Exchange:R 72 TUBES
TS TRIANGULAR BPACING
PITCH = .875"
|- (wCp) Nok 1.3
- HEAT TRANSFER
tº Nº T * I.O AREA = 80.4 SQ FT
COUNTER FLOw
UNBAFFLED SHELL SIDE

_-Round TUBE Exchanger

3.

I
|-

|-"
ºlº.
(wCp) No
1.3, loor

I L-1–1–1–1–1 I I 1–1–1–
4. 2 4. 6 8 105 2 4. g-a-lº
FLOW OF Nok, Ib/hr

Fig. 2.7.2- Over-all Heat-transfer Coefficient as a Function of Weight Flow

of NaK for two Alplaus Liquid-metal Heat Exchangers. Submitted by Knolls
Atomic Power Laboratory, Sept. 8, 1952. Sodium temperature at inlet for both
exchangers was 950°F.

340
EXTERNAL HEAT-TRANSFER SYSTEM CHAP. 2.7

103
No K
H

s}
6+ o E
o *
ºlº o
44- Evgporators | o

i
N. C. _- --

T F. C. | -- |- . 120" wall
e
> ––4 --

O. D.
t

§ 24
T
5.
F. C. 2
^ Superheaters
2
Q 2 N. C

*H All units tubed as

z shown obove
u
: 84
O
|: Hed? Transfer Areqs

§ 64– Forced circulation (FC)

O
0. Superheater 35.7 sq ft
§ Ewo poroter 79.4 sq ft
9 *H
§ Natural circulation (N. C.)
H. Superheater 30.7 sq ft
5 Evoporotor 77, O sq ft
r
-]
-] 24–
q
[r
u!
>
o

'91— | I | l l | I |
104 2 6 8 to 5 4 6 8 to 6
FLOW OF NaK, Ib/hr

Fig. 2.7.3– Over-all Heat-transfer Coefficient as a Function of Weight Flow

of NaK for Alplaus Liquid-metal Steam Generators. Submitted by Knolls Atomic
Power Laboratory, Sept. 8, 1952. NaK inlet temperature ranged from 790°F to
905°F.

341
CHAP. 2.7 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

The superheater of the Experimental Breeder Reactor is composed of four of the nickel
copper-nickel tubes described above. The NaK flows through the four tubes in parallel
while steam makes the four passes in series. The tubes are 2 in. ID and 10 ft long with a
total internal heat-transfer area of 20 sq ft. At a NaK rate of 278 gpm and a steam rate of
3160 lb/hr, the over-all coefficient was 95 Btu/(hr)(sq ft)(“F); the NaK entered at 560°F
while the steam left at 510°F and 390 psig.
Tube diameter and tube spacing play a large part in determination of heat-transfer rates
per unit volume of the tube bundle. Comparative performance factors, Btu/(hr)(°F)(cu ft),
are shown in Fig. 2.7.4 for Na-heated water evaporators of a range of tube diameters and
spacings. A basic configuration of Na inside the tubes, Hg-filled annuli, and boiling water
in the shell is used for this comparison. The significance of tube-wall conductance is
illustrated by the dotted family of curves in which Type-347 stainless steel has been re
placed by nickel–zirconium as the tube material and the mercury in the annulus replaced
by sodium.
Tubes of differing designs are compared in the bar chart of Fig. 2.7.5. All tubes shown
are 0.83 in. ID with the sodium-side coefficient and the outside boiling-coefficient assumed
constant. Spacing was assumed to be in accord with the Standards of the Tubular Ex
changer Manufacturer’s Association (see Fig. 2.7.4).

PUMPS AND WALVES

(J. F. Cage, Jr., and G. D. Collins)

PUMPS

From a purely hydraulic point of view, pumping of sodium and NaK is relatively easy.
The physical properties (vapor pressure, density, and viscosity) are such that mechanical
pumping is possible; the electrical resistivity and permeability of the fluids make them
suitable for pumping by electromagnetic means. There are a large number of materials
which are sufficiently corrosion resistant to be useable as structural materials in pumps
for service up to about 1000°F. With the exception of the bearings, choice of materials is
not usually a major problem in the design of pumps.
There are, however, general requirements which have made special design and develop
ment necessary for high-temperature sodium and NaK pumps. These are:
(1) Ability to pump high-temperature liquids. This is not a particularly unique problem,
as it has been encountered in the pumping of high-temperature salts and oils in other ap
plications. However, it calls for special features in the design of windings and drive
motors which are more troublesome than those encountered in conventional pump design.
(2) Ability to operate for extended periods without maintenance. Since maintanance may
be difficult because of radiation hazard, an attempt should be made to minimize or elimi
nate parts subject to wear and fatigue and components requiring adjustment.
(3) The necessity of leakless, or nearly leakless, operation. This is usually the govern
ing factor in the design and selection of pumps and has led to the development of unusual
means for sealing mechanical pumps as well as to the development of electromagnetic
pumps which can be made inherently leakless.
In addition, the unique features of the application may dictate the type of pump to be
used and greatly influence its design. Some of these features are:
(1) The space available for the pump.
(2) Source of power for the pump and space available for special power supplies.
(3) Available auxiliary systems—water or gas cooling systems, bearing oil supply sys
tems, available provisions to vent bleed off gases, and the like.
(4) The relative importance of the weight of the pump in the over-all system design.
(5) The fluid circuit characteristics and location of free surfaces—whether the pump is
required to pump from a sump into an overhead tank or to circulate in a closed system.

342
EXTERNAL, HEAT-TRANSFER SYSTEM CHAP. 2.7

KOO
90k
8O

7Ok

60

*H
an

230H
->
o
×
u

§:

*H=
Ş.
-
s-14:
9

3
: Ao”
s=1/2-

30
8 °F º
S-5/8"–

8
: 7 S=3/4t

> 6
Hº

: 5 º

0.
º 4.

ul
º

} 347–Hg-347 tubes

*
Standards of Hoot Exchonger Manufacturers Association
aroº
| I I I I I I I
Q4 O.6 Oſ3 I 2 4 6 O IO
O.D. OF OUTER TUBE, in.

Fig. 2.7.4— Heating Rate per Unit Volume of the Tube Bundle as a Function
of OD of Outer Tube for Two Types of Concentric Tubes. Submitted by Knolls
Atomic Power Laboratory, Sept. 8, 1952.

343
CHAP. 2.7 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

SINGLE Ni: Fº-zr wall =

SINGLEEGTSTANLESSSTL WALL_

DUPLEx NI : +%-Zr TUBE

(NO FLUTES-NO CONTACT RESISTANCE)

DoualE NHº-Z: TUBE-INo ANNULUS)

DOUBLE Ni'TUBE WITH Cu

*
BONDED IN ANNULUS-(FLUTED)

DUPLEX"347" TUBE
(NO FLUTES - NO CONTACT RESISTANCE)

DOUBLE '347" TUBE

(No ANNULUS)

DOUBLE '347'
(Hg ANNULUS)

DOUBLE '347'
(Pb-Bi ANNULUS)
º

_l l l l l
O 5 OOO IOOOO 15 OOO 2O OOO 25OOO 30000

HEATING RATE PER UNIT volumE OF TUBE BUNDLE, Btu/(hr) (“F) (cu ft)
Fig. 2.7.5— Heating Rate per Unit Volume of Tube Bundle for Tubes of Vari
ous Designs. Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, Sept. 8, 1952.
Spacing according to Tubular Exchanger Manufacturer's Association.

344
EXTERNAL, HEAT-TRANSFER SYSTEM CHAP. 2.7

(6) The pressure available at the pump inlet to prevent cavitation.

(7) Method of speed control—whether the pump operates at constant flow or whether the
flow is variable, and by what means this variation is obtained.
(8) Whether the pump is stationary in space or is required to operate under conditions of
pitch, roll, and mechanical shock expected in a mobile plant. .
Liquid-metal pumps have been designed to meet unusual system requirements or to take
advantage of different facilities. As a consequence, they vary widely both in type and in
design depending on the application:
(1) In the EBR, circulation through the reactor is maintained by gravity flow from an
overhead tank into a sump. In this application, a DC Faraday-type pump is used to pump
from the sump to the overhead tank.
(2) In numerous test loops, where dependable operation is required and space for special
power supplies is available, the DC Faraday-type electromagnetic pump has been widely
and successfully used.
(3) The characteristics of a number of electromagnetic and mechanical pumps con
sidered for some of these applications are listed in Tables 2.7.1 and 2.7.2.
Sufficient development has been done on certain types of pumps to allow some general
conclusions which are of interest whenever the application of a proposed pump to some
future reactor cooling system is being considered. In this analysis, pumps are divided into
two general groups, mechanical and electromagnetic.

MECHANICAL

The problems encountered in the design of pumps for sodium and NaK are, with certain
exceptions discussed in the following paragraphs, those encountered in any pump design.
Cavitation parameters in sodium and NaK appear to follow the laws governing this phe
nomenon in other fluids. It has been observed that during conditions of severe cavitation the
rate of loss of material in 400°F sodium is several times that in water at room tempera
ture.
The operation of bearings in sodium and NaK is difficult because of the increased tend
ency of materials to gall when rubbing in liquid metals. This markedly reduces the life of
most antifriction bearings and limits the selection of materials for slider-type bearings.
The wearing characteristics of approximately 400 pairs of materials have been evaluated in
NaK at various temperatures up to about 850°F; the best of these are listed in Table 2.7.3.
The problem of obtaining an adequate shaft seal has led to a number of methods which so
influence the pump design that mechanical pumps can be categorized by the method of seal
ing. Three such categories are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Shaft-seal Pumps
Pumps utilizing a shaft seal are the nearest in design to conventional pumps. The shaft
can be driven by the most suitable means, such as an AC or DC motor, turbine, or other
conventional prime mover, which allows maximum flexibility of control and minimizes or
eliminates special power supplies. Conventional bearings are used and lubricated in a
normal manner.
Shaft seals which seal the liquid metal directly have, for the most part, been found not
Suitable. A number of pumps have been built and operated which utilize a double-seal ar
rangement in which the leakage of liquid metal through one seal is accumulated in a reser
voir under an inert gas blanket; the second seal serves to prevent leakage of the gas. A
design of this sort is shown in Fig. 2.7.6. This arrangement requires an auxiliary system
to accommodate the fluid leaking past the first seal and successful operation depends on
the maintenance of proper fluid levels throughout the entire system. Effective periods
between maintenance are usually limited by the operation of the gas seal.

345
:
lubrica
seal
cooler,
Shaft exchanger,
air
ambient
amplidyne
hp
20
v,
250
type General
face
seal,
Shaft Co.
Electric Na-to-kerosene
heat
by-pass
LM
tion,

KAPL
Alplaus, Oil-lubricated
circulation voltage
Vary
(500)
1750 motor
DC

800°F
400 126 108
52 15 50

Lab.
National
Argonne
controller
and
tor
phase,
3
cycles,
60 Liquid-level
indica Oil-lubricated
ball
fan
contained
Self
motor
Induction
motor
Canned
EBR
ARCO,
bearings
kw
8.2 Constant

Mechanical
–
2.7.1
Table
Pumps (...)
1750 275°C
500
53 86 50 54

Wilcox
&
Babcock phase,
3
kw
135 Sodium-lubricated oil-cooled
Forced
motor
Induction cycles,
60
v,
460 pump
oil
Cooling
Jackson
Byron bearings
ball frequency
Vary
rotor
Canned
windings
(500)
900 ~10,000
3625 890°F
126 102 <15
50 55

Liquid-lubricated, sby
hydro tatic-pres urized impeller jacket
water
changer,
auxiliary
on
Liquid-water
ex
heat
phase,
3
kw
195
Al is-Chalmers motor
Induction cycles,
60
v,
150 stator
around frequency
Vary
rotor
Canned shaft
main
Milwaukee
(350)
1690

3800 5400 None

125
80 35 15 45
head
suction
positive
*Net

rpm)
(min,
rpm
Speed, temperature
LM
Max.
requirements
Power

Characteristic in.
length,
Axial flow
of
Control
gpm
Capacity, in.
Diameter, psia
*
NPSH,
Auxiliaries
lb
Weight, Ef iciency,
36
Location ft
Head, Bearings
Builder Cooling
Drive

É
 :
ex
field
drive,
25-hp
amp
30
citation ex
or
speed
Vary
Centrifugal Al is-Chalmers
EM

Milwaukee
citation
B
Class Na
17%
1600
275 Air
55

Lab.
National
Argonne

amp,
18,000
v,
0.8
Steel
Stainless
current
Vary
Faraday
DC EBR
ARCO,
NaK
40%
DC None None
500
2.7.2–Electromagnetic
Table
Pumps 50

induction
Round
Electric
General phase,
3
kw
28 Phosphoasbestos
diameter
in.
25
cps,
25
v,
200 voltage
Vary
long
in.
38 air,
Forced cfm
1000
B
Class
KAPL
400
54 20% 80%
phase,
3
kw
130
induction General
Linear Electric
fn.
i7
8
long
t, Steel
Stainless
cps,
60
v,
440 water,
Forced voltage
Vary
high
in.
15.5
37
•
wide
in.
gpm
50
H
Class Na 35%
37% Na
KAPL
2500 3900
100
21

induction General
Linear Electric phase,
3
kw
80 Phosphoasbestos
cps,
60
v,
350 voltage
Vary
long
ft
8.5 wide
in.
37 high
in.
24 air,
Forced cfm
2000
B
Class Na 50%
37% Na
KAPL head
suction
positive
*Net
1400 6430
100
20

requirements
Power
insulation
Thermal

Characteristic flow
of
Control
gpm
Capacity, factor
Power
Dimensions psia
*
NPSH,
rpm
Speed, lb
Weight, Insulation Efficiency
Location ft
Head,
Builder Cooling

§
:
member
Rotating
member
Fixed
X304OD Kentanium
Carboloy X304OD
Carboloy
K-138
K-138A
K-152B
Kentanium :*
a
tº
122
alloy
Aluminum
K-138A
Kentanium
55A18-4-1
nitrided
HSTS
Copper
s.s.
416

44A Carboloy
X304OD
779
Carboloy
Carboloy White
44A
Carboloy
779
J
Stellite iron
cast 77B
779
S.S.
PH
17-4
K-12
Kentanium SCarboloy
44A
intercast Carboloy
WF-87 907
WF-87
Sintercast
K-138
Kentanium
Firthite
K-151
Kentanium 831
Carboloy
HT-77 Firthite
HT-77
TiC
Fe-80%
20%
K-138
Kentanium
779
Carboloy
55A Kentanium
779
Carboloy
K-138
CTantung
K-151
Garboloy 20%
TiC
Fe-80%
779
Carboloy
HSTS Kentanium
K-138
Kentanium
6-6-2 779
Carboloy
K-138A
HSTS
18–4–1
fixed
the
of
wear
smooth
Some
II.
Group
of
transfer
apparent
no
Specimen,
the
of
polishing
material,
specimen
rotating
8350°F
0 °–950°F
600°F

specimens.
both
polishing
material,
of
transfer
apparent
no
wear,
Negligible
I.
Group

2.7.3–Wearing
Table
NaK*
in
Materials
of
Properties

HST's
18–4–1
bronze
Aluminum

779
Carbolov
pper

24ST4
Aluminum
52.100
SAE
Copper
52100
SAE

122
alloy
Aluminum
779
Carboloy
Co

§
 F

specimen,
sleeve
the
of
wear
smooth
or
sleeve,
to
rial
III.
Group of
mate
transfer
minor
specimen,
fixed
the
wear
Smooth
to
specimen
fixed
material
of
transfer
minor
55A 779
Carboloy K-138A Carboloy
Kentanium 779
24ST4
Aluminum 779
Carboloy Carboloy
J
Stellite 779
Carboloy Molybdenum 779
Carboloy
6
Stellite 779
Carboloy
HSTS
18–4–1 779
Carboloy HT-77
Firthite 77B
Carboloy
bronze
Aluminum 779
Carboloy
779
Carboloy G
Tantung 779
Carboloy TiC
Fe-80%
20% K-138A
Kentanium
Molybdenum
779
Carboloy HSTS
18-4-1 98M2
Stellite K-138
Kentanium K-138A
Kentanium
52100
SAE
nitrided
HSTS
18-4-1 Tantung
G Stellite
98M2 K-138A
Kentanium K-138A
Kentanium
Tantung
G
Re)
(60
HSTS
18–4–1 tung
Graph 98M2
Stellite K-138
Kentanium K-138
Kentanium
copper
Beryllium
24ST4
Aluminum Re)
(60
HSTS
18-4-1 98M2
Stellite 98M2
Stellite 44A
Carboloy K-138
Kentanium
Re)
(60
HSTS
18–4–1 K-151
Kentanium K-138
Kentanium
18–4–1
HSTS
Rc)
(60
HSTS
18-4-1 55A
Carboloy K-138
Kentanium
24S
Aluminum
steel
spring
Onyx Rc)
(60
HSTS
18–4–1 HSTS
18–4–1 K-138
Kentanium

J
Stellite
bronze
commercial
Leaded No.
6
Colmonoy HT-77
Firthite
steel
die
Alloy J
Stellite HT-77
Firthite HT-77
Firthite
Tantung
G J
Stellite 44A
Carboloy HT-77
Firthite

nitrided
s.s.
Type-347 J
Stellite X304OD
Carboloy HT-77
Firthite

55A
Carboloy 52100
SAE 77B
Carboloy HT-77
Firthite
55A
Carboloy HT-77
Firthite
907
Carboloy HT-77
Firthite
120
Carboloy HT-77
Firthite
78
Carboloy HT-77
Firthite
6
No.
Colmonoy No.
6
Colmonoy
K-12
Kentanium 6
No.
Colmonoy
bronze
Aluminum 98M2
Stellite
98M2
Stellite 98M2
Stellite
55A
Carboloy WF-87
Sintercast
78
Carboloy WF-87
Sintercast

1%-in.-diame
%5-in.-diame
acircumferenc
against
loaded
is
cylinder
right
of
end
the
which
in
tests
by
determined
*As ter
e
900
rpm
at
rotating
cylinder

:
§
CHAP. 2.7 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

Shaft seals employing frozen sodium have been used on small shafts with moderate suc
cess. Sodium is allowed to leak into a thin annulus surrounding the shaft; the temperature
in this region is kept below the freezing point by means of forced cooling. As a result of
friction, a thin film of molten sodium is maintained immediately around the shaft. The
film can withstand moderate pressures without being expelled.

Canned-rotor Pumps
In canned-rotor pumps, sealing is accomplished by means of a thin cylindrical liner in
terposed in the air gap between the stator and the rotor of the induction motor which
drives the pump. The end of the liner facing the impeller is welded to and open to the
main pump body, which is made leak tight and filled with the liquid metal. The opposite
end of the liner usually contains a radial bearing and is welded closed. Liquid metal gen
erally fills the gap and surrounds the rotor; the liquid metal serves to remove rotor heat
losses and lubricates the bearings, which are entirely internal. Forced cooling of the
stator windings is necessary and is usually accomplished by a water jacket on the motor
yoke. An auxiliary heat exchanger is required to remove the rotor losses from the liquid
metal which flows through the gap; this portion of the liquid metal is kept separate from
the main stream and maintained at as low a temperature as can be tolerated without caus–
ing an excessive concentration of oxides within the pump.
Canned-rotor pumps are generally compact. They require circulating-liquid cooling
systems which occasionally must have special temperature control. The use of forced air
or gas cooling simplifies the pump design but usually requires gas-monitoring systems
and excessive shield penetrations. Since they are totally sealed, canned-rotor pumps re
quire no vent or bleed off and are independent of the location of free surfaces in the sys
tem. Power must be supplied from a suitable AC source. If voltage control of flow varia
tion is required, the drive motor must be oversize and must contain special design
features. Speed variation is limited to a range of about 20 to 100 percent of full speed by
bearing operation if either hydrodynamic or internally supplied pressure pad bearings are
used. This range can be extended to substantially zero percent if externally supplied pres–
sure pad bearings are used. Efficiencies up to 55 percent have been obtained with pumps
of this type.
A canned-rotor pump using externally supplied pressure pad bearings and gas cooling is
shown in Fig. 2.7.7.

Canned—motor Pump
In the canned-motor pump, the drive motor, pump shaft, and bearings are enclosed in a
hermetically sealed vessel in which an inert-gas blanket covers the liquid metal; this avoids
shaft penetrations of the gas blanket and its associated seal. Conventional bearings are
usually used, and precautions are taken to prevent the diffusion of liquid-metal vapor into
the bearings and motor.
Pumps of this type have been used in stationary applications, usually as a sump-type
pump when liquid-level control can be maintained by gravity. Since these pumps are
totally enclosed, vents and auxiliary systems are not required. The canned-motor pump
is not particularly compact because the motor and gas vessel are gas-cooled. Because of
the high wear of carbon brushes operated in the absence of water vapor, DC motors have
not been required. The problems associated with the use of an induction motor are the
same as for those using an induction motor driving a canned-rotor pump.

ELECTROMAGNETIC PUMPS

Electromagnetic pumps, which utilize the effect of electromagnetic forces on the liquid
metal, have been the subject of extensive development for the past five years.

350
extERNAL, HEAT-TRANSFER SYSTEM CHAP. 2.7

Coupl_ING

ALPLAUS
MECHANICAL PUMP
FOR THE GENIE HEAT transfer system
400 gpm - 126 FT. HEAD

BEARINGs

GAs INLET t DiscHARGE LINE

oil-cooling cº-ºr

|- tº suction LINE

SEAL Assº.
TAP oil-oran -

LAByrint

I-PELLER

shaft
COOLER
LAByrinth

drawn TANK

Fig. 2.7.6–Shaft-seal Pump Tested at Alplaus (400 gpm, 126-ft head). Sub
mitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, Sept. 8, 1952.

351
:
ANT
Cool

BEARING Out
-
ANT
cool
winding

Out 2.7.7–CSept.
Fig.
Power
Atomic
Knolls
by
Submitted
Pump. Lanbedo-roatorory,
1952.
8,

§
EXTERNAL HEAT-TRANSFER SYSTEM CHAP. 2.7

All electromagnetic pumps have the desirable feature of requiring no penetration into
the liquid metal which makes complete sealing possible. Their size and weight are of the
same order of magnitude as mechanical liquid-metal pumps of the same rating. They re
quire no venting or gas bleed lines, are independent of the location of free surfaces in the
fluid system, and normally have characteristics which are independent of their orientation
in space.
Electromagnetic pumps contain the liquid metal in ducts which vary in wall thickness
from about 0.025 to 0.060 in. Normal practice is to provide secondary support for these
thin-walled members so that they are not required to withstand operating pressures.
Cavitation of the fluid in the neighborhood of these thin-walled members must be
avoided. Tests have shown that maintaining a total pressure at the pump inlet approxi
mately 2.5 times the maximum velocity head in the pump is sufficient to prevent cavita
tion, provided that the hydraulic passages are reasonably well designed.
Three types of electromagnetic pumps which have been built and tested in various sizes
and which are fairly well developed are the linear, AC, induction pump, the helical-flow
induction pump, and the DC Faraday type. These are discussed in the following paragraphs
and their characteristics are shown in Table 2.7.2.

Linear Induction Pump

This pump utilizes a multipole field traveling axially down the fluid duct. The field is
produced by polyphase AC windings located on two sides of the duct, normally of rectangu
lar cross section. Present practice is to limit fluid velocities to about 40 ft/sec or less
and to maintain an aspect ratio in the duct cross section of about 24:1. A model of the
linear induction pump is shown in Fig. 2.7.8.
Since the windings must be close to the hot liquid-metal duct, their cooling requires
special attention. Pumps can be designed to use either gas or water cooling, and moderate
winding temperatures can be maintained with reasonable quantities of coolant. A water
cooled pump (the 2500-gpm unit in Table 2.7.2) is shown in Fig. 2.7.9.
Efficiencies of about 40 percent have been obtained with pumps of this type, and values
as high as 50 percent should be possible. The power factor is characteristically low,
usually about 40 percent. Improvement in efficiency can be obtained at the expense of a
reduction in power factor. Linear pumps can be designed to operate at 60 cps-voltages
without severe design compromises. The performance of the 2500-gpm unit is given in
Fig. 2.7.10.
The characteristics of the linear induction pump make it suitable for operation over a
wide flow range using voltage control; AC power is, of course, required. The low power
factor requires the use of either high-KVA-rating alternators or power-factor-correction
equipment, such as capacitors. The only auxiliary system required is the winding cooling
system, either water or gas. Temperature regulation of the coolant is not normally re
quired.

Helical-flow Induction Pump

This pump is similar to the linear induction pump in principle; the fluid, however, is
contained in a hollow cylindrical duct (Fig. 2.7.11), rather than in a flat duct of rectangular
cross section. The helical-flow type is usually more compact than a linear pump of the
same rating but normally about 50 percent heavier. The operational characteristics and
cooling requirements for both are similar. The two differ in that the helical type usually
requires a frequency less than 60 cps for optimum efficiency.

353
 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

*2961 ‘8 ºndes "Kroņexoqeri reaaoa

oluosv ºlioux aeq peuruuqms ‘duma uononpui rwauſti jo lepow – g-l-z -2,5
|-
CHAP. 2.7

354
 355
CHAP. 2.7

*ZG6I ºg ºndes
• Kuoqeroqeri raawoa oſuuoºv slloux. Aq pºſſuaqnSºdundi uopąonpu.I JeøuȚII pºtooo-JeqeAA–6” Lºz ºº!）
ExtERNAL HEAT-TRANSFER SYSTEM
:-）
Cha P. 2.7 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

IOO

8O

ºn
Ch.
so 3OOV
#
5. 23O V NA 380 V
£ 40 N
{
2O N- N \ 44OV

O S N

0.6

POWER FACTOR
T-E-L

sº ºf .2 440 V –
§§
º
150 V
38OV
X
2 |
O KOOO 15OO 2OOO 25OO 3OOO 3500

FLow RATE, gpm

Fig. 2.7.10-Performance Characteristics of 2500-gpm Linear Induction Pump.

Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, Sept. 8, 1952.

356
EXTERNAL HEAT-TRANSFER SYSTEM CHAP. 2.7

Fig. 2.7.11–Helical-fiow Induction Pump. Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power

Laboratory, Sept. 8, 1952.

357
CHAP. 2.7 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

DC Faraday Type

This is the most elementary of all the electromagnetic pumps and has the simplest con–
struction. The fluid is contained in a thin-walled duct, usually of rectangular or square
cross section, which is located in a constant field. Current is forced through the fluid in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of the field and the direction of flow. This current
is conducted into the fluid by electrodes which are normally brazed to the walls of the duct.
These elements are shown schematically in Fig. 2.7.12.

CORE

POLE FACE MAGNETIC

—s— RETURN
|NLET CIRCUIT

ELECTRODE
FLUID
— DUCT

CUFA'E/V7

EXCITING
WINDING

ALOW/

Fig. 2.7.12–Schematic Drawing of DC Faraday Pump. Submitted by Knolls

Atomic Power Laboratory. Sept. 8, 1952.

The theory of operation of the DC pump is fairly well developed, and design parameters
are understood well enough so that the design of a pump of this type is a reasonably
straightforward process. Methods of compensating for the field distortion owing to the cur

358
EXTERNAL HEAT-TRANSFER SYSTEM CHAP. 2.7

rent flowing in the fluid have not been worked out thoroughly, nor has a method for multiple
re-entry of the current been successfully developed.
Efficiencies of about 50 percent have been obtained with this pump, and theoretical anal
yses have indicated that higher efficiencies should be possible. This type inherently has
a low characteristic input impedance and requires a very-low-voltage, DC power source.
Most DC Faraday pumps must operate at less than 2 volts.
DC Faraday pumps can be made with shunt or separately excited field coils which are
cooled by natural convection and which utilize varnish-type insulation. Series-connected
pumps have also been built which require no electrical insulation in the conventional
sense, thereby avoiding cooling requirements altogether.
DC Faraday pumps are usually equivalent to helical-flow induction pumps in weights but
are somewhat more bulky. Flow control over a wide range can be obtained by voltage
variation, a stable satisfactory method. The unusual power requirements, however, are a
handicap; the difficulty of supplying very large currents, plus the sheer bulk of bus-bar
work to carry them, have prevented use of the DC Faraday type in applications where
capacities above a few hundred gpm are required.

WALVES

Valves for service in liquid metal systems are usually distinguishable from conventional
valves for high-temperature service only in that more attention is given to sealing the
valve stem. Bellows are generally used, but occasionally, double bellows are employed.
Valve seats of conventional design are used for liquid metals; hard-facing materials
such as stellite are satisfactory for sodium up to about 950°F. Conventionally designed and
manufactured valve seats are not capable of completely stopping liquid sodium under
moderate pressure, and freezing is generally used where a complete shut-off is required.
There has been little development of special valves for liquid-metal service since most
requirements have been met using standard valves with little or no modification. Work on
valves has largely been limited to testing of bellows to establish their probable life when
used as stem seals. The dependability of valves is limited owing to the statistical proba
bility of premature bellows failure.

AUXILLARY EQUIPMENT

Table 2.7.4 is a summary of the types of piping, insulation, and joints which have been
used with some liquid metals.

INSTRUMENTATION
(F. O. Prescott)

Most of the development work in liquid-metal instrumentation has been done for sodium
and NaK, but many of the instruments are applicable with some modification to lithium and
lead-bismuth and possibly other liquid metals. Comparison of physical properties of a
given liquid metal with those of sodium and NaK will indicate the possibility of applying
these instruments.
The liquid-metal properties which affect instrumentation are:
(1) Thermal conductivity—high values are very advantageous in temperature measure
ments, affording fast time-constants and good, representative, mixed mean-temperature
measurements.
(2) Electrical conductivity—high values permit the application of such devices as the
magnetic flowmeters and resistance level-detectors.

359
:
are
piping
pressure
for
dures Croencsoimdernadteido.n
unsatisfactory operation
are
Flanges
for design of
the
to
given
be
should back
without
joints
welded have been
gaskets
soft-iron
using
temper
wide
over Piping-Code
proce
welding system
the
in
maining
after satisfactory
proved
have
up over 100
for
Li
to
exposed leak
without
800°F
at
hr
regions.
inert-gas
in
used the amount
minimize
to
rings
ing re
metal
liquid
of prefer ed,
are
joints
Welded flanges
ring-type
Standard
be
may
but
ranges
ature joints
Flanged
1000°F.
to
especial y
1000°F.
above

Joints

draining

ing

spillage. Many
or
leaks
smother
and experimental
some
In
1500°F.
contain
to
tends
NaK
and insulations
usual
the
of Super-X have
magnesia
standard
and Weber's
employed.
been
insulation. and
were
shields
The construction
two-piece
of by
pipes
the
to
attached
were
from steel
Com ercial sulation
in
wool
mineral has
furnaces)
lead
or instal ations,
stain
polished shields
radiation
less-steel
slag
(fibrous satisfactory. resistant
proved
is
It relatively
Na
to insulation
plastic
been
has of
place
in
used
been
have facilitate
to
clips
removal
NaK
or
Na
burning
freely
with
reactive
highly
are
suc es ful y
used
to
up

Insulation

Equipment
Auxiliary
2.7.4—
Table

temperature
For
1000°F,
to
up
accumu
been
has
perience recom ended
tempera
for
satis ex
proved
have
steels Considerable
factory. is
steel
stainless
Type-310 are
347
and
grade)
low-C
stainless
austenitic
the
recom ended
1350"
between (particularly
extra
the
316
Types
1800°F.
and 1350°F
to
up
tures
Piping 321,
316,
Types
with
lated

347
and

olapboerataotryi-socnal.e
hours and
of
thousands
Many
NaK
and
Na power-plant
operating
been
have
date
to
Results
of
hours
thousand
Several
Li
equip
laboratory-scale unsatisfactory
to
owing
zone
cond.
of
plugging
Experience
Metal

ment

É
 Pb-Bi
materials
container
on
Data
of
hours
thousand
Few
metallic
Weld-connected,
the
of
any
that
believed
It
is
1200°F,
to
operation
Up
sparse.
are
laboratory-scale be
are
systems
gasketed
usual,
non-temperature-
ferritic
high-chrome,
the reliable,
for
essential
lieved
ma-
sensitive,
insulating
steels,
notably
stainless satisfactory
be
will
terials
long-period
service
reasonably
give
430,
Type inac
relative
the
of
because
Austenitic
service.
good Pb-Bi
of
tivity
310,
(Types
steels
stainless
de
less
are
347)
or
316,
stress
their
since
sirable
ap
is
rupture
strength
Pb-Bi
by
lowered
preciably
boiler
for
used
is
Sicromo-5S
scale
Power-plant
Hg
passes,
tubes.
cooler
In
Croloy-2
are
or
Croloy-3
satisfactory

:
CHAP. 2.7 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

(3) Melting point—for sodium, the relatively high (as compared with NaK) melting point
is both an advantage and disadvantage. In case of a small leak, as into a capillary tube, the
sodium may freeze, thus reducing the hazard of fire, whereas the low melting point of NaK
makes it a potential fire hazard under the same circumstances. On the other hand, NaK
requires no heat source to keep sensing lines from plugging, while sodium lines must be
heated and maintained at a temperature above the melting point.
(4) Vapor pressure—both sodium and NaK have sufficiently high vapor pressures at
normal operating temperatures to cause difficulties. The vapors tend to condense out on
the cooler surfaces of containers, sensing lines, and vent lines, eventually leading to plug
ging. This has been especially troublesome in systems which employ a pressure control
on gas exhaust lines.
(5) The danger of plugging owing to thermal transport also necessitates heating of liquid
metal instrument lines.

TEMPERATURE

The precision attainable in temperature measurements above 500°F in high neutron

fluxes has yet to be established. Thermocouples are most widely used since they do not
appear to be grossly affected. Resistance thermometers, however, may drift as much as
5 to 10 percent from their calibration in a neutron field. It is believed that the drift is a
result of stresses induced in the resistance element.
Besides calibration uncertainties, the effects of both gamma-and neutron-radiation upon
electrical insulators have been a major problem. While a good deal of work is currently
being done on this, at present the rather meager data available dictate the use of powdered
inorganic insulators such as MgO or Al2Os supported in a metal sheath.
For temperature measurements inside the neutron shield, KAPL is using a stainless
steel-clad, two-wire, chromel-alumel thermocouple with MgO insulation. These are manu
factured by the General Electric Industrial Heating Division and can be obtained in units
as small as %s in...OD. They are suitable for direct immersion in molten sodium and pro
vide very fast time-constants.
Resistance thermometers are used outside the primary shield. The Leeds & Northrup
Co. makes a unit which is accurate to +1°F at 1000°F temperatures. Apart from special
design considerations of response time and installation methods, these are standard ele
ments. Connections to these units are made with General Cable’s “MI” cable to bring the
leads through the secondary shield.

PRESSURE

Conventional methods for measuring pressure are not applicable to sodium systems for
several reasons. First, bourdon tube instruments, directly connected, plug very quickly
even when adequately heated; second, bellows-type detectors or transmitters which have
a sharp temperature gradient across them are vulnerable to calibration shifts owing to
condensation of sodium vapors between convolutions of the bellows; third, any method in
volving the use of electrical heating is only as reliable as the heating circuit. Caution must
be observed in heating techniques, for the cold-trap effect (cf. Chap. 2.4) may result in
precipitation of impurities and plugging.

FLOWMETERS

The magnetic flowmeter of Kolin" has been given much attention since the advent of
liquid-metal-coolant systems. The unit is externally mounted on the pipe, making replace
ment a simple matter. There is no head loss associated with the magnetic flowmeter, for
no power is drawn from it. Since the variable measured is velocity, the output varies
linearly with flow.

362
ExtERNAL HEAT-TRANSFER SYSTEM CHAP. 2.7

The principle of operation is simply that of a DC generator. A permanent magnet, bolted

to the pipe, sets up a magnetic field across the pipe, and liquid metal flow cutting the lines
of force generates a voltage within itself. This voltage is picked up by a pair of electrodes
fastened to the pipe in a plane which is at right angles to both that of flow and that of the
magnetic field. A typical installation is shown in Fig. 2.7.13.
The following equation, derived by Elrod," checks very closely with experimental re
Sults:

E = BVd x 107* x
d Y pr (.y
1 +(#) * 5 | T \D

where E = output in volts

B = magnetic field strength in gauss
d = pipe ID in cm
D = pipe OD in cm
pf = resistivity of fluid
pw = resistivity of pipe material
v = velocity in cm/sec

Fig. 2.7.13—Magnetic Flowmeter. Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power

Laboratory, Sept. 8, 1952.

There are some problems and uncertainties associated with the use of the magnetic
flowmeter. Wetting of the pipe surface is of vital importance in obtaining good flow meas
urement. It has been shown, however, that once a pipe has been initially brought up to
wetting temperature, it remains wetted down to temperatures considerably below this
value. Magnetic flowmeters are slightly affected by temperature of operation.
Another difficulty is that stainless steel is not a completely homogeneous material.
Even though stainless-steel lead-wire may be used for electrodes, it may differ sufficiently
from the pipe material to produce thermal emfs of sufficient magnitude to materially af
fect the indication. This difficulty has been solved by using electrodes made from the pipe
material itself for electrodes, although even here thermal emfs have been detected.
There appears to be a limit on the physical size of a permanent magnet commensurate
with a predictable accuracy. Since the practical application of the flowmeter depends upon
a rather high flux density (and a uniform one), the size of the yoke and the cross-sectional
area of the magnet increase tremendously as the air gap (pipe size) is increased. Attempts

363
CHAP. 2.7 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

are currently being made to resolve these problems for an 8-in.-pipe installation. It would
seem that this approaches the practical size limitation.
Another uncertainty is the effect of radiation exposure on permanent magnets. Testing
is currently under way to determine the magnitude of this effect.

LIQUID-LEVEL INDICATORS

Almost any conventional or commercially available liquid-level measuring device can be

used for liquid metals in stationary plants if it can be adapted to meet the stringent re
quirements for leak tightness and temperature insensitivity.
A level-measuring instrument of the “resistance” type has been developed. A simple
stainless-steel probe is immersed directly in sodium, and its resistance is measured as
a function of level (Fig. 2.7.14). While the relationship between level and resistance
(actually voltage is measured using a constant current source) is not linear, it is re
producible, and the effects of temperature can be calibrated. A curve showing the re
producibility and the general relationship between level and resistance for a test installa
tion is shown in Fig. 2.7.15.

VOLTAGE | VOLTAGE
LEADS | LEADS
A
| CURRENT
CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT LEAD
LEADT s: LEAD | LEAD TOP OF TANK
| $
TUBING

TANK
| SOLID WALL
TUB ING | ROD

LIQUID
TANK | METAL

| EQUIVALENT CIRCUI
SOLID ROD | OF
N PRIMARY DETECTOR

%%
%
Z/2Z.
// / //
Nº. Ø-Liquid
Ø
Z
METAL
|
/ / / //
////
Z ///
/// |
///
2ZZ // y ZZ/2
Z2
22.2// w F
/ z |

PRIMARY DETECTOR

Fig. 2.7.14–-Resistance-type Liquid-level Indicator. Submitted by Knolls

Atomic Power Laboratory, Sept. 8, 1952.

364
EXTERNAL HEAT-TRANSFER SYSTEM CHAP. 2.7

An “impedance” type unit has been developed which shows promise for stationary appli
cations; further work, however, is necessary to improve reliability and reduce tempera
ture dependence. This unit is described in the second edition of The Liquid-Metals Hand
book.

80 | | | | |

70 —
O Decending Level
A Ascending Level

6O H.

50 H.

4 O H.

3OH.

2O H.

O | | l | |
O O.OO O.OO2 O.OO3 O.OO4 O.OO5 O.OO6

RESISTANCE, ohms

Fig. 2.7.15—Level in Inches as a Function of Resistance for a Liquid-level

indicator Test-installation. Submitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory,
Sept. 8, 1952.

365
CHAP. 2.7 LIQUID-METAL-COOLED SYSTEMS

REFERENCES

1. R. A. Cameron et al., Experimental Breeder Project Report for the Period February 1, 1950, Through March 31, 1951, ANL-4554.
April 1, 1951, 60 pp.
2. W. H. Zinn, H. v. Lichtenberger, and M. Novick, Feasibility Report-Fast Neutron Pile for a Test of Conversion, ANL-4356.
Oct. 14, 1949, 84 pp.
3. E. C. King and R. A. Tidball, Heat Fluxes from Liquid Metal to Boiling Water, MSA Tech. Rep. No. 16, Aug. 8, 1952, 22 pp.
4. R. D. Brooks and A. L. Rosenblatt, Design and Performance of Liquid Metal Heat Exchangers and Steam Generators for Nuclear
Power Plants, submitted to ASME for Dec. 1952 annual meeting.
5. A. Kolin, An Alternating Field Induction Flowmeter of High Sensitivity, Rev. Sci. Inst. 16, 1945, p. 109.
6. N. G. Elrod and R. R. Fouse, An Investigation of Electromagnetic Flowmeters, Babcock and Wilcox Tech. Rep. I-5206,
NEPA-1451, June 12, 1950, 31 pp.

SELECTED READING LIST

Heat Exchangers and Steam Generators

DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE OF LIQUID METAL HEAT EXCHANGERS AND STEAM GENERATORS FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS,
R. D. Brooks and A. L. Rosenblatt, submitted to A.S.M.E. for Dec. 1952 Annual Meeting.
HEAT FluxES FROM LIQUID METAL TO BOILING WATER, Mine Safety Appliance Co., E. C. King and R. A. Tidball, MSA Tech.
Rep. No. 16, Aug. 8, 1952, 22 pp.
FEasibility REPORT-Fast NEUTRON PILE FOR A TEST OF CONVERSION, Argonne National Laboratory. W. H. Zinn, H. v.
Lichtenberger, and M. Novick, Oct. 14, 1949, 84 pp.

Pumps
OPERATION AND ANALYSIS OF A 100-PSI ELECTROMAGNETIC PUMP, G. D. Collins, KAPL-668, Jan. 19, 1952, 73 pp.
PUMPS FOR LIQUIDS (Bibliography), R. L. Morgan, TID-3015 (rev), Jan. 11, 1952, 10 pp.
DESCRIPTION AND TEST RESULTS OF A 400-GPM LIQUID METAL INDUCTION PUMP, J. F. Cage, Jr. and E. H. Schoch, KAPL-619,
Oct. 23, 1951, 65 pp.
COMPATIBILITY OF MATERIALS IN LIQUID METAL, D. B. Vail, KAPL-589, Aug. 18, 1951, 103 pp.
TEST OF 1200-GPM LINEAR A-C ELECTROMAGNETIC PUMP, J. Barnard and G. D. Collins, KAPL-568, May 23, 1951, 65 pp.
EBR PROGRESS REPORT, FEBRUARY 1, 1950-MARCH 31, 1951, prepared by EBR Project Staff, ANL-4554, April 1, 1951, 60 pp.
CENTRIFUGAL AND Axial FLOW PUMPS, A. J. Stepanoff, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1948.
DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND ASSEMBLY OF A PROTOTYPE LIQUID METAL PUMP, J. J. Owens, Babcock and Wilcox Co., Report
No. 5038, NP-3681, Sept. 19, 1951, 14 pp.

Valves

FIRST INTERIM REPORT ON DURABILITY AND SEAT LEAKAGE TESTS ON LIQUID METAL VALVES, H. J. Balhouse, KAPL-585,
Aug. 3, 1951, 59 pp.

Instrumentation

INVESTIGATION OF THERMOCOUPLE DESIGN FOR REACTOR SERVICE, H. Robinson and R. G. Moss, General Electric, G. E. Gen.
Eng. Lab. Rep. No. R52GL81, Mar. 14, 1952.
MAGNETIC FLOWMETER OUTPUT POTENTIALS, E. R. Astley, General Electric, G. E. Gen. Eng. Lab. Rep. No. R52GL42, Mar. 1,
1952, 13 pp.

MAGNETIC FLOWMETER CALIBRATION RESULTS, W. C. Gray, Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, KAPL-613, Oct. 3, 1951, 9 pp.
AN INVESTIGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOWMETER, N. G. Elrod, and R. R. Fouse, Babcock and Wilcox Co., Tech. Rep.
I-5206, NEPA-1451, June 12, 1950, 31 pp.
AN ALTERNATE FIELD INDUCTION FLOW METER OF HIGH SENSITIVITY, A. Kolin, Rev. Sci. Inst. 16, 1945, pp., 109-116.

366
 Section 3

GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Prepared by
W. R. PAGE AND E. GOODMAN
BROOKHAVEN NAT IONAL LABORATORY

367
 AUTHORS’ PREFACE

It is the primary objective of the authors in preparing this section to make conveniently
available data on the physical properties of gases usable for reactor cooling. Empirical
equations, which have been developed for predicting heat transfer and pressure drop under
conditions which are likely to be encountered in the physical situations best suited for re
actor internal-surface configurations are also presented. This information has been in
corporated in Chapters 3.3 and 3.4.
Other objectives were to outline the general distinctive characteristics of gas-cooled re
actors (Chapter 3.1), to indicate the thermodynamic cycle systems in which it is possible
to operate with such reactors (Chapter 3.2), to present information on fuel-element de
sign (Chapter 3.5), to describe the feasible fuel loading configurations, gas passage shapes,
and gas distribution within the reactor which lead to maximum net-power output (Chapter
3.6), to indicate the basis for choice of certain types of gases for reactor cooling (Chapter
3.7), and to present in outline form the factors which are involved in the solution of prob
lems which arise in connection with the disposal of radioactivity in the gas streams leav
ing nuclear reactors (Chapter 3.8).
It may be possible in future editions of this section to provide more fundamental infor
mation on optimizing the various independent design factors. On the other hand, each
gas-cooled reactor designed to date has had its own peculiarities and requirements; opti
mizing reactor weight, size, coolant flow area, and fuel-element dimensions (to mention
Only a few of the variables involved) has been and may yet continue to be based to some
degree on a combination of intuitive judgment, past experience, and engineering funda
mentals rather than on a set of detailed correlations of limited applicability.
The information in this Section is based upon data available up to about mid-1952.
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of the following people in the preparation
and evaluation of the material presented in Volume 2, Section 3, Gas-Cooled System: A.
Amorosi, ANL; E. J. Boyle, ORNL; J. Chernick, BNL; J. A. Cox, ORNL; Farrington
Daniels, Allis Chalmers; R. W. Dayton, BMI; R. G. Deissler, NACA; L. Emlet, ORNL; H.
Etherington, ANL; L. A. Evers, NACA; A. E. Focke, GE; E. F. Fricke, ANL; L. V. Humble,
NACA; C. Lankton, GE; A. L. London, Stanford Univ.; W. H. Lowdermilk, NACA; S. V.
Manson, NACA; R. L. Mela, NDA; E. W. Sams, NACA; E. Schmidt, GE; C. Starr, NAA;
W. B. Thomson, GE; and G. Thornton, GE.
Valuable assistance was also given by M. L. Barad, HW, in reviewing Chap. 3.8 and by
W. H. McAdams, MIT, and T. B. Drew, Columbia, in reviewing Chap. 3.4.
We also wish to acknowledge the assistance given by the following groups at Brookhaven
National Laboratory: Technical Information, Libraries, Photography, Duplicating, and the
Secretarial Staff of the Nuclear Engineering Department. We wish to express our gratitude
to the following: G. Cox, J. Garfield, J. Herod, D. Puleston, M. Waisman, and all our other
associates at BNL who helped with this section.

E. I. Goodman” and W. R. Paget

*Present address, Nuclear Science and Engineering Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa.

t?resent address, Dewey & Almy Chemical Company, Cambridge, Mass.

369
 CHAPTER 3.1

General Reactor Characteristics

Gas coolants for reactors provide certain advantages over liquids for some applications.
Air is a convenient low-neutron-cross-section coolant for unenriched experimental reac
tors, Helium has potential application at high pressure as an inert, high-conductivity, low
neutron-cross-section coolant where the temperatures of the fuel elements and exhaust
ing helium can be such as to provide high thermodynamic efficiency in a gas-turbine cycle.
However, compared with liquids, gas coolants are characterized by low volume heat ca
pacity and low heat-transfer coefficients. For this reason, when used for land-based
power reactors, they require larger flow passages through the reactor and higher fuel
element temperatures for a given reactor heat output and coolant pumping power than do
liquids. Generally, these factors do not permit very compact reactor designs because of
(l) the increase in the size of the reactor itself and (2) the comparatively large gaps re
quired to allow the gas to pass through the shield. In some applications, the first disad
Vantage may be offset by simplifying the external heat-removal system; the second is also
Compensated for to some extent by the low volumetric neutron cross section of the gas.
Since the coolant pressure drop varies inversely as the flow area to the 2.5 power," a
Satisfactory design is possible. Another factor which helps to offset the poor heat-transfer
characteristics of the gas is the chemical inertness of such coolants as helium, which per
mits the fuel elements to operate at a higher temperature than with liquid metal coolant. If
this higher permissible temperature is used to obtain an increased temperature rise in the
coolant by reducing the coolant flow rate, a considerable reduction in pumping power can
be obtained, since the pumping power varies inversely as the cube of the coolant tempera
ture rise for a given level of reactor power. By such techniques as pressurizing the gas
and increasing the flow area and the allowable fuel-element temperature, the fraction of
total reactor heat output expended as pumping power can be reduced to a tolerable value.
A comparison of pumping-power requirements for the same flow cross section but with
the use of a higher gas-coolant temperature rise and high gas pressures is shown in
Fig. 3.1.1.
Figure 3.1.2 illustrates the advantage of high helium-exhaust temperature for a gas
turbine cycle. The efficiency given is over-all and takes into account the power required
for recompressing the coolant.
Because high pressures are required to generate a significant amount of net power in a
£as-cooled reactor, a leak-proof circulating system must be maintained and the amount of
radioactivity in the coolant must be kept to a minimum. Considerable effort has been ex
Pended on design with these considerations in mind (see Chapters 3.6 and 3.8). Because a
higher fuel-element temperature must be maintained with gas-cooled reactors than with
liquid-cooled reactors to obtain an equivalent thermodynamic efficiency, fuel elements
must be fabricated to withstand very high temperatures under irradiation without rupture,
release of fission products, undue growth, creep, or warpage. This is one of the major
"oncerns in the development of gas-cooled power reactors (see Chapter 3.5).
"-

‘Reference appears at end of chapter.

371
CHAP. 3.1 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

I.O.O

O.I.O

| O.O.

O.OOl

IOOO 10,000
HEAT FLUX PER UNIT AREA, w ſcinº
Fig. 3.1.1 — Comparison of Pumping-power Requirements. Sub
mitted by Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, Feb. 19, 1948. Flow
through channels 0.1 in. × 1 in. × 4 ft long; heated length = 1.5 ft;
total pumping power = 2 x reactor pumping power. Outlet temper
atures: Air, 1300°F; He, 1300°F; molten metals, 950°F; H2O, 450°F.

372
GENERAL REACTOR CHARACTERISTICS CHAP. 3.1

4O

3O
A

IO
8OO |OOO I2OO |4OO I6OO 18OO 1900

REACTOR COOLANT EXHAUST TEMPERATURE,”F

Fig. 3.1.2— Thermal Efficiency as a Function

of Reactor Exhaust Temperature for a Helium
cooled Reactor and Gas-turbine Power Cycle.
Submitted by the Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing
Company, Inc., Feb. 15, 1952.

REFERENCE
1. Martinelli, R. C., “Heat Transfer IV," Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, KAPL-40, Secret, Feb. 19, 1948.

373
 CHAPTE R 3.2

Thermal Cycles

Power is extracted from the gas of gas-cooled reactors by allowing either the hot reac
tor coolant or a secondary fluid, which is heated by the reactor coolant, to expand adiabati
cally through a turbine. In the gas-turbine cycle, the gas is then cooled and recompressed
sufficiently to compensate for the pressure losses in the reactor and auxiliary ducting as
well as for the turbine pressure drop.
The following are typical nuclear power cycles using gas as the reactor coolant:
(1) Direct-air-cycle reactor.
(2) Closed-cycle helium-cooled reactor.
(3) Helium-cooled reactor using gas-turbine cycle.
(4) Helium-cooled reactor using steam-turbine cycle.
(5) Stationary unenriched uranium power-plant cycle (Fig. 3.2.1)
Four of the above five cycles use gas turbines to extract all or part of the available heat
energy directly from the gas leaving the reactors. The other cycle transfers the gas heat
energy to boiling water which in turn drives turbines. The relative efficiencies of the
direct (gas-turbine) and the indirect (steam-turbine) cycles have been studied in detail'
for application in a reactor, and the results are summarized in Fig. 3.2.2. A comparison
of the data on cycles (3) and (4) shows that for the same shaft-horsepower the gas-turbine
Cycle has a considerable weight advantage over the steam-turbine design at a reactor ex
haust temperature of 1100°F. The effect of gas-turbine pressure ratio on net plant thermal
efficiency is illustrated in Fig. 3.2.3 for a cycle using both intercooler and regenerator.
The merits of heat interchange between fluid streams at various points in the gas-turbine
cycle are shown in Fig. 3.2.4, which presents thermal efficiencies for a simple cycle, a
cycle with regenerator, a cycle with regenerator and intercooler, and a cycle with inter
C00ler. The cycle with regenerator and intercooler offers significantly greater over-all
efficiency.
The pumping power required for cycle (5) is an appreciable fraction of the total power
generated because a low helium pressure is required in the necessarily large unenriched
uranium reactor.

-
--

l
Reference appears at end of chapter.

375
CHAP. 3.2 GAs-cooled systEMs

TU R B | NE

R E A CTOR B O |LER
COND ENS E
H E L JUM
B LOWER

Fig. 3.2.1 — Helium-cooled Stationary Power Reactor. Presented by Common

wealth Edison Company and Public Service Company of Northern Illinois, CEPS
1101, May 1952.
Design Data:
Reactor heat output, kw = 350,000
Coolant = Helium
Pressure, reactor outlet, psia = 148
Pressure, reactor inlet, psia = 153
Gas temperature, reactor outlet, “F = 700
Gas temperature, to boiler, *F = 650
Gas temperature, from boiler, “F = 384
Gas temperature, reactor inlet, “F = 403
He flow rate, lb/sec = 908
Steam flow rate, lb/sec = 236
Water temperature to condenser, “F = 79
Turbine steam pressure, psig = 250
Turbine steam temperature, *F = 525
Turbine exhaust pressure, mm Hg = 1
Gross power, electric, kw = 67,300
Auxiliary power, electric, kw = 15,000
Auxiliary power, steam, kw (equiv) = 12,000
Net power available for system = 52,300
Internal turbine efficiency, 9% = 80
Helium blower efficiency, 9% = 78
Mechanical electrical losses, 3% = 5

376
* THERMAL CYCLES CHAP. 3.2

4O

36
GAS
CYCLE —

32 2.
z STEAM

28 A
§§ 2%
& 24
7
21//
z
uſ
# A
u
ul

z 2O y

s
Cl
/
H. /
# is /

12

8
8OO IOOO |2OO |400 |6OO 18OO

REACTOR OUTLET TEMPERATURE, *F

Fig. 3.2.2— Net Plant Efficiency vs Reactor Outlet Temperature for Closed
Helium Gas and Steam Cycles. Reprinted from NP-3683, Jan. 1952.

377
CHAP. 3.2 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

36
18OO of

34

32

3O

28

26

: 24.

22
|IOO"F

850°F

V — 85 °F COMPRESSOR INLET TEMP

— — — — IOO’F COMPRESSOR INLET TEMP

3 4. 5 6
PRESSURE RATIO

Fig. 3.2.3— Thermal Efficiency vs Pressure Ratio for Helium. Reprinted from
NP-3683, Jan. 1952. Component efficiencies, 36: compressor, 80; turbine, 83;
regenerator, 75.

378
THERMAL CYCLES CHAP 3.2

25

—F. N
N
*
*

e
_ - - M- - - -
*
,”
Z ------- Y,
2" *SIN
§§ NN
> R
9 N,
ul
9
u
u
ul

H. -— — — — SIMPLE CYCLE

3 || || | | -------- REGENERATIVE CYCLE

a 5 REGENERATOR Gnd INTERCOOLER) -

H. — — — — . NTERCOOLER
#

Ol - -

| 2 3 4 5

PRESSURE RATIO

Fig. 3.2.4— Thermal Efficiencies for Various Cycles for Helium. Reprinted
from NP-3683, Jan. 1952. Component efficiencies, 3%: turbine, 82; compressor,
80; regenerator, 50. Inlet temperatures, *F: turbine, 1350; compressor, 100.

REFERENCE

1. NP-3683, Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Company, Final Report, Jan. 1952.

379
 CHAP TER 3.3

Properties of Gas Coolants

The physical properties of air, helium, and carbon dioxide are given in detail since
these gases have a combination of heat-transfer, nuclear, and chemical properties which
makes them desirable as reactor coolants. (See Chap. 3.7, “Economic Comparison of
Gas Coolants.”) Less complete data are also given for other gases to permit evaluation
of design parameters in coolant comparisons. Empirical correlations of the physical
properties are included to facilitate extrapolation of existing data on gas coolants to re
actor conditions.

Table 3.3.1—Conversion Factors

Property Multiply By To obtain

Density gm/cc 62.4 lb/cu ft

lb/cu ft 0.0160185 gm/cu cm
Entropy cal/(gm)(°K) 1.00 Btu/(lb)(*R)
Internal energy cal/gm 1.8 Btu/lb
Btu/lb 0.5556 cal/gm
Pressure atm 14.6959 lb/sq in
atm 1.03323 kg/sq cm
atm 760 mm Hg (0°C)
Specific heat cal/(gm)(*C) 1.00 Btu/(lb)(°F)
Temperature (°F-32) 5/9 °C
°C 1.8 (°F-32)
Thermal cal/(sec)(cm)("C) 2901.0 Btu/(hr)(ft)(*F)
conductivity Btu/(hr)(ft)(*F) 3.447 x 10" cal/(sec)(cm)(*C)
Wiscosity Cp 0.010 poises
poises 1.000 gm/(sec)(cm)
cp 0.000672 lb/(sec)(ft)
Cp 2.42 lb/(hr)(ft)

381
CHAP. 3.3 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 3.3.2—Viscosity of Air at 1 Atm*

(Reprinted from “Chemical Engineers' Handbook,” edited by J. H. Perry, 2d ed.
By permission from McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1941)

T, °C m, Cp

0 0.018
100 .021
200 .025
300 .028
400 .031
500 .034
600 .037
700 .041
800 .043
900 .046
1000 .049

*See also Tables 3.3.22 and 3.3.23

Table 3.3.3—Physical Properties of Air at 10 Atm Pressure

(B. O. Newman, Physical Properties of Heat Transfer Fluids, GI-401, Nov. 10, 1947)

Density, d, Viscosity, m, Specific heat, Cp, Thermal cond., k, Prandtl No., NPr,
T, “F lb/cu ft lb/(hr)(ft) Btu/(lb)(*F) Btu/(hr)(ft)("F) cp m/k

0 0.863 0.0397 0.2398 0.0130 0.731

100 .709 .0461 .2403 .0157 .706
200 .602 .0520 .2412 .0182 .690
300 .523 .0577 .2427 .0205 .682
400 .462 .0628 .2449 .0228 .677
500 .413 .0680 .2476 .0250 .672
600 .371 .0730 .2505 .0272 .668
700 .342 .0769 .2534 .0293 .666
800 .315 .0811 .2566 .0314 .663
900 .292 .0849 .2598 .0334 .660
1000 .272 .0890 .2640 .0355 .658
1100 .254 .0926 .2660 .0376 .655

Table 3.3.4—Density of Air (Calculated)

(C. F. Curtiss and J. O. Hirschfelder, Thermodynamic
Properties of Air, CM-472, June 1, 1948)

Density, gm/cc
T, “k 1.0 atm 10 atm 100 atm

200 1.769 x 10−9 1.807 x 10^* 0.2312

250 1.413 x 10^* 1.425 x 10^* .1506
273.2 1.293 x 10-8 1.299 x 10^* - - -

300 1.177 x 10-? 1.180 x 10^* 0.1184

350 1.009 x 10^* 1.009 × 10^* .09909
400 8.823 x 10^* 8.804 x 10" .08570
450 7.841 x 10" 7.820 x 10^* .07573
500 7.056 x 10-4 7.034 x 10" .06796
600 5.880 x 10" 5.860 x 10" .05655
700 5.04.1 x 10-4 5.023 x 10^* .04851

382
PROPERTIES OF GAS COOLANTS CHAP. 3.3

Table 3.3.5—Entropy of Air (Calculated)

(C. F. Curtiss and J. O. Hirschfelder, Thermodynamic
Properties of Air, CM-472, June 1, 1948)

Entropy, S, cal/(gm)(°K)

T, *k 1.0 atm 10 atm 100 atm

200 1.5432 1.3815 1. 1661

250 1.5970 1.4367 1.2554
300 1.6408 1.4813 1.3098
350 1.6779 1.5189 1.3519
400 1.7.101 1.5514 1.3869
450 1.7387 1.5802 1.4.172
500 1.7644 1.6061 1.4442
600 1.8094 1.6512 1.4905
700 1.8481 1.6899 1.5300

(J. O. Hirschfelder and C. F. Curtiss, Thermodynamic Properties of

Air, II, CM-518, December 21, 1948)

S–Sº, cal/(gm)(*K) [S. = 1.6.191. Dry air]

T, "K d/do” = 0.008 d/do = 0.04 | d/do = 0.2 | d/do = 1 | d/do = 5 | d/do = 25

273.2 0.3314 0.2210 0.1105 0 0.1115 0.2268

300 .3482 .2379 .1273 0.0167 –.0946 — .2098
400 .3978 .2874 ..1769 .0663 -.0449 - . 1600
500 .4369 .3265 .2161 . . 1055 –.0058 —. 1205
600 .4699 .3594 .2489 .1384 +.0272 –.0871
700 .4982 .3878 .2774 .1669 .0556 -.0584
800 .5238 .4.133 .3029 .1924 .0812 -.0327
900 .5469 .4364 .3260 .2156 .1044 — .0093
1000 .5682 .4578 .3473 .2367 .1257 +.0120

S–So, cal/(gm)(*K) [S, = 1.6233, 0.5% moisture]

273.2 0.3318 0.2212 0.1106 0 –0.1105 0.2202

300 .3479 .2374 .1267 0.0161 –.0948 — .2067
400 .3978 .2872 ..1765 .0658 –.0452 - . 1580
500 .4370 .3265 .2157 .1051 –.0061 -.1.192
600 .4686 .3580 .2474 .1379 +.0268 -.0863
700 .4986 .3879 .2773 .1667 .0554 —.0577
800 .5242 .4136 .3028 .1923 .0811 –.0320
900 .5474 .4367 .3261 .2156 . . 1044 -.0088
1000 .5689 .4582 .3476 .2368 ..1257 +.0128

S–S, cal/(gm)(*K) [S, = 1.6276, 1% moisture}

273.2 0.3323 0.2216 0.1107 0 –0.1107 –0.2206
300 .3487 .2379 .1270 0.0161 –.0949 – .2070
400 .3986 .2879 .1770 .0661 -.0452 -.1582
500 .4379 .3272 .2162 . . 1055 –.0060 —. 1193
600 .4709 .3601 .2492 .1385 +.0270 -.0863
700 .4998 .3891 .2781 .1671 .0559 –.0575
800 .5254 .4145 .3038 .1928 .0816 –.0317
900 .5487 .4379 .3273 .2162 .1049 –.0085
1000 .5702 .4596 .3487 .2377 .1263 +.01.32

S–S, cal/(gm)(“K) [S, = 1.6592, 5% moisture]

273.2 0.3376 0.2250 0.1125 0 –0.1123 – 0.2237
300 .3541 .2416 .1290 0.0164 — .0963 –.2100
400 .4054 .2929 .1803 .0677 –.0453 –. 1599
500 .4457 .3331 .2206 . . 1080 – .0051 - . 1201
600 .4797 .3671 .2545 . 1419 +.0289 -.0861
700 .5090 .3964 .2839 .1714 .0582 - .0567
800 .5353 .4228 .3102 . 1976 .0846 - .0303
900 .5595 .4470 .3343 .22.18 . . 1086 -.0063
1000 - .5816 .4691 .3564 .2439 .1308 +.0160

"do is the density of air at 1 atm pressure and 0°C

383
CHAP. 3.3 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 3.3.6—Internal Energy of Air (Calculated)

(J. O. Hirschfelder and C. F. Curtiss, Thermodynamic Properties of
Air, II, CM-518, December 21, 1948)

pi, cal/gm [Dry air]

t

T, “K d/do = 0.008 | d/do = 0.04 d/do = 0.2 | d/do = 1 d/do = 5 d/do = 25

273.2 45.767 45.765 45.756 45.712 45.492 44.394

300 50.366 50.364 50.356 50.314 50.104 49.057
400 67.633 67.631 67.624 67.586 67.398 66.458
500 85.188 85.186 85.179 85.143 84.965 84.075
600 103.20 103.20 103.19 103.16 102.97 102.11
700 121.74 121.74 121.73 121.70 121.53 120.68
800 140.84 140.84 140.83 140.80 140.63 139.79
900 160.49 160.49 160.48 160.45 160.28 159.45
1000 180.67 180.67 180.66 180.63 180.46 179.65

u, cal/gm [0.5% Moisture]

273.2 36.026 36.020 36.012 35.968 35.744 34.620

300 40.641 40.635 40.627 40.584 40.367 39.277
400 57.958 57.953 57.945 57.912 57.731 56.827
500 75.566 75.562 75.554 75.523 75.348 74.470
600 93.627 93.622 93.614 93.585 93.414 92.558
700 112.23 112.23 112.23 112.19 112.03 111.18
800 131.40 131.40 131.38 131.35 131. 19 130.36
900 151.11 151.12 151.11 151.09 150.92 150.09
1000 171.38 171.37 171.37 171.34 171.17 170.36

H, cal/gm [1% Moisture]

273.2 26.253 26.239 26.240 26.187 25.958 24.806
300 30.880 30.867 30.869 30.816 30.591 29.461
400 48.250 48.238 48.239 48.200 48.027 47. 160
500 65.914 65.902 65.904 65.865 65.693 64.828
600 84.033 84.021 84.022 83.984 83.815 82.969
700 102.69 102.68 102.69 102.65 102.48 101.65
800 121.92 121.92 121.92 121.88 121.72 120.90
900 141.72 141.71 141.72 141.89 141.52 140.70
1000 162.05 162.05 162.04 162.01 161.84 161.03

pi, cal/gm [5% Moisture]

273.2 –53.348 –53.339 –53.359 –53.413 –53.687 –55.058

300 –48.606 – 48.597 –48.617 –48.677 –48.970 –50.433
400 –30.810 –30.800 – 30.812 – 30.836 –30.951 –31.521
500 – 12.702 – 12.691 – 12.706 – 12.736 – 12.887 – 13.641
600 + 5.886 +5.896 +5.882 +5.850 +5.696 +4.923
700 25.049 25.059 25.045 25.013 24.857 24.083
800 44.825 44.789 44.795 44.766 44.610 43.838
900 65. 141 65.150 65. 145 65. 116 64.961 64.188
1000 86.052 86.045 86.052 86.023 85.866 85.098

384
PROPERTIES OF GAS COOLANTS CHAP. 3.3

Table 3.3.7 — Pressure of Air (Calculated)

(J. O. Hirschfelder and C. F. Curtiss, Thermodynamic Properties of
Air, II, CM-518, December 21, 1948)

p, atm [Dry air]

T, *k d/do = 0.008 d/do = 0.04 d/do = 0.2 d/do = 1 d/do = 5 d/do = 25

273.2 0.0080059 0.040029 0.20012 1.0001 4.9890 24.651

300 .0087916 .043958 .21977 1.0986 5.4856 27.245
400 .011722 .058611 .29308 1.4657 7.3358 36.877
500 .01.4653 .073264 .36636 1.8327 9. 1854 46.481
600 .017583 .087916 .43967 2. 1997 11.034 56.069
700 .020514 .10257 .51294 2.56.68 12.883 65.650
800 .023444 .11722 .58623 2.9337 14.732 7.5.234
900 .026375 .13187 .65950 3.3009 16.580 84.81.1
1000 .029305 .14653 .73278 3.6676 18.428 94.381

p, atm (0.5%. Moisture]

273.2 0.0080059 0.040029 0.20013 1.0001 4.988.7 24.643

300 .0087913 .043957 .21976 1.0985 5.4851 27.236
400 .011722 .058609 .29307 1.4656 7.3356 36.869
500 .01.4652 .073261 .36634 1.8326 9. 1851 46.467
600 .017583 .087913 .43966 2. 1996 11.033 56.051
700 .020513 .10257 .51293 2.5667 12.883 65.636
800 .023445 .11722 .58621 2.9336 14.730 75.211
900 .026374 .13187 .65948 3.3004 16.578 84.783
1000 .029.306 .14652 .73276 3.6674 18.427 94.362

p, atm [1% Moisture]

273.2 0.0080065 0.040028 0.20013 1.0001 4.9882 24.635

300 .0087919 .043955 .21977 1.0985 5.4846 27.227
400 .011722 .058607 .29.305 1.4655 7.3347 36.856
500 .01.4653 .073259 .36635 1.8326 9. 1840 46.452
600 .017584 .087911 .43966 2. 1996 11.033 56.039
700 .020514 .10256 .51293 2.5664 12.880 65.616
800 .023445 .11721 .58623 2.93.36 14.730 75.195
900 .026376 . 13187 .65951 3.3003 16.577 84.767
1000 .029306 .14652 .73281 3.6674 18.425 94.332

p, atm [5% Moisture]

273.2 0.0080068 0.040035 0.20015 1.0001 4.9864 24.572
300 .0087922 .043962 .21980 1.0985 5.4828 27.162
400 .011723 .0586.18 .29309 1.4657 7.3330 36.782
500 .014654 .073272 .36640 1.8326 9. 1818 46.366
600 .017584 .087926 .43967 2. 1996 11.031 55.936
700 .020515 ... 10258 .5.1302 2.5667 12.877 65.502
800 .023446 .11724 .58630 2.9336 14.726 75.060
900 .026377 . 13189 .65962 3.3007 16.574 84.624
1000 .029.307 .14655 .73289 3.6674 18.421 94.173

385
CHAP. 3.3 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 3.3.8—Composition of Air at Sea Level

(C. F. Curtiss and J. O. Hirschfelder, Thermodynamic
Properties of Air, CM-472, June 1, 1948)

Component Fraction by volume

-

N: 0.780881
Oz .209495
A .009300
CO2 .000300
Ne .000019
He .000005

386
 GAS-ºff
T. PROPERTIES OF GAS COOLANTS
CHAP. 3.3

Table 3.3.9—Specific Heat of Air at Constant Volume (Calculated)

(J. O. Hirschfelder and C. F. Curtiss, Thermodynamic Properties of
Air, I, CM-472, June 1, 1948)

cy, cal/(mole)(*C) [Dry air]

T, “K 1 atm 10 atm 100 atm

200 4.9582 5.0100 6.5830

250 4.9603 4.9884 5.4732 we

300 4.9708 4.9845 5.1985
350 4.9936 5.0041 5.1149
400 5.0296 5.0368 5.1003
450 5.0791 5.0850 5.1241

(J. O. Hirschfelder and C. F. Curtiss, Thermodynamic Properties of Air, II,

CM-518, December 21, 1948)

cy, cal/(gm)(°C) [Dry air]

-" T, “K d/do” = 0.008 | d/do = 0.04 d/do = 0.2 | d/do = 1 d/do = 5 d/do = 25

ºvel 500 0.1777 0.1777 0.1777 0.1777 0.1777 0.1780

- 600 .1827 .1827 .1827 . 1828 .1828 ° . 1830
ynamic 700 .1883 .1883 . 1883 . 1883 . 1883 . 1884
| 800 .1938 . 1938 . 1938 . 1938 . 1938 . 1939
900 .1993 . 1993 . 1993 . 1993 . 1993 . 1995
1000 .2043 .2044 .2044 .2044 .2043 .2044

cy, cal/(gm)(C) (0.5% Moisture]

500 0.1782 0.1782 0.1782 0.1782 0.1783 0.1783
600 .1833 .1833 . 1833 .1833 . 1833 .1835.
700 .1889 .1885 . 1889 .1889 . 1889 . 1891
800 . 1944 .1945 . 1945 . 1945 . 1945 . 1946
900 .2000 . 1999 .2001 .2001 .2000 .2001
—T 1000 .2052 .2050 .2050 .2050 .2051 .2052

cy, cal/(gm)(C) [1% Moisture]

500 0.1787 0.1787 0.1787 0.1787 0.1787 0.1786
600 . 1838 . 1839 . 1839 . 1839 . 1839 . 1841
700 .1895 .1895 . 1895 . 1896 . 1896 . 1897
800 .1952 . 1952 . 1952 . 1953 . 1952 . 1953
900 .2008 .2008 .2007 .2008 .2007 .2008
1000 .2058 .2058 .2058 .2058 .2056 .2059

cy, cal/(gm)(°C) [5% Moisture]

500 0.1833 0.1833 0.1833 0.1832 0.1828 0.1809
600 .1887 .1887 . 1887 . 1887 . 1887 . 1887
700 . 1948 . 1945 . 1946 . 1946 . 1946 . 1946
800 .2005 .2005 .2006 .2006 .2006 .2006
900 .2062 .2064 .2064 .2064 .2064 .2064
1000 .2118 .2116 .2118 .2117 .2117 .2117

‘do is the density of air at 1 atm pressure and 0°C

387
CHAP. 3.3 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 3.3.10—Specific Heat of Air at Constant Pressure (Calculated)

(J. O. Hirschfelder and C. F. Curtiss, Thermodynamic Properties of Air, I, CM-472,
June 1, 1948)

Cp, cal/(mole)(*C) [Dry air]

T, “K 1 atm 10 atm 100 atm

200 6.9694 7.2532 16.264

250 6.9619 7. 1224 9.3501
300 6.9675 7.0662 8. 1454
350 6.9873 7.0572 7.7078
400 7.0216 7.0721 7.5138
450 7.0699 7.1086 7.4316

(J. O. Hirschfelder and C. F. Curtiss, Thermodynamic Properties of Air, II,

CM-518, December 21, 1948)

cp, cal/(gm)(C) [Dry air]

T, “K d/do” = 0.008 | d/do = 0.04 d/do = 0.2 | d/do = 1 d/do = 5 d/do = 25

500 0.2463 0.2463 0.2463 0.2465 0.2472 0.2510

600 .2513 .2513 .2513 .2515 .2521 .2552
700 .2569 .2569 .2569 .2569 .2575 .2600
800 .2624 .2624 .2624 .2624 .2629 .2651
900 .2679 .2679 .2679 .2679 .2683 .2704
1000 .2729 .2730 .2730 .2730 .2733 .2751

cp, cal/(gm)(C) (0.5% Moisture]

500 0.2469 0.2469 0.2470 0.2471 0.2479 0.2515
600 .2520 .2520 .2521 .2522 .2527 .2558
700 .2577 .2573 .2577 .2578 .2582 .2609
800 .2631 .2632 .2633 .2634 .2638 .2659
900 .2687 .2686 .2689 .2689 .2692 .2712
1000 .2740 .2737 .2739 .2738 .2742 .2760

cp, cal/(gm)(C) [1% Moisture]

500 0.2476 0.2476 0.2476 0.2477 0.2485 0.2519
600 •.2527 .2528 .2528 .2529 .2535 .2565
700 .2584 .2583 .2584 .2586 .2591 .2616
800 .2641 .2640 .2641 .2643 .2646 .2668
900 .2697 .2697 .2696 .2698 .2700 .2720
1000 .2747 .2747 .2746 .2747 .2749 .2768

cp, cal/(gm)(C) [5% Moisture]

500 0.2532 0.2532 0.2533 0.2533 0.2536 0.2554

600 .2586 .2586 .2587 .2588 .2594 .2623
700 .2647 .2645 .2646 .2647 .2651 .2677
800 .2705 .2705 .2706 .2706 .2711 .2732
900 .2761 .2763 .2764 .2764 .2768 .2787
1000 .2817 .2815 .2817 .2817 .2820 .2836

* do is the density of air at 1 atm pressure and 0°C

388
PROPERTIES OF GAS COOLANTS CHAP. 3.3

Table 3.3.11 — Ratio of Specific Heats of Air (Calculated)

(J. O. Hirschfelder and C. F. Curtiss, Thermodynamic
Properties of Air, I, CM-472, June 1, 1948)

Y = cp/cv
T, *k 1 atm | 10 atm 100 atm

200 1.4056 1.4477 2.4706

250 1.4035 1.4278 1.7083

(J. O. Hirschfelder and C. F. Curtiss, Thermodynamic Properties of

Air, II, CM-518, December 21, 1948)

y = co/c, [Dry air]

T, *k d/do" = 0.008 | d/do = 0.04 d/do = 0.2 | d/do = 1 d/do = 5 d/do = 25

273.2 1.409 1.409 1.409 1.412 1.422 1.444
300 1.406 1.406 1.406 1.409 1.4.18 1.440
400 1.396 1.396 1.396 1.398 1.404 1.425
500 1.386 1.386 1.386 1.387 1.391 1.410
600 1.376 1.376 1.376 1.376 1.379 1.395
700 1.365 1.365 1.365 1.365 1.368 1.380
800 1.354 1.354 1.354 1.354 1.357 1.367
900 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.346 1.356
1000 1.336 1.336 1.336 1.336 1.338 1.346

y = cp/cv (0.5% Moisture]

273.2 1.411 1.411 1.409 1.412 1.4.18 1.453

300 1.408 1.408 1.406 1.409 1.415 1.448
400 1.397 1.397 1.396 1.398 1.403 1.429
500 1.386 1.386 1.386 1.387 1.391 1.411
600 1.375 1.375 1.376 1.376 1.379 1.394
700 1.364 1.365 1.364 1.365 1.367 1.380
800 1.354 1.353 1.354 1.354 1.356 1.367
900 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.344 1.346 1.356
1000 1.335 1.335 1.336 1.336 1.337 1.345

y = coſcy {1% Moisture]

273.2 1.411 1.411 1.411 1.411 1.4.18 1.459

300 1.408 1.408 1.408 1.408 1.415 1.453
400 1.397 1.397 1.397 1.397 1.403 1.431
500 1.386 1.386 1.386 1.386 1.391 1.411
600 1.375 1.375 1.375 1.375 1.379 1.393
700 1.364 1.363 1.364 1.364 1.367 1.379
800 1.353 1.353 1.353 1.353 1.356 1.366
900 1.343 1.343 1.343 1.344 1.345 1.355
1000 1.335 1.335 1.334 1.335 1.337 1.345

y = cp/cw [5% Moisture]

273.2 1.403 1.407 1.407 1.408 1.4.17 1.462

300 1.401 1.404 1.404 1.405 1.414 1.456
400 1.392 1.393 1.393 1.394 1.401 1.434
500 1.382 1.382 1.382 1.383 1.388 1.412
600 1.371 1.371 1.371 1.372 1.375 1.390
700 1.359 1.360 1.360 1.360 1.362 1.376
800 1.349 1.349 1.349 1.349 1.352 1.362
900 1.339 1.339 1.339 1.339 1.341 1.350
1000 1.330 1.330 1.330 1.331 1.332 1.340

* do is the density of air at 1 atm pressure and 0°C

389
_
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of
Properties
— hysical
8.3.2
PFig.
CHAP. 3.3 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 3.3.12 — Physical Properties of Helium at 10 Atm Pressure

(B. O. Newman, Physical Properties of Heat Transfer Fluids, GI-401, Nov. 10, 1947)

Density, d, Wiscosity, m, Specific heat," co, Thermal cond., f k, Prandtl No., Ner,
T, “F lb/cu ft lb/(ft)(hr) Btu/ (lb)(*F) Btu/(ft)(hr)(“F) cpm/k

32 0.1117 0.0457 1.248 0.083 0.687

100 .0974 .0495 1.248 .090 .687
200 .0827 .0555 1.248 ..100 .687
300 .0718 .0605 1.248 . 110 .686
400 .0635 .0653 1.248 . 119 .684
500 .0569 .0700 1.248 . 128 .682
600 .0516 .0743 1.248 . 136 .679
700 .0475* .0780 1.248 . 145 .675
800 .0430° .0821 1.248 . 153 .671
900 .0399." .0859 1.248 . 160 .667
1000 .0373 * .0889 1.248 . 167 .662
1100 .0351* .0918 1.248 . 175 .656

* Extrapolated
ºf Atmospheric pressure

Table 3.3.13— Thermodynamic Properties of Helium

(S. W. Akin, Thermodynamic Properties of Helium at High Pressures
and Temperatures, NP-124, May, 1947)

0°F 100 200 300 400 500 600°F

Pressure,
psia Property" 255.38°K 310.94 366.49 422.05 477.60 533. 16 588.72°K

14.696 V 83.971 102.23 120.487 138.743 157.00 175.258 193.515

d .01.19088 .0097.820 .008.2997 .007.2076 .0063694 .0057059 .0051676
h 577.92 707.73 827.56 952.38 1077.20 1202.02 1326.83
s 6.5965 6.8421 7.0472 7.2233 7.3776 7.5149 7.6386

50 V 24.717 30.085 35.451 40.817 46. 183 51.549 56.915

d .040457 .033239 .028208 .024500 .021653 .019399 .017570
h 578.26 703.08 827.90 952.72 1077.54 1202.36 1327. 18
s 5.9885 6.2342 6.4393 6.6153 6.7697 6.9070 7.0307

150 V 8.2735 10.063 11.8522 13.6407 15.4293 17.2183 19.008

d . 120868 .0993.72 .08437.2 .073310 .064812 .058078 .052610
h 579.25 704.08 828.91 953.73 1078.55 1203.37 1328.19
s 5.4429 5.6886 5.8937 6.0698 6.2241 6.3614 6.4852

400 V 3.1347 3.8062 4.4775 5.1487 5.819.7 6.4905 7.1616

d .31901 .26273 .22334 . 1942.25 .171831 .154072 . 1396.33
h 581.72 706.58 831.42 956.24 1081.06 1205.88 1330.70
s 4.9555 5.2013 5.4065 5.5827 5.7371 5.8744 5.9981

600 V 2.1067 2.5546 3.0023 3.44995 3.8973 4.3449 4.7923

d .47468 .39146 .33308 .28986 .25658 .23016 .20867
h 583.60 708.49 833.33 958. 15 1082.97 1207.79 1332.61
s 4.7539 4.9998 5.2050 5.3813 5.5357 5.6730 5.7968

900 V 1.4211 1.7200 2.0187 2.3173 2.6157 2.91.399 3.2124

d .70369 .58 139 .4953.7 .43154 .38230 .34.317 .31129
h 585.09 7 10.29 835,38 960.40 1085.42 1210.42 1335.36
s 4.5521 4.7981 5.0035 5.1797 5.3342 5.4715 5.5953

392
PROPERTIES OF GAS COOLANTS CHAP. 3.3

Table 3.3.13 – Continued

0°F 100 200 300 400 500 600°F

Pressure,
psia Property” 255.38°K 310.94 366.49 422.05 477.60 533.16 588.72°K

1500 w .87.224 1.05.192 1.2314 1.4.108 1.58994 1.7690 1.9483

d 1. 14647 .95064 .81207 .70880 .62897 .56528 .51328
h 590.08 715.54 840.77 965.88 1090.92 1215.94 1340.97
s 4.2974 4.5437 4.7475 4.9257 5.0801 5.217.6 5.3414

2500 V .54224 .65044 .75847 .86635 .97.410 1.081.76 1. 18947

d 1.84420 1.53741 1.3.1845 1.15427 1.02659 .92442 .84071
h 598.60 724.37 849.73 974.95 1 100. 10 1225.22 1350.29
s 4.0420 4.2887 4.4928 4.6712 4.8258 4.9634 5.0873

4000 V .35574 .42377 .491.61 .55932 .62694 .69.444 .76.191

d 2.81.10 2.3598 2.0341 1.78789 1.59503 1.44000 1.3.1248
h 610.24 736.48 862.24 987.70 1113. 12 1238.46 1363.73
s 3.8058 4.0531 4.2576 4.4363 4.59 12 4.7287 4.8530

6000 V .25126 .29696 .34253 .387.96 .433.25 .47849 .52369

d 3.9800 3.3675 2.91.95 2.5776 2.3081 2.0899 1.9095
h 625.80 752.49 878.58 1004.32 1129.96 1255.54 1381.03
s 3.6017 3.8385 4.0535 4.2327 4.3879 4.5259 4.6503

* v = cu ft/lb; d = lb/cu ft; h = Btu /1b; s = Btu/(1b)(*F).

Table 3.3.14—Impurities in Grade A (99.99%) Helium

(W. M. Deaton, U. S. Bureau of Mines,
Personal Communication, 1952)

Concentration,
Impurity ppm (by weight)

H2 5
H2O 45
Air 73

393
CHAP. 3.3 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

68

27

i *
56

7;

O 38
O IOO 200 3OO 4OO 500 6OO
TEMPERATURE, oc
O IOO 200 3OO 4OO 500 6OO
TEMPERATURE, *C

_ 1270 | | T OOI8
O
2:1.26OH- 61.3 otm PRESSURE ...A
§
§ 2304–es----------H
240 | otm PRESSURE OOI6
\
!--
;23%T&T
r
255-555-455-565
TEMPERATURE, *c
OOI5
- \
92
º: OO14
3
Cl
wn o ooº
Sº
š OOI2 \\
>
E OOl
on
2 N
* Oolo N
.OOO9 -S
OOO8 SS
Sk,
OOO7 *~
*
*

.OOO6
O IOO 2OO 3OO 4OO 500

TEMPERATURE, *C

Fig. 3.3.3 — Physical Properties of Helium. Submitted by the General Elec

tric Company, November 1947.

394
PROPERTIES OF GAS COOLANTS CHAP. 3.3

60 -

55o

ENTHALPY, Btu/lb
5oo
BASE:
ENTHALPY AND ENTROPY = O FOR
SATURATED LIQUID AT
PRESSURE AND 7.6°R
| ||
450

400

soo

2O 3O 40 50 6O 70 80

ENTROPY, Btu /(Ib)(°F)

Fig. S.$.4 —Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Helium. Submitted by the

General Electric Company, May 1947.

395
:
1800°F 123
1.9 1.8084 1.7771 1.7459 1.7146 1.6963 1.6833 1.6733 1.6650 1.6550 1.6468
551.0 780.0 55.11 780.0 27.55 780.0 13.78 780.0 6.887 780.0 4.592 780.0 3.445 780.0 2.757 780.0 2.297 780.0 1.838 780.0 1,533 779.9
by
1950,
York,
pNew
with
(1946),
185
38:
Chem.,
Eng.
Ind.
Allen,
and
Weber,
Sweigert,
from
Data
ermis sion.)
E(canRGgerdipabnrwoei-nHkrti,sel”'d
“Chemical
MHfrom
ed.,
3rd
Perry,
H.
J.
by
edited
Inc.,
Company,
Book 1.8838 1.7799 1.7486 1.7174 1.6861 1.6678
3.141 718.8
1.6548 1.6448 1.6365 1,6265 1.0:183
1600 502.3 7
18.8 50.24 18.8
7 25.11 718.8 12.56 718.8 6.281 18.8
7 4.188 718.8 2.513 718.8 2.095 718.8 1.676 718.7 1.397 718.7

1.8533 1.7494 1.7181 1.6869 1.6556 1.6373 1.6243 1.6143 1.6060 1.5960 1.5878
1400 453.6 658.6 45.36 658.6 22.68 658.6 11.37 658.6 5.670 658.6 3.781 658.6 2.836 658.6 2.269 658.5 1.891 658.5 1.513 658.5 1.261 658.5

1.819.7 1.7.158 1.6845 1.6533 1.6220 1.6037 1.5907 1.5807 1.5724 1.5624 1.5542
1200 404.8 599.6 40.49 599.6 20.24 599.6 12 599.6
10. 5.060 599.5 3.373 599.5 2.530 599.5 2.024 599.5 1.687 599.5 1.349 599.4 1.125 599.4

1.7829 1.6790 1.6477 165

1.6 1.5852 1.5669 1.5539 1.5439 1.5356 1.5256 0,987.4 1.5174
1000 356.0 542.4 35.61 542.4 17.80 542.4 8.901 542.4 4.448 542.3 2.966 542.3 2.224 542.2 1.779 542.2 1.482 542.1 1.186 542.0 541.9

3.u3.p1e5—rPhroepaerteids
STable
of
Dioxide
Carbon 800 307.2 487.1
1.7423
30.73 487.1
1.6384
15.36 487.
1
1.6071
7.688 487.0
1.5759
3.839 486.9
1.5446
2.559 486.8
1.5263
1.918 486.6
1.5133
1.534 486.5
1.5033
1.273 486.4
1.4948
1.021 486.2
1.4848 0.8502
486.0
1.4766

1.6969 1.5930 1.56.17 1.5305 1.499.1 1.4808 1.4675 1.4574 1.4490 0.8556 1.4389 0.7212 1.4307
600 258.5 434.4 25.85 434.4 12.92 434.3 6.458 434.2 3.226 434.0 2.148 433.8 1.610 433.6 1.287 433.4 1.071 433.1 432.8 432.5

1.6451 1.5412 1.5099 1.4787 1.4468 1.4285 1.4151 1.4049 0.8604 1.3963 0.6868 1.3862 0.5693 1.3779
400 209.7 384.7 20.96 384.6 10.47 384.5 5.230 384.3 2.608 383.9 1.734 383.5 1.297 383.1 1.035 382.7 382.3 381.6 381.0

1.6165 1.5.126 1.4813 1.4499 1.4.177 1.3993 1.3857 0.9075 1.3753 0.7532 1.3671 0.5985 1.3560 0.4958 1.3475
300 185.4 361.4 18.51 361.3 9.247 361.1 4.615 360.9 2.298 360.2 1.525 359.7 1.139 359.1 358.5 358.0 357.1 356.3

1.5852 1.4813 1.3855 0.9760 1.3529 0.7748 1.3421 0.6407 1.3330 0.5065 1.3219 0.4171
1.311 337.0 1.3666
1.4500 1.3124
200 161.0 339.1 16.06 339.0 8.016 338.8 3.993 338.4 1.4.184 1.982 337.7 336.3 335.6 334.9 333.9 332.8

1.5684 1.4645 1.4332 1.4014 1.3679 1.3488 0.8986 1.3350 0.7125 1.3239 0.5886 1.3145 0.4636 1.3029 0.3780 1.2925
150 148.8 3.28.4 14.84 328.2 7.407 327.9 3.688 327.4 1.828 326.4 1.208 325.4 324.4 323.4 322.4 320.9 3.19.4

1.5506 1.4467 1.4154 1.3834 1.3490 1.3297 0.8033 1.3154 0.6376 1.3038 0.5237 1.2940 0.4100 1.2813 0.3341 1.2699
100 136.6 3.18.0 13.61 317.7 6.778 317.3 3.363 316.5 1.657 3.15.1 1.088 313.6 312.1 3.10.6 309.1 306.9 304.6

1.5316 1.4277 1.3964 1.3642 1.3284 0.9799 1.3086 0.7207 1.2928 0.5652 1.2805 0.4614 1.2694 0.3563 1.2562 0.2858 1.2436
124.4 307.7 12.38 307.3 6.119 306.8 3.053 305.9 1.498 304.1 302.2 300.4 298.6 296.7 294.0 291.2
50

1.5112 1.4073 1.37.59 1.3435 1.3044 0.8665 1.2833 0.6305 1.2666 0.4891 1.2519 0.3948 1.2395
112.2 297.8 11.15 297.3 5.542 296.8 2.738 295.8 1.335 293.8 291.7 289.7 287.7 285.6

1.4892 1.3853 1.3538 1.3211 1.2778

–50 100.0 288.0 9.902 287.5 4.904 287.0 2.404 285.9 1.154 283.8

–75°F 1.4772 1.3733 1.3417 1.3088

93.90 283.2 9.280 282.6 4.586 281.9 2.239 280.6

Property"
V h s

Pressure,
psia 1.00 10.0 20.0 40.0 80.0
120 160 200 240 300 360

É
 397
CHAP. 3.3

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PROPERTIES OF GAS COOLANTS

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§ O-12
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Pr
-
C
LTZ
P
21
§ /t
O.
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O.18
8OO
4
I2OO
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. *F
TEMPERATURE,
TEMPERATURE,”F

O.80
OO6

N §
o~<!
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Pr O.O4 N
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m)
21
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Pr
k—l
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400 8OO
I Xo I6OO
*F
TEMPERATURE, "F
TEMPERATURE,
National
Ridge
oak
by
submitted
Dioxide.
Carbon
of
Properties
-
*-*-*
hysical
***
1949.
April
PLaboratory,
PROPERTIES OF GAS COOLANTS CHAP. 3.3

Table 3.3.16–Properties of Gas Coolanus Listed in the International Critical Tables

Thermal
Density Specific heat Viscosity conductivity
Gas Volume Page Volume Page Volume Page volume Page'
Helium 3 3 1 102 5 2 5 213,214
Carbon
dioxide 3 3,11 7 243 5 4 5 214,215
Air 1 102 1 103 1 102 2 312 -
2 312 5 80,81
3 3

Table 3.3.17–Viscosities of Gases

(Reprinted from “Chemical Engineers' Handbook,” edited by J. H. Perry, 3rd ed.

By permission from McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950)

Gas X* Y* Gas X* Y*

Acetic acid 7.7 14.3 Freon-113 11.3 14.0

Acetone 8.9 13.0 Helium 10.9 20.5
Acetylene 9.8 14.9 Hexane 8.6 11.8
Air 11.0 20.0 Hydrogen 11.2 12.4
Ammonia 8.4 16.0 3H2 + 1N, 11.2 17.2
Argon 10.5 22.4 Hydrogen bromide 8.8 20.9
Benzene 8.5 13.2 Hydrogen chloride 8.8 18.7
Bromine 8.9 19.2 Hydrogen cyanide 9.8 14.9
Butene 9.2 13.7 Hydrogen iodide 9.0 21.3
Butylene 8.9 13.0 Hydrogen sulfide 8.6 18.0
Carbon dioxide 9.5 18.7 Iodine 9.0 18.4
Carbon disulfide 8.0 16.0 Mercury 5.3 22.9
Carbon monoxide 11.0 20.0 Methane 9.9 15.5
Chlorine 9.0 18.4 Methyl alcohol 8.5 15.6
Chloroform 8.9 15.7 Nitric oxide 10.9 20.5
Cyanogen 9.2 15.2 Nitrogen 10.6 20.0
Cyclohexane 9.2 12.0 Nitrosyl chloride 8.0 17.6
Ethane 9.1 14.5 Nitrous oxide 8.8 19.0
Ethyl acetate 8.5 13.2 Oxygen 11.0 21.3
Ethyl alcohol 9.2 14.2 Pentane 7.0 12.8
Ethyl chloride 8.5 15.6 Propane 9.7 12.9
Ethyl ether 8.9 13.0 Propyl alcohol 8.4 13.4
Ethylene 9.5 15.1 Propylene 9.0 13.8
Fluorine 7.3 23.8 Sulphur dioxide 9.6 17.0
Freon-11 10.6 15.1 Toluene 8.6 12.4
Freon-12 11.1 : 16.0 2,3,3-trimethylbutane 9.5 10.5
Freon-21 10.8 15.3 Water 8.0 16.0
Freon-22 10.1 17.0 Xenon 9.3 23.0

*Coordinates for use with Fig. 3.3.8

399
CHAP. 3.3 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 3.3.18—Thermal Conductivities of Gases and Vapors

(Reprinted from “Heat Transmission,” by W. H. McAdams, 2d ed. By permission
from McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942)

[The extreme temperature values given constitute the experimental range. For extrapolation to other temper
atures, it is suggested that the data given be plotted as log k vs. log T, or that use be made of the assumption that
the ratio Cp7/k is practically independent of temperature (or of pressure, within moderate limits).]

Substance T, *F k, Btu/(hr)(ft)(“F) Substance T, *F k, Btu/(hr)(ft)(*F)

Acetone' 32 0.0057 Dichlorodifluoromethane 32 0.0048

115 .007.4 122 .0064
212 .0099 212 .0080
- 363 .01.47 302 .0097

Acetylene’ – 103 0.0068 Ethane” –94 0.0066

+32 .01.08 –29 .0086
122 .0140 +32 .01.06
212 .0172 212 .0175

Air" – 148 0.0095 Ethyl acetate' 115 0.0072

+32 .0140 212 .0096
–212 .0183 363 .0141
392 .0226
572 .0265 Ethyl alcohol" 68 0.0089
212 .01.24

Ammonia? –76 0.0095

+32 .0128 Ethyl chloride" 32 0.0055
122 .0157 212 .0095
212 .0185 363 .0135
413 .0152

Benzene" 32 0.0052
115 .007.3 Ethyl ether" 32 0.0077
212 .01.03 115 .0099
363 .0152 212 .01.31
413 .0176 363 .0189
413 .0209

Butane (n-1” 32 0.0078 Ethylene" –96 0.0064

212 .0135 +32 .01.01

Butane (iso-)* 32 0.0080 122 0.01.31

212 .0139 212 .0161

Carbon dioxide" –58 0.0068 Heptane (n-)" 392 0.0112

+32 .0085 212 .01.03
212 .0133
392 .0181 Hexane (n-)* 32 0.0072
572 .0228 68 .0080

Carbon disulfide" 32 0.0040 Hexene" 32 0.0061

45 .0042 212 .0109

Carbon monoxide’” –312 0.0041 Hydrogen -148 0.065

–294 .0046 –58 .083
+32 .0135 +32 ..100
122 .115
Carbon tetrachloride" 115 0.0041 212 0.129
212 .0052 572 .178
363 .0065

Chlorine6 32 0.0043 Hydrogen and carbon 32

chloroform” 32 0.0038 dioxide"

115 .0046 0% H, 0.0083
212 .0058 20% .0165
363 .0077 40% .0270
60% .0410
80% .0620
Cyclohexane 216 0.0095 100% .10

400
PROPERTIES OF GAS COOLANTS CHAP. 3.3

Table 3.3.18—(Continued)

Substance T, ºf k, Btu/(hr)(ft)(“F) Substance, T, *F k, Btu/(hr)(ft)(*F)

Hydrogen and nitrogen' 32 Nitric oxide" –94 0.0103

0% H, 0.0133 +32 .01.38
20% .0212
40% .0313
60% .0438 Nitrogen” – 148 0.0095
80% .0635 +32 .0140
122 .0160
Hydrogen and nitrous oxide" 32 212 .0180
0% H, 0.0092
20% .0170 Nitrous oxide.” –98 0.0067
40% .0270 +32 .0087
60% .0410 212 .0128
80% .0650
o
2 Oxygen – 148 0.0095
Hydrogen sulfide 32 0.0076 –58 .01.19

º - 32 .0142
Mercury 392 0.0197 122 .0164

Methane”,”," .-148 0.0100 212 .0185

–58 .0145
+32 .0175 Pentane (n-)** 32 0.0074
122 .0215 68 .0083

Pentane (iso-)" 32 .0072

Methyl alcohol" 32 0.0083 212 .01.27
212 .0128

Propane” 32 0.0087
Methyl acetate' 32 0.0059 212 .0151
68 .0068

Methyl chloride" 32 .0053

115 .0072 Sulfur dioxide" 32 0.0050
212 0094 212 .0069
363 .01.30
413 .0148 water vaport.".”.” 115 0.0120
212 .0137
Methylene chloride" 32 0.0039 392 .0187
115 .0049 572 .0248
212 .0063 752 .0315
413 .0095 932 .0441

*1. Moser, Dessertation, Berlin, 1913.

*2. Eucken, A., Physik, Z., 12: 1101-1107 (1911); 14: 324 (1913).
3. Mann, W. B., and B. G. Dickens, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A 134: 77-96 (1931).
4. Sherrat, G. G., and E. Griffiths, Phil. Mag., 27: 68–75 (1939).
5. Chilton, T. H., and R. P. Generaux, personal communication, 1940.
6. “International Critical Tables,” McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1929.
7. Ibbs, T. L., and A. A. Hirst, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A 123: 134-142 (1929).
8. Dickens, B. G., Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A 143: 517-540 (1934).
9. Gregory, H. S., and J. H. Marshall, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A 118: 594 (1928).
10. Milverton, S. W., Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A 150: 287 (1935).
11. Vargaftik, N., and J. Timrot, J. Tech. Phys. (USSR) 9: 963–970 (1939).

*Data from Eucken and Moser are measurements relative to air. Data in this table
from these sources are based on the thermal conductivity of air at 32°F of 0.140 Btu/(hr)
(sq ft) (deg F per ft).

401
CHAP. 3.3 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

1.4

1.35 N. N

AIR H2
1.3 N
NN HoO
T*~~
Q2

1.25

1.2 N
>
Sº CO2
8. *~
|.15

|..I
\N. N
Y-L C2H, M

% |OOO 2OOO 3OOO 4OOO 5000

TEMPERATURE,”F

Fig. 3.3.6— Specific Heat Ratio vs Temperature for Air, co, H., H.o, ch,
C2H1, N2, Oz. Submitted by Clinton Works, May 29, 1947.

402
PROPERTIES OF GAS COOLANTS CHAP. 3.3

–40

2
95.
E
° E-3.0
C E

c., SPECIFIC HEAT = Btu /(Ib)(*F)

E-20
•F |-

E
200–

400–
7 - I.O
O -o
600– 3
5
O go 6 8O –0.9
H. O.8
— 48
13
800—H | NO GAS RANGE, "F II 12 Sº -

_ ] | IO | ACETYLENE
– 15 | ACETYLENE
32 - 390
390 - 750
loo O O |4 Hor
O |-
| OOO– || ||6 | ACETYLENE 750–2550 15 O16 O.6
- || 27 | AIR 32-2550
T] | 12 || AMMONIA 32 - || |O
OI7 =-0.5
1200–1 || 4 || AMMONIA |||O-255 O
- || || 8 || CARBON DIOxIDE 32- 750
—H | 24 || CARBON DIOXIDE 750-2550
I7A ==
O F.
- || 26 CARBON MONOXIDE 32-2550 17C F
1400- |32 || CHLoRINE
_I 34 CHLORINE
32 - 390
390-2550
OO
I7B O
g g 2I
gºo E-04
-

1600–1 ||
– I 3 | ETHANE
9 | ETHANE
32 – 390
390 - || | | O
17D %; E
—H | 8 || ETHANE | | |O-2550

i
– ||
-
4 || ETHYLENE
| | | ETHYLENE
32- 390
390 - || || |O
22 23O O 6 8 =-03
27 -
800- || 3 | ETHYLENE | | |O-2550
—||17B | FREON-11(ccis F) 32- 3OO
- || 7C | FREON-21 (CHCIeF) 32 - 30O § E
2000– ||*|†N-Zºś 3 2- 3OO
F-02
—||170|FREON-113(CCleF-CCIF) 32- 309 32 3. E
- || | | HYDROGEN 32 - || |O O T
2200- || 2 | HYöRöGää | | | O-2550
35 | HYDROGEN BROMIDE 32-2550
— 3O | HYDROGEN CHLORIDE | 32-2550 3×3 |-
2400— 20 | HYDROGEN FLUORIDE | 32-2550 O º

-|| 36|| HYDROGEN IODIDE 32-2550

_| | | 9 || HYDROGEN SULFIDE 32-129O 34 OT
2600–1 || 2 | HYDROGEN SULFIDE | 1290–2550
5 | METHANE 32 - 570 35 |-

6 | METHANE 57O - 129O ° –o.

7| METHANE 129O-25OO
25 | NITRIC OxIDE 32- 29O H.O.O.9
28 || NITRIC OXIDE 129O - 2550
26 || NITROGEN 32-2550 H.O.O8
36 º
23 || OXYGEN 32 - 930
O HOOZ
29 || OXYGEN 930-2550
33 || SULFUR 57O-2550
22 ||
3| | SULFUR
SULFUR
| 7 || WATER
DIOXIDE
DIOXIDE
32 - 750
750-2550
32-2550

Fig. 3.3.7–True Specific Heats of Gases and Vapors at 1 atm Pressure. Re

printed from “Heat Transmission,” by W. H. McAdams, 2d. ed. By permission from
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942. Draw a straight line be
tween point as given in table and required temperature. Intersection of this
straight line with right hand scale is desired specific heat.

403
CHAP. 3.3 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

TEMPERATURE VISCOSITY
•C of CP

- || OO– - O.
|- |-

Tl H. O.O.9
-
|-

_H-loo H. O.O3

|- - O.O7
º
--

-- =-o.oe
TH- O ==
o—L E-o.o.5

TH-loo E
–r- -O.O4
—— T
+ F
"º- |-

loo-T290 -
TH —o O3

–H300 -

200---400 -

EE Hoo,
+-500 M

soo–ET
-H6OO
T

B–700 º

400-EH- |-

3–800 -

EH-900 º

5OO-- -

_HIOOO —ool
HI IOO –0.oos
-H12OO HO.OO8

700-4-1300 |-

M. H.O.OO7
TH-1400 º

800-EI500
-* -O.OO6
–1600 E.
900 _E-1700 E.
| - 18OO –0,005

Fig. 3.3.8 – Viscosities of Gases and Vapors at 1 atm Pressure. Reprinted

from “Heat Transmission,” by W. H. McAdams, 2d. ed. By permission from
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942. Draw a straight line be
tween point (coordinates of point given for materials in Table 3.3.17) and
required temperature. Intersection of this straight line with right hand scale
is desired viscisity.

404
 §§
PROPERTIES OF GAS COOLANTS CHAP. 3.3

;
º

8.0
60 7 pt *VISCOSITY | I-T-I _-T T.
R =l. O

**śl, AT GIVEN TEMPERATURE BUT =- TR=1.02

.
*
§: 40H pc-CRiºt"PºurE
PRESSURE
p“STATIC PRESSURE 22L-2
__2T_
* Te =L05
R - i.
TR-110
of T =ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE Pr Ta =[.2O
E Tc-CRITICAL TEMPERATURE, L Rºº
| q
0.
>

;
- 20
P = P- =l
R* 5:c Ta- To
o
º
ABSOLUTE

o:
&
9.º

...O
9
p
&
z
9 'Z
~
T-T
--

º
Ts-130
'R
Ts-150

S
<zoº *&
^ A -
º
w wº % ~~
* - -

LO ~~~~ * --~~~ :--

0. O.2 O.4 O.6 O.8 I.O 2.0 4.0 G.O 8.0 iO 20
P_
REDUCED PRESSURE, Ps Pc
Fig. 3.3.9—Effect of Pressure on viscosities of Gases at Several Tempera
tures. Reprinted from “Heat Transmission,” by W. H. McAdams, 2d ed. By
..
permission from McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942. Data from
Comings, E. W., and R. S. Egly, Ind. Eng. Chem., 32: 714-718 (1940).

Table 3.3.19–Constants for Thermal-conductivity Correlation*

Gas Co C Ci
|
He 2.35 43.5 10
CO2 4.61 6212 10
;:. Air 0.632 245 12

*These constants are used in the following equation to correlate

the thermal conductivities of gases in the temperature range of
º: 15° to 375°K:

10" k = Ca VT
- + C/T
10C1/T

405
CHAP. 3.3 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 3.3.20–Thermal Conductivities Calculated by the Eucken Equation"

(J. M. Wright, Calculated Thermal Conductivities of Pure Gases and
Gaseous Mixtures at Elevated Temperatures, HW-21741, July 18, 1951)

k, 107* cal/(sec)(cm)(°C)
Gas T, “K Calculated Experimental

He 273.1 35.3 34.1

375.7 43.4 40.9
400.0 45.2
600.0 58.7
800.0 70.8

CO2 273.1 3.32 3.40

400.0 6.13
600.0 9.53
800.0 12.30

N: 273.1 5.6 5.66

400.0 7.67
600.0 10.4
800.0 12.9

*k = # (9 Co/Cv – 5) n Cv

Table 3.3.2.1–Viscosity Correlations for Gases at Low Pressures*

Gas T, “K Correlation for viscosity, m, in poises

- 5 - - *:
140-373 10” m 251

1 +→
10T

90-1845 10" m - 1.488 VT

122.1

1 *-*.
107

- 5 - 1.554VT
CO2 198-1686 10” m 246.0

*A Summary of Viscosity and Heat-conduction Data for He, A,

Hz, O2, N2, CO, CO2, H2O, and Air, by F. G. Keyes. Trans. Am.
Soc. Mech. Engrs., 73: 589-596 (1951). By permission from Amer
ican Society of Mechanical Engineers.

406
PROPERTIES OF GAS COOLANTS CHAP. 3.3

Table 3.3.22—Constants for Viscosity Correlations of Gases”

(Reprinted from “Chemical Engineers' Handbook,” edited by
J. H. Perry, 3rd ed. By permission from McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950)

# = (273.1+C/T+C)(T/273.1).””
o
# = (T/273.1)Nt
Gas C Range "C N Range “C 770, Cp

Air 114 0–300 0.768 0–100 0.01709

CO, 239.7 –21 – 302 .935 –20–140 .0137
274 15 – 100 .0137
He 78.2 –61–184 0.647 –258–19 .0187
80.3 15–185 .685 15–100 .0187
Hz 83 –60–185 .695 – 183–21 .0084
71.7 –21–302 .0084

*The empirical relations, if not applicable directly, can serve as a method of

extrapolating to get orders of magnitude, not precise results
f Given by Perry as applicable to gases other than H, or He
f Given by Perry as applicable to H, and He

SELECTED READING LIST

A SUMMARY OF VISCOSITY AND HEAT-CONDUCTION DATA FOR He, A, H, O, N, CO, CO., H.O, and AIR. F. G. Keyes, Trans.
Am...Soc. Mech. Engrs. 73: 581-595 (1951).
CALCULATED THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF PURE GASES AND GASEOUS MIXTURES AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES, Hanford
Works, J. M. Wright, HW-21741, Secret, July 18, 1951.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERs' HANDBOOK, edited by J. H. Perry, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company. Inc., New York, 1950.
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF AIR, University of Wisconsin. C. F. Curtiss and J. O. Hirschfelder, CM-472, 50 pp. June 1, 1948.
HEAT TRANSFER IN MANHATTAN DISTRICT AND ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION LABORATORIES: A CRITICAL SURVEY, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, W. B. Harrison, ORNL-156, Secret, Oct. 1, 1948.

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF AIR II, University of Wisconsin, J. O. Hirschfelder and C. F. Curtiss, CM-518, 121 pp, Dec. 21.
1948.

*Tables, J. H. Keenan and Joseph Kaye, 2d ed. John wiley and sons, Inc., New York, 1948.
TheºſodyNAMIC PROPERTIEs of HELIUM AT HIGH PRESSUREs AND TEMPERATUREs, schenectady works, s. W. Akin, NP-124,
May 1947.
*TSICAL PROPERTIEs of HEAT TRANSFER FLUIDS, Schenectady Works, B. O. Newman, GI-401, 70 pp, November 10, 1947.
HEAT TRANSMISSION. W. H. McAdams, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942.

NTERNATIONAL CRITICAL TABLEs, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1926-1933.

407
 CHAPTER 3.4

Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow for Gases

To compete with liquids as reactor coolants, gases must operate under more severe
conditions of temperature and pressure. To avoid hot spots and high surface temperatures,
local and over-all heat-transfer coefficients, which are lower generally than those of
liquid-cooled reactors, must be known accurately because of the high temperature dif
ference required between the reactor wall and fluid. The high ratio of surface tempera
ture to coolant bulk temperature encountered in gas-cooled reactors called for new
analytical approaches and new experimental data.
The use of irregularly shaped fuel elements also made additional data necessary. Data
were selected to show the effects of high heat flux and surface temperatures. Roughness,
porosity, turns in flow lines, entrance and exit effects, and heat-transfer and fluid-flow
characteristics of packed beds are all pertinent to the removal of heat from nuclear reac
tors and to the effective utilization of this heat energy. This chapter presents such basic
design data for gas-cooled reactors.

GENERAL. EQUATIONS UTILIZING HEAT-TRANSFER AND PRESSURE-DROP DATA

The nomenclature for the following equations is defined in Table 3.4.1.

HEAT TRANSFER

The heat-transfer coefficient is utilized in the equation:

Q = h A At (1)

Data for h are usually presented in the dimensionless ratios hD/k and h/cp6.
PRESSURE DROP

The general differential equation for steady-flow pressure drop is:

2
-vip-É
£c
dz , "a" tº *E.
ge 2gc rm
(2)

Simplified methods for calculating pressure drops for compressible fluids are presented
N.A.C.A." The methods outlined are essentially solutions to Eq. (2). Equation (2) be
COmes:

_G'dy a gºwf di.

-º-, "izi (3)

'References appear at end of chapter.

409
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS :

Table 3.4.1 — Nomenclature

Symbol Definition Unit

A Heat-transfer surface area Sq ft

a Constant of integration Dimensionless
b Roughness factor. Dimensionless
c Specific heat Btu/(lb)("F)
°p Specific heat at constant pressure Btu/(1b)(°F)
C p,b Average specific heat at constant Btu/(lb)(°F)
pressure
D Inside diameter of conduit Ft
DH, DE Hydraulic diameter or equivalent Ft
diameter
Do Outside diameter Ft
d Symbol for differentiating Dimensionless
d Density Lb/cu ft
df Average density of fluid Lb/cu ft
dh Hydraulic diameter of fin passage Ft
F. Friction loss due to sudden con- Lb/sq ft
traction
Fe Friction loss due to sudden en- Lb/sq ft
largement
f Friction factor Dimensionless
ſapp Experimentally determined fric- Dimensionless
tion factor
ff Friction factor evaluated at aver- Dimensionless
age temperature of fluid
ſk-N Friction factor calculated from Dimensionless
equation of Von Karman and
Nikuradse
G Mass velocity Lb/(sec)(sq ft)
Gmax Mass velocity based on smallest Lb/(sec)(sq ft)
flow-area
g Local gravitational acceleration Ft/(sec)(sec)
gc Conversion factor, 32.2 (ft)(lb-mass)/(sec)(lb
force)
h Coefficient of heat transfer Btu/(hr)(sq ft)("F)
he Local coefficient of heat transfer Btu/(hr)(sq ft)("F)
hl Coefficient of heat transfer based on Btu/(hr)(sq ft)("F)
log mean of temperature difference
at entrance and exit
hm Average heat-transfer coefficient Btu/(hr)(sq ft)("F)
hmi Heat-transfer coefficient referring Btu/(hr)(sq ft)("F)
to an average value based on initial
temperature
hy Local coefficient of heat transfer at Btu/(hr)(sq ft)("F)
point x
Kc Empirical constant for contraction Dimensionless
losses
Ke Empirical constant for expansion Dimensionless
losses
k Thermal conductivity Btu/(hr)(ft)("F)
kf Average thermal conductivity Btu/(hr)(ft)("F)
L Length Ft

410
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

Table 3.4.1—(Continued)

Definition Unit

Subscript indicating based on log Dimensionless

mean average
Mach number Dimensionless
Nusselt number Dimensionless

Average Nusselt number Dimensionless

Empirical constant Dimensionless

Prandtl number, cpm/k Dimensionless

Absolute pressure Lb/sq ft

Stagnation pressure Lb/sq ft
Heat flow rate at any given point Btu/(hr)(sq ft)
Heat flow rate at inside wall Btu, (hr)(sq ft)
Reynolds number, DG/m Dimensionless

Hydraulic radius Ft

Stanton number, hycpg Dimensionless

Absolute temperature *R or °K

Average absolute temperature *R or °K

Average temperature of fluid *R or °K

Stagnation temperature *R or °K
Surface temperature of wall *R or °K
Temperature *R or °K
Inside wall temperature *R or °K
Bulk temperature of fluid *R or °K
Film temperature, 0.5 (to-tu) + tº *R or °K

Film temperature, 0.4 (to-th) + th *R or °K

Time average velocity Ft/sec

Bulk average velocity Ft/sec
Velocity parameter, u/V Tºyds Ft/sec
Average velocity Ft/sec
Specific volume Cu ft/lb
Mean specific volume Cu ft/lb
Fluid-flow rate Lb/sec
Distance from conduit entrance Ft
Distance from tube wall Ft

Wall/distance parameter, Ft

ywſ tº/d/º/d,
Distance between flat plate and Ft

wavy plate
Distance (vertical) Ft
Dimensionless ratio Demensionless
q, V Tºyd,
Heat-transfer parameter Dimensionless
Cpqſe to
Difference Dimensionless
Absolute viscosity Lb sec/sq ft
Absolute viscosity at wall Lb sec/sq ft
Average absolute viscosity Lb sec/sq ft
Absolute viscosity at surface Lb sec/sq ft
Kappa, Karman constant Dimensionless
Flow contraction ratio Dimensionless
Shear stress in fluid Lb/sq ft
Shear stress in fluid at wall Lb/sq ft
Four times the friction factor, f Dimensionless

411
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

for the pressure drop of a compressible fluid in a constant-area passage with the com
bined effects of heat transfer and friction, elevation changes being neglected.
An integrated form of Eq. (3), with f assumed constant, is:

*(v- — 2
Ap = p, - p =9%=
§c
ºil 19.4 ºn E
2gc rm
(4)

where:

1 L
Wm L vdL (4a)
0.

For a perfect gas:

V
m
= vi PiTay
Pav Ti
(4b)

where pay can be taken as an arithmetic average of pi and pi if Apºp, and Tay can be taken
as an arithmetic mean if the At between wall and fluid is constant. If this At varies, then
Tima = Ts – Atim should be used for Tay.
The more usual application of Eq. (4a) as applied to reactors is for the case where the
temperature can be expressed as a function of passage length, L. Rewriting Eq. 4(a) with
the introduction of 4(b):

pi V1 L
*
V - F - LTI pav J. Toll, 4c
(4c)

The evaluation of the integral in Eq. (4c) proceeds from a heat balance where q is the heat
input per unit length:

qdL = wedT (4d)

Solving for dT and integrating:

ſat -ſ. # al. (4e)

Substituting in Eq. (4c):

L L

Vm - LT. we J. | ſ
W.pay Q at al. (4f)

The value of Vm can now be evaluated if q is known as a function of L. This function is set
by the physics of the reactor and can readily be obtained.
In practice, another integrated form of Eq. (2) has been used successfully." A log mean
average specific volume is assumed, Eq. (4g):

V2 - Vi
Vm – V2 (4g)

which leads to Eq. (4h):

412
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

2
1 — Pe = Gºvt (Tz/T) – 1 1 * (t1/2: ) (4h)
pi \gepſ) |(pi/pi) in [**
p:/pi
%.)
_(Gºvi\|va- + V2
(#) |: . | ***{})
The basic differential equation is also expressed in terms of Mach number, stagnation
pressure, and stagnation temperature as follows:" -

dp/po _-kM*|dT,
- 2
, fal.
To + *m (5)

Data and correlations on pressure drop are presented as friction factor, f, as a function
of Reynolds number. The more important correlations are summarized in Tables 3.4.2
and 3.4.3. The text should be consulted for the restrictions on these correlations and the
physical properties to be used.

Table 3.4.2—Data and Correlations for h, the Coefficient of Heat Transfer

Type of
Flow coefficient Fig. No. or equation Notes

Turbulent Local Fig. 3.4.2 High-flux data

Turbulent Local he/crg = 0.033 (DG/mm)".” Equation fits data to
Fig. 3.4.5 within + 7 percent
Turbulent Local Fig. 3.4.6 and 3.4.7 Coefficients near an entrance
Streamline Local h,D/k = 1.75 + 0.65 V wer/Kx 8<x/D 80
Fig. 3.4.4 5<wcp/kx<400
Streamline Average (hmi /cpSC)(cpºlſk); - Constant surface temperature;
0.664 (LG/mi).” average deviation 10 percent:
Fig. 3.4.9 5<L/D 3.63
Turbulent Average hD/kt = 0.034 (d;V, D/mi)":* x High-flux data;
(cpfnt /kt)'." (L/D)-"." constant q/A;
Fig. 3.4.10 30<L/D*120
Turbulent Average hi /crl G = 0.026 (DG/n).” x 1<L/D 368.4; constant
(1 + (L/D)-".") surface temperature
Fig. 3.4.13
Turbulent Fig. 3.4.14 High-pressure data; constant
surface temperature

Table 3.4.3— Data and Correlations for f, the Friction Factor and Pressure Loss

Flow Type Fig. No. or equation Notes

Turbulent Local Fig. 3.4.3 High-flux data

Turbulent Local Fig. 3.4.8 Friction factors
near an entrance
–0.8 -

Turbulent Average 1/W8ff/2=2|ogio (divhD/mf V8ſ; /2) High-flux data;

Fig. 3.4.15 30<L/D*120;
heating or cooling
Laminar and Local Fig. 3.4.16 Entrance and exit
turbulent losses

413
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

LOCAL HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT AND PRESSURE-DROP DATA

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION

Basic data on velocity distribution are presented in Fig. 3.4.1, which also shows the
equations representing the distribution near the wall and in the bulk of the fluid. In the
Reynolds number range 10,000-200,000, theoretical analysis and experimental data for
air (taken with an 0.87-in. Inconel tube with L/D = 100) indicated that variable shear
stress across the tube and compressibility without heat transfer altered the velocity dis
tribution curve approximately 2% percent."

HEAT TRANSFER– TURBULENT FLOW

Figure 3.4.2 presents a plot of Nusselt number versus Reynolds number obtained with
high surface temperature/bulk temperature ratios, to/tb. The data and analysis are cor
related well by evaluating the physical properties at t0.4 = 0.4(to-tb) + th: Thermal con
ductivities and viscosities for air were both assumed proportional to the 0.68 power of the
absolute temperature.

PRESSURE DROP-TURBULENT FLOW

Figure 3.4.3 presents data for the friction factor versus Reynolds number with the
physical properties also evaluated at t0.4. Theoretical analysis also indicated only slight
effect of variable shear stress and heat transfer across the tube on the velocity profile
for turbulent flow with variable fluid properties.” A similar method of analytically de
riving local heat-transfer coefficients to fluids with temperature-dependent properties is
also presented by Goldmann."

HEAT TRANSFER – STREAMLINE FLOW

Data for local coefficients with streamline flow are presented in Fig. 3.4.4 for 0.0625
in.-diameter Inconel tubes. The data are correlated within 22 percent by the equation:

tºp = 1.75 + 0.65V*.* X

(6)

in the range of x/D from 8 to 80, and wcp/kx from 5 to 400." The data for the physical
properties of air are from the “Gas Tables.” Further analysis of Kroll's temperature
data is presented by Klein and Tribus" who also present analytical methods for predicting
heat transfer from non-uniform temperature surfaces.

HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT INDEPENDENT OF TEMPERATURE DRIVING FORCE

A heat-transfer coefficient defined by:

1
he — dº tw -1 taw
- dA (7)

is found to be independent of temperature difference between wall and fluid, where twis
the surface temperature with heat transfer and taw is the corresponding temperature the
surface would assume in the absence of heat transfer. Figure 3.4.5 presents the correla

414
 3O

25

2O | R
| EYNOLDS
NUMBER
Re

–
8,000
\+ay”LOGe
u’=# OOO
I| ,
14,000
where
T1 16,OOO
O
=k.36 19,000
3
=Q,8
l 25,000
T
30,000
35,000
42,000
50,000
6O,OOO
F
8O,OOO
97,OOO
5
| ,000
145,000
22O,OOO

4OO
2OO
IOO
6O
4O 4OOO
IOOO
2O
I
8
6
4
2 O

do
ow
N
*º
=y y
do
2oz

1950.
July
NACA-TN-21
from
Reprinted
Curve. 38,
:
Distribution
Velocity
3.4.1—
Fig.
:
;
8OO

dB
=Ond
O.O5

OD.87
in
L/D
=| OO

to/te
B
O
|,
Ó .OO6-OOO9
|-|.
||.
aO
O
-
4
1.2-
1 5
Cl
O
o 22-
.O28
1.5-1.
–PREDICTED
LINE

|O
|OOO IOOOO
IOOOOO
1.
6OO,OOO
do.4
ubD
Reo4–7.

Fig.
3.4.2—
Heat-transfe
Correlation.
Reprinted
from
NACA-TN-26
Feb.
1952. r
29,
 .O2

.Ol

*o
o
- >
k”
3 =I
in.
O
|&L/DOO
D.87
to to/tb
B
1.
O
|V
1.2-l.4
O
A.O.[4-OO15
1.4-1.7
O23
. OI8- O
Dwº-
1.5-l.9
O28
.
oO23-
LINES
PREDICTED

.OOI
6OOOOO
IOOOOO
IOOOO
IOOO

1952.
Feb.
NACA-TN-26
from
Reprinted
Correlation.
3.4.3—Fricti
Fig. 29,
on-factor

:
:
 LEGEND
WALL
SYMBOLIAVE.
TEMP.9F
O
-

623–693
A
||95
|
– |O4
[]
V
||5||
–
|*any
G/m
Dover

O53x9.5
Y
=|-OErx=0.5
E

CURVE
FLOW
HEATING
ROD
CONST
q/A
ROD
tCONST
PARABOLA
PARABOLA
|C
twONST
CFLAT
|PLATE
ONST
BEST
LINE
THROUGH
DATA,5<X-400

6
8[2
I 2 OO
OOO
44..O

3.4.4.—Heat
Fig.
Correlation.
Reprinted
from
NEPA-1688,
1950.
Dec. -transfer
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

tion obtained for he. All data given on Fig. 3.4.5 are represented within + 7 percent by the
equation:

—0.23
# = 0.038 (*)
°p m
(8)

where the physical properties of air are taken from the NACA data” and cover the fol
lowing ranges of variables:

Diameter, in. 0.28 – 0.99

Pressure, atm. .2 – 3
Temperature difference, “F 10 – 400
Mach number 0– 1
Reynolds number 10,000 – 400,000

HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS NEAR ENTRANCE

Data on local heat-transfer coefficients near the entrance to a tube are presented in
Figs. 3.4.6 and 3.4.7. Analytical methods by Boelter et al” are also presented for pre
dicting the local coefficient of heat transfer near the entrance of round tubes. In addition
to Figs. 3.4.6 and 3.4.7, local heat-transfer coefficient data are given by Boelter" on the
systems shown in Table 3.4.4.
Data on entrance coefficients have also been presented by Cholette" for the Reynolds
number range 678 to 18, 250.

TUBE ENTRANCE PRESSURE DROP

Data on friction factors near the entrance to tubes are presented in Fig. 3.4.8 for air.
The value of the friction factor remains within 5 percent of that given by the Karman
Nikuradse relation, Eq. (11), beginning at approximately 40 to 60 diameters downstream
from the entrance." Entrance and exit effects as well as turning losses are discussed
elsewhere in this chapter.

AVERAGE HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT AND PRESSURE-DROP DATA

The latest data of interest on average heat-transfer coefficients and pressure drop are
those obtained with high surface temperatures and low L/D ratios. The usual correlations
are modified by evaluating the physical properties at some temperature intermediate to
the bulk temperature of the fluid and the wall temperature. The L/D ratio is also in
corporated in the equations to obtain correlations.

HEAT TRANSFER-STREAMLINE FLOW

Heat-transfer data for small L/D ratios, constant surface temperature, and laminar
flow are presented in Fig. 3.4.9. These data are correlated with an average deviation of
10 percent by the Pohlhausen equation for flat plates:

*m. Cp7 % - (º" -

j (#). 0.684 (+), (9)

419
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

| | | | || I |
— RANGE –
KFY MACH No. —

O.OO6
9 9-1-7922 | PRESENT
+ – O.32-O 5 | DATA - |
A - O .43– OO

v – º O.

CO
O.OO4
*~. -

| Tºss
D
x
- O.4 – I.O
– O.25 – O.95
PREVIOUS
DATA
:

1–1–
l

ca.
O
*~
w
-C

O.OO2

OOO! l

| 2 4 6 8 IO 2O 4O
DG -4
++ x|O
"lm

Fig. 3.4.5—Heat-transfer Correlation. Reprinted from NACA-TN-985, June 1945.

O | 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TO || 12 13 |4 |5-16 tº 17

x/DH

Fig. 3.4.6 – Entrance Heat-transfer Data Using Right-angle-edge Entrance.

Reprinted from NACA-TN-1451, July 1948.

420
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

BELLMOUTH WITH SIX SCREENS -

BELLMOUTH WITH ONE SCREEN
BELLMOUTH WITH SCREEN HOLDER
BELLMOUTH ONLY

| 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 |O || |2 [3 |4 |5 ||6 |7

x/DH

Fig. 3.4.7 — Curves of Entrance Heat-transfer Data Using Various Entrances.

Reprinted from NACA-TN-1451, July 1948.

Table 3.4.4—Configurations on Which Entrance Heat-transfer-coefficient

Data are Presented by Boelter et al

(1) Circular tube with bellmouth at entrance

(2) Circular tube with bellmouth and one screen at entrance
(3) Circular tube with bellmouth and screen holder at entrance
(4) Circular tube with bellmouth and six screens at entrance
(5) Circular tube with bare sharp-edge entrance
(6) Circular tube with large orifice at entrance
(7) Circular tube with small orifice at entrance
(8) Circular tube with short calming section at entrance
(9) Circular tube with long calming section at entrance
(10) Circular tube with 45°-angle bend at entrance
(11) Circular tube with right-angle bend at entrance
(12) Circular tube with right-angle bend and long calming section at entrance
(13) Circular tube with 45° round bend at entrance
(14) Circular tube with 90° round bend at entrance
(15) Circular tube with 180° round bend at entrance

421
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

4.O
Re

t 7 o 386,000
: l D 310,000
| A 191,7OO
3.O
*il il
ſº •
ºn
170,000
II 3,800

|
:: I
I

x/D

Fig. 3.4.8 — Entrance Friction-factor Data. Reprinted from NACA-TN-1785,

Nov. 1948.

O.I

§
* —”
-:

SS ool
o 8
~
~
-1 O 6 EY| L/D
As 3. 4. o :
~...~" A
it. © |O.5
5 A | 21.0
2 31.5
w 42.O

+ 52.5 DG
O.OO | X 63 #xesoo
8 POHLHAUSEN EQUATION
6

4 s s lo” 2 4 s a lo” 2 4. s s ſo" 2

LG

75

Fig. 3.4.9 – Heat-transfer Correlation for Stream-line Flow. Reprinted from

NEPA-1688, Dec. 1950.

422
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

In this correlation, the physical properties of air are taken from the “Gas Tables” by
Keenan and Kaye.

HEAT TRANSFER—TURBULENT FLOW

Figure 3.4.10 presents a correlation over wide range of surface temperatures, bulk
temperatures, and length-to-diameter ratios at constant q/A. Diameters of 0.402 in. and
0.525 in. were used. The velocity in the Reynolds number is evaluated at the bulk tem
perature, the physical properties of air at a film temperature which is the average of the
bulk and wall temperatures. The NACA physical properties for air were utilized. In ad
dition, the thermal conductivity of air is assumed directly proportional to the square root
of the absolute film temperature."
In contrast, Fig. 3.4.11 presents low-flux data for air where the L/D ratio is not im
portant, although a trend is shown and the physical properties are evaluated at the bulk
temperature of the fluid. Since the correlation obtained is good, the surface temperature
effect does not seem important in these data.

*-oosa (***Vb* (*-2):) (+)

O.8 O4 —o.1 =E=E-i-

1O3 kf 7t k; D

3 ||3–s
^3| S
><|
2|- : *
O
o
a.

*L* > *
- f 102
o

TÉ
Tit
º:liu

#3 ||3:
ſlas É
\ ^l Gº

§# |3z
5z | E
2 H. to T Ts Ts / Tb
H | <ſ (R•) (R•)
ū É 535 88O-1685 1.5–24 HEATING
% - 535 98 O-3O5O 1.6–3.5 HEATING
m) 76O-116O 990–2025 1.2-2.1 HEATING
3. 535 605-2050 l. I - 2.5 HEATING
700-1500 540-J 585 .82-46 COOLING
535 66O-17 |O 1.2 - 19 HEATING
705-1460 1295-1850 1.1 – 1.7 HEATING

I
103 104 IO 5 IO6

de V, D
MODIFIED REYNOLDS Nuweer-Hº £

Fig. 3.4.10—Heat-transfer Correlation for Turbulent Flow. Reprinted from

NACA-1020, 1951.

423
:
4OOOOO
2000OO
IOOOOO
6OOOO
4OOOO
2OOOO
6OO
IOOOO
6OOO
4OOO
2OOO
|OOO

L.KEY|
| in
D,
PRESSURE m
d?
D
–
|IOI
vTO.985
2

O|.
|
CD
B65
27
ru
|
O|
v-|OO
2.
.554
oo::
3.72
|O8
|
[I]
4D–
|o
8|A
.32 2[[]
1|
|
(N
3OO
Gºy 1O.O
|.32
oo::
) Vt]
CQ

W-
v -

3A#33;
o's O.865
|O
O \".
DG
OOO2
LEGEND 83575.
O. A
-AP–
h

O.5OO
9|
V75 3.eno4.gdr1teh—-Hpteoalt-nadtidrameinsnotfetr
LICFig.
of

O.865 e
Q
2 O4
.865 ©
O7
.865 O.865(D|
|
O
3 O|6
2.865 848
O.
4O.OO4
A.
Oº
|6.5
o:
º

A -
-
- *
|
f
doos
*22.]
|—a
|.8
||
Gº
|
ſº

DG m

+
NUMBER
REYNOLDS
.A[.
[

NACA-AR -4F28,
from
Reprinted
Ratio.
1945.
Feb.

OOIOTw-
4.68
[]
|6.7
|

[|
2.75
4A42

O.O2O
3
*| OOO!

*~

§
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

8OO

6OO Ts Ts-Tb
(OR) (OF)
O 785 222
4OO D || 6 | 569
KX | 722 |O88
3OO V 21.25 |467
A 2502 || 826
TAILED SYMBOLS DENOTE CHECK DATA

2|- ;
o
N
|OO

:.
3O

IO
2000 4000 5000 IOOOO 20,000 40,000 50000 OOOOO 2000OO 4OOOOO

d.V.D
MODIFIED FILM REYNoLDS NUMBER, ++-
7
Fig. 3.4.12—Heat-transfer Correlation for Turbulent Flow. Reprinted from
NACA-RM-E9D12, June 23, 1949.

Figure 3.4.12 demonstrates the validity of obtaining the heat-transfer coefficient with
high surface-to-bulk temperature ratios by evaluating the physical properties at the film
temperature. Fair correlation was also obtained evaluating the physical properties at the
surface temperature of the wall.
Figure 3.4.13 presents further data obtained for turbulent flow with low L/D ratios and
low heat flux. These data are correlated with a maximum deviation of 17 percent by the
equation:

h
;g= 0.026 (DG/h)." [1+ (l/d) ".")
-

(10)

where the physical properties of air were taken from the “Gas Tables” by Keenan and Kaye.

HEAT-TRANSFER DATA FOR OTHER GASES

Heat-transfer data for helium are presented by Lyon.” The precision of the data is not
sufficient to detect any significant difference from that predicted by the Colburn or Dittes
Boelter equations. Figure 3.4.14 presents data obtained for a 3:1 hydrogen-nitrogen mix
ture at various pressures as well as for air. In this correlation, q is a function of Reynolds
and Prandtl numbers. These data indicate that low-pressure data may be utilized to obtain
high-pressure data as long as the physical properties at the high pressure are known.
A simplified equation for quickly calculating the heat-transfer coefficient for gases in
turbulent flow as presented by McAdams" is:

h = 0.027 cr G'." ".”/d'." (10a)

425
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

EY
X
O 5
- 5
A IO-5
A 21
D 31.5
- 42
+ 46.5
V 52.5
• 60.6
w 63
e 63.4

Y=oo285x^*

Y=0.026x79.2

2
IOOO 2 4. 6 8 IOOOO 2 4. 6

x=99.
* b.

Fig. 3.4.13—Heat-transfer Correlation for Low L/D. Reprinted from NEPA

1688, Dec. 1950.

o Ha-Nz,900 atm 1.45

O.O |O TTTTI x He-N2:300 dtm 142

H T Hz-N2,100 atm 142

O.OO6 7.6% " 2. A.H2-N2, 3O Otm 1.42
§ zºº P l H2-N2, | Otm 1.45
I- § O.OO4 1- TºssGE a AIR, 7 atm I. 12
O.OO3 f >ist JTſ a 2. 8

OOO2H h =0.02399 T .2 =&#As

CFG% £ | Tie--
colllll 2 5 2 5
-

2 5
IO4 IOS
REYNOLDS NUMBER

Fig. 3.4.14–Heat-transfer Data for 3:1 H, -N. Mixtures and for Air. Reprinted
from A. P. Colburn et al, Ind. Eng. Chem. 39, No. 8, 1947, p. 960.

426
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

PRESSURE DROP-TURBULENT FLOW

Figure 3.4.15 illustrates the effect of the following on the average friction factor:
(1) Effect of entrance configuration with heat addition.
(2) Effect of L/D and inlet air temperature with heat addition.
(3) Effect of heat extraction.
The Karman-Nikuradse relation for smooth tubes, Eq. (11), best represents the data:

––– di Vb.D If \
H-ºwſ
l
W8 #
yº) mf 0.8 (11)

The density and viscosity are evaluated at the film temperature using NACA and Keenan
and Kaye's “Gas Tables” data.
The von Karman semi-theoretical treatment can be used in the determination of friction
factor at any Reynolds number in the turbulent range provided the mean height of the sur
face irregularities of the conduit is known.”

ENTRANCE AND EXIT EFFECTS ON PRESSURE DROP

The friction caused by a sudden contraction at an entrance or exit is usually given by:

K.V:
= **C" 2
**i. (12)

where Kc is the function of the ratio of the new cross-sectional area to the original area,
J, the flow area contraction ratio. Similarly, expansion losses are given by:

e 2g. (13)

Figure 3.4.16 presents a method of evaluating Ke and Kc, knowing the Reynolds number
and the porosity, for the following types of flow passages:
(1) Circular multiple-tube system.
(2) Two-dimensional infinitely wide gap.
(3) Square-tube plate-fin system.
(4) Equilateral-triangular plate-fin system.
These plots are derived for non-compressible flow, and experimental results have con
firmed the predictions of this analysis.”
For non-adiabatic Flow, Kays’ correlations hold if the velocity is evaluated at the bulk
temperature of the fluid with the physical properties of the fluid evaluated at the wall tem
perature.” Turning losses are discussed elsewhere in this chapter.

FINNED SURFACES

The design of gas-cooled finned surfaces requires the calculation of heat transfer and
Pressure drop as related to design conditions such as cylinder diameter, width and spacing
ºf the fins, and roughness of the surface, and to operating conditions such as velocity of
Coolant and temperature differences. Detailed treatment of finned surfaces is given in the
A.S.M.E. Transactions,” but the data presented are not directly applicable where the fin is
made from the fuel elements.

427
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

..! HT- ——T T T-T

1
T

------ ENTRANCE Ts Ts/Tb

(*R)
l o LONG APPROACH 535–1750 IO-23
- G RIGHT-ANGLE EDGE 535–1960 I.O-24 +
I -

*: I — KARMAN–NIKURADSE RELATION
O --- LAMINAR FLOW
.O. o t | de V-D f

sº-3-Hº-H = 2 LoG | f_*\| s-t -o.8

*-i-d H]-} ls fr 2): 2 -

- 2

#. 8", TIII -- - -------

° d.V.P RTH TII IIII

77° Gº-E LIT H

(a)
ocell
“|& - -
| I

Ž ++++- |- T Ts Ts ZTE
É D (*R) (°R)
ū. o 3O 535 535-1685 I.O-24
tº G |2O 535 535-17 |O I.O-1.9

9 o | 2 20 705-1460 1295-1850 L1-17

o TI — KARMAN-NIKURADSE RELATION
3
- o
H | LAMINAR
| --- | | | | | FLOW
| | | | | | | |ll
H.
S-2 Ol ºf J. C. H. l: E l
TIII H I L
l l

É ~ *H*. H----4----H-4 Hi- III

| * 1. H : ++ + t ++

u- NTT 55 H–H– ++
— ++ |-

<ſ
I
T
H H
+
- ++++

3 | + I +
u- 1
O
O
> .OOl
| | ||

H (*R) ("R)
O 535 535 I.O
o 7OO 54O O.82
Ol || || D IOOO 555 ,63 -

- +++++++ -i- A 1500 585 .46 l

+4—4–4– -

l
*~
H–KARMAN-NikuKADSE RELATION
- H

III–
#######| H
Tſiºrº III III
---— | +-4--- || |*TP++|| ||
.ool") ||
KO3 104 IO5 106
de Ve D
MODIFIED REYNOLDS NUMBER, -

Fig. 3.4.15— Friction-factor Correlation for Turbulent Flow. Reprinted from

NACA-1020, 1951.

428
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

O O OO
O O O
O OOO

2000
LAMINAR
2O
LAminaR

or

Fig. 3.4.16—Constants for Entrance and Exit Pressure Loss. Reprinted from
NP-3901, Jan. 1, 1950.

429
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

The general conclusions deduced from many independent sources of fin data are:*
(1) For a given Reynolds number, the Stanton numbers, h/cp6, usually increase with
increase in fin spacing for both rectangular and triangular fins.
(2) For a given Reynolds number, the Stanton numbers usually increase with increase
in fin width for rectangular fins, but decrease with increase in fin width for triangular
fins.
(3) Cylindrical diameter has no effect on the coefficient of heat transfer.
(4) Temperature difference has a negligible effect on the surface heat-transfer coeffi
cient, in the range of available data where the maximum t was approximately 200°F.
(5) There is an indication in the data that rough or wavy surfaces:
(a) Increase the Stanton number for a given Reynolds number.
(b) Increase the heat-transfer coefficient for a given pumping power per unit surface.
(c) Increase the heat-transfer coefficient slightly for a given pressure drop.
Interrupted plane fins staggered in successive rows have been utilized where high heat
transfer coefficients were desirable. These fins do not allow the boundary layer in the
fluid to develop fully because of the interruption in the fins. High heat-transfer coefficients
are the result. Figure 3.4.17 is a schematic diagram of interrupted plane fins, with S, the
transverse wall-to-wall spacing between fins in the same row, A, the length of fin in direc
tion of fluid flow, &, the thickness of fin metal, and o, the transverse stagger spacing be
tween the fins in successive rows indicated.

+ G-

-
-

––– -

-
–
4– - -

FLOW S - t- - -

—º- T-— - t- t

tº- -

- - - -

Fig. 3.4.17—Schematic Diagram of Interrupted Plane Fins. Reprinted from

NACA-TN-2237, Dec. 1950.

Figure 3.4.18 presents heat-transfer data over the wide range of fin characteristics
indicated. The equations representing the line are:

cpS
-

Pr % = A. (Gd (14)

Wd, m

for A/dh = 3.5, and:

he prºs = –F–9.9%: (15)

cpg 3 **)
“\m
-

for A/dh > 3.5. In these equations, dh is the hydraulic diameter of the fin passage equal to
four times the cross-sectional area divided by the wetted perimeter.

430
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

8/s or/s
O O.O87 O.33
.O6 [] .O42 .33

ro
S .04
§DS 5% -

.248
g; .50
#3 -

di D7 .248 .50
TG O3 N. .248 .50

*| >
~3° .O2
S #3, #4, #,
2
0
Im)
O
Or .OIO
O
or .008
H
# 006
:
Or .OO4
T .OO3
3.
LL
I. OO2

.OOl
|O 2O 3O 4O 6O 80 |OO 2OO 3OO
V(A/dh)(Gdh/7) FOR A/dhºš.5
W 3.5 (Gdh/7) FOR A/dh-35
Fig. 3.4.18—Heat-transfer Data for Interrupted Plane Fins. Reprinted from
NACA-TN-2237, Dec. 1950.

Figure 3.4.19 presents the data for the friction factor for Reynolds numbers less than
or equal to 3500 and for Reynolds numbers greater than 3500. The correlating equations
for the friction coefficients for Reynolds numbers <3500 are:

f = ′ 11.8 (16)
–4
dh \ m
(º)"
for A/dh = 3.5, and:
11.8
f= (17)
3.5 (*)
m
0.67

431
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

.2O

... O

.O8

.O6

A/d, 8/s aſs

.O4

É O.606 O.O87 O.33

-O 3 © .625
.606 - O42
.oe’ .

<! .90 . 248

C 2.25 .248
.O2 7 4.50 .248
tº 9.0 . 248
X 2.O7 .O7
1.39 . 34
V 5.89 . 134
A. I. 6 .O.5.
- D 4.44 . 222
T.O.
g IO 2O 3O 4O 6O 8O IOO 2OO 3OO 400 6OO 800 iOCO
H.
3
Li
(A/dh)(Gd /m)” FOR X/dbs3.5
2 3.5(Gdh/m)” FOR X/dº-35
Q
H.
9
£.08
.O 6

.O4

.O.3

.O2

.. O

.OO6
| 2 3 4. 6 8 IO 2O 3O 40 so

(A/dh)(Gdh/m) *** FOR A /dº-3.5

3.5 (Gd,/m)°** FOR X/d, -3.5
Fig. 3.4.19 – Friction-factor Data for Interrupted Plane Fins. Reprinted from
NACA-TN-2237, Dec. 1950.

432
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

for A/dh > 3.5. For Reynolds numbers > 3500:

f 0.38 (18)
-* (#) 0.24

for A/dh = 3.5, and:

f =–9é— (19)

*
3.5 (i.
\ m y

for A/dh > 3.5. More recent fin data are presented by Kayset al.”

TURNING LOSSES

In reactors using split flow of coolant and in folded reactors (Chapter 3.6), turning
losses are an important fraction of the total pressure drop of the coolant. It is difficult
to extrapolate the turning-loss data obtained with models because of the inadequate theory
describing the losses.
Figure 3.4.20 presents data for turning losses with various slot widths and illustrates
the effect of using bellmouths at the entrance to the channels. The channels had the finned
fuel elements shown in Fig. 3.5.5 in them. The air flowed down the slot and turned into the
2.67-in.-ID channels on 8-in. centers normal to the slot as shown in Fig. 3.4.21. Table
3.4.5 lists the various operating conditions for Fig. 3.4.20.
The data presented in Fig. 3.4.22 are for normal flow and turning flow. The data are
for relatively short passages and exhibit a slope of minus one-half instead of minus one
because of the entrance effects. The losses caused by flowing through two 90° turns are
indicated by the separations between these curves. The turning losses decrease with in
creased Reynolds number.
The estimate that a turning loss is equivalent to one velocity head is shown by the above
data to be conservative. Turning losses from 0.61 to 1.47 velocity heads have also been
reported” and may be kept to the minimum value by the proper design of passage en
trance and exits.

FLOW IN CHANNELS OF IRREGULAR SHAPES

HEAT TRANSFER – RECTANGULAR DUCTS

Heat-transfer data from many sources are plotted in Fig. 3.4.23 for rectangular ducts.
The data for high L/D ratios fall below the curves. This is attributed to inaccurate tem
perature measurements because of poor mixing of the stream. The correlations in Fig.
3.4.23 are therefore only valid for L/D ratios below 80.

HEAT TRANSFER— RECTANGULAR AND TRAPEZOIDAL DUCTS

Data plotted in Fig. 3.4.24 for rectangular and trapezoidal ducts fall 30 to 35 percent
below the usual correlation.”

433
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

24 i l

No BELLMOUTHS
2.2 A.
2.71"SLOT WIDTH

BELLMOUTHS *

4.O." SLOT WIDTH

| -X
•*
—x--X-7 *

O 50 |OO 15O :
G SLOT º

w CHANNEL

Fig. 3.4.20–Turning-loss Data. Reprinted from BNL-23, Oct. 1, 1949, Secret.

Channel-entrance pressure drop expressed as fraction of channel velocity head
vs the ratio of the mass velocity, G, in the feed slot to the weight rate of flow,
w, through the channel.

A ||R OUT

|
%

AIR IN —- A|R OUT

|
A ||R OUT

Fig. 3.4.21—Schematic of Turning Flow. Reprinted from BNL-23, Oct. 1, 1949,

Secret. The pressure drop was measured from an average position in the slot to
10 in. downstream in a channel.

434
 *# * C- 3
§
;“E,
ºg
º
: f

Results
and
Data
Pressure-dr
c
— op
hannel-entra
3-4-5
Table nce
rtatio
of
static
Ratio
average
static
pressure
mass
slot
static
Static
entrance
Average
weight
in
pressure velocity
air
rate "..."
channel
at
Entrance
down-
upstream
velocity
Channel
flow
of
Ma
channel
to
ss
*:
pressure
from
channel
in-
10
of
stream
of
passing
through
velocity
l
velocity
weight
face.*
lot
Sne
*
slo
entrance,"
channel,”
drop,
Channel,
el,
- velocity
head,
channel,
Run
n
slot,
in
rate
on.
to
ib/gºes
head
Hºo
in.
HiO
H0
in.
H.0
ſt/sec
Ib/hr
No,
width
slot
bellmouths-2.71
Without -in.

36.0
31.100
1.62
2.44
3.96
9.13
5.17
4.76
5.59
118
8
1 63
3.9700
47.1
1.98
2.34
4.64
11.00
6.36
5.95
6.77
151
8243
44.100
1.93
52.3
2.34
4.51
14.17
9.66
8.89
10.43
169
8
342
53900
2.16
64.8
2.32
5.00
17.42
12.42
11.48
13.37
.33
208
84
57400
69.2
2.15
2.30
4.94
16.85
11.91
11.22
12.60
8
221
530
61900
76.0
2.30
2.24
5.16
20.20
15.04
14.25
15.84
240
816
6

width
slot
bellmouths-2.71
With -in.

33.9
29600
0.79
2.49
1.97
7.29
5.32
4.81
5.83
8
112
773
38.400
44.7
.84
2.43
2.03
8.58
6.55
5.90
77.20
61
146
8
38600
.82
45.0
2.41
1.97
9.10
7.13
6.70
7.56
858
147
9
50.5
42700
.88
2.35
2.07
10.67
8.60
8.11
9.09
182
846
10
61700
.99
75.7
2.23
2.21
17.70
15.49
14.56
16.43
240
816
11
69000
1.19
85.4
2.20
2.63
20.25
17.62
16.63
18.62
270
808
12
70600
87.3
1.02
2.20
2.24
19.70
17.46
16.43
18.50
808
276
13
31500
0.80
57.3
0.97
0.78
4.80
4.02
3.74
4.30
119
550
14
33800
62.6
.77
.95
.73
5.58
4.85
4.57
5.12
128
540
15
65.8
35400
.88
.83
.94
5.75
4.92
4.41
5.43
134
538
16
39000
1.03
.90
74.2
.92
6.81
5.89
5.28
6.50
148
526
17
46300
1.08
84.7
.86
.93
8.39
7.46
6.89
8.03
166
515
18
124.5
60600
1.61
.78
1.26
13.54
12.28
11.97
12.60
234
487
19
125.0
60900
1.62
.78
1.27
13.00
11.73
11.06
12.40
234
488
20
63700
133.0
1.72
.76
1.31
15.27
13.96
13.66
14.26
250
480
21
65700
137.0
1.70
.76
1.30
14.60
13.30
12.80
13.81
254
480
22
72800
155.0
1.92
1.42
.74
19.10
17.68
17.13
18.23
285
469
23

width
slot
bellmouths-4.01
With -in.

51.0
43.300
0.68
2.35
1.60
8.53
6.93
6.50
7.36
165
850
24
77.7
63700
.64
2.23
1.43
14.56
13.13
12.45
13.82
247
820
25
46400
91.0
.66
0.85
0.56
8.47
7.91
7.60
8.23
177
510
26
63800
38.0
.72
.76
.55
14.85
14.30
13.85
14.75
248
480
27

width
slot
bellmouths-2.04
With -in.

71
36800
1.00
0.873
0.87
7.68
6.81
6.30
7.32
140
518
28
:
57700
120
1.47
.761
1.12
14.62
13.50
12.80
14.20
223
480
29
: atmospheric
below
water
of
inches
as
given
are
pressures
static
*All
 GAS-COOLED SSYTEMS
CHAP. 3.4

PLATE SOLIDITY IS
8 H THE RArio of solid – 8
6 H
|- -

PLATE VOLUME TO - -

TOTAL PLATE VOLUME

4H Through-DRILLED PLATES - 4 k- THROUGH-DRILLED PLATE -

EQUILATERAL-T RIANGULAR GRID EQUILATERAL-TRIANGULAR GRID

HOLE SPACING, O. 125 in HOLE SPACING . O. 125 in
HOLE DIAMETER, O.043 in. Hole DIAMETER, o.o.3 in
ºn 2F PLATE solidity, o.93 - 2H PLATE SOLIDITY, O.96 -

3 *, ~º-º-º: FLOW
o O
~ loº icº
8 H. 8H -

§|- 6 H.
~s -

- - -

* , 4 FOLDED — PLATE FLOW

ºr.

s
§
\
b-.”PO *-
u- 2
2 NORMAL FLOW x - H x -
3 ,---x—H-x-- ^x NORMAL FLOW
-
--

-
--

5
ºf IO
-i
IO
-:
-
..? x

u- - – - -

× 8 | 1–1–1 —l e l —l-l-l

* toº 2 4 6 8 o' 2 4 loº 2 4 6 8 ſo" 2 4

REYNoLDS NUMBER. Re º Q
Reynolds Number, Re - 93Q

2 I I-T-I I 2 ſ−H T-I-I I T

lo' lo' N S
8H
THROUGH-DRILLED PLATES
— el- NN o
FOLDED - PLATE FLOw -
|- EQUILATERAL-TRIANGULAR GRID 6H- k X x -

4. HOLE SPACING, O.125 in 4. N

|- HOLE DIAMETER, O.O14 in - |- *Tº-x-x -

PLATE SOLIDITY, O.99 N onwal flow *****rºx.

2 k— - 2!— N -

IO 16° >
8H - 8 H THEORETICAL RELATION FOR N
|- - 6H LAMINAR FLOW IN A LONG • -

SMOOTH CYLIND RICAL TUBE N

4 - - 41– - 64. Hºw -

2H- > FOLDED-PLATE FLOW - 2 POROUS RECRYSTA

ECRYSTALLIZED SILICON CARBIDE N —
PUATES N
/Normal Fuow PLATE Soll DITY, oš6
IO-l X >5. -º-º: →
- I *—º
* 16-

-
•* -

8
|-
1 * > *** 1 I I °E-_1_ I I I I l l

lo” 2 4 6 5 dº 2 4 4 6 8 o' 2 4 6 6 102 2 4

REYNOLDS NUMBER REYNOLDS NUMBER

as + Re - 99.
o *o

Fig. 3.4.22–Turning-loss Data. Reprinted from BMI-7–27, May 15, 1950,

Secret.

436
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

OO2O LEGEND

KEY | HEATING
of
Dºn Lo Aspectſ
RATO,
COOLING w/s
| A h O.533 || ||..I 648
THEORETICAL curves | | E | * O463 8.63||2.15
Nisºs H E O.233 ||7.0 |244
HIGH aspect Raſios H = ; O463 |260 | 12.0
f Z Cº- C
L/D-5 D- h O.238 50.4 24.2
Z o h I.O. 475 8.9
-A o h O.476 || 0 || || 20
O h O.244 97 || 40

§ºH=º
YS |-|
His ob23 (Deg/m) *
2- 0.0040 o-E EH
C
|:
O
w
NS
YNN
Adºº
- T---- -

>
--
º º
w
^
w
*:::. QQ º
D
Gº" ---
- -

* ele, le Q | P 2 *~
- Nº.
29
! -'so
ji=0.02 (D.6/m)
-02
7

O.OO2O * | |_l

O O d o ol O \\ tº anoºgano aspect
+10.4%) Ramos
CONSTANT
O CpG m |
c Y-surface TEMPERATURE

o.Oolo Lill
8OO IOOO 2OOO
|
4OOO
| | || ||
| | ||
6OOO
h| All I
8000 IOOOO 2OOOO

De G
m

Fig. 3.4.23—Heat-transfer Correlation for Rectangular Ducts. Reprinted from

NACA-ARR-4F28, Feb. 1945.

437
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

8O

4O
2
2^
D
2O
2^ A

Dr. `--Nuw-oo22Re” Pro**

# DA
IO
>
-> 8 A

2 6 2 A'
H
# 4 7
2 zº
on
2 A

2 DUCT L/DHT
A TRAPEZOIDAL IO2
D RECTANGULAR 64
|

.8
.6

4.
l,OOO IO,OOO IOOOOO

REYNOLDS NUMBER, Re

Fig. 3.4.24—Heat-transfer Data for Rectangular and Trapezoidal Ducts. Re

printed from NACA-TN-2524, Nov. 1951.

PRESSURE DROP-RECTANGULAR AND TFAPEZOIDAL DUCTS

Friction-factor data are presented in Fig. 3.4.25 for trapezoidal and rectangular ducts.
The pressure drops are predictable to within 20 percent by the following equations:

64
Ç =4ſ =#; (20)

for Re = 1800, and:

g = 4f = + (21)
Re9.20

for Re - 1800.

WAVE-SHAPED PLATES

The analysis of heat-transfer and pressure-drop data for wavy plates indicates an ap
proximate doubling of the heat-transfer rate for a narrow duct. The pressure drop was
increased by a factor of ten over that for a straight duct. Figure 3.4.26 is an example of
the data obtained. A tabulation of the systems studied with wave-shaped plates is presented
in Table 3.4.6.”

438
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

.30

.2O DUCT

A TRAPEZOIDAL
D RECTANGULAR

N
. IO —N-
N. 4f - 64
N-T Re
O6 N O.30
-
-

\\
4f -ºs--
SLOPE = -O.74 º \
\
.O.3 CB- -
-

S
\

SLOPE= -O.336 - T *~~

.O2 ~US

.OI
4OO I,OOO 2000 4,OOO 8,000 2O,OOO

REYNOLDS NUMBER, Re

Fig. 3.4.25–Friction-factor Data for Rectangular and Trapezoidal Ducts.

Reprinted from NACA-TN-2524, Nov. 1951.

"--~~~~~~r—-
5O

4O

ſº AVERAGE WEIGHT RATE, G

: 3O (Ib/(hr)(sq ft)
or 30,2OO
Jo 24,900
T
š 2O 22,100
17,200
-> 13,3OO
co

O 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 16

DISTANCE ALONG HEATED PLATE, x, in

Fig. 3.4.26—Local Heat-transfer coefficients for Wavy Plates. Reprinted

from NACA-TN-2426, Aug. 1951.

439
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 3.4.6–Systems Studied with Wave-shaped-plates by Boelter*

Small wave plate yo = % in.

Small wave plate yo = 1% in.
Small wave plate yo = 3% in.
Large wave plate yo = % in.
Large wave plate yo = 1% in.
Large wave plate yo = 3% in.

* Variation of heat-transfer coefficient with distance and pressure

drop vs flow rate studied for the systems in this table

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN TRIANGULAR PASSAGES

Figure 3.4.27 presents measured velocity contours in a triangular passage. Analytical

29
methods are presented for determining temperature distributions.

Fig. 3.4.27–Velocity Contours in a Triangular Passage. Reprinted from

NACA-TN-2257, Jan. 1951.

ANNULIAND NON-CIRCULAR DUCTS

Information on heat transfer and fluid flow for annuli and non-circular ducts is avail
able. 30,31

PRESSURE DROP-FUEL ELEMENT CHANNELS

Data are available for the pressure drop across various fuel-element channels,” but
these treatments are too specific to be of widespread interest.

PRESSURE DROP-HEADERS, DUCTS, AND DUCT COMPONENTS

Detailed information is available for predicting pressure drop for headers and ducts of
various shapes as well as for duct components.” “T”

440
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

POROUS BODIES

PRESSURE DROP-STREAMLINE FLOW

Streamline flow through porous bodies follows the equation:

16
f=;+b (22)

where b, called a roughness factor, is a constant for the sample. Figure 3.4.28 presents
experimental data obtained with hydrogen and nitrogen. The limit of the experimental
error in determining the friction factor is less than + 1 percent. In other experimental
work on heat transfer, the temperature ratio of solid to coolant temperature was not known
precisely enough to determine heat-transfer coefficients.”

H2
EFFEcrive Pons Radius,ſe.in x16° 320x lo-" x 16"
RoughNESs FACTOR, b O.301 || 0.453 O42.

: f.n 4- 4 sel
2

- 16
º, # +4ss
-

O O.IO O.2O O.30 O.40 O-50 O.60 oro O.80

RECIPROCAL OF REYNOLDS NUMBER

Fig. 3.4.28—Pressure-drop Correlation for Streamline Flow Through Porous

Bodies. Reprinted from R-111, Aug. 10, 1948, Secret.

PRESSURE DROP-TURBULENT FLOW

A modified fluid-flow equation, which was verified experimentally, is:

ranz
AP = LB'G' a 8mLG
(23)
4red, d, r + 5.00 re n(d./P.)”
for which the nomenclature is defined in Table 3.4.7. Equation (23) has been verified" for
many porous materials using nitrogen and hydrogen under conditions that approximate the
flow of gases at high temperatures through the body. Figure 3.4.29 is an example of the
correlation obtained. The deviation between calculated and experimental curves is less
than 8 percent.

441
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 3.4.7—Nomenclature for Equation (23)

Symbol Definition Unit

B’ Constriction factor Dimensionless

da Average density of fluid gm/cu cm
do Density of fluid at exit gm/cu cm
G Mass flow per unit area at cross section gm/(sq cm)(sec)
L Length or thickness of body cm

Po Exit pressure of fluid dynes/sq cm

AP Pressure drop dynes/sq cm
Te Effective pore radius cm

4O Jr. .O8O

.36 2^ O72

.32 yr O64

§
Jo
.28
//*—": 2^ N O56
§
Jo

a 24 V .048 =
3.
Sº .2O
/ .040 &
3.
ºu CN
z -c
o .16 A .O32 o'

o |2 A/~. A - O-

7 * = .27xio’in.
/ B' = 1.28
.O8 CURVES ARE DRAWN THROUGH | 016
ExPERIMENTAL VALUES, POINTS
SHOWN ON CURVES ARE CALCU
O4 LATED USING EQ.(23) OO8

O O
O 2000 40OO 6OOO 8000 IOOOO (2000 14000
Pº-Pº , (dynes/ sq cmy

Fig. 3.4.29–Pressure-drop Correlation for Turbulent Flow Through Porous

Bodies. Reprinted from R-128, Jan. 1949.

442
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

PACKED BEDS

Heat-transfer and friction-factor data for spheres are presented in Figs. 3.4.30 and
3.4.31, respectively. These data are valid for gases having Prandtl numbers of approxi
mately 0.73. Curves previously reported in the literature” are also indicated. A new
method of analysis for estimating heat-transfer coefficients and friction factors based on
the properties of a single particle is presented by Ranz,” which correlates the data of
Gamson.*
Work on stacked and separated screens having porosities of 0.34 to 0.84 in the Reynolds
number range of 10 to 1000 has been in progress at Stanford, and the data will be published
in late 1952.*

ROUGHNESS

HEAT TRANSFER

The equation:

1.0 0.4
* = 0.040
kf
(ºp Tlf
9p,f'lf
kf -
(24)

correlates the data taken within + 15 percent for tubes having square-thread-type rough
ness. The properties of the fluid are evaluated at the film temperatures from NACA data
and the “Gas Tables.” Figure 3.4.32 presents the data under the conditions listed in Table
3.4.8.
The roughness ratio, eſr, is defined as the ratio of the height of the thread to the radius
of the tube. Vr, the friction velocity, is defined as the product of the velocity and the
square root of one-half the friction factor:

Wr = Vb Vff/2

PRESSURE DROP

The friction factors observed were higher than for conventional smooth tubes. They were
correlated by the introduction of roughness parameters as indicated in Eq. (25):

fº/2 = 0.0036 (s/w)”(e/w)” (25)

where: s = distance between threads

W = thread width
e = thread height

Figure 3.4.33 presents the data as correlated by Eq. (25). This correlation applied only
to turbulent flow.

*A. L. London, personal communication, Oct. 5, 1952.

443
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

I.O. -T-I-T-TTTTTTTTT I TTTTTTTTTTTI T-T-T-TTTTTTTTTT

H. -

|- -

|- NOTE: D m sphere DIAMETER –

G is BASED ON TOTAL cross section

|-
-
o
º
F I S
§. "H
H Z- DAYTON ET AL S> -
do -

3
2
L
-
Dentoºd ſees =
sTao?2 Re".so -

3 F
r- - º —
-

# H *—HGAMSON, THODES, AND HOUGEN -

*-
ca I st -
I.O.64
(Re)" (Prº/*
Hi –
-

H. -

.ol | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 l |--|--|--|--
IOO !poo IO,Ooo 100,000

REYNoLos NUMBER, R. - GD/7

Fig. 3.4.30—Stanton Number vs Reynolds Number for Heat Transfer Between

Packed Spheres and Air. Submitted by BMI, Nov. 1952.

loo TTTTTTTT T-TTTTTTTTTTI

I-T-I II ITTTTTT T-I-T-I

IO

DAYTON ET AL
s—s tº ROBINSON AND TIBBs

T
GAMSON, THODES AND HOUGEN
-

|-

NOTE : D = SPHERE DIAMETER —

G is BASED ON TOTAL CROSS secTION

I | | l L I LI LI L I I I I I I I I I I I I | | | |--|--|--|--|--
1,OOO IOOOO 100,000

REYNoLos NUMBER, Re - GD/m

Fig. 3.4.31—Friction Factors for Air Flowing Through Packed Spheres.

Submitted by BMI, Nov. 1952.

444
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

IOOO

de VrD I.O Cp f* f \O4

†-oo-o 7); k+

(MAXIMUM SCATTER <3: 15 PERCENT)

3 100
TSPT
* |*

-Ug:
*:

#|#
#|#
-

CONVENTIONAL
2|= ROUGHNESS
L|* RATIO
# E —l
e /r
on# IO O
2|G: .O25
Cl
.O37
.O16

102 IO3 |O4 D 4 x IO*

d. V
MODIFIED REYNOLDS NUMBER witH FRICTION VELOCITY – ' ' tº
7);

Fig. 3.4.32—Heat-transfer Correlation for Tubes Containing Square-thread

type Roughness. Reprinted from NACA-RM-E52D17, June 27, 1952.

Table 3.4.8—Conditions for Heat-transfer and Pressure-drop Data in

Roughness Study

Roughness ratio 0 to 0.037

Reynolds number Up to 350,000
Tube-wall temperature Up to 1950°F
Heat-flux Up to 115,000 Btu/(hr)(sq ft)

445
:

3.a4.r3a–mCoertelartsio.n
PFig.
Roughness
to
Factor
Friction
of
NACA-RM
from
Reprinted

7):

NUMBER,+ –
REYNOLDS
MODIFIED
3
FLOW)
TURBULENT
COMPLETELY
(FOR

105
104
|tº
a(s/w)>*e/w)79
=0.0036
/2

A v's

*—
A
&

1952.
27,
June
E52D17,

g
.O.
:
.OOl

-
Orº LL] Lil <ſ (ſ)(ſ)Lil CD
>- Y H. > Orº § 2I

|c.
º

§
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

FLOW ACROSS TUBES

HEAT TRANSFER – TURBULENT FLOW

Equation (26) is recommended for gases flowing normal to banks of staggered tubes.
For banks of tubes in line, it is recommended that Eq. (26) be used with the constant re
duced to 0.26:”

0.6
h mDo
kf
= 0.33 (#) (**)
kf
1.
3.
(26)
-
Ilf

As given in Eq. (26), hm is for tubes that are 10 or more rows deep. Table 3.4.9 gives
the correction factors for him for N rows deep.

Table 3.4.9 — Ratio of him for N Rows Deep to That for 10 Rows Deep
(Reprinted from “Heat Transmission,” by W. H. McAdams.
By permission from McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1942)

Tube him (N rows)/hm (10 rows)

geometry N = 1 N = 2 N = 3 N = 4 N = 5 N = 6 N = 7 N = 8 N = 9 N = l ()

Staggered 0.73 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.94 0.96 0.98 0.99 1.()
In-line 0.64 .8() .87 .90 .92 .94 .96 .98 .99 l.0

HEAT TRANSFER – LAMINAR FLOW

Investigations limited to pitch-to-diameter ratios of 1.25 and 1.5 have indicated the cor
relation:

(#):” º- 2.
3.
0.14
= 1.3 (*) -0.64
(27)
cºG|\k m m

for Reynolds numbers below 200.*

PRESSURE DROP-TURBULENT FLOW

Nomograms valid for Reynolds numbers from 2,000 to 40,000 are given in Perry,”
which correlate the friction factor with Reynolds number and tube geometry. Useful data
on the cross-flow of gases over tubes are also reported by Grimison.”

447
CHAP. 3.4 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

REFERENCES

1. M. F. Valerino and R. B. Doyle, Method for Determining Pressure Drop of Monatomic Gases Flowing in Turbulent Motion
Through Constant-Area Passages with Simultaneous Friction and Heat Addition. NACA-TN-2328, April 1951.
. B. Pinkel et al, Method for Determining Pressure Drop of Air Flowing Through Constant-Area Passages for Arbitrary Heat-Input
Distributions, NACA-TN-2186, Sept. 1950.
M. Sibulkin and W. K. Koffel, Chart for Simplifying Calculations of Pressure Drop of a High-Speed Compressible Fluid Under
simultaneous Action of Friction and Heat-Transfer-Application to Combustion-Chamber Cooling Passages, NACA-TN-2067,
Mar. 1950.
R. L. Turner et al, Charts for the Analysis of One-Dimensional Steady Compressible Flow, NACA-TN-1419, Jan. 1948.
NEPA-1767, n.d. (classified).
A. H. Shapiro and W. P. Hawthome, The Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Steady One-Dimensional Gas Flow, NEPA-979
IER-13, June 1, 1949.
R. G. Deissler, Analytical and Experimental Investigation of Adiabatic Turbulent Flow in Smooth Tubes, NACA-TN-2138.
July 1950.
R. G. Deissler and C. S. Eian, Analytical and Experimental Investigation of Fully Developed Turbulent Flow of Air in a Smooth
Tube with Heat Transfer with Variable Fluid Properties, NACA-TN-2629, Feb. 1952.
K. Goldmann, Heat Transfer to Fluids with Temperature Dependent Properties, NDA, April 1952.
C. L. Kroll, Sc, D. thesis in chemical engineering, MIT, 1951.
11. J. H. Keenan and J. Kaye, Thermodynamic Properties of Air, Wiley, New York, 1947 (revised 1950).
12. J. Klein and M. Tribus, Forced Convection from Nonisothermal Surfaces, University of Michigan, Aug. 1952.
13. L. M. K. Boelter and M. Tribus, An Investigation of Aircraft Heaters II-Properties of Gases, NACA-ARR, Oct. 1942.
14. L. M. K. Boelter et al, An Investigation of Aircraft Heaters XXVII-Distribution of Heat Transfer Rate in the Entrance Section of
a Circular Tube, NACA-TN-1451, July 1948.
15 A. Cholette, Chem. Eng. Prog. 44, No. 1, Jan. 1948, pp 81-88.
16. A. H. Shapiro and R. D. Smith, Friction Coefficients in the Inlet Length of Smooth Round Tubes, NACA-TN-1785, Nov. 1948.
17. L. W. Humble et al, Measurements of Average Heat Transfer and Friction Coefficients for Subsonic Flow of Air in Smooth
Tubes at High Surface and Fluid Temperatures, NACA-1020, 1951.
18. R. N. Lyon, CE-501, Feb. 25, 1943 (classified).
19. W. H. McAdams, Heat Transmission, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
20. N. A. Hall, Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow, Prentice Hall Inc., New York, 1951, pp 26-29.
21. W. M. Kays, Loss Coefficients for Abrupt Changes in Flow Cross Section With Low Reynolds Number Flow in Single and Multiple
Tube Systems, Stanford University, 1949.
22. W. H. McAdams et al, Heat-Transfer and Pressure Drop for Air Flowing in Small Tubes, NEPA-1688, Dec. 1950.
23. A.S.M.E. Trans. 67, 1945.
24. R. E. Drexel and W. H. McAdams, Heat Transfer Coefficients for Air Flowing in Round Tubes, in Rectangular Ducts, and Around
Finned Cylinders, NACA-ARR-4F28, Feb. 1945.
25. W. M. Kays, A. L. London, and D. W. Johnson, Gas Turbine Plant Heat Exchangers, A.S.M.E. publication, April 1951.
26. W. G. Kennedy and P. E. Teets, NEPA-1758, Feb. 8, 1951 (classified).
27. L. M. K. Boelter et al. An Investigation of Aircraft Heaters XXXVIII- Determination of Thermal Performance of Rectangular
and Trapezoidal-Shaped Inner-Skin Passages for Anti-Icing Systems, NACA-TN-2524, Nov. 1951.
28. L. M. K. Boelter, An Investigation of Aircraft Heaters XXXIV-Experimental Determination of Thermal and Hydrodynamical
Behavior of Air Flowing between a Flat and a Wave-shaped Plate, NACA-TN-2426, Aug. 1951.
29. E. R. G. Eckert and G. M. Low, Temperature Distribution in Internally Heated Walls of Heat Exchangers Composed of Non
circular Flow Passages, NACA-TN-2257, Jan. 1951.
30. H. C. Claibome, A Review of the Literature on Heat Transfer in Annull and Non-circular Ducts for Ordinary Fluids and Liquid
Metals, CF-52-8-166, n.d.
31. H. C. Claibome, A Critical Review of the Literature on Pressure Drop in Non-circular Ducts and Annuli, ORNL-1248, May 22,
1952.
32. C. L. Segasser, ORNL-89, July 9, 1948 (classified).
33. H. B. Fairchild, ANL-OCS-29, July 19, 1946 (classified).
34. J. R. Henry, Design of Power Plant Installations-Pressure Loss Characteristics of Duct Components, NACA-L4F26, June 1944.
35. W. G. Kennedy and F. R. Schollhammer, NEPA-1824, April 13, 1951 (classified).
36. NEPA-1252 (classified).
37 NEPA-1825 (classified).
38. R. M. Armstrong, Pressure Loss in Piping Systems; A Comparison of Conventional Factors for Fluid Friction in Piping Component,
AECU-454, n.d.
R. C. Alrich et al, Battelle R-111, Aug. 10, 1948 (classified).
L. R. Jackson et al, Battelle, R-128, Jan. 1949 (classified).
W. H. Denton et al. The Heat Transfer and Pressure Loss in Fluid Flow through Randomly Packed Spheres, HPC-35, June 28,
1949.
B. Gamson et al., Trans. A.L.Ch.B. 39, No. 1, 1943.
W. E. Ranz, Chem. Eng. Prog. 48, No. 5, May 1952.
O. P. Bergelin et al, Research on Tubular Heat Exchangers UD-H6, University of Delaware, Oct. 1, 1950.
J. H. Perry, Chemical Engineers' Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950, p 392.
A.S.M.E. Trans. 59, p 583.

448
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW CHAP. 3.4

SELECTED READING LIST

EXPERIMENTAL INVEStig Ation OF AVERAGE HEAt TRANSFER AND FRICTION COEFFICIENTS FOR AIR FLOWING IN CIRCULAR
TUBES HAVING SQUARE-THREAD-TYPE ROUGHNESS, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, E. W. Sams, NACA-RME52D17,
June 27, 1952, 42 pp.
ANALYTICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF FULLY DEVELOPED TURBULENT FLOW OF AIR IN A SMOOth tube
witH HEAT TRANSFER WITH variable Fluid PROPERTIES, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, R. G. Deissler and
C. S. Eian. NACA-TN-2629, Feb., 1952, 43 pp.
MEASUREMENTS OF AVERAGE HEAT TRANSFER AND FRICTION COEFFICIENTS FOR SUBSONIC FLOW OF AIR IN SMOOTH TUBES
AT HIGH SURFACE AND FLUID TEMPERATURE, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, L. V. Humble, W. H. Lowdermilk,
and L. G. Desmon, NACA-1020, 1951, 15 pp.
THERMODYNAMICS OF FLUID FLOW, N. A. Hall, 1st ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, 1951.
An in VEstigation OF AIRCRAFT HEAtERS XXXIV-EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THERMAL AND HYDRODYNAMICAL
BEHAVIOR OF AIR FLOWING BETWEENA FLAT AND WAVE-SHAPED PLATE, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
L. M. K. Boelter et al, NACA-TN-2426, Aug. 1951, 30 pp.
CHEMICAL ENGINEER'S HANDBOOK, edited by J. H. Perry, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
LOSS CoEFFICIENts FOR ABRUPt CHANGES IN FLOW CROSS SECtion With LOW REYNOLDS NUMBER FLOW in SinGLE AND
MULTIPLE TUBE SYSTEMS, Stanford University, W. M. Kays, NP-3901, Jan. 1, 1950, 21 pp.
CORRELATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER DATA AND OF FRICTION DATA FOR INTERRUPTED PLANE FinS STAGGERED IN SUCCES
SIVE ROWS, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, S. V. Manson, NACA-TN-2237, Dec. 1950, 14 pp.
HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP FOR AIR FLOWING IN SMALL TUBES, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, W. H. McAdams,
J. N. Addoms, and C. L. Kroll, NEPA-1688, Dec. 1950, 298 pp.
HEAT TRANSFER FROM HIGH TEMPERATURE SURFACES TO FLUIDS III-CORRELATION OF HEAT TRANSFER DATA FOR AIR FLOW
ING IN silicon CARBIDE TUBE WITH ROUNDED ENTRANCE, INSIDE DIAMETER OF WA INCH, AND EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF 12
INCHES, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, E. W. Sams and L. G. Desmon, NACA-RM-E9D12, June 23, 1949, 33 pp.
An INVESTIGATION OF AIRCRAFT HEATERS xxvii-Distribution OF HEAt TrANSFER RAtE in the EntrancE SECTION OF
A CIRCULAR TUBE, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, L. M. K. Boelter et al, NACA-TN-1451, July 1948, 53 pp.
FRICTION COEFFICIENTS IN THE INLET LENGTH OF SMOOTH ROUND TUBES, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
A. H. Shapiro and R. D. Smith, NACA-TN-1785, Nov. 1948, 44 pp.
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS FOR AIR FLOWING IN ROUND TUBES, IN RECTANGULAR DUCTS, AND AROUND FINNED
CYLINDERS, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, R. E. Drexel and W. H. McAdams, NACA-ARR-4F28, Feb. 1945,
36 pp.
MEASUREMENTS OF RECOVERY FACTORS AND COEFFICIENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER IN A TUBE FOR SUBSONIC FLOW OF AIR,
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, W. H. McAdams et al, NACA-TN-985, June 1945, 30 pp.
HEAT TRANSMISSION, W. H. McAdams, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1942.
HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID Flow HANDBOOK, Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corporation, NEPA-1767, 57 pp, n.d.

449
 CHAPTER 3.5

Fuel Elements

The gas-cooled reactors considered to date have utilized solid fuel elements for which
the general requirements have been:

(1) Resistance to chemical attack or erosion by the coolant stream.

(2) Retention of fission-product activity within the fuel element.

(3) Mechanical stability against thermal stresses resulting from heat generation.
and for which the heat-transfer requirements have been:

(4) Adequate surface-to-volume ratio for selected operating power level. (A practical
limit is imposed by stability of the particular materials of fabrication.)
Requirement (4) is determined not only by the power desired but also by the allowable
free gas-flow area and by the heat-transfer coefficient at the solid–gas interface. In power
reactors, a high surface-to-volume ratio, consistent with the mechanical stability of the
fuel element and the neutron economy of the reactor, is desirable to minimize both the
pumping power and the reactor size. There is, however, an optimum amount of absorbing
material that may be introduced in adding heat-transfer surface to a specific volume of
fuel. Extended surfaces are utilized more efficiently if they can be designed as fuel
bearing members. In thermal power reactors, a substantial amount of moderator material
must be closely associated with each fuel element, and a high surface-to-volume ratio is
again required. Designs which incorporate fuel and moderator together in the same mass
have the advantage that all surfaces exposed to the coolant gas can be very nearly equally
effective in transferring heat. There is some improvement, too, in neutron economy if the
uranium can be coated with a moderating metal such as beryllium to keep the fission prod
ucts out of the coolant stream.
This chapter is concerned only with the confinement of reactor fuel in such a manner
that fission products will be prevented from diffusing into the gas stream. In this regard
the chapter outlines some practical designs for gas-cooled fuel. Chapter 3.6 describes
practical fuel-element configurations and coolant-gas distribution in reactor cores.
In current designs of gas-cooled reactors, uranium or uranium oxide is enclosed in a
thin casing of metal, such as aluminum or stainless steel, to prevent oxidation of the ura
nium and to confine fission products within the fuel element.

ROD-TXPE FUEL ELEMENTS

For unenriched graphite-moderated air-cooled reactors, neutron-economy requirements

dictate the use of a low-cross-section cladding material, such as aluminum, zirconium,
or beryllium, for uranium. Aluminum has been the most extensively developed. Gurinsky
noted early in the Manhattan Project that uranium in contact with aluminum formed an in
termetallic compound, now known to be UAls, at temperatures as low as 200°–300°C. With

451
CHAP. 3.5 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

a clean aluminum surface in contact with a clean uranium surface, this alloying reaction
causes an increase in volume of about 17 percent. The uranium diffuses to the aluminum
surface through the UAl3 layer, and if the aluminum surface is that of a thin-walled con
tainer, the aluminum above the expanding alloy is forced up to form a blister which is
visible on the outside of the can. The maximum penetration rate of the alloy into the
aluminum is shown as a function of aluminum-uranium interface temperature in Table
3.5.1 and Fig. 3.5.1.
The alloying reaction can be prevented either with an anodic coating on the aluminum or
by the presence of another diffusion barrier, such as U(AlSi)s, formed on the uranium slug
surface by immersion in a molten aluminum-silicon alloy prior to canning.
A second feature of the uranium canning operation is the elaborate weld-sealing process
required to exclude oxygen which reacts with the uranium to cause swelling and rupture of
the can. The rate of oxidation is strongly temperature dependent, being about 27 times as
fast at 250°C as it is at 100°C."
Operating experience dictates that aluminum-jacketed, uranium fuel elements should not
be operated at an interface temperature above 225°C. Above this temperature, there is a
marked tendency toward instability of the fuel element owing to either or both of the above
causes. For operating temperatures below 225°C, the following canning and testing proce
dure, developed at Oak Ridge, can be used:

UNBONDED, ALUMINUM-JACKETED, URANIUM FUEL ELEMENTS

(E. J. Boyle and C. D. Cagle, ORNL)
CANNING PROCEDURE

These elements are prepared by drawing the 2S-aluminum cans on the uranium slugs;
i.e., the slug is inserted in the can, and the assembly is forced through a sizing die. Fuel
elements with the following specifications have been employed:

Resistance-welded
Aluminum can
Material 2S, impact-extruded
Length, in. 4.375
ID, in. 1.116
Wall thickness, in. 0.017 to 0.020
Uranium
Material gamma-extruded
Length, in. 4.000 + 0.010
Diameter, in. 1.100 + .002
Chamfer on bottom
end, in. radius 0.010

Arc-welded
Aluminum can
Material 2S, impact-extruded
Length, in. 4.375
ID, in. 1. 116
Wall thickness, in. 0.035

*References appear at end of chapter.

452
FUEL ELEMENTS CHAP. 3.5

Uranium
Material gamma-extruded
Length, in. 4.000 + 0.010
Diameter, in. 1.100 + .002
Chamfer on bottom 0.010
end, in. radius

The arc-welded slugs differ from the resistance-welded units in that a somewhat
heavier cap (1.102 in. in diameter and 0.060 in. thick) is compositely forced through the
die in the drawing operation. The excess wall metal is trimmed to the lip of the cap, and
the cap and wall are then joined by argon arc-welding.

ALUMINUM-SILICON BONDING OF ALUMINUM-JACKETED, URANIUM FUEL ELEMENTS

(E. J. Boyle and C. D. Cagle, ORNL)
Stabilization of aluminum-jacketed uranium fuel elements above 225°C has been achieved
by coating the uranium with U(AlSi)s to prevent the alloying reaction and protect against
oxidation resulting from leaks in the aluminum welds. The dimensional specifications for
the slugs are:

Uranium slug
Diameter, in. 1.102 – 0.003 + 0.000
Length, in. 4.000 – .000 + .005
Corner radius, in. 0.060 – .000 + .040
Material alpha-rolled
Aluminum can
ID, in. 1.121 + 0.000
– 0.003
Wall thickness, in. 0.033 + 0.000
– 0.003
Bottom thickness, in. 0.051 + 0.005
Length, in. 4-21/32 + 1/64
Material 2S, deep-drawn
Canned slug
Length, in. 4. 120 + 0.0065
Bond layer thickness, in. 0.004 to 0.0065

CANNING OF URANIUM IN ANODIZED ALUMINUM TUBING

(D. H. Gurinsky, BNL)
The uranium-aluminum alloying reaction may be prevented by interposing a diffusion
barrier, consisting of a coating of aluminum oxide, on the inside of the aluminum container
tube. A fuel element with this feature is described below.
The BNL fuel element is an 11-ft element consisting of thirty-three 4-in., natural
uranium slugs encased in a six-finned aluminum tube. Physics calculations for this reac
tor established the aluminum-to-uranium volume ratio at 0.2. This rather low ratio re
Sulted in a very-thin-walled tube (0.028 to 0.030 mils thick) and very slender, tapered
fins (0.6 in. high, 0.025 in. at the base, and 0.018 in. at the tip). Four-in.-long uranium
Slugs were selected because little was known of the warping tendencies and the difficulties
of machining and heat-treatment of long rods.

453
CHAP. 3.5 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

| —
N ASSEMBLY “7 -

E =
N. -

wo -

'E I
Cr
ow) -

HT
2
Lil
3
H
E
wº-
8 - 12OO || -
D=6.3x10 e T275|| –
ul T –
O
CD º- -

|- UNITS -

à L | | D= sq mils/hr -

º T= oC
# =
Lu IO - -
2. |- -

Lu l
0- [. -

|- ASSEMBLY—ex) T
|- #6

–2
10 ABOTAOOT355 3OO 25O

TEMPERATURE, *C
Fig. 3.5.1 – Variation of the Maximum Aluminum Penetration Rate with
Temperature (BNL and ORNL Data). Reprinted from BNL-38, Dec. 15, 1949
(BNL Log No. D-2106).

454
FUEL ELEMENTS CHAP. 3.5

Table 3.5.1—Minimum Time Required to Penetrate 30 Mils of Aluminum by the Uranium

Alloying Reaction
(D. W. Bareis, Studies of the Aluminum-Uranium Alloying Reaction, BNL-38,
Dec. 15, 1949)

Time for penetration

Temperature, "C BNL sandwich assemblies ORNL canned slugs

250 990 days 510 days

300 130 days 150 days
350 22 days 52 days
400 130 hr 21 days
450 35 hr 10 days

FABRICATION OF FINNED TUBING

The details of fabrication” of the finned tubing are described in Warner.” To summarize,
the tubing was extruded from a 2S-aluminum billet 6% in. OD by 12 in. long; each billet re
sulted in approximately 95 ft of tubing. The extrusion temperature was 538°-540°C, the ex
trusion pressure 66,000 psi, and a so-called web-type die, in which the mandrel is station
ary, was used. In this case, the metal was forced through six ports, the streams from these
six ports joining in the mixing chamber and the tube forming around the mandrel which
faces that part of the die in which the fins are formed.
This tubing represented shape and thickness requirements which had not been met in the
industry before and therefore required a great deal of experimentation on the part of the
fabricating company. The essence of the problem lay in equalizing the frictional forces
existing at the land of the mandrel and at the faces along which the fins had to pass. Since
the tubing could not be extruded to the tolerances required, the extruded shape was sub
jected to one drawing operation which resulted in a cold working of the order of 15 percent.
Only the tubing itself was subjected to the drawing friction. Since the fins are attached to
the tube, these are also worked because they must extend to the same degree as the tubing.
The tubing was subjected to a pressure test of 90 psi prior to shipment by the company
and had to pass an inspection based on the specifications listed for Fig. 3.5.2.
SELECTION AND MACHINING OF URANIUM

The uranium was cast into 9-in.-long by 4-in.-OD right cylinders and extruded at the
Hanford Works into bars 1.24 in. in diameter. The extruded bars were shipped to the
Chapman Valve Company for machining.” The bars were first straightened, then machined
on a six-spindled Conomatic lathe, where the average time per 4-in. slug was 30 sec. The
slugs came out of this machine approximately 0.010 in. oversize in diameter and 0.020 in.
oversize in length. They were then heat-treated for 12 hr at 600°C in an argon atmosphere
to decrease the hydrogen content of the metal, to relieve the quenching, forming, and ma
chining stresses, and to minimize the tendency to warp.
The slug diameter was brought to final dimensions in a centerless grinder. A button was
machined on the end of the slugs and finished to length on a hand-operated turret lathe.
After this operation, the slug was slotted along its full length. Then the slugs were again
heat-treated (400°C) to remove traces of oil and water. The dimensions and tolerances are
given in Fig. 3.5.3.

* Fabricated by Alcoa.

455
CHAP. 3.5 GAS-COOLED STYSTEMS

Fig. 3.5.2 — Specifications for Finned Aluminum Tubing. Reprinted from

BNL-54, May, 1950 (BNL Log No. D-437).

Purity:
Standard specifications for 2S aluminum; impurities not to exceed 1%.
Dimensions:
(1) Wall thickness: 0.030 in. # 0.002 in.
(2) Internal diameter: 1.104 in. # 0.001 in., subject to specification No. 11.*
(3) Distance from tip of one fin to tip of opposite fin: 2.370 in. + 0.030 in.
(4) F in dimensions at tip: 0.018 in. — 0.000 +..t
(5) Spiral of fin: 1°/ft.
Special specifications:
(6) Weight per foot: Not to exceed 0.230 lb/ft.
(7) Bowing of tube: Not greater than 0.100 in. in 10 ft.
(8) Plug test: The tube is acceptable if it shows no sign of rupture after a
tapered steel plug has been driven into both ends so as to expand the
inside diameter by % in.
(9) Pressure test: An air pressure of 90 psi shall be applied to the inside
of each tube for a period of not less than 5 sec. Any tube which leaks,
as indicated by the formation of air bubbles in the testing fluid, shall
be rejected.
(10) Surface inspection: The tubing and fin shall be clean, smooth, and free
from seams, slivers, laminations, grooves, cracks, blisters, and
other injurious defects.
(11) Clearance: A 4.500 in. x 1.101 in. O.D. Micarta rod with chamfered ends
shall readily pass through each tube. This will be considered the “Go”
gauge. The “No Go” gauge shall be 4.5 in. long by 1.105 in. O.D. and
should not pass through the tube.
(12) Finished length: 12 ft-6 in. + 0.5 in.
(13) Packaging: Each tube should be encased in a *As-in-wall mailing tube
for its full length and then shipped in a substantial wooden crate, the
latter to be so constructed that the material can be repacked in the
same container, i.e., closure can be effected by means of screws or
straps of metal. i
Acceptance of material which does not meet with all of the above specifications
will depend on special arrangements which shall be made between the Aluminum
Specialties Co. and ALCOA’s Inspection Department.

* This dimension is stated; however, acceptance will be based on specification

No. 11.
t Subject to specification No. 6.
f This shape corresponds to ALCOA die No. 26873.

456
FUEL ELEMENTS CHAP. 3.5

+.OOl
25O —
– —l. —EH–.

Logº .OO2

A
, or 3+9°
+.OOO

k—Loo-ºº: 4,000”—.
+
—-- Ols”

:O625

Fig. 3.5.3–Uranium Slug Specification. Reprinted from BNL-54, May 1,

1950 (BNL Log No. D-2054). End faces must be parallel within +0.001 in
reference to slug axis; cylindrical section to be ground finished; tool marks
not to exceed 0.003 in. on ends; remove all burrs. (A) Original slug; (B) Re
vised slug.

Final Handling
(1) Special precaution must be taken to ensure that the slugs after the second
degassing operation shall not be permitted to come in contact with water or
moisture, including possible moisture through accidental handling of slugs with
bare hands or damp gloves.
(2) Cleaning and dusting of slugs after second degassing and prior to hermet
ically sealing in cans. Slugs shall be brushed and wiped after the second degas
sing operation to remove any loose or adherent dust and scale.
(3) Time limit of slug exposure to atmosphere after final degassing shall be
limited to a maximum of 24 hr.

457
CHAP. 3.5 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

THE CANNING OPERATION

The actual canning consisted of 13 individual operations:

(1) Chemically stripping anodized film

(2) Trimming finned tube
(3) Welding butt closure
(4) Dehydrating anodized film
(5) Leak test #1 – welded closure and tube wall
(6) Loading welded can
(7) Trimming loaded can
(8) Induction-brazing cartridge
(9) Leak test #2 — cartridge
(10) Collapsing cartridge wall
(11) Flame-brazing anchor
(12) Flame-brazing helium tube
(13) Leak test #3 – completed assembly

Step (1) was required because it was found impossible to execute a good arc weld without
it; steps (2) and (3) follow naturally. Step (4) was required as a result of some heat tests
in which it was noted that the anodic coating absorbed up to 1 to 2 cc of water. This water
reacted with uranium on heating to form hydride producing minor bumps which were con
sidered undesirable. Steps (5), (6), and (7) again follow. Induction-brazing was selected
over argon arc-welding because a good job of removing the anodic film was considered
difficult. Once the details had been worked out, the brazing was very straightforward and
yielded a high percentage of acceptable cartridges. Step (10), collapsing of the cartridge,
was decided upon when it was realized that these cartridges might breathe unless a con
stant pressure could be maintained within the cartridge, even though the coefficients of
expansion of the uranium and aluminum were different. For details of this calculation, see
Warner.”
Since the cartridge temperature was to change from essentially room temperature to
350°C with an associated 1-in. elongation, the cartridge had to be anchored somehow to the
graphite structure to prevent “walking” of the assembly under reactor operating conditions.
These considerations resulted in step (11).
One of the advantages of a long cartridge is that it is possible to attach to it a conduit
through which a constant gas-pressure may be maintained on the interior of the cartridge.
It should thereby be possible, by proper manifolding and pressure-measuring devices, to
determine a leaking cartridge before serious difficulties develop. For this reason, a 40-ft
so-called “helium” tube was brazed to each of the cartridges. The final leak test, step (13),
consisted of pressurizing with helium the interior of the finished assembly while it was in
an evacuated tube. A leak in the cartridge would result in the escape of gas to the evacu
ated tube which was under constant surveillance by a helium mass spectrograph. This test
was extremely sensitive in that the over-all pressure differential between the interior and
exterior of the cartridges was of the order of 100 psi. Figure 3.5.4 is an assembly drawing
of the completed cartridge.

DEVELOPMENT WORK

Final design of the unit elements was determined by a number of tests on the components,
one of the most important of which was a study of the interaction of uranium and aluminum
at elevated temperatures. Since this fuel element was to be operated at a 350°C uranium
aluminum interface temperature, some barrier had to be evolved. Experiments performed
at Brookhaven and MIT indicated that if aluminum were anodized the reaction between ura

458
 WITH
FILLED
JOINT
BRAZED
ALLOY
Al:Si
5:5 WELDED
ARC
-ARGON
--> //
*ś,
*-- #TºpB
GRoove
Z-0625x.o.B
/ / Ž N
T=1--1-
|z'
| |.I.O.3
Nºir =ºff}
|L||74
O6-

t—?–
-
N /
N%
2/
*—.
IOO
—-
.IOO
B-WITH
|BRAZED
FLAME
--
_`
ALLOY
Si
Al;
12
88:
A ENDS
HERE
ANODIZATION

B
B-
A-A
VIEW

D–745).
No.
Log
(BNL
BNL-54,
1950
1,
May
from
Reprinted
Element.
Fuel
Uranium
Anodized,
Aluminum-jacketed,
of
Section
Cross
3.5.4—
Fig. :
CHAP. 3.5 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

nium and aluminum did not take place even over one month at temperatures as high as
550°C. The subsequent development of a method for anodizing the interior of a 12-ft-long
tube to a thickness of 0.6 mil is described in detail by Warner.”
Since the weight of the uranium must be supported by the rather fragile fins, the factor
of safety was determined by engineering tests" using loads two, three, four, six, and eight
times that expected at the operating temperature (350°C).

CORROSION OF ALUMINUM JACKET IN AIR

Since this element was to be cooled by air known to contain a small amount of salt, a
number of corrosion tests were conducted at 350°C. In these tests, a mist of air and salt
water, which was held above the dew point even though salt was being deposited, was
passed over the finned cartridge. No corrosion was observed under these conditions.
The corrosion behavior of aluminum in air at 400°, 450°, and 500°C has also been de
termined. The weight gains to date are 0.5 mg/in.” for 6500 hr, 1.1 mg/in.” for 6500 hr,
and 1.4 mg/in.” for 4828 hr of exposure. Weight-gain curves" show that the weight gain
has leveled off for the 400° test but is still rising for the 450° and 500° tests.

REFERENCES

1. E. J. Boyle and C. D. Cagle, Fuel Elements for ORNL Graphite Reactor, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., CF-526-10.
2. W. T. Warner, Brookhaven Nat. Lab., BNL-54, May 1950 (classified).
3. HKF-4 (classified).
4. TID-5061 (classified).
5. BNL Log No. C:6032.

460
 CHAPTER 3.6

Circulating Systems
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN REACTOR CORE

RADIAL POWER DISTRIBUTION

For most design purposes, the radial flux distribution over the active core of a cylin
drically loaded reactor can be assumed to follow the Bessel function Jo (2.405 rſº), where
r is the distance from the central axis and R is the augmented radius of the reactor. Be
cause of the effect of neutrons from the reflector, there is a slight perturbation in flux
near the edge of the loading as shown in Fig. 3.6.1. From a heat transfer and pressure
drop point of view, the ideal power distribution would be where the heat released per unit
volume equalled any radius of loading. This is probably not a realistic case because load
ing of fissionable material to obtain such an ideal power distribution would be exceedingly
difficult. However, it is possible to flatten the radial power distribution significantly by
nonuniform loading of the reactor with fissionable materials.
Two design methods devised for flattening the radial thermal flux are shown in Table
3.6.1.

AXIAL (LONGITUDINAL) POWER DISTRIBUTION

The shift in position of maximum flux owing to a separation of 2.75 in. between 25- x
25- x 12.5-ft halves of a typical unenriched reactor is shown in Table 3.6.2. The radial
flux distribution is estimated to vary as a sine function between this point of maximum
flux and a zero point 1.5 ft from the low-flux end of the fuel elements.

HEAT TRANSFER AND PHYSICS

Large heat-transfer area per unit volume of reactor is obtained with flow passages of
Small hydraulic radius. Because of the limited heat capacity of a gas, however, small
fluid-flow passages necessitate a “pancake” reactor configuration (high ratio of diameter
to flow passage length) which results in unfavorable geometry from a nuclear and shielding
Standpoint. Engineering problems are greatly decreased if relatively large passage diam
eters are employed. This, however, implies an increase in reactor dimensions. As the
passage diameters are decreased, the length of the heated passages decreases for a fixed
temperature rise of the fluid at fixed mass velocity and fixed pressure drop. The frontal
area required for flow is not changed, however. The total frontal area of the reactor can
be decreased by increasing the mass velocity (by increasing the linear velocity or in
creasing the gas density) or by increasing the fraction of the reactor frontal area which is
utilized for fluid flow. From a heat-transfer standpoint, it is desirable to utilize all of the
reactor frontal area for flow passages. From a nuclear standpoint, however, this is im
Possible, and a compromise must be achieved, but in the present state of the art, no
"optimum” solution of the problem is apparent. The best approach is to set up several

461
CHAP. 3.6 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

O 9

O.8

o T'

O6

O.5

O.4

O.3

O.2

BUCKLING = 70. Io9/sq.cm

–––– BUCKLING = Goxloºsacm \

O. : N.
*
^
*

O 2 o4 O.6 O.8 I.O 1.2 1.4

FRACTION OF LOADED RADIUS

Fig. 3.6.1 — Radial Thermal Flux Distribution for a Uniformly Loaded, Un

enriched, Cylindrical Reactor With Reflector. Reprinted from BNL-152, Jan.
1952.

Table 3.6.1—Methods of Flattening Radial Thermal Flux

Method Where applied

“Bowing”; increasing the ratio of X-10 reactor (thermal), Oak Ridge

uranium to reactor volume as a
function of loading radius
Poisoning central portion of reactor Brookhaven reactor (thermal)

462
CIRCULATING SYSTEMS CHAP. 3.G

Table 3.6.2—Shift of Position of Maximum Axial Flux Caused by Gap at

Contor of Unenriched Uranium Reactor

(I. Kaplan and J. Chernick, The Brookhaven Nuclear Reactor: Theory and
Nuclear Design Calculations, BNL-152, Jan. 1952)

Position of naximum axial flux

Radius of loading, ſt (distanco from contral plane), ſt

9.32 2.3 1
10.4 l 2.08
1 1.21 1.90
1 1.95 1.77
12.64 1.66

2|.O

2O.O 2.

CRITICAL LENGTH

19.0

|8.O .”
_P^
| 7.O
O.O50 O. OO O. 50

FREE FLOW RATIO

Fig. 3.6.2— Critical Length of a Bare, Cubic, Unenriched-uranium, Graphite

moderated Reactor as a Function of Channel Area. Reprinted from BNL-152,
Jan. 1952. Lattice dimension, 8 in.; aluminum-uranium volume ratio, 0.2;
radius of fuel rod in channel, 1.40 cm.

hypothetical designs on the basis of known requirements of gas flow, temperature rise,
and pressure-drop range, make certain basic assumptions, and then study the effects of
the introduction of the several variables in turn.
The effect of varying parameters is illustrated in Fig. 3.6.2 for an unenriched-uranium,
graphite-moderated reactor. (For background information on the latter figure refer to
BNL-152.)

STRAIGHT-THROUGH VS SPLIT-FLOW DESIGN

Because of the nature of the sinusoidal flux pattern in the axial direction in cylindrical
reactors, considerable study has been given to designs that permit the coolant gas to enter
a reactor at the center between halves of the cylinder. The gas then distributes itself from

463
CHAP. 3.6 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

the central header through the fuel-containing passages. Compared to a straight-through

reactor, the cooling gas in such a “split-flow” design must travel only half as far (dis
counting the length of flow path down the central header). In addition, the coolest gas is
supplied to the point where the heat generation per pound of uranium is greatest. Such an
arrangement permits reactors of the same longitudinal length as the straight-through type
to have smaller radii of loading (smaller uranium investment) for the same gas-pumping
power because of the smaller free-flow area required. Thus, shield diameters and possi
bly shield weights are somewhat smaller with split-flow design than they are with straight
through design. Reactor designs with L/D ratios • 1, so-called “pancake” reactors, have
the same advantage of shortening the length required for gas flow and, when the proper
L/D ratio is selected, have a smaller uranium investment than straight-through designs
although the shielding diameter is greater than that of the split-flow type. The effect of
varying the L/D parameter is illustrated in Table 3.6.3.
For the same pumping power and reactor loading in unenriched-uranium experimental
reactors, a significantly greater flux level can be obtained with the split-flow design. One
split-flow reactor now operating has a power level eight times higher than a similar type
of reactor with straight-through design while the pumping power is only four times as
high. The effect of the gas header in the center of the split-flow reactor is shown in
Fig. 3.6.3 as a function of gap width for an enriched-uranium reactor in terms of U*
requirement. Figure 3.6.4 shows a similar effect for an unenriched, graphite-moderated
reactor.
Two methods have been devised for reducing over-all pressure drop in straight-through
reactors so that they can compete with the split-flow type. These are:
1. Use of lower volume ratios of fuel elements to coolant in the entrance region of the
reactor where the coolant is at a lower temperature.
2. Use of variable-area flow channels with smaller area where a higher heat-transfer
coefficient is desired.

FLAT-PLATE REACTOR

Another design flow configuration which takes advantage of shorter flow paths and
higher temperature driving forces between fuel element and coolant is illustrated in
Fig. 3.6.5. The gas enters along the central axis of the cylinder and fans out along the
radii. A comparison of reactor diameter and solidity for this and the straight-through
types of reactor is shown in Fig. 3.6.6 for a pressure drop of 2.97 atm and an initial
pressure in each case of 10.97 atm.

FOLDED REACTOR

A fourth configuration, not as yet fully developed, for gas flow through reactors, uses
very short heat-transfer passages of small diameter. The fuel elements of such a reac
tor would consist of layers of fine-mesh wire screening or other suitable mechanical
arrangements for obtaining large surface-to-volume ratios and small diameter passages.
The arrangement shown in Fig. 3.6.7 would allow the coolant to flow down a header of
constantly decreasing width inside the reactor and to split off from the main stream as
needed for fuel-element cooling.
Table 3.6.4 presents calculated comparisons' of through-drilled and folded configura
tions. The calculated pressure drop includes friction and turning losses for both power
levels. The pressure drop owing to acceleration upon heating was negligible for the
60,000-kw reactor but was significant for the high mass-flow rate for the 750,000-kw
reactor.

*Reference appears at end of chapter.

464
CIRCULATING SYSTEMS CHAP. 3.6

Table 3.6.3—Uranium Inventories for “Pancake” and Split-flow Air-cooled

Reactors with 5-in. Reflector

(NEPA Project quarterly Project Report for the Period July 1, -Sept. 30, 1950; NEPA-1587)

“Pancake” reactors Split-core reactors

Core Ratio Core Ratio of Core
Free-flow volume, length to diameter, Free-flow length to diameter, Free-flow
area, ſt” ft? diameter ft ratio U*, lb diameter ft ratio U*, lb

3 12.3 0.41 3.36 0.34 210 0.9 2.58 0.287 82

3 16.3 .49 3.48 .315 72 .9 2.85 .235 65
3. 21.2 .56 3.64 .288 49 .9 3.1 .20 50
3 29.0 .68 3.78 .267 41 .9 3.45 .16 47

6.55 29.0 .325 4.83 .36 160 .9 3.45 .35 110

6.55 40 .45 4.84 .356 75 .9 3.83 .284 80
6.55 50 .55 4.87 .35 54 .9 4.13 .24 70
6.55 70 .65 5.16 .313 38 .9 4.63 .2 64

15 70 .275 6.87 .4 200 .9 4.63 .445 155

15 100 .33 7.28 .36 115 .9 5.2.1 .35 120
15 150 .48 7.36 .35 100 .9 5.96 .27 115

- -
- - = **
- **

-
•I*
o--t"
•*
d

*
~~5
2^
3O 24
§ ,’
*> ,o O ExPERIMENTAL DATA of BECK, CALLIHAN AND MURRAY
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-

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GAP WIDTH,in.

Fig. 3.6.3— Effect of Gap Width on Critical Size for an Enriched-uranium Re

actor.

465
CHAP. 3.6 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

21.5

|.14O

|..]
2 I.O
I.I2O s:
*

§ 1.lio 5
op -

LIOO 2O.5 m.

30, a
F 9
º:LO8O g
O 2O.O ºf
I.O7O
º: 5
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s §
tº 1050 19.5 tº
or

| O40 z:
O
I.O3O r
19.O tº:
LO2O O

I.O.O

IOO O | 2 3 4. 5 18.5

GAP WIDTH,in.

Fig. 3.6.4 —Effect of Central Transverse Gap Width on Critical Size for
Cubical, Graphite-moderated, Natural-uranium Reactor. Submitted by BNL,
Sept. 1952.

466
CIRCULATING SYSTEMS CHAP. 3.6

rh = }
|
-—zº –
|
Soul DITY 8 |+ s

G \, I
ru

Fig. 3.6.5–Schematic Drawing of a Flat-plate Reactor. Reprinted from

NAA-SR-5, May 7, 1948.

4.4 |-

4.O |-

3.6 |-

STRAIGHT THROUGH REACTOR

3.2 -

. 2.8 H

2.4 H

FLAT-PLATE REACTOR
2.O

|.6 _l | | | | |
2O 3O 4O 50 6O 7O 8O 90

SOLIDITY, *.

Fig. 3.6.6—Comparison of Reactor Diameter and Solidity Requirements for

Straight-through and Flat-plate Designs. Reprinted from NAA-SR-5, May 7,
1948. Based on the following conditions: Heating—466 lb/sec air from 1216"R
to 3073*R; entrance pressure – 10.97 atm; exit pressure—8.0 atm; and reactor
wall temp. = 4091"R.

467
CHAP. 3.6 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

COOLING -— I
GAS OUT #D D

—i.
COOLING
GAS IN
-T

*—,

FUEL ELEMENTS
WATER
MODERATOR

<!-

Fig. 3.6.7—Schematic of Folded Reactor. Submitted by BNL, Sept. 1952.

Table 3.6.4— Comparison of Through-drilled and Folded Configurations

(R. W. Dayton et al., A High-Power-Density Gas-Cooled Reactor Core Configuration,
BMI-T-27, May 15, 1950,

60,000-kw reactor 750,000-kw reactor

(2-psia press. drop) (15-psia press. drop)
|-

Characteristic Straight | Folded Straight | Folded

Coolant passage length, in. 48 2 4 6 48 2 4

Approximate hole diameter, in. 0.12 0.0055 0.010 0.017 0.30 0.018 0.050
Approximate plate solidity, Ł - - - 920 930 935 - - - 950 955
Convective temperature drop, "F 80 13 30 60 640 420 800

conductive temperature drop, ºr so | | | | 700 || 3 | 120

Pressure, psia | 1500 1500
Reactor volume, cu ft 64 64
Solidity, Ł 80 80
Coolant Holium Helium
Moderator |- Beryllium Beryllium

Coolant exit tomperature, "F 1,000 2,000

Coolant entrance temperature, "F 400 400
Coolant average temperature, *F 700 1200
Coolant viscosity, lb/(ft)(sec)("F) 22 x 10-5 28 x 107*
Coolant thermal conductivity,
Btu /(ft)(sec) ("F) 41.5 x 10^* 52.5 × 10-5
Moderator thermal conductivity,
Btu/(ft) (sec)(*F) 0.0067 0.0032
Coolant flow rate. Ib/sec 75.5 353

468
CIRCULATING SYSTEMS CHAP. 3.6

The convective temperature drop determines the surface temperature of the wall ma
terials, while the conductive temperature drop is the cause of thermal stresses.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN EXTERNAL CIRCULATING SYSTEM

The use of high pressures and high temperatures, the desirability of small pressure
losses in the system external to the reactor, and the potential hazard of radioactivity in
the circulating gas call for special designs for several of the components of the system
external to the reactor. These special design features are described below.

COMPRESSORS AND GAS TURBINES (ALLIS-CHALMERS

MANUFACTURING CO.)
As discussed in Chap. 3.2 on thermal cycles, the gas turbine represents a highly effi
cient method of utilizing power from a gas-cooled reactor when pressures of the order of
2000 psi and exit gas temperatures (from the reactor) in excess of 1100°F are used.
Figures 3.6.8 and 3.6.9 are sectional drawings of the turbines and compressors illus
trating the general construction of the casings and rotors.
The entire gas-turbine unit, consisting of both turbines, both compressors, and starting
motors, is contained in a continuous casing which seals the unit against leakage of gas into
the machinery space. This casing is of the barrel type, with no longitudinal joint because
of the high internal pressure involved, and is built in sections with circumferential flanges
for assembly. An inner case, split longitudinally, carries the stationary blades, stationary
shaft seal members, bearings, and the like and is assembled with the rotor before it is
inserted in the outer or pressure casing.
The high-pressure and low-pressure compressor rotor is a three-bearing unit, the
center bearing being a combination thrust and journal bearing to take the thrust of the
compressors and the high-pressure turbine. The high-pressure turbine rotor is a two
bearing unit and is connected to the compressors by a thrust-transmitting type of flexible
coupling. This consists of a gear-tooth coupling to transmit the torque and a long, ball
end rod to transmit thrust and provide the required flexibility. To facilitate assembling,
the thrust rod extends through the high-pressure compressor rotor and is connected to it
at the low-pressure end. The starting motor is a two-bearing unit connected to the low
pressure compressor by an over-running clutch. The low-pressure turbine rotor is
overhung, has one bearing, and is connected between the rotors of the low-pressure and
high-pressure turbines.
Stepped labyrinth glands are used to reduce leakage along the shaft between elements.
Adjacent glands of the compressors are in series, the gas leaking from one gland through
passages in the bearing housing and back into the system through the other gland. This
leakage is very small, owing to the small total pressure difference (about 14 psi) across
the two glands. The series arrangement of glands is also used between the high-pressure
compressor and high-pressure turbine and between the two turbines. The starting motor
is totally enclosed and operates at the same pressure as the low-pressure compressor
inlet; therefore, the gland at this point will pass only the gas required to seal the bearing.

SHAFT SEALS

Two types of shaft bearings have been considered, an oil-lubricated bearing and a gas
Operated bearing. The oil-lubricated type requires an effective seal to prevent contamina
tion of the gas by the lubricant, whereas the gas type, using helium from the system as

469
:

%
>
zł
º
N/
CSTARTING
H.P
L.P.
MOTOR
OMPRESSOR

3.o6.w8-—Hpirghe-psresure
LFig.
and
Operation
for
Turbine
Gas
Marine
3.o6.wm9-—pHrigeh-sprseousrse
LFig.
Cand
Gas
Marine
for

1952.
15,
Feb.
NP-3683,
from
Reprinted
Pressure.
Helium
psi
2000
at
Operation
1952.
15,
Feb.
NP-3683,
from
Reprinted
Pressure.
Helium
Maximum
psi
2000
at

TURBINE
H.P
L.P.

REDUCTION

GEAR

#
CIRCULATING SYSTEMS CHAP. 3.6

the actuating gas, eliminates the contamination problem entirely. An oil-lubricated journal
is shown in Fig. 3.6.10. It consists essentially of the bearing with an oil seal and a gas
baffle on each side. It is provided with a separate oil tank, oil cooler, and contaminated
gas discharge pump, all sealed into the system. Since the shaft bearings operate in areas

FROM PRECOOLER

–GLAND

| wº SEAL
BEARING—a N
\ ==tºº l y

lº" STAGE
COMPRESSOR

.ſ
|

GAS PRESSURE
BALANCE LINE

OLL 8 GAS FILT

sepa FILTER

\-F

—º

STORAGE TANK

Fig. 3.6.10—Oil-lubricated Journal-bearing System for High-pressure Helium

Gas Turbine. Reprinted from NP-1522, May 1, 1950.

471
GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

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472
CIRCULATING SYSTEMS CHAP. 3.6

2-1" DIA.
PIPE |

H 12#" DIA——

Fig. 3.6.12–Piston-ring-type Slip-expansion Joint. Reprinted from NP-3683,

Feb. 15, 1952.

473
CHAP. 3.6 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

SUPER HEATER

- (V {Z} -

(X)
TUBE spacING

Eva PORATOR

E CONOMIZER

Fig. 3.6.13– Heat-exchange System for High-pressure Gas to Steam. Re

printed from NP-3683, Feb. 15, 1952.

474
CIRCULATING SYSTEMS CHAP. 3.6

of different pressures, a complete oiling system is provided for each bearing or pressure
level. Oil is supplied to the bearing by the pump and discharged into an annular space
around the bearing; thence, it goes back to the tank and cooler. A small positive-displace
ment pump on the same shaft as the oil pump is used to meter a small quantity of gas
through the gas baffles. This gas picks up any slight oil leakage by the seal rings and
delivers it to a purifying system where the gas is purified and returned to the system at
a lower-pressure point. Because of the low pressure differentials involved and the
metering characteristics of the displacement pump, the quantities of oil and gas thus
removed are very small. It is estimated that the oil loss is about 40 cc/hr per seal, which
can be replaced by means of a hand pump.
A gas bearing (as well as a combination thrust and journal bearing) is shown in Fig.
3.6.11. The journal bearing consists of four pockets, as shown in section “AA,” to which
high-pressure gas is admitted through individual orifices, and from which the gas is dis
charged through the annular clearance space between the sides of the pockets and the shaft.
Since the leakage area from each pocket depends upon shaft position, any transverse shift
of the shaft will alter the gas pressure in the pocket and provide a restoring force to re
center the shaft. The thrust bearing operates on the same principle, except that the annu
lar pockets are continuous and the gas is discharged through the clearance areas at the
inner and outer diameters of the bearing.

BLOWERS FOR HIGH-PRESSURE COOLANT GAS

A totally enclosed induction-motor-driven blower circumvents the helium leakage prob

lem. A shaft seal similar to that used on the gas turbine can be used to seal the motor
enclosure from the main helium stream inside the blower. Some consideration has also
been given to the use of a turbomagnetic drive operating in a balanced-pressure system
and to the use of a unipolar design.

PIPING EXPANSION JOINTS

A preliminary design of a piston-ring-type slip–expansion joint is illustrated in

Fig. 3.6.12.

HEAT EXCHANGERS

For high-pressure helium in the gas-turbine-cycle design, the precooler, intercooler,

and regenerator units may all be two-pass, counter-flow, tubular heat exchangers provided
with “U” tubes to eliminate floating tube-sheets or expansion problems. For the precooler
and intercooler under conditions where the fouling characteristics of water are a potential
problem, the gas should be in the shell and the water in the tubes. If, however, the fouling
possibilities are negligible, the coolers can be made smaller and lighter by having the
water in the shell and the gas in the tubes. To transfer heat from high-pressure gas to
steam, heat exchangers such as those illustrated in Fig. 3.6.13 may be used.

REFERENCE

1. R. W. Dayton, et al. BMI-T-27, May 15, 1950 (classified).

475
 CHAPTER 3.7

Economic Comparison of Gas Coolants

The evaluation of various coolants from only a heat-transfer consideration can be made
by considering the relationships involving:
1. Pressure drop in coolant flowing through the system.
2. Work required to pump coolant through the system.
3. Heat balance (rate of heat removal by the coolant = rate of heat transfer to the cool
ant).
4. Empirical correlations of the heat-transfer coefficient to the physical properties of
the fluid.
5. Empirical and theoretical correlations between physical properties.
The above basic considerations lead to equations that express the relationship between
reactor output, heat generated in reactor, physical properties of the coolant, and design
and operating variables of the system. Examples of such equations are given in Table
3.7.1, and the nomenclature is defined in Table 3.7.2.

Table 3.7.1—Typical Equations Involving Coolant Properties

Equation - Source Eq. No.

º = 428 PVR6 ºr:#E. W#(;

g P* b
;
x *Y*L*C
#E) Monn-299 (1)

# # |####| |º]
- NP-155 (2)

E .*** |a (º)" (1/nº-2)-2

+ B MonM-157 (3)
Q

Equation (1) has the term y/y—1 V (9) 5)7[2G-T)mw which is the only term dependent on
the coolant used. Table 3.7.3 shows by means of Eq. (1) the ratio of reactor thermal output
obtainable with various gases compared to that obtainable with air as 1.0 for a fixed reac
tor size and cross-sectional flow area. The tabulation is based on the same operating pres
Sures, temperatures, and percentage of blower power using room-temperature values of y.
In Eq. (2), the term (m/C# d’kPr".' = X) depends on the properties of the coolant. In
Table 3.7.4 this physical-property group is evaluated for various coolants at 0°C and 1
atm and compared with hydrogen. A low value is desirable for this group to keep the pump

477
CHAP. 3.7 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Table 3.7.2–Table of Nomenclature

Symbol Meaning Dimension

A Constant not dependent on properties of gas

Ag Total gas passage area sq ft
B Constant not dependent on properties of gas
Cp,C) Heat capacity at constant pressure or volume Btu/(1b)(°F)
E. Heat removed per unit of energy removed
FC Ratio of pressure drop of system to pressure drop in reactor
FL Factor that takes into account pressure drop in reflector, end
losses, acceleration, and eddy-current effects
Fx Ratio of maximum rate to average rate of power generation
at control plane of reactor perpendicular to gas flow
Fy Ratio of maximum rate to average rate of power generation
along central channel
g Acceleration of gravity ft/secº
J Conversion constant ft-lb/Btu
k Thermal conductivity Btu/(hr)(ft)(*F)
kwo Rated output of the reactor kw
L Length of heat-transfer passage ft
mW Molecular weight of coolant lb/lb-mole
P Operating pressure of reactor atm
Pr Prandtl number (Cp m/K)
Q Rate of heat removal Btu/hr
R Ratio of thermal power required for blower to thermal out
put of reactor
Ro Permissible uranium surface temperature rise above entering •F
gas temperature
At Average temperature difference between wall of heat-transfer
passage and bulk temperature of coolant
AT Temperature rise of coolant in passing through reactor °F
Tb Temperature of coolant going to boiler *R
Tp Average temperature of gas at center of reactor *R
Vn Volume of reactor occupied by coolant cu ft
W Work required to pump the coolant Btu/hr
y Ratio of Cp to C,
Tlb Efficiency of conversion of thermal energy required to drive
blower to gas-pressure energy produced by blower
m Viscosity of gas film lb-hr/ft
d Density of gas lb/cu ft
6 Temperature difference between reactor material and gas •F
at center of reactor

478
ECONOMIC COMPARISON OF GAS COOLANTS CHAP. 3.7

Table 3.7.3–Effect of Type of Gas Coolant on Specific Power of a Reactor

(A. Amorosi, Heat Transfer in Gas-cooled Piles, MonN-299, May 29, 1947)

Specific power
Molecular y” = 1.67 y” = 1.40 y” = 1.33
Gas weight (monatomic) (diatomic) (triatomic) y' = 1.31 y” = 1.23 y” = 1.17

Hypothetical gas 2 2.4 3.8

H. 2 3.8
He 4 1.7
Hypothetical gas 10 1.1 1.7 2.2
CH, 16 1.8
H.O 18 1.4
hr 20 1.2
N: 28 1.0
Air 29 1.0
C2H4 30 1.8
O. 32 1.0
Hypothetical gas 100 0.3 0.5 0.6
P. 124 1.2
Hg 200 0.24

*Y = specific-heat ratio

Table 3.7.4— Values of the Physical-properties Group for Gas Coolants

(E. R. Gilliland, D. Bareis, and G. Feick, Heat Removal from Nuclear Reactors,
NP-155, Feb. 9, 1949)

Gas n/C; d?kPr0.4 = x* X/XH,

H2 652 1.0
D2 1,313 2.0
C2H6 1,850 2.8
C2H2 2,325 3.6
CCl3 F(Freon-11) 2,680 4.1
CHA 2,770 4.25
NH3 2,880 4.4
He 3,315 5.1

H2O 5,040 7.7

CO2 6,560 10.0
H.S 6,635 10.0
HF 6,700 10.0

SO, 7,570 11.6

Air 8, 150 12.5

N2 8,740 13.4
CO 9,030 13.8
NO 9,550 14.6

O2 9,600 14.7
HC1 11,540 17.7

F. 13,000 20.0
Cl2 13,670 21.0
Xe 106,000 162.6

Hg 161,700 248.0

*Turbulent flow

479
CHAP. 3.7 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

ing power and the volume of the heat-transfer passages at a minimum. Since the tempera
tures and pressures in both the reactor and pump would be above O’C and 1 atm, the values
should be corrected for actual operating conditions.
Equation (3) contains the term (d"cº), the cooling-efficiency index, which depends on the .
properties of the gas; the term (Cpm/k) is nearly the same for all gases. The cooling- *ā

efficiency index is evaluated in Table 3.7.5 for various gases.

Table 3.7.5— Cooling-efficiency Index of Gases at 100°C and 1 Atm.

(M. C. Leverett, Gas-cooled Piles, Chap. 3 in “Graphite Uranium
Production Piles,” edited by L. B. Borst, National Nuclear Energy
Series, Division IV, Volume 5, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Technical Information Service, Oak Ridge, Tenn., 1951)

Gas d, gm/1 CP, cal/gm d'c;

Hz 0.066 3.43 0.18
He .131 1.25 .030

CO2 1.45 0.20 .017

Air 0.95 .24 .013

8O, 2.14 .14 .013

CHA 0.53 .59 .0058
H.O .598 .48 .0040

Table 3.7.6—Thermal-neutron-absorption
Cross Section for Gas Coolants

Element "thermal

Helium 0.000
Deuterium ,001

Oxygen .001
Carbon .004
Fluorine .01

Hydrogen .32
Sulfur .49

Argon 1.2
Nitrogen 1.7
Chlorine 35
Mercury 430

These three methods of evaluating heat-transfer properties lead to certain inconsisten

cies (e.g., methane compared with air). This may result from evaluation of the parameters
at different temperatures and from various assumptions as to the “ideality” of the prop
erties of the gas. Equation (2) would seem to be the most reliable, since it is based on
fundamental thermodynamic and heat-transfer principles. It contains no approximations,
such as correlations between physical properties, except for the heat-transfer coefficient.
The foregoing calculations based on Eqs. (1) to (3) are order-of-magnitude calculations
and as such should not be applied to design work without modification.
The selection of the most desirable gas coolant for a particular reactor depends not only
on the pumping power required but also on the nuclear characteristics of the coolant, its
thermal and chemical stability, and the reactor application. The thermal-neutron cross
sections of some of the elements, compounds, and mixtures considered in Table 3.7.4 are !
given in Table 3.7.6. Decomposition under irradiation and lack of chemical and thermal -

480
ECONOMIC COMPARISON OF GAS COOLANTS CHAP. 3.7

stability rule out many of the coolants listed in Table 3.7.4. For the general case, the
choice narrows down to four coolants: helium, carbon dioxide, steam, or air. Although
air requires about twice the pumping power used for the other coolants, the fact that
recycling is not necessary with air makes it the preferred coolant in many cases. How
ever, because of the high cross section of nitrogen (1.7 barns), air can absorb a con
siderable fraction of excess k and is not a satisfactory coolant at high pressures for any
but enriched reactors. The air in a typical unenriched graphite-moderated reactor at a
pressure slightly below 1 atm absorbs approximately / percent in k (see Table 3.8.2).
Figure 3.7.1 indicates that, for a given reactor, the power per unit of fissionable material
is higher with helium than with air. This plot applies for the following conditions:*

Outlet temperature = 3000°K

Outlet pressure = 10 atm
Outlet mach number = 0.5
Tube length = 36 in.
Void space = 25%

1.O TSS Nes W

| O ..]

ENTRANCE
.2

TO
.3

ExIT
.4 .5
-—D-

TEMPERATURE
*-
.6

RATIO
.7
ss
.8 .9 I.O

Fig. 3.7.1— Power Density vs Entrance-to-Exit Temperature Ratio. Submitted

by North American Aviation, Inc., June 11, 1948.

--

*A. S. Thomson, NAA-SR-11, June 11, 1948 (classified).

481
 CHAPTER 3.8

Radioactivity in Coolants

Activity in a reactor coolant varies directly with the reactor power level, directly with
the volume of coolant in the reactor, and inversely with the U* concentration in the reac
tor. The chief sources of induced radioactivity are (1) reactions of neutrons with the cool
ant or with impurities in the coolant and (2) diffusion of fission products into the coolant
Stream.

INDUCED ACTIVITY IN COOLING AIR (M. E. Smith)

Of the gaseous coolants that might be used in a reactor, only air is likely to be deliber
ately discharged continuously in an open-cycle system. Elements in the air which become
radioactive may thus constitute a routine problem that must be solved by the design of the
installation and/or the operating program.

RADIOACTIVE GASES IN REACTOR COOLING AIR

Radioargon is the most abundant radioactive product in the air discharged from an air
cooled reactor. Formed from the A* that comprises about 1 percent of the normal atmos
phere, A* is a beta-gamma emitter with a half-life of 110 min. Because of the rapid natu
ral decay of radioargon, however, the area receiving significant radiation from radioargon
is relatively small, and since argon is chemically inert, assimilation of the radioactive gas
by biological processes is not possible.
Carbon-14, although less abundant than A* by a factor of about 10", presents a greater
potential hazard because of its long half-life (5000 yr) and the role of CO2 in biological
processes. In the design of most reactors, however, C* emission would not constitute a
serious problem.

A“EMISSION As A FUNCTION OF REACTOR PARAMETERS

The rate of radioargon production is dependent on the volume of air exposed to the neu
tron flux. In practice, it is usually necessary to calculate the A“production rate for two
or more different sections of the reactor based on both the volume and mean flux of each
section. The sum of these production rates multiplied by the decay constant is the A“
emission rate (Q).
The A* emission rate (Q) is nearly constant for a given power level since the half-life
is long compared with the time of passage through the reactor. The stack concentration
(xs), however, varies with the air flow.

SAMPLE CALCULATION OF A* EMISSION RATE

The following calculation was made for the Brookhaven reactor. The rate of activation
(R) is given by:

483
CHAP. 3.8 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

R = f V No a (1)

where W = volume of the section

f = average neutron flux over V
N = number of A" atoms/cu ft
oa = activation cross section (0.6 barn)

In the case of the Brookhaven reactor, it was necessary to consider three separate volumes
(see Table 3.8.1) to obtain the total activation rate of 24.2 × 10*A* atoms/sec. Using a
value of 1.07 x 10" sec" for the decay constant, calculation of the A* emission rate (Q)
yields a value of 6.94 x 10" c/sec, or 6 x 10” c/day, at the full power of 30 mw. The air
flow at full power is 300,000 cfm, which gives a specific activity in the stack of 13.9 x 10"
c/cu ft (4.9 x 10" c/cm”).

Table 3.8.1— Rate of Activation (A*) in Brookhaven Reactor

Channels Plenum chambers Graphite voids

f, n/(cm”)(sec) 2.1 x 10!? 1 x 1011 2.1 x 10”

V, cm." 1.44 x 10' 3.14 x 10° 8.98 x 10'
R, A* atoms/sec 2.92 x 101? 3.04 x 10” 18.2 x 10”

ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION OF RADIOACTIVE GASES AND PARTICULATES

The release of radioactive effluent to the atmosphere often provides a convenient means
for disposing of one of the many wastes associated with the operation of a nuclear reactor.
Atmospheric turbulence will normally accomplish a sufficiently rapid reduction in concen
trations to render even a very “hot” effluent harmless at a short distance. However, in
planning an air-cooled reactor, it must be noted that the rate of dilution in the atmosphere
varies tremendously, both in magnitude and character, and that the size and shape of the
building complex and the stack parameters will influence the behavior of the effluent stream
close to the source. These two aspects of the dispersion problem, called “aerodynamic”
and “meteorological,” respectively, provide a convenient breakdown and will be treated
separately.

AERODYNAMIC FA CTORS

In the vicinity of the installation, the effectiveness of a stack in reducing ground-level

radiation will be determined by many factors that are under at least partial control of the
design engineer. The aerodynamic factors discussed here should be applicable to identical
installations in different locations subject to differences in local climatological distribu
tions of wind, temperature, and stability.

Effluent Temperature and Speed

The stream of cooling air ascending vertically from a stack into a horizontal wind field
generally may be expected to rise to some level above the stack top before assuming hori
zontal motion. This results from the upward momentum of the effluent and from the buoy
ancy of the warm gases ejected into cooler ambient air. This rise of stack effluent is

*References appear at end of chapter.

484
RADIOACTIVITY IN COOLANTS CHAP. 3.8

limited, however, by the increase in turbulence with increasing stack speed and the de
crease in effluent density with increasing temperature. The horizontal wind flow also re
duces the effectiveness of momentum and buoyancy.
These effects have been investigated by a number of researchers, and a wide variety of
theoretical and empirical formulas has been developed. Unfortunately, most of these stud
ies have been performed in wind tunnels, and corollary field investigations either have been
lacking or have not been sufficient to establish the unquestioned superiority of a particular
approach.
Of the many possible choices, it is believed that the formulas presented by Bosanquet,
Carey, and Halton” offer the most promise. They have been found to agree reasonably well
with a number of independent results. Their formula for “effective stack height” (the
height above ground at which the plume levels off) is:

4.77 VQu.
-

H = Hs Tiãº, V ºste § (in ,2 *... j2

QA
2 (2)

where H = height of plume, ft

Hs = stack height, ft
v = wind speed, ft/sec
u = gas velocity at exit, ft/sec
Q = gas rate (at T1), cu ft/sec
g = acceleration of gravity, ft/secº
Ti = temperature at which density of flue gas equals that of the atmosphere, *C. abs.
A = temperature difference between flue gas and T1, “C
- v’ v. VT –o 2a u Ti
J-º (0.43%; 0.28; #): 1
G = gradient of atmospheric potential temperature, “C/ft

It should be noted that the third term of Eq. (2), which is associated with the buoyancy
effect, will give a maximum value only when the atmosphere is stable and the potential tem
perature increases with height. In unstable cases, the warm effluent would theoretically
remain warmer than the surrounding air, and the plume would continue to ascend. Thus,
Hs is theoretically greater in unstable cases than in stable cases.

Buildings and Local Terrain

The presence of obstacles in a horizontal wind flow results in localized eddy patterns
which must be considered in the design of cooling-air disposal systems. These eddies may
be generated by either buildings or terrain in the immediate vicinity of the stack. The most
common feature of such artificial turbulence is the presence of one or more “standing ed
dies” which may cause considerable down-wash in the lee of the obstacle.
The height and horizontal position of a stack in relation to the buildings must be such that
the effluent plume will not be entrained in the localized eddy pattern. This problem has
been recognized for many years, and the “rule of thumb" that a stack must extend to a
height two and one-half times that of the building structure has often served to eliminate
the difficulty. Recent evidence obtained from wind-tunnel and field tests indicates that even
this ratio may be inadequate in some cases. No reliable rules are available to specify the
correct relation of stack height to building dimensions and shape. Wind-tunnel tests are the
only means of investigating the flow around a particular building and terrain complex.
It is advisable to locate a reactor in an area in which no additional construction is con
templated to avoid the possibility of undesirable changes in flow resulting from new struc
tures.

485
CHAP. 3.8 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Stack Design

Relatively little attention has been devoted to the shape and flow characteristics of stack
tops. The eddies produced by the stack itself have been known to cause down-wash with high
wind speeds, in some cases resulting in an effective stack height significantly lower than
the stack itself.”
The effective stack height can be increased significantly by proper design of the stack
top." In a series of wind-tunnel tests conducted jointly by the Consolidated Edison Company
of New York and the College of Engineering, New York University, the uniformity of the gas
velocity across the stack orifice was found to be the most important factor; the more uni
form the velocity profile, the greater the effective stack height. Davidson also reports that,
although shaping the stack to hide an internal nozzle was detrimental, a stack top having a
semielliptic nozzle facing into the wind increased the effective stack height about 25 percent.

METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS

At some distance from the source, the initial parameters related to emission become
unimportant, and subsequent dispersion of a gaseous effluent becomes entirely a function
of natural meteorological processes. Despite the fact that the engineer has little control
over the latter, an installation can be designed and located to take the best advantage of
these processes. Although precise estimates of ground-level concentrations are not yet
possible even over level terrain, the qualitative aspects of dispersion are well understood.
It should be noted that there is evidence showing that the condition of the vegetation and
soil has an effect on convective eddies, and the engineer may find it possible to control the
meteorological conditions slightly.
Atmospheric turbulence is generated by both frictional and thermal processes and is thus
related to the roughness of the terrain, the horizontal wind flow, and the vertical tempera
ture structure near the ground surface. The effects of variations in these factors on the
behavior of an effluent have received detailed attention in other publications. Most of the
following discussion is based on experience with the 355-ft test-stack at Brookhaven
National Laboratory; although minor differences in stack behavior may be expected in other
locations, the general principles that follow are applicable to all stacks.

Lapse Conditions

On almost all sunny days a rapid decrease of temperature with height is found in the
lower air layers, usually at a rate associated with instability (-1.0° to —2.0°C/100 m).
Large, thermal eddies are present, causing portions of the effluent trail to be carried al
ternately to the ground and to levels above the stack at intervals of about 5 to 15 min (Fig.
3.8.1). Wide horizontal oscillations are also present. With light winds (2 to 6 mph), these
convective eddies predominate. Winds greater than 6 mph cause an increase in high-fre
quency frictional turbulence which is superimposed on the longer-period fluctuations. The
dispersion is such that effluent is seldom present continuously at any point on the ground,
at least within the first 50 stack-heights. Instead, puffs are carried over a given point on
the ground at distinct intervals, the concentrations varying from high values to zero.

Neutral Conditions

During cloudy weather with winds equal to or greater than 10 mph, the air temperature
generally decreases with height in the first 400 ft above ground at a rate of 0.0° to —0.7°C/
100 m. Turbulence is almost entirely frictional, high-frequency eddies predominating. The
effluent is dispersed in a gradually widening cone that first reaches the ground at a distance
of 10 to 30 stack-heights and is often present continuously at sampling points with much
smaller variations in concentration than are found in lapse conditions.

486
RADIOACTIVITY IN COOLANTS CHAP. 3.8

Fig. 3.8.1— Dispersion in Unstable Air. Submitted by Brookhaven National

Laboratory, May 1952. The oil-fog trail shows the effect of large convective ed
dies; a portion of the plume was brought to the ground 250 ft from the tower base.
The wind speed was 3 mph, and the vertical temperature difference (Tito’-Tsſ')
WaS -1.0°C.

487
CHAP. 3.8 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Inversion Conditions

The character of dispersion alters markedly when the air temperature increases with
height. The effluent trail spreads out in a thin sheet that widens horizontally, but not ver
tically, down-wind of the source (Figs. 3.8.2 and 3.8.3). With a stack extending well above
the terrain, no concentrations are detected at ground level, even at distances of several
hundred stack-heights.
The importance of the temperature inversion in stack dispersion is difficult to overesti
mate. Under these conditions, the rate of diffusion of the effluent is so small that high con
centrations within the plume are found at great distances. It is thus of great importance
that the stack and buildings be designed so that the plume will extend above ground for a
considerable horizontal distance, depending on the initial rate of emission.
The preceding description refers primarily to surface inversions, in which the tempera
ture increases from the ground surface to a height of approximately 500 to 1500 ft. Similar
inversions are found aloft, usually with an unstable layer of air between the ground and the
base of the inversion. This results in the vertical confinement of effluent ejected into the
unstable layer between the ground and the inversion, with a measurable increase in ground
level concentrations if the inversion lid is at a low level. In some areas, this meteorologi
cal situation is very common, the city of Los Angeles being the classic example. A definite
relationship between radiation fog and the development of an unstable layer of air under an
inversion lid has been found” indicating that the condition may occur frequently in localities
where radiation fog is common.

Transitory Conditions
The foregoing paragraphs have dealt with meteorological conditions that predominate in
many localities. There are at least two transitory effects worthy of mention.
In the early morning hours following a clear, calm night, heating of the ground surface
causes a layer of unstable air to build up from the ground surface and replace the tempera
ture inversion which previously existed and which still remains above the unstable layer.
When the unstable layer reaches the level of the plume, a rapid overturning occurs in which
the effluent is thoroughly mixed into the lower layer but not upward through the inversion.
This produces high concentrations at ground level, often at great distances from the source.
The effluent normally disperses rapidly with the increasing instability, and high concentra
tions remain for approximately 30 min.
The reverse effect may be found in the early evening when a daytime lapse condition is
being replaced by an inversion. The turbulence is much reduced just prior to the formation
of the inversion, and puffs of effluent may be trapped locally at ground level in the develop
ing stable layer. Such concentrations will generally dissipate or be carried away by the
light wind at a very slow rate.

Topography

The above generalized description of the behavior of an effluent plume applies over flat
terrain, but local topography will alter the patterns to a varying degree. Some of these fac
tors are discussed below without attempting to cover more than a small portion of the many
possibilities. Plans for an installation in rough terrain should include a meteorological sur
vey to establish the significance of local anomalies.
Rugged landforms affect the local meteorology in many ways. One of the most obvious is
the creation by hills and ridges of standing vertical and horizontal perturbations in the wind
flow. The scale of these variations is a function of the scale of the landforms, but it is
common to find wide variations in wind direction and speed over very short distances. For
example, parallel ridges and valleys, such as those found in sections of the Appalachian
Mountains, tend to restrict the valley wind flow to the long axis of the landforms, and the

488
 :

marked
shows
plume
oil-fog
the
view
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sThe
a
with
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vertical
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p res ion

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in
seen
be
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Six
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The

Laboratory,
National
Brookhaven
by
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Air.
Stable
in
Dispersion
3.8.2—
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1952.
May

-
tTei1mfp0e,r–aTetanurc'e)
the
and
(dmph,
410°C.
was

§
CHAP. 3.8 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Fig. 3.8.3— Dispersion in Stable Air. Submitted by Brookhaven National Labo

ratory, May 1952. The photograph was taken shortly after that shown in Fig.
3.8.2. In this view, the effects of the weak horizontal eddies are evident.

490
RADIOACTIVITY IN COOLANTS CHAP. 3.8

frequency distributions of wind velocity obtained from ridge top and valley floor, respec
tively, may be remarkably different.
The vertical wind distribution also shows sharp variations, particularly when inversions
are present. Shifts of 180° in wind direction with small changes in altitude are common.
Figure 3.8-4 shows such a case at Brookhaven, where the terrain is relatively flat.
Temperature inversions are more common in valleys than over flat terrain. The disper
Sion of effluent emitted in or under such inversions may be restricted in virtually all direc
tions so that very little reduction in concentrations can occur until the temperature struc
ture becomes unstable to levels several thousand feet above ground. In fact, concentrations
may increase as the first layers above ground become unstable but before the inversion
aloft disappears. An effect of this type almost certainly contributed to the Donora disaster.
The presence of nearby water surfaces has a strong influence on the wind and stability
structure. The fact that 24 percent of the winds at Brookhaven are southwesterly during
the summer months is partly a result of the “sea-breeze” effect that is present on most
summer days. Similarly, the persistent temperature inversions that are so important in
the Los Angeles smog may be partly attributed to the advection of warm air over the cold
Coastal waters.

PARTICULATES

The presence of particulate matter in a stack effluent adds a complicating factor to the
process of dispersion and may necessitate the use of a different standard for the allowable
concentration of radioactivity. In most installations, it is reasonable to assume that the
vast majority of large particles (>101) will have been filtered out within the cooling system.
The settling rate of the remaining particles will therefore be so small that the effluent may
be treated as a gas for practical purposes.
The dispersion of particulates differs from that of gases in two ways: (1) Settling of the
particles causes them to have a net downward motion resulting in maximum concentrations
closer to the source, and (2) a portion of the effluent is continuously deposited on the
ground, reducing the total amount of effluent with increasing distance from the source.
The settling rate of an aerosol of fairly homogeneous particle size may be approximated
by assuming that the X-axis of the plume is tilted downward at an angle depending on the
ratio of settling rate to wind speed. The deposition rate is difficult to determine, espe
cially for small particles, since effluent distribution and atmospheric motion very close to
the ground have not yet been defined with sufficient accuracy and since forces other than
gravity may be important. Both problems have been considered in some detail by Baron,
Gerhard, and Johnstone" as well as others. It should be noted that, although the deposition
of radioactive particulates will have the effect of reducing the amount of effluent in the at
mosphere, the radiation at ground level may increase with continued emission until an
equilibrium value depending on decay, atmospheric concentration, and deposition has been
reached.

ESTIMATION OF GROUND-LEVEL DOSE RATES FROM A*

Estimation of A* dose rates is carried out in two phases: (1) The three-dimensional dis
tribution of effluent is first described mathematically for the meteorological conditions en
countered, and (2) the dose rate values are then derived from these distributions.

EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS

At present there is no completely acceptable theory to explain atmospheric dispersion,

but a thorough summary of the current status has been presented." The salient features of
one treatment that has produced operational results are considered below. Improvements
or simplifications in component steps of this treatment can be made in accordance with the

491
 :

Labora
National
Brookhaven
by
Submitted
Vertical.
the
in
Wind
of
Variation
Fig.
Marked
3.8.4—
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from
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355
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Three
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and
RADIOACTIVITY IN COOLANTS CHAP. 3.8

individual problem and with advances in meteorological treatment of atmospheric diffusion.

The Brookhaven approach” has been chosen as a model.
The Brookhaven meteorological staff adopted the formula developed by Sutton” as the
mathematical model for dispersion under lapse and neutral conditions. This formula ex
presses the diffusion of an effluent cloud from a point source in the following form:

Q e sº - (z—h)* _ (z #
x..., -ś- (< cº" ' " Cix (3)

where x = concentration, mg/m.”

Q = rate of emission, mg/sec
u = wind speed, m/sec -

n = a pure number
Cy = virtual crosswind diffusion coefficient, mn/2
Cz = virtual vertical diffusion coefficient, mn/2

This equation describes an effluent plume with boundaries in a form lying between a cone
and a paraboloid. The concentration along the X-axis decreases at a rate proportional to
X*T", where n lies between 0 and 1. When applied to a source located above the ground sur
face, the maximum ground-level concentration is found to be inversely proportional to the
square of the stack height although this does not apply to concentrations at fixed points.
The nomographs presented in Figs. 3.8.5 and 3.8.6 provide a convenient means of obtaining
the maximum concentrations and their distance from the source as predicted by the Sutton
formulas.
Brookhaven oil-fog tests under unstable conditions showed mean hourly maximum con
centrations which were less than those predicted by the Sutton equations by a factor vary
ing between 2 and 10. However, it is felt that the diffusion of individual clouds of effluent
are predicted by the equation with reasonable accuracy and that appropriate hourly mean
values can be obtained by weighing the basic results in accordance with the hourly fre
quency distribution of wind direction.
The numerical values for n, Cz, and Cy for various degrees of wind gustiness must be
determined by appropriate instrumentation or estimated from results in other locations.
The Sutton equation does not accurately describe the dispersion found with temperature
inversions, which exist 40 percent of the time at Brookhaven. However, the narrow trail of
effluent from a high stack can be approximated by the mathematical forms of the line and
plane source for estimating radiation dose rates at ground level. It is clear that a more
accurate representation of the cloud would be necessary with low stacks."
RADIATION DOSE RATES
A* is a beta-gamma emitter, decaying to K“with a half-life of 110 min. It is necessary
to consider each type of radiation separately in calculating ground-level dose rates.

Beta Radiation

The beta radiation from A* has a maximum energy of 1.2 mev and an average energy of
0.46 mev, for which the respective ranges in air at sea level are approximately 4.2 and
1.1 m. Large volumes need not be considered in the calculation of beta dose rates, and
point concentrations of the effluent, obtained from the Sutton formula and weighted in ac
cordance with the wind frequency distribution, can be used to obtain mean hourly distribu
tions of the beta contribution in lapse and neutral conditions. With a sufficiently elevated
source, no effluent is present at ground level under inversions, and the beta dose rate is
effectively zero.

493
CHAP. 3.8 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Xmax ..."
HEIGHT, m. R IO,OOO

—Isood
— 8 OOO
— 7 OOO
— 6OOO
– 50CO
IOOOH- — 4OOO
900H
8 OOH- 3OOO
7OOH- –
6OOH- – 2COO
5OOH

4OOH- -

|OOO
3OOH- T- §§
y — 7OO
2OOH- Cs, m (2 – 6OO

+110 – soo
— 7 —H 40O
—H 5
— 4 —H 3OO
— 3
IOOH- 2

§3|E – 200
7OH- — I.O
6OH- – ’’
5CH- — of
— .5 — ';
ad– — .3 = .
3O. — .2 —H 6O
|- —H 50
— .I — 40
2OH

— so

– 20

|- BROOKHAVEN VALUES FOR:

|- EXTREME INSTABILITY
A 040 ois —H IO

6.
5H
-

MODERATE STABILITY,
{i,
B,
-

.35
.30
-

.25
.35
-

–
- {
8

4— NEUTRAL || C .25 .45 I 5

STABLE | D . IO .6O
3H- — 4

I. USE STACK HEIGHT AND "C-" TO – 3

2 OBTAIN POINTS ON REFERENCE LINE
2. FROM REFERENCE POINT AND "n" — 2
OBTAIN X mox

Fig. 3.8.5— Nomogram for Solving the Sutton Equation |… (...)

-
h? \º-n
z
for the

Distance of Maximum Ground Concentration. Prepared by I. A. Singer; submitted

by Brookhaven National Laboratory, May 1952.

494
RADIOACTIVITY IN COOLANTS CHAP. 3.8

HEIGHT, m C= /C X, ma /m
ſooo- = r \, y rºw;
900– .. 8
8 OOH -

– .. 6
7OOH- —H .5

6OOH- - .4
– .3
500H

– .2
40OH

— ...I
3OOH- -

- .O8
-

- .O6
—H .O5
2OOH- – .O4

—H.O3
H.3
-2
—H.O2

- I

IOOH- –5 – .O.
90H H. .3 I OO8
80H- H.2 -

— .OO6
7OH- H.I —H .OO5

6O
º- E
- O5
—H .OO4

M- - .OO3
50H- -O3
-.O2 - .002
40k
O H.OI

3OH. -H.OOI
SUTTON VALUES FOR: - . OOO6

STACK Cº. - 6
HEIGHT – .oOo
#HT, C, - .OOO5
2OH- O O57
|O .57 - .OOO4
Q 25 I.OO
(x) = - TRUE (x) IOO I.OO - .OOO3

x-mg/m.”
Q - igm/sec T1 .OOO2
u - masec

IO .OOO!

Fig. 3.8.6— Nomogram for Solving the Sutton Equation |-- # (...)
-
C

y
for

the Maximum Ground Concentration. Prepared by I. A. Singer; submitted by

Brookhaven National Laboratory, May 1952.

495
CHAP. 3.8 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

Gamma Radiation

A very different problem is encountered in the treatment of gamma radiation, which has
a mean free path of about 300 m. The spatial distribution of the effluent must be consid
ered, for the assumption of a semi-infinite cloud of uniform concentration cannot be ex
pected to apply except, perhaps, at very great distances from the source. Under inversions,
the effluent from a high stack may be approximated by a plane source extending from the
stack to infinity, widening uniformly at a half-angle of 1.5°. To obtain the dose rate for a
specific point at ground level, the assumption of a plane of infinite length having a finite
width depending on the 1.5° half-angle and the radial distance from the stack may be used.
The integration is simplified by the further assumption that the entire plume has the con
centration calculated on the basis of the decay over the point of observation.
Close to the stack, the assumption of a line source gives results of good accuracy. Val
ues within 10 percent of those obtained from a plane source will be achieved if the vertical
half-angle subtended by the edges of the plume above the observer does not exceed 30°. If
the inversion plume is close to the ground, more sophisticated models of the dispersion
become necessary. These may be selected on the basis of empirical test data or from the
available theoretical formulas.
The ground-level dose rate distribution obtained in this manner applies to an invariant
mean wind. A distribution representing a typical hour may be obtained by utilizing the
hourly frequency distribution of stack-height wind direction.
Dose rates under unstable conditions may be derived in basically similar fashion. The
Sutton formulas can be assumed to describe the three-dimensional distribution of the ef
fluent plume and the corresponding dose rates obtained. The mathematics is rendered
more tractable if the simplifying assumptions are made that the concentration in the X
direction is constant and that the effluent extends to + and — infinity in the X-direction. The
latter is clearly valid only if the point of observation is further from the stack than one
mean free path (300 m). It is also helpful to treat the decay factor as a constant, as is done
in the inversion case.
It is clear from the foregoing that estimates of dose rates under varying meteorological
conditions can be achieved, although the approach is not as yet sufficiently general to war
rant routine application of the method to a wide variety of sites. In practice, the meteor
ology of each site should be carefully considered to determine what observational data are
needed to supplement generalized knowledge of the problem. In some cases, engineering
estimates will be relatively simple; in others, especially where rugged terrain is involved,
a complete meteorological survey will be required.

INDUCED ACTIVITY IN HELIUM

Neutron reactions involving helium itself are negligible, as shown in Table 3.8.2. The
helium isotope with a relatively large thermal-neutron absorption cross section is He”, but
its abundance" is of the order of 107" to 107°. The extent of neutron reactions with impuri
ties in the helium are approximated in Table 3.8.3, which presents the activity calculated
on the basis of 100 ppm argon in the helium. Argon was chosen as typical of an impurity
that would give rise to a substantial quantity of activity. Actual impurity concentrations in
high-grade helium are shown in Table 3.3.14.
Table 3.8.4 presents estimates of activity in the helium stream resulting from the diffu
sion of fission products into the helium. The maximum activity is based on a complete trans
fer of all the fission products from the fuel rods into the gas stream. The minimum value
results from considering the transfer of only those fission products from the slug surface
film whose thickness is equal to the recoil range of the fission fragments. Further work”

496
RADIOACTIVITY IN COOLANTS CHAP. 3.8

Table 3.8.2—Approximate Loss in k Owing to Gases Used for Cooling

(M. C. Leverett, Gas-cooled Piles, Chap. 3 in “Graphite Uranium Production Piles,” edited
by L. B. Borst, National Nuclear Energy Series, Division IV, Volume 5, U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Technical Information Service, Oak Ridge, Tenn., 1951)

Gas Ak” Gas Ak”

Hydrogen 0.0007 Sulfur dioxide 0.0005

Helium O Methane .0014
Carbon dioxide 0 Water .0007
Air 0.003

*Based on ratio of free space to metal existing in the Clinton reactor

at a pressure of approximately 1 atm

Table 3.8.3—Activity from Argon Impurity in Helium”

(B. T. Feld, The Activity of the Coolant in Closed-cycle Systems, LP-157, Sept. 7, 1948)

Power level, mw 100

Gas pressure, psia 1000
Gas temperature, *F 1800
Fraction coolant in reactor 0.10

weight of U*, kg 10
Thermal-neutron flux, per sq cm-sec 2.4 x 10"
Gamma energy, mev 1.3
Gamma rays, per day 3 x 1016
Gamma flux, per sq cm-day (at 10 m) 2 x 10-9
Gamma flux, per sq cm-day (at 1000 m) 2 x 10-14

*Reactor assumed to be a cylinder 2 sq ft in cross section

having a volume of 6.3 cu ft. The concentration of the argon
impurity is taken as 100 ppm

Table 3.8.4—Calculation of Helium Activity

(C. R. McCullough and J. A. Swartout, Calculation of Levels of Radioactivity to be expected in
the Coolant of the Power Pile, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, CF-47-1-41, Jan. 15, 1947.

Power level, * mw 40
Coolant volume, cu ft 4100
Beta activity, c/cu ft 20 to 5 x 10"
Gamma activity, c/cu ft 10 to 2.5 × 10^
Long-lived activity,f c/cu ft 8

*Based on reactor containing 5600 hollow cylindrical

fuel rods 6 in. by 1.5 in. OD and 'A in. ID
f Activity induced in He by complete diffusion with half
lives greater than 1 hr

497
CHAP. 3.8 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

gives a comparable figure of 6.76 c/cu ft” for this minimum value, and it is noted that at
high temperatures diffusion may be more important than the stoppage of recoil fragments.
Table 3.8.5 presents the results of a calculation scaling up the activity induced in helium
based on small-scale experimental work. This calculation is of value as an order-of-mag
nitude estimate and indicates the possibility of undue pessimism in the values given in
Table 3.8.4.

Table 3.8.5—Experimental Data and Calculated Scale-up of Activity Induced in Helium

(N. Sugarman, Collection of Activity in a Circulating Helium System, CC-418, Jan. 15, 1943)

Experimental data

Gas velocity, l/sec 0.49

Neutron intensity, neutrons/(cm”)(sec) 11.9 x 10'
Fission rate, fissions/(gm)(sec) 1.35 x 10°
Surface area, cm.” 86.4
Gas activity, disintegrations/(cc)(sec)
Fluid 4.7
Solid 2.8

Calculated scale-up”
Power level, mw 100
Weight of metal, tons (metric) 50
Surface area, cm” 1.64 x 10'
Fission rate, fissions/(gm)(sec) 6 x 1010
Helium volume, cu ft 46,520
Cycle time, sec 20.8
Gas velocity, l/sec 6.3 x 105
Gas activity,f c/cu ft
Fluid 0.283
Solid .142
Fraction of reactor activity in gas 3 x 10-5

*Reactor is assumed to consist of units of three concentric

cylinders of inner radii 0.5, 1.2, and 1.9 in. and outer radii 0.7,
1.4, and 2.0 in.
f Experiments indicate that the total activity can be lowered 45
percent by filtering through charcoal. Activity indicated is at 2
Sec from reactor center

A fuel-rod coating that would keep the fission products from diffusing into the helium
stream would simplify the purification process considerably. Filtration of the helium
through activated charcoal has been suggested as a method of decontaminating the helium
coolant. Other suggested methods are the use of a diffusion cascade, storage for the decay
of short-lived activity, and absorption into fats.”
A purification method incorporating cooling and filtration has also been suggested.* This
process consists of cooling the helium to the temperature of liquid air at a pressure of 500
psia. The contaminants are removed as liquid, and the remaining impurities are removed
in an absorbent charcoal filter.

*The original figure is 34 c induced by one fuel rod 1.4 cm in radius and 11 ft long operating at a 25
mw power level. The figure of 6.76 c/cu ft is derived from this value in order to make a comparison
with the value in Table 3.8.4.

498
RADIOACTIVITY IN COOLANTS CHAP. 3.8

FILTER SYSTEMS FOR RADIO ACTIVE PARTICLES

Filters are placed in the coolant gas streams from reactors to remove radioactive par
ticles introduced usually from one or more of three main sources:
(1) Particles, such as salt and dust, entering with the cooling air for an open-cycle reac
tor and remaining in the reactor for a time sufficient to acquire radioactivity.
(2) Particles, such as graphite, beryllium oxide, and other dusts, from the moderator,
the fuel elements, or parts of the reactor structure.
(3) High-activity particles of uranium or uranium oxide from ruptured fuel elements.

The first source of particles is important only when stagnant air pockets or low air
velocity regions are present in or close to the reactor so that particles settle out, become
radioactive, and are subsequently picked up by the air stream again. This condition can be
prevented successfully by installing high-efficiency filters in the inlet air stream. Most
particles not retained by the filters are no larger than 0.5 p in diameter; these remain air
borne and have no chance to become radioactive.
To catch radioactive particulate matter that enters the gas stream inside the reactor, an
efficient filter must be used in the exhaust stream (see Fig. 3.8.7). The primary source of
such particles in existing air-cooled reactors has been oxidized uranium from aluminum
can ruptures. Maximum safety, therefore, depends upon designing the fuel element so that
the possibility of release of uranium particles is minimized. Such procedures are de
scribed in Chapter 3.5. The use of filters in the inlet and/or outlet coolant streams de
pends on the reactor characteristics.
For air-cooled experimental reactors at air temperatures of 215°F or lower, special
types of glass fiber filters with the characteristics shown in Table 3.8.6 give satisfactory
service. When the filters were used in series with the larger fiber material preceding the
smaller, good results were achieved for two and more years depending on the location.
The combination of the FG-25 backed by FG-50 appears to be just as efficient as two %-in.
layers of FG-50 and has an estimated useful life 3.54 times the latter based on a pressure
drop consideration of 4 in. H2O at 25 ft/min.”
Table 3.8.7 presents operating data for a typical installation using these two types of fil
ters in series in the same frame. If necessary, the total atmospheric dust removed may be
increased from 99.3 to about 99.7 weight percent by the use of back-up filters containing
either Chemical Warfare Service No. 6 paper or AEC No. 1 paper. The characteristics of
these papers are shown in Table 3.8.8. As an indication of dust load on location, an instal
lation similar to that on which Table 3.8.7 is based showed a pressure-drop build-up of
less than %-in. H2O/yr for the same linear velocities through the mediums.
The efficiency of a particular filter installation depends largely, especially with these
highly efficient mediums, on the sealing at the periphery of the frames. The above effi
ciencies on the FG-25, FG-50 combination are for a carefully gasketed installation where
calking compound was used between the frames and the supporting structure and where %-
in. felt gaskets were used between frames. In the case of the CWS No. 6 and AEC No. 1
paper installation, a positive pressure of air with respect to the coolant air existed around
the frames, and any leakage was into the system rather than around the filters.
Any particles that get through either the Filterdown combination or the CWS No. 6 paper
are so small that they are dispersed over an extremely wide area when discharged through
a 200- to 300-ft stack. If these small particles did not originate in the reactor, their short
transit time through the reactor would preclude their acquiring any significant radioactivity.

499
CHAP. 3.8 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

REMOVABLE ROOF SLABS

/ N `-
H-T-TU
E.

|-

º
GLASS WOOL -— CWS
FILTERs º
FILTERS
/

\ =
||||||||||||||| |-
/
º

OUTLET
ſ DUCT

CANAL INTO WHICH

CONTAMINATED GLASS
WOOL MEDIUMS
DUMPED FROM FRAMES

Fig. 3.8.7— Cross Section of Filter House on Downstream Side of Reactor.

Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, May 1952.

Table 3.8.6—Characteristics of Glass-fiber Filters Used in Air Streams of Experimental

Reactors”

Medium-fine fiber
Fine fiber (FG-50)f (FG-25)f

Thickness of filter bed, in. 0.5 0.5

Density of medium, oz/sq ft .8 .7
Fiber diameter, p. 1.25 2.75
Discoloration efficiency (atmospheric dust), 9% 85+ 70
Medium velocity, ft/min 20 20
Initial resistance at 20 ft/min, in. H2O 0.32 0.11
Initial resistance at 35 ft/min, in. H.O .56 .35

*F. M. Tench and M. E. Ramsey, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, personal communication,
1952

fAmerican Air Filter Company “Filterdown”

500
RADIOACTIVITY IN COOLANTS CHAP. 3.8

Table 3.8.7— Operating Information for Typical Filterdown Filter Installation*

Size of installation

No. of 2- by 3-ft frames 600

Filter medium % in. FG-50
% in. FG-25
Total air flow at 215°F and 360 in. H.O abs, cfm 120,000
Average linear velocity through medium, ft/min 33
Operating data
Dust load,f gm/(sq ft)(yr) 23.6
AP, in. H2O (clean filter) 0.9
AP build-up, in. H2O/yr ~2
Average filter-use time, yr 2
Approximate cost, 600-frame filter change
Materials $3800
Labor and equipment 3400

$7200

Total atmospheric dust removed, wt-% ~99.3

*F. M. Tench and M. E. Ramsey, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,

personal communication, 1952
f Uranium was not a significant part of the dust load

Table 3.8.8—Characteristics of CWS No. 6 and AEC No. 1 Filter Papers”

CWS No. 6:
Composition: Bolivian asbestos, strengthened with cellulose fibers
Thickness, in.: 0.035 to 0.045
Resistance at 28 ft/min: 110 mm H2O or less
Penetration of 0.3-1 dioctyl phthalate smoke at 28 ft/min: 0.12% or less for
0.035-in. thickness
AEC No. 1:
Composition: Kraft pulp and asbestos fibers
Thickness, in.: 0.033 to 0.045
Resistance at 28 ft/min: 110-115 mm H2O or less
Penetration of 0.3–4 dioctyl phthalate smoke at 28 ft/min: 0.10 to 0.15% or less
CWS No. 6 and AEC No. 1 frame characteristics:
Amount of filter medium per frame, sq ft: 257
Size of frame: 2 ft by 2 ft by 11% in. thick
Length of filter-medium pleats, in.: 11
Resistance to air flow of 1000 cfm at 65° to 100°F: 1.25 in. H2O or less
Penetration of 0.3–p dioctyl phthalate smoke at 1000 cfm: 0.05% or less
Maximum AP across filter without visible sagging, buckling, shifting, or
vibration: 7 in. H2O
Operating data on filters when preceded by FG-25, FG-50 combination:
Average linear velocity through paper, ft/min: 2.34
Dust load, gm per square foot of filter paper per year: <0.007 and ~0.007
AP, in. H2O (clean filter): 1.10
AP build-up, in. H.O/yr.: 1.6
Average filter-use time, yr. 2%
Approximate cost, 200-frame filter change:
Materials $10,000
Labor and equipment 4,500
$14,500

*F. M. Tench and M. E. Ramsey, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, personal communication, 1952

501
CHAP. 3.8 GAS-COOLED SYSTEMS

REFERENCES

1. W. F. Dvaidson, Stack Meterology as Related to Power Plants, Chap. 93 in “Air Pollution," edited by L. C. McCabe, McGraw
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952.
2. C. H. Bosanquet, W. F. Carey, and E. M. Halton, Dust Deposition from Chimney Stacks, Inst. Mech. Engri. London, Proc. 162.
1950, pp 355-367.
3. R. H. Sherlock and E. A. Stalker, A Study of Flow Phenomena in the Wake of Smokestacks, Univ. Mich. Dept. Eng. Res. Bull.
No. 29, 1941, 49 pp.
4. W. F. Davidson, personal communication.
5. R. G. Fleagle, W. H. Parrott, and M. L. Barad, Theory and Effects of Vertical Temperature Distribution in Turbid Air, Jour.
Meterology 9, 1952, pp 53-60.
6. T. Baron, E. R. Gerhard, and H. F. Johnstone, Dissemination of Aerosol Particles Dispersed from Stacks, Ind. Eng. Chem. 41,
1949, pp 2403-2408.
7. T. F. Malone, editor, Compendium of Meterology, Waverly Press, Inc., Baltimore, 1951, pp 1139-1157.
8. P. H. Lowry, The Theoretical Ground-level Dose Rate from the Radioargon Emitted by the Brookhaven Reactor Stack, BNL-81.
July 1950, pp. 426-436.
9. O. G. Sutton, The Theoretical Distribution of Airborne Pollution from Factory Chimneys, Quart. Jour. Roy. Meterological Soc.
73, 1947, pp. 426-436.
10. M. L. Barad, Diffusion of Stack Gases in Very Stable Atmospheres, Meterological Monographs 1, No. 4, 1951, pp. 9-14.
11. J. H. Coon, LAMS-654, Dec. 8, 1947, 3 pp (classified).
12. J. Chernick and I. Kaplan, BNL-20, Nov. 3, 1948, 25 pp (classified).
13. C. R. McCullough et al, Mon N-383, Sept. 15, 1947, 422 pp (classified).
14. L. B. Borst et al., CEPS-1100, Jan. 1, 1952 (classified).
15. H. C. Savage, ORNL-500, Dec. 1, 1949, 19 pp (classified).

SELECTED READING LIST

Aerodynamic Factors
DUST DEPOSITION FROM CHIMNEY STACKS, C. H. Bosanquet, W. F. Carey, and E. M. Halton, Inst. Mech. Engrs. London, Proc.
162, 1950, pp 355-367.

INVESTIGATION OF THE PENETRATION OF AN AIR JET DIRECTED PERPENDICULARLY TO AN AIR STREAM. E. E. Callaghan and
R. S. Ruggeri, NACA-TN-1615, June 1948, 13 pp.
A STUDY OF FLOW PHENOMENA IN THE WAKE OF SMOKESTACKS, R. H. Sherlock and E. A. Stalker, Univ. Mich. Dept. Eng. Res.,
Bull. No. 29, 1941, 49 pp.

Meteorological Factors
AIR POLLUTION, edited by L. C. McCabe, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1952, pp 775-839.
THEORY AND EFFECTS OF VERTICAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN TURBID AIR. R. G. Fleagle, w. H. Parrott, and M. L. Barad,
Jour. Meteorology 9, 1952, pp 53-60.
COMPENDIUM OF METEOROLOGY, edited by Thomas F. Malone, Waverly Press, Inc., Baltimore, 1951, pp 1139-1157.
METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS IN ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION PROBLEMS, M. E. Smith, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. Quart. 12, No. 4,
Dec. 1951, pp 151-154.

ON ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION, A Group of Contributions by J. H. Carter, C. A. Gosline, E. W. Hewson, H. Landsberg, M. L. Barad,

G. W. Brier, P. H. Lowry, D. A. Mazzarella, H. F. Poppendiek, H. Rouse, R. H. Sherlock, and M. E. Smith, Meteorological Mono
graphs 1, No. 4, 1951, 55 pp.
THE THEORETICAL GROUND-LEVEL DOSE RATE FROM THE RADIOARGON EMITTED BY THE BROOKHAVEN REACTOR STACK,
Brookhaven National Laboratory, P. H. Lowry, BNL-81, July 1950, 33 pp.
STACK METEOROLOGY AND ATMOSPHERIC DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE, N. R. Beers, Nucleonics 4, No. 4, 1949, pp 28-38
DISSEMINATION OF AEROSOL PARTICLES DISPERSED FROM STACKs, T. Baron, E. R. Gerhard, and H. F. Johnstone, Ind. Eng. Chem.
41, 1949, pp. 2403-2408.
THE THEORETICAL DISTRIBUTION OF AIRBORNE Pollution FROM FACTORY CHIMNEYs, O. G. Sutton, Quart. Jour. Roy.
Meteorological Soc. 73, 1947, pp. 426-436.

502
 Section 4

AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Prepared under the direction of

J. A. LANE AND N. F. LANS ING
OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY

503
 AUTHORS’ PREFACE

The advantages of circulating-fuel reactors, particularly those using aqueous solutions

or slurries of uranium salts, have been well recognized since the early days of the Man
hattan Project. A considerable development effort aimed at applying these systems to the
problem of producing plutonium was undertaken in the period from 1943 to 1944 at the
University of Chicago and elsewhere. However, the project was terminated because ade
quate quantities of heavy water and/or slightly enriched uranium could not be obtained
within the assigned time. The subsequent small-scale development program was princi
pally devoted to studying the properties of uranium solutions and slurries and to work on
reactor components for handling these materials.
Interest in aqueous, homogeneous reactors was renewed in 1946 at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory in connection with the design and construction of a high-neutron-flux, research
facility. After due consideration, the circulating-fuel system was again dropped in favor
of a solid-fuel reactor because of difficulties encountered in the handling and pumping of
radioactive slurries and the serious question concerning possible nuclear instability
arising from the presence of large numbers of bubbles.
The third major attempt to solve the technical problems associated with aqueous solu
tion reactors was initiated at Oak Ridge in 1949. The extent of this effort is indicated from
the wealth of data accumulated and reported in the following chapters, with results to date
culminating in the operation of the Homogeneous Reactor Experiment at conditions suitable
for the production of electricity. Operation of this reactor, known as the HRE, has served
chiefly to demonstrate the feasibility of equipment for circulating active fuel solutions and
the inherent nuclear stability of the system. The major problems remaining to be solved
are the effect of radiation on corrosion and the development of components for a full-scale
reactor. The applications of the various solution or slurry systems for U-233 production
and central-station power plants remain an attractive possibility, and the development
effort is being continued at an undiminished rate.
The objectives of the various portions of this Section have depended on the particular
subject at hand. Where appropriate, basic data bearing on a given topic have been assem
bled and analyzed. In other cases, current developments and applications of established
theories to problems of particular relevance to aqueous homogeneous reactors have been
described.
Generally, the data compilations have been inclined toward material which has not been
compiled elsewhere but which is of special pertinence to aqueous homogeneous reactors.
This approach tended to avoid duplication of certain non-project compilations and placed
the major effort on previously unorganized material.
The portions of the Section devoted to specific problems are of a somewhat more transi
tory nature than the data compilations. They include the results of calculations for partic
ular systems and experience acquired in the design, development, and operation of specific
equipment. This material may be regarded as somewhat more indicative of the state of the
art rather than definitive.
With a few exceptions, the cut-off date of the Section is July 1, 1952. Some of the ex
perience resulting from operation of the Homogeneous Reactor Experiment has been in
cluded during final preparation of the manuscript, but these portions are readily identifi

505
 AUTHORS' PREFACE

able by the context. The cut-off date is perhaps of most significance to the material on
aqueous slurries (Chapter 4.4) as research results are rapidly unfolding within that area.
Certain contributions to the preparation of the Section have not been sufficiently deline
ated by the author credits. The preparation of most of Chapter 4.3 was guided by C. H.
Secoy, while A. S. Kitzes assumed general responsibility for assembling Chapter 4.4. In
addition, the entire Author Group wishes to acknowledge the contributions of the many who
have assisted in the preparation of the manuscript. Mrs. Lou Gunnels contributed much to
the assembling of the references. Special thanks are due to Mrs. Jo Millsaps who assumed
responsibility for preparation of all charts and figures. Many helpful editorial revisions
were introduced by Mrs. Mary Jenks.

506
 CHAPTER 4.1

General Reactor Characteristics

J. A. Lane

ADVANTAGES OF AQUEOUS SYSTEMS

Aqueous fuel systems possess certain advantages which make them particularly attrac
tive for numerous nuclear-reactor applications ranging from small reactors for mobile
units or packaged power plants to large, high-power reactors for large-scale production
of plutonium, uranium-233, and/or power. These advantages stem partly from the fluid
nature of the fuel and partly from the homogeneous mixture of the fuel and moderator;
i.e., an aqueous homogeneous reactor combines the attributes of liquid-fuel heterogeneous
reactors with those of water-moderated heterogeneous reactors.
If practical methods for handling an active aqueous fuel system can be developed, the
inherent simplicity of this type of reactor should result in considerable economic gains in
the production of fissionable material and power.
The principal advantages of aqueous fuel systems are:

HIGH SPECIFIC POWER

Since there is no heat-transfer barrier between fuel and coolant, the power density in a
liquid-fuel reactor is limited only by the pumping rate and by the temperature rise of the
fuel solution, itself. Thus, power densities of 50 to 200 kw are possible.
HIGH BURN-UP OF FUEL

In heterogeneous reactors, burn-up is limited by radiation damage to fuel elements or

loss of reactivity. In liquid-fuel reactors, continual removal of poisons is possible as
well as continual addition of new fuel, thereby permitting unlimited burn-up.

CONTINUOUS PLUTONIUM RECOVERY

Continuous removal of neptunium or plutonium is possible in a liquid-fuel reactor. This
yields a product with a low plutonium-240 content and increases the value of the pluto
nium.

SIMPLE FUEL PREPARATION AND REPROCESSING

The use of aqueous fuel solutions or slurries eliminates the expensive fuel-element
fabrication step and simplifies the reprocessing of depleted fuel.

EASY FUEL HANDLING

Charging and discharging fuel can be accomplished without shutting down the reactor or
Providing extensive fuel handling facilities.

507
CHAP. 4.1 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

HIGH NEUTRON ECONOMY

Neutron economy is improved by eliminating absorption of neutrons by cladding mate

rial and structural material within the reactor core. In addition, an aqueous fuel system
lends itself more readily to a spherical core geometry which minimizes neutron leakage.

SIMPLE CONTROL SYSTEM

Density changes in the moderator create a sensitive, negative, temperature coefficient

of reactivity which makes this system self-stabilizing. This eliminates the need for me—
chanically driven regulating rods. In addition, shim control can be achieved by changing
the fuel concentration.

WIDE RANGE OF CORE SIZES

Depending on concentration and enrichment, critical H2O and D2O homogeneous reactors
range from 1% ft to more than 30 ft in diameter. Correspondingly, there is a wide range
of application for these reactor systems.

PROBLEMS OF AQUEOUS SYSTEMS

Many apparently formidable practical problems are associated with continued operation
and maintenance of systems of active fuel solutions. It is believed, therefore, that exten
sive experience in adequately scaled reactor installations will be necessary to demonstrate
the reliability of aqueous homogeneous reactors; this will necessitate a long-range devel
opment program. In addition, the choice of water as the fuel-bearing medium limits both
the fuel concentration and operating temperature to values which may be less than opti
mum for production of plutonium and power. The principal problem of aqueous fuel sys
tems are:

CORROSION OR EROSION OF EQUIPMENT

Circulation of fuel solutions or slurries at high rates creates corrosion and erosion
problems in the reactor and its associated heat-removal equipment. Special provisions
must therefore be made for decontaminating and maintaining equipment.

EXTERNAL CIRCULATION OF FUEL SOLUTION

To achieve the high specific powers mentioned previously, heat is removed by circu
lating the fuel solutions through external heat exchangers. This increases the inventory
of fuel and D2O, gives rise to a loss of delayed neutrons, and causes induced activity in
the external equipment which results in additional shielding and maintenance problems.
By permitting the core contents to boil and by removing heat from the vapor, these prob
lems may be eliminated, probably however, with considerable sacrifice in specific power
and possibly greater nuclear instability.

NUCLEAR STABILITY

The nuclear stability of the reactor depends on both bubble formation and the hydro
dynamics of the system. In aqueous reactors, excessive gas formation resulting from de
composition may occur at higher power densities and give rise to serious fluctuations in
reactivity. Solution of these problems may require an extensive development effort for
each reactor modification.

508
GENERAL REACTOR CHARACTERISTICS CHAP. 4.1

LIMITED URANIUM CONCENTRATION

In solution reactors, uranium concentration is limited by solubility or corrosion effects,

and in slurries, by the viscosity. In H2O-moderated reactors in particular, a high uranium
concentration is necessary for a large conversion ratio. Because of their limited uranium
concentration, slightly enriched H2O homogeneous reactors are not economical for plu
tonium production.

LIMITED OPERATING TEMPERATURE

Either excessive pressure or the phase stability of aqueous systems limits the opera
ting temperature range to 250° to 300°C. This results in lower thermal efficiencies than
those realized in liquid-metal-cooled systems.
Assuming that the investment cost of power-recovery equipment is comparable for both
liquid-metal and aqueous systems, the lower thermal efficiencies of the latter may result
in less economical power production.

EXPLOSIVE DECOMPOSITION PRODUCT

Radiation-induced decomposition of the moderator can produce an explosive mixture of

hydrogen and oxygen in the reactor system. This hazard means that special precautionary
design measures must be taken.

COMPOSITION OF AQUEOUS FUELS

The proper choice of fuel solution for an aqueous homogeneous reactor depends on con
siderations of chemical and nuclear stability, corrosion or erosion, and fuel handling and
reprocessing. These are balanced against neutron absorption properties, which determine
the required enrichment and rate of production of fissionable material, in order to find
the optimum system. Unfortunately, existing information on the behavior of aqueous sys
tems under actual reactor operating conditions is too meager for a realistic appraisal of
their relative worth. At best, one can predict in only a general way the advantages of
each fuel type.
The physical properties of aqueous solutions of the three most promising uranium
salts—UO2SO, UO2F2, and UO2(NO3)2–are fairly well known, at least under static con
ditions and in the absence of reactor radiation. In general, these solutions have com
parable corrosion characteristics with type 347 stainless steel. More detailed data on
corrosion are given in Chapter 4.3. The chemical stability of UO2(NO3)2 may be somewhat
less than that of solutions of UO2SO, and UO2F2 but is satisfactory at low temperatures.
From a nuclear standpoint, the UO2F2-D2O system is more desirable than the UO2SO,-
D20 system because the fluoride neutron cross section is considerably lower than that of
sulfur. Similarly, the high absorption cross section of nitrogen makes the nitrate system
even less desirable, unless one considers the use of nitrogen-15, which can be obtained
Only by isotope-separation methods.
The chemical processing of aqueous fluoride solutions is believed to be considerably
more difficult than that of sulfate or nitrate systems.
On the basis of the existing information on corrosion, chemical stability, and chemical
processing, the UO2SO4-D2O system appears to be the preferable fuel solution, although
its use results in a minor compromise in neutron economy.
The relative merits of an oxide slurry and an aqueous solution are more difficult to
assess. A slurry system has the advantage of high neutron economy, high chemical sta
bility, and less corrosion difficulty but presents a more difficult fuel-handling problem.
Moreover, the nuclear stability of the system, depends on the physical stability of the

509
CHAP. 4.1 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

suspension. This accentuates problems of reactor start-up and shutdown and continued
maintenance of equipment which can only be solved through an extensive development
program and experience with actual reactor operation.

510
 CHAP TER 4.2

Neutron Chain Reactions

in Aqueous Homogeneous Systems

CRITICAL CALCULATIONS
(S. Visner)

The statics of chain reactions in aqueous homogeneous reactors are of interest primarily
in connection with the estimation of the inventory of fuel for a critical reactor and the rate
of production of fissionable isotopes. The most important factors determining criticality
are geometry; nature, concentration, and enrichment of the fuel; nature and distribution of
other components in the reactor; and operating temperature. The production of fissionable
isotopes depends principally on the neutron economy resulting from the competition for
neutrons between the fertile material and the various other absorbers. The latter include
materials of construction, moderator, fuel compound, fission products, and various nonfis
sionable nuclides formed by parasitic neutron capture in the fuel or other heavy nuclei in
the system. In designing a reactor for the production of fissionable isotopes, it is there
fore important to choose materials, other than fuel, for the core, which have a low neutron
capture cross section. This in turn leads to the almost universal selection of D2O as the
moderator. The constituents of the fuel compound must also be selected on this basis.
The fuel element usually considered is uranium. In general, the highest enrichment
available is desired for conversion of thorium-232 to uranium-233, since uranium-235
is required to minimize neutron capture by uranium-238. The thermal breeder con
sidered here contains uranium-233 as both the fuel and the product.
It is shown later that appreciable quantities of the higher isotopes of uranium are built
up as a result of parasitic capture of neutrons by the fuel.

METHODS OF CALCULATION

For simplicity, this discussion is restricted to spherical reactors. Since both heavy and
light water are excellent moderators, the energy of fission neutrons is rapidly degraded to
the thermal region, with the result that most of the fissions are produced by thermal neu
trons. Both the one-group and two-group diffusion equations are therefore applicable for
criticality calculations on aqueous homogeneous reactors.
For a large, bare, spherical reactor of radius R, the one-group equation for criticality
is:

2 k–1
B = Hi, (1)

Where:

B = m/R (2)

511
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

and:

k = m epf (3)

with e, the fast-fission effect, taken as unity, and:

_ v ºf (U) (4)
7 ºu,
The thermal utilization, f, is given by:

f =
2a(U) + 2 aſother)
2a(U) + Xa (mod) (5)

and the resonance escape probability, p, is given by:

Nx | ſo º eff

p = exp [- -5ET- (6)

with Nx the number of atoms per cc which exhibit resonance absorption of neutrons and
(Nos £); the slowing down power of the i'th constituent. Also:

L * - L'/mod)00a(mod)
F* Xa(U) f - (7)

where F is the fraction of the volume occupied by the moderator and 6 is the ratio of mod
erating atoms to uranium atoms.
Thus, for an aqueous solution of UO2SO4 with a uranium-235 enrichment of or, and a
ratio of moderating atoms to uranium atom of 6:

- a vof (25) (8)

": " goa(25) + (I– a gºſz8) goa(mod) + ga(UOso.)
where:

o = Nzs/N2s + N25

The two-group critical equation for this type of reactor is:

k = (1 + L*B”) (1 + TB*) (9)

The ratio of neutron absorptions in the fertile isotope to absorptions in the fuel isotope
is the quantity:

2a(fertile isotope), (1 − p) (10)

Ža (fuel isotope) 1 + Bºt

where the second term is the contribution from resonance absorption.

TWO-REGION REACTORS

The two-group diffusion equations have been used for criticality calculations for two
region reactors consisting of two concentric spheres. The effect of a thin shell of thickness

512
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

t separating the two regions can be taken into account by including its absorption of thermal
neutrons in the boundary condition for the slow-neutron current. For a reactor containing
essentially a low concentration (~1 gm/1) of uranium-233 or uranium-235 in the core and
containing fertile material dispersed in a moderator in the blanket, the equations are:
Core fast flux:

DFC V*@Fc – 2 Fc pro + (kc/pc) 2sc.ºsc = 0 (11)

Core slow flux:

Dsc vºq'sc — 2sc ºsc +2Fc bfc = 0 (12)

Blanket fast flux:

DFB vºq FB – 2FB bfB – 2RB @FB + (kB/pB) 2SB @FB = 0 (13)

Blanket slow flux:

DSB wººse – Esbºse + 2FB @FB = 0 - (14)

The first letter of the subscript indicates the neutron group (F for fast and S for slow);
the second letter indicates the reactor region (C for core and B for blanket). Thus, bFC is
the fast-neutron flux in the core, and DSB is the diffusion coefficient for slow neutrons in
the blanket. XFC and 2 FB are “slowing-down” cross sections,” and 2 RB is the true mac
roscopic absorption cross section for the fast group.
The boundary conditions at the shell, where r = a1, are:

(q FC)r = a1 = (%FB) r = at (15)

–DFc(V°FC)r = a1 = -DFB(V°FB)r = a, (16)

(ºsc)r = a1 = ($SE) r = a, (17)

–Dsc (Vºsc) r = a + DSB (Vºsb)r = a, = 2a(shell) t (bsc)r = a, (18)

Furthermore:

(*Fe)r = a, + EE * (*Fe)r = a, + EE * (*se)r = a, + Es-" (19)

where EF and ES are the extrapolation distances for the fast- and thermal-neutron flux,
respectively, and az is the outer radius of the blanket.
Solution of the above system of equations yields the critical fuel concentration and the
neutron fluxes, thereby permitting calculation of the conversion ratio or breeding gain. The
conversion ratio is the ratio of the quantity:

{[2a(fissionable isotope) – Ža (higher isotopes in chain)]4 + 2RB ©RB} to 2a (25) (bsc whereas
the breeding gain is the difference between unity and a similar ratio where 2a(25) is re
placed by 2a(23).

*zes = Dra/rs. The quantity 2Fsºrs is the rate of loss per unit volume of fast neutrons which have
entered the slow-neutron group.

513
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

BUILD-UP OF HIGHER ISOTOPES

The higher isotopes built up by neutron capture influence the neutron economy in the re
actor and therefore the conversion ratio and breeding gain. This build-up occurs in accord
ance with the chain shown in Fig. 4.2.1. Only the more important reactions are indicated.
Fast neutron reactions of the type (n,2n) are not included since their contribution is small

BUILD-UP FROM THORIUM IN BLANKET

In predicting the quantities of higher isotopes in the blanket, the assumption is usually
made, with negligible error, that thorium-233 decays to protactinium-233 immediately
upon formation. It is also postulated that thorium-232 is continually replenished and is
thus maintained at a constant concentration. After the desired concentrations are reached
in the blanket, the contents are assumed to be processed continually to remove protactin
ium, uranium, and fission products at a rate proportional to the quantity present, corre
sponding to a “chemical decay” constant C. For example, C Nzs is the chemical removal
rate of uranium-233 in unit time from unit volume. The steady-state concentrations are
given by:

R.
N
No
-

-
oc(02) bāB
oc (13) ©sB + A13 + C
- (20)

Nzz oc(02) #se As (21)

No. [ocſ13) #se + A1s + C] [oa (23) ºse + C]

N24 - oc (23)
N28 - oa (24) + C) ÖsB (22)

N25 - oc (24)
N. Toaſz5) + C7ºse (23)

N28 - oc (25) (24)

N25 Toa(26) + C/öse

where Öse is the average slow-neutron flux in the blanket, averaged over the external sys
tem as well (including, for example, heat exchangers), and A1s is the natural radioactive
disintegration constant for protactinium-233. A correction for the resonance absorption in
thorium-232 is applied to dºse to yield bºs.
BUILD-UP FROM URANIUM-233 FUEL

Utilization of uranium-233 as a fuel gives rise to a sequence of higher uranium isotopes

as shown in Fig. 4.2.1. Since uranium-237 has a half-life of only 6.9 days, it and the re
mainder of the uranium chain will be present in only very small quantities, and in most
calculations they are usually ignored. The neptunium chain is also usually ignored on the
basis that it is removed chemically from the reactor.

PURE URANIUM-233 FUEL

The concentrations of higher isotopes at equilibrium are given by:

- N24 — oc(23) (25)

or 43 = N23 Oa(24)

514
 :
as;
th-P2o3-2—3t-º#t#hT-2U3-23
PRODUCTS
e-FISSION Pa-234-THF-U 234—-U 235—-U 23s
_(n,x)
(n,x)
y)
(n,
B
PRODUCTS
FISSION Chain
—
4.2.1
Fig.
Labora
National
Ridge
Oak
by
Submitted
Isotopes.
Higher
of
Build-up
Showing
W
|y)
(n,
B
f)
(n,
d|B
6.9 Np
PRODUCTS
FISSION

f)
(n, PU-237
uU-238
-240–Pu-240–Pu-239# -N239-# u-239

f)
(n,
—,
A

y)
(n,
Y.)
(n.

hr
6.7

1952.
25,
Nov.
tory,

#
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

- N25 — oc(23
O'53 = N28 - oa (25) (26)

_ N28 Gc(23) oc (25)

0.63 = §. ătă jš
- (27)

Further, the ratios of macroscopic absorption cross sections are:

2a(24)/2a (23) = 0.0928

2a(25)/2a(23) = 0.0928

2a(26)/2a(23) = 0.0142

for the particular values of cross sections given in Table 4.2.1. The time dependence of
the concentrations is given by:

Nu
N28 - oa(24)
ºc(39) f1
- [1 – e2-50,(24)t
qo. ] (28)

Niš - oc (23) _ e-oe(24) ºt oc (23) oa (24) _ e-o-(25)öt

N. "[...(jīā)][*-* l'ºjºa; tı-e ] (29)

and:

N28 – ga(23)oc(25) [1 – eT o,(20%t] + [1 — e-o.(25)* [1 – e-o.(28) it (30)

N23 - oa(25)oa(26)

where pSC is the thermal flux, averaged over both the core and the external system.

Table 4.2.1–Constants for Uranium at 20°C

(BNL-170)

Isotope Of 0a y m o,

U-233 514 564 2.60 2.37

U-234 89
U-235 549 650 2.51 2.12
U-236 21.3
U-238 2.8 9.3

The presence of uranium-234 and uranium-236 leads to a loss of neutrons, but the ab
sorption of one neutron by uranium-235 yields mas neutrons. The net loss of neutrons to the
higher isotopes is shown in Fig. 4.2.2 as a function of the product of neutron flux and time.
The fraction of neutrons produced by uranium-233 which is lost to the higher isotopes
reaches a maximum value of 0.0029, then decreases to -0.0008, and finally levels off at
0.0013.

516
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

ooosſ-T-HTTT TTTTTTTI TITITIII TTTTTTTT I

O.OO2 /
Lil

5
/ \ 2T
° O.ool
2
O
ul
O
- O
O
O
Crº
Cl

£-o.ool
O
or
Y
mº
Lu
* -o,002

-OOO3 | | | | | | || | | | | | | || | | | | | | || | | | | | | || |
loro lo” toº? loºs lo?"
$t (FLUX x SECONDS)

Fig. 4.2.2— Neutron Losses to Higher Isotopes in Breeder Core. Submitted by

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-51-10-110.

CORE FED WITH URANIUM-233 PRODUCED IN BLANKET

In a two-region reactor for breeding, the fuel derived from the blanket and fed to the
core is primarily uranium-233 containing quantities of uranium-234, uranium-235, and
uranium-236 built up by (n,)) reactions in the blanket. At equilibrium, the concentrations
of the higher isotopes in the core are:

Nu- oc(23) + assoa(23)

Nis Oa(24) (31)

Nii ga(23) + oa(23){ass + ass}

§-*-***** (32)

Nº ſoa (23) + oa (23){ous + ass}| oc (25) oc (23)

;-|-- #"—“*]; ce; (33)

where the o’s have already been defined.

BUILD-UP FROM URANIUM-235 FUEL

The build-up of isotopes higher than uranium-236 is here considered to be negligible.

Variation of the uranium-236 concentration with time is given by:

Nú ocC25) [1 – e-o.2%)
N;s Ga(26) (34)

517
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

In a reactor producing uranium-233, the fuel is uranium of high uranium-235 enrichment,

in which case the uranium-238 diluent is constantly fed into the reactor at a rate (1-Y) P,
where y is the ratio of N25 to Nzs in the feed material and P is the rate of fuel burn-up. If it
is postulated that the uranium is continually reprocessed to remove fission products and
that there is a resulting loss of uranium at a rate pNU, the build-up of uranium-238 is then
given by:

N25 oa(28) + p/psc

EXAMPLE OF BUILD-UP OF HIGHER ISOTOPES IN A

TWO-REGION URANIUM-233 CONVERTER

Figure 4.2.3 shows the rate of build-up of neutron absorption cross section for uranium
236 and uranium-238 in the core of a two-region converter with the following characteris
tics:

Core Properties Blanket Properties

q = 1.1 x 10" q = 0.06 x 10° (initially)

Diameter: 10 ft Thickness: 2 ft

Content: UO2SO4 in D2O Content: Thoz in D2O

Temperature: 250°C Temperature: 250°C
Power: 630 × 10° watts No processing
Isotopic ratio of uranium-235: ~ 90 percent
p = 5.8 x 10" (corresponding to a uranium loss of 0.1
percent for a chemical processing cycle of two days)

O.24

- -n in BLANKET
23
(NO CHEMICAL PROCESSING)

––––[.(26 2,28)/x, Fuel salt, .2O

£o (26) /Fe (FUEL SALT)

--------z, (28), z, Fuel salt)

12

.O8

O4
:
I IO IOO IOOO 10,000

TIME, doys

Fig. 4.2.3— U-233 Two-region Converter Reactor. Build-up of Heavy Isotopes for
10-ft-diameter Core, 2-ft-thick Blanket of 1000 gm-Thyl; Power, 630 mw. Submitted
by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-51–10–110.

518
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

The increase in uranium-233 content in the blanket is also shown. The average value for
the slow-neutron flux in the blanket varies with time owing to variations of the fission rate
in the blanket and changes in the hold-up volume in heat exchangers. For example, when a
uranium-233 concentration of 7 gm/1 is reached in the blanket, the fission power level in
the blanket is approximately 300 × 10° watts.
NUCLEAR CONSTANTS

The nuclear constants for aqueous homogeneous systems which generally enter into cal
culations of criticality and isotope production are presented in Tables 4.2.1 thru 4.2.4.

Table 4.2.2–Constants for Heavy Water (99.84% DO and 0.16% H.O)

Property 20°C 250°C

L*, cm.” 15,130 35,440

r, cm” 120 197

Dthermal, cm 0.91 125

o, (resonance), barns 9.97 9.97

Dresonance, cm 1.30 1.66

oa(thermal), barns 0.001824 0.001366

£o, barns 5.009 5.009

Table 4.2.3-Constants for Uranium-233 Producers

Nuclide Property Magnitude at 20°C

Th-232 ora, barns 7

o, (thermal), barns 12.8

o, (resonance), barns 14.6

Tho o, barns 1.002
Pa-233 oa, barns 37
Half-life, days .27.4
0 oa, barns <107*
o, (thermal), barns 4.1

o, (resonance), barns 3.7

S oa, barns 0.49
N oa, barns 1.78
H oa, barns 0.32

Table 4.2.4—Constants for Thor-D.O. Slurry

Th concentration, gm/l 1000 1000 500 500

Temperature, "C 20 250 20 250

1.152 0.897 1.198
Phermal cm 0.885
Dresonance, cm 1.180 1.429 1.236 1.537

Macroscopic resonance abs. cross

section, cm^*x 10" 4.86 4.62 2.87 2.72

r (Fermi age), cm." 121 187 120 191

519
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

The Fermi age, TB, in the slurry is obtained from the value of the age for heavy water,
T (D2O) by the following relationship:

[Ptrans (D2O)] [52scatt (D.O)]

'** [.. Tºp 5ft. Fºr Boi" (Pº) (36)

The diffusion constants for the slurry are obtained as follows:

D (Tho, + D2O) -
—4–
32trans (Thoz + D2O)

with:

2trans (Tho + D2O) = 2trans (Thoz) + 2 trans (D2O)

and:

F
2 trans (D2O) = 3D (D.O.)

where F is the volume fraction occupied by the D.O.

The macroscopic absorption cross section for thorium in the fast region, 2RB, is ob
tained as follows:

fission
PRB =# iſ"thermal
TB$2scatt Oa (Th
aſ ) de
+ 37
(37)

fission
The value' of the resonance absorption integral, ſ
thermal
oa(Th) #. is 8.33 (os)”,
where os is the total macroscopic scattering cross section in the resonance region per
thorium atom. For the limiting case of infinite dilution, the value of the integral is 81.3.
The resonance escape probability, p, is obtained by means of:

ſ'. Oa"T
dE
p = exp -
thermal E (38)
Os

where os is again the total macroscopic scattering cross section for resonance energies
per atom exhibiting resonance absorption. For uranium, the resonance integral can be ap
proximated analytically by 3.05 (os)"". Values of p as a function of the ratio of uranium
to D2O atoms are presented graphically in Fig. 4.2.4. The corresponding curve for uranium
in H2O is shown in Fig. 4.2.5.

RESULTS

Many of the calculations for aqueous homogeneous systems have been made for UOISO,
as the fuel compound. The nature of the fuel compound does affect to some extent the criti
cal concentration and to a greater extent the conversion ratio through the neutron economy.
Results for several fuel compounds will be given for comparison.

*References appear at end of chapter.

520
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

O.92 O

O.9 OO

O.88 O PT
O.8 6 O 2.

O.84 O

•ºd / -

•ol / -

...iſ -

O. 76 O I I 1 1– l

40 8O 12O 16O 2OO 24O

Dzo Molecules PER URANIUM ATOM

Fig. 4.2.4 – Resonance Escape Probability in Systems with Natural Uranium as
UO2SO4 in Heavy Water. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25,
1952. Reprinted from ORNL-51-11-41. Basis: 99.84% D2O, 0.16% H2O: o = 9 barns.

O.98 |
-
*
*
L-HT
O.96

all-A -

O,86
O 5O IOO 15O
H2O MOLECULES PER URANIUM ATOM

Fig. 4.2.5–Resonance Escape Probability in Systems with Natural Uranium as

UO,80, in Ordinary Water. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov.
25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-51-11-91.

521
CHAP. 4.2 AquEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.2.5—Maximum Powers for Spherical Reactors

Core diameter, ft Power, megawatts (x 10-?)

5 0.090
8 .34
10 .63
15 2.0
20 4.9
25 9.5
30 16.2

40

3O

2o

250°C
3
---- 200°C

- 20°C

I
O.O4 O. O. 2 O.4 LO 2.O 4.O to O
CO NCENTRATION OF U-235, gm/
Fig. 4.2.6—Concentration of U-235 Required for Criticality of Bare UOSO,-
D.O Homogeneous Spherical Reactors. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Labora
tory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-51-10-110.

PERMISSIBLE REACTOR POWER

The maximum powers for spherical reactors of various diameters have been deduced
from considerations of heat removal and reactor stability in the presence of gas formation
and are listed in Table 4.2.5 for spherical reactors. The criteria used are: The power den
sity should not exceed 40 kw/1, and the decomposition gases from the water in the core
should not exceed the delayed neutron fraction in reactivity value.

BARE REACTORS

In Fig. 4.2.6, the critical core diameter of spherical reactors is plotted as a function of
uranium-235 concentration at 20°, 200°, and 250°C. The reactor contains only highly en

522
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

riched (90 percent) uranium-235 as UO2SO4 in D2O. At 250°C, the critical concentration
varies from 4.0 gm/l of uranium-235 for a 5-ft radius to 0.47 gm/l for a 10-ft radius.
Similar results at 250°C are available for bare spherical reactors using uranium-235 of
low enrichment. In Fig. 4.2.7, the isotopic ratio of uranium-235 (as UO2SO4) is plotted as a
function of the ratio of moderating molecules to uranium atoms, for spheres 4-, 6-, 8-, and
10-ft in diameter. Allowance is made for poisons to the extent of 2 percent in keff. Values
are presented both for H2O and for D2O moderators.
The minimum critical radius of an unpoisoned, bare, spherical reactor utilizing UO2SO4
in D2O is shown in Fig. 4.2.8 as a function of the isotopic concentration of uranium-235.
Curves are given at 20°, 100°, and 250°C for uranium-235 enrichment between 0.7 and 5.0
percent. At 250°C, a comparison is made of the results based on a value of m for natural
uranium of 1.350 and a value of 1.335. The critical radius for isotopic ratios from 0.7 to
5.0 percent is ploted in Figs. 4.2.9, 4.2.10, and 4.2.11 for reactor temperatures of 20°,
100°, and 250°C, respectively. The effect on the critical radius of changing m from 1.335 to
1.350 decreases with enrichment; thus, at 0.71 percent isotopic concentration of uranium
235, the difference in radius is about 10 percent, whereas at 1.0 percent enrichment the
difference is only 5 percent.
Further results on uranium-235 enrichment and reactor diameter are available where
an allowance of 2 percent excess keff is made for parasitic poisons. In Fig. 4.2.12, the
isotopic concentrations of uranium-235 concentration in the fuel is plotted against the
ratio of moderating atoms to uranium atoms for diameters of 15, 20, and 30 ft, with
UO2SO4 as the fuel salt. Similar results for UO3-D2O and UO2(NO3)2-D2O systems are
shown in Figs. 4.2.13 and 4.2.14, respectively. It is found that the required isotopic ratio
increases absorption by the fuel compound. UOs has the most favorable properties in a re
actor, and UO2(NO3), has the least desirable of the three compared. The performance of
the nitrate can be improved by the use of nitrogen enriched in N” which has a thermal ab
sorption cross section of only 2 x 107* barns.
The effect of the reactor operating temperature on required uranium-235 enrichment
is shown in Fig. 4.2.15 for the UO2SO4-D2O system. The increased neutron leakage from
the reactor with temperature requires that enrichment also be increased.

ONE-REGION REACTOR FOR URANIUM-233 CONVERSION

Calculated results are available for bare, spherical reactors intended to convert thorium
to uranium-233 at an operating temperature of 250°C. The reactor contents are Thoz,
UO2SO4 (with a uranium-235 concentration of 90 percent), D2O, and poisons to the extent of
2 percent in keff. The critical fuel concentrations and conversion ratios are given in Table
4.2.6 for reactors of 10-, 15-, and 20-ft diameter and thorium concentrations from 100 to
1000 gm/1. The conversion ratio increases with both diameter and thorium concentration,
whereas the uranium-235 concentration decreases with increasing diameter but increases
with thorium concentration.

ONE-REGION REACTOR FOR URANIUM-233 BREEDING

Results similar to those in Table 4.2.6 are presented in Table 4.2.7 for reactors intended
to utilize uranium-233 as the fuel for breeding at 250°C. Allowance for poisoning has been
included to the extent of 2 percent in keff. The trends of critical concentration and breed
ing gain with thorium concentration and reactor diameter are similar to those described
for the uranium-233 converter.

TWO-REGION SPHERICAL REACTORS

As an alternative to the one-region reactors described previously, consideration can also

be given to reactors containing a central core of fuel and a blanket containing mainly fertile

523
CHAP. 4.2 AquEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

2O

N-L-PT /
Reactor Diometer, 4 ft -

- D20 /
--- H2O

I6 Reactor Diometer, :/ .*

Z' 4
I-7 | y,/ 22.
//

i. Z%
§ / % ſºn
Z ,’ 2,
z

# IO Ž %Z2’ A

É AZ ,”

à 8 ZZ
: ZZ
3. W ///?
\/.4%
4
º
Reactor Diometer, 6 ft —r
fe
º

8 ft
2 w *-i-
IO ft

o; 2O 4O 6O 8O IOO 12O 140

H40 or D2O MOLECULES PER URANIUM ATOM

Fig. 4.2.7 — Isotopic Concentration of U-235 Required for Criticality of Aqueous
UO,SO, Solutions. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.
Reprinted from ORNL-51-11-91. Calculated for bare spherical homogeneous re
actors with keff = 1.02.

524
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

IsotoPlc concent RATION OF U-235, * 5

2 3.

4.5

I.O.1.21.4

3.5

;
3.O

2.5

7o of 5 O.80 O.85 O.90 O.95 1.O

isotoPlc concentration of U-235, *

Fig. 4.2.8–-Minimum Critical Radii of Bare, Spherical Homogeneous UO2SO4–

D2O Reactors. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Re
printed from ORNL-51-11-41. Basis: heavy water contains 0.16% H.O; unpoisoned
system.

525
§ :

Isotopic
Concentration
U-235.
of

O.71%

O.75%

O.80%

O.90%
7.
I.O

I.
2.
3.
5.

240
22O
2OO
|BO
16O
4O
6O
8O
I2O
140
IOO 26O
ATOM
URANIUM
PER
MOLECULES
Dzo
Bare,
of
Radii
–Critical
4.2.9
Fig.
Sub
20°C.
at
Reactors
UOISOA-Dao
Homogeneous
Spherical, ,
Basis:
National
Ridge
Oak
by
ORNL-50-11-
mitted
from
Reprinted
1952.
26,
Nov.
Laboratory, 41.
Hao;
o.16%
contains
water
heavy
uranium;
natural
1
=
n .35
for
.59b;
2oa(U-288)
*system.
unpoisoned
 :
2O
8O
60
40
12O
loo
22O
2OO
18O
160
140
240
24O

Concentration 0.71% .90%

7.
I.O
o.75% O.80%
Isotopic
4.oO2m.o1S0gO–e4Cnr-eiDto.iucOsa.,l
HFig.
Spherical,
Bare,
of
URadii
Sub
100°C.
at
Reactors 2.59b;
oa(U-238)
H.O;
0.16%
contains
water
1heavy
=
n
system.
unpoisoned
uranium;
natural
for.35
U-235:
of LRaNbLo-5r0a-t1o-r4y1,.
National
Ridge
Oak
by
Omitted
from
Reprinted
1952.
25,
Nov.
Basis:

ATOM
URANIUM
PER
MoLECULES
Dzo

6 4 3 2

§
 :
Uranium:
Notural
For
=1.350
n
7 .335
---
-1Isotopic
6 Concentration
; U-235:
of

--
0.71%

O.75%

4. .80%

.90%

22O
240
2OO
260
18O
16O
140
loo
60
2O
80
40
ATOM
URANIUM
PER
MoLEcules
Dzo

Sub
250°C.
at
SOA-D.O.
Reactors
UO,
Homogeneous,
Spherical,
Bare,
of
4.2.11—Critical
Radii
Fig.
Basis:
ORNL-50-11-41.
1952.
from
Reprinted
25,
Nov.
Laboratory,
National
Ridge
Oak
by
mitted
system.
uranium,
unpoisoned
natural
for
2.35.59b;
o.(U-238)
H.O.
0.16%
contains
n=1**Vy
water
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

6.7% of IO

4.2

4.O

33
-.4

: 3.

2 2

2 O2O

REACTOR DIAMETER:

|O ft

O.

2O 4O 6O 8O IOO 12O |4O WGO

MoLECULES D.0 PER MoLECULE Uo,so,

Fig. 4.2.12—Isotopic Concentration of U-235 Required for Criticality in Bare,
Spherical UO2SO4-D2O Reactors at 250°C. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
November 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-1096.

529
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

4.8 7.0% of IO

4.6

4.4

4.2

4.O

3.8

3. 6

3. 4

3. 2

3. O

2 8

2 6

2 4

2. 2

2 O

.8

REACTOR DIAMETER:

| Off

.. O

O.8

O.6

O.4

O.2

O 2O 4O 6O 8O |OO 12 O |4 O |60

MOLECULES D.O PER MoLECULE Uos

Fig. 4.2.13—Isotopic Concentration of U-235 Required for Criticality in Bare,
Spherical UO3-D2O Reactors at 250°C. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-1096.

530
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

1O

4.8

4.6

4.4

4.2

4.O
lo MOLECULES D2O PER
MOLECULE UO2(NO3)2.
3. 8
REACTOR ISOTOPIC
DIAMETER CONC. U-235
3
|O ft | 1.2 %
15 ft 7.3%
3.4
2Off 6.3%

3. 2 3Oft 5.7%

3. O

2.6
REACTOR DIAMETER:
2.4
| O ft

2.2

2.O

.6

O.8

O.6

O.4

O.2

O 2O 4O 6O 80 |OO |20 14O 16O

MOLECULES D2O PER MoLECULE UO2(NO3)2

Fig. 4.2.14 — Isotopic Concentration of U-235 Required for Criticality in Bare,
Spherical UO2(NO3)2-D2O Reactors at 250°C. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Labo
ratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-1096.

531
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

4.O

3.8

vº.6

3.4

3.2

3.

O.8
REACTOR TEMPERATURE: 300°C
250°C
O. 6 2OO°C

O. 4. loo-C L

20°C
O-2

O 2O 4O 60 8O IOO 12O 14 O 16O

MOLECULES Dzo PER MOLEcuLE UO2SO4

Fig. 4.2.15—Isotopic Concentration of U-235 Required for Criticality in Bare,
15-ft-diameter, Spherical, UO2SO4-D2O Reactors at Various Temperatures. Sub
mitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-1096.

532
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

Table 4.2.6 — Critical Fuel Concentrations and Conversion Ratios

10-ft-diameter reactor 15-ft-diameter reactor 20-ft-diameter reactor

Th conc., Conc. U-235, conversion Conc. U-235, Conversion Conc. U-235, Conversion
gm/l gm/l ratio gm/l ratio gm/l ratio

100 2.105 0.687 1.588 0.865 1.433 0.942

200 4.313 .805 3.466 .944 3.214 .999
300 7.305 .853 5.962 .974 5.571 1.020
500 16.45 .895 13.32 .998 12.45 1.037
1000 253.05 .931 117.19 1.022 98.24 1.052

Table 4.2.7–Critical Fuel Concentrations and Breeding Gains

10-ft-diameter reactor 15-ft-diameter reactor 20-ft-diameter reactor

Th conc., Conc. U-233, Breeding Conc. U-233, Breeding conc. U-233, Breeding
gm/l gm/l gain gm/l gain gm/l gain

100 1.944 –0.174 1.485 0.034 1.346 0.124

200 3.899 —.031 3.182 .129 2.964 .192
300 6.441 .026 5.362 . 164 5.039 .216
500 13.65 .075 11.42 . 193 10.76 .237
1000 87.5 .119 62.52 .221 56.71 .250

material in a moderator. Separating the two regions is a shell which significantly affects
the nuclear constants of the system. Zirconium has been considered as the shell material
on the basis of maximum tensile strength per unit macroscopic absorption cross section.
Two alternative designs are considered: One provides for a shell sufficiently thick to sus
tain the full operating pressure; the other utilizes a shell of minimum thickness to separate
the two regions but not sufficient to sustain the full pressure. In the latter case, the pres
sure in the two regions must be equalized.

TWO-REGION REACTORS FOR URANIUM-233 CONVERSION

Calculations are available for two-region reactors having highly enriched uranium-235,
in the form of UO2SO4 in D2O, in a central core 5-, 8-, and 10-ft in diameter surrounded by
Thoz-D2O slurry in a blanket 2 ft thick. Separating the two regions is a zirconium shell
whose thickness enters conveniently as a parameter. Among the factors which influence
the critical concentration and conversion ratio and which have been considered in the cal
culations are: power level in the blanket owing to build-up of uranium-233, temperature of
core and blanket, thickness of the core shell, concentration of thorium in the blanket, and
thickness of the blanket. Results are also available on the behavior of the reactors as a
function of operating time in order to take into account the build-up in both the core and
blanket of heavy isotopes by neutron capture.
The critical concentration of uranium-235 as a function of shell absorption, Xat (where t
is the shell thickness), is displayed in Fig. 4.2.16 for core diameters of 5, 8, and 10 ft. The
corresponding conversion ratios are presented in Fig. 4.2.17. For a given shell thickness,
the conversion ratio increases with decreasing core diameter owing to increasing neutron

533
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Core Diometer, 5 ft
No Fission Products

zo (Fission Products.
- - - -*—E-T-Ex- E. O.O
20 (UO2SO4)

O O.O2 O.O4 O.O6 O.O.8

SHELL ABSORPTION, z,

Core Diometer, 8 ft
- No Fission Products
Fission Product
–––3aºlº fººtº. oo
Bo (UO2SO4)

Core Diometer, IO ft
No Fission Products
2n(Fission Products)
- - - * O.O2
2a (UO2SO4)

O O.O2 O.O4 O.O6 O.O.8

SHELL ABSORPTION, z, t
Fig. 4.2.16–U-233 Two-region Converter Reactor; U-233 Concentration in
Core as Function of Shell Absorption with 2-ft-thick Blanket of 1000 gm Th/l.
Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from
ORNL-51-10-110. System at 250°C; no build-up of heavy elements.

534
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

1.15

1. IOH

No Fission Products
2. (Fission Products)
----- —º-º-º-º- = O.O2
2a (UO2SO4)
zo (Fission Products) O.O2
-FIUO-5 5T
o(UO2SO.)
(2%. Void Volume in Core)

O.95 wº * ~-
*
M
N.
*

O.90
N * N NA
*
* Core Diameter, 5 ft
*
N

O.85 N N.
§ *
Ys. N.
Nº.
N. M.t
N.
N.
N.
A.N.
N.
NA
SSS ^
^
*
N.

O.8 wº
SN N
SS -

NSN
O
NA
N.
S.J.
*~
NA *
*N Nº. core Diameter, 8ff- N
-

N. * N
O.75 NS * ~
-- wº *N *N
N NJ
NA *

Core Diqmeter, IOf N. *

*
SN SSNA NA

*
*
* s *N

O.65

O O.O2 O.O4 O.O6 O.O8

SHELL ABSORPTION, Xat

Fig. 4.2.17—U-233 Two-region Converter Reactor; Dependence of Conversion
Ratio on Shell Absorption for 2-ft Blanket of 1000 gm Th/l. Submitted by Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-51-10-110.
System at 250°C; no build-up of heavy elements.

535
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

leakage from the core to the blanket. The increase in conversion ratio is even more pro
nounced if the shell is required to be of sufficient strength to withstand the full reactor
pressure, since the smaller core requires a thinner shell.
The effects of (1) thorium concentration in the blanket and (2) blanket thickness on ura
nium-235 concentration and conversion ratio are shown in Fig. 4.2.18 and Fig. 4.2.19. The
conversion ratio increases with thorium concentration since the relative absorption of neu
trons by the shell and the moderator decreases. Very little gain is realized in utilizing
blankets thicker than 2 ft.

Reactor Temperature

Figures 4.2.20 and 4.2.21 show the effects of varying the core and blanket temperatures;
the conversion ratio increases with both core and the blanket temperatures.

Higher Isotopes and Blanket Power Time

Results are given in Figs. 4.2.22 and 4.2.23 for various concentrations of higher isotopes
and fission-product poisons in both regions of a spherical reactor with a 10-ft-diameter
core and a 2-ft-thick blanket. The uranium isotope concentrations correspond to various
operating times for the reactor whereas the macroscopic absorption cross section for the
fission products in the core is set at 2 percent of the value for the fuel salt. It is postulated
that the gaseous fission products are purged very rapidly and the remaining fission products
are continually removed by chemical means at a rate appropriate to the above 2 percent
value. The required fuel concentration increases and the conversion ratio decreases with
increasing poison content in the core. The poison may be either fission products or heavy
isotopes resulting from neutron capture. The decrease in conversion ratio is numerically
equal to the percentage of poison in the core. Increasing the ratio of blanket to core power
tends to increase the conversion ratio. Increased fissioning in the blanket corresponds to
higher uranium-233 content, reduced processing rate for the blanket, and consequently in
creased uranium-234 content and fission-product poisoning.

TWO-REGION REACTORS FOR URANIUM-233 BREEDING

Similar calculations have been performed for reactors containing uranium-233 in the
core as UO2SO4 in D2O and a 2-ft blanket of ThC2 in D2O. The effects of temperature,
blanket thickness, and blanket concentration are similar to the effects already discussed in
the case of the converter. Therefore, for all the breeding reactors to be discussed, the
following conditions were postulated: Temperatures of core and blanket of 250°C, and a
thorium concentration of 1000 gm/1 in the blanket, whose thickness is 2 ft.
A convenient parameter for expressing the performance of a breeder is the “breeding
gain,” g, defined as the net gain in fissile material produced in the reactor per unit quan
tity of fuel burned:

net U-233 produced

g = U-233 burned in core
1

where the net uranium-233 produced is the difference between the quantity of thorium con
verted and the quantities of protactinium and uranium-233 lost by neutron absorption in the
blanket.

CORE DIAMETER

In Fig. 4.2.24, the breeding gain is plotted against the shell absorption for core diam
eters of 5, 8, and 10 ft. The critical concentrations of uranium-233 in the core are shown

536
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

CORE DIAMETER, 5 ft.

2.2O

2. l O —HT
_PT_PT L --"
_* --"

2.OO * +---
LT * .*

LT .*
* _> *
1.90
•
a
_-T BLANKET THORIUM
• • THICKNESS CONCENTRATION
•
|.8O *He~~ O
O
| ft
3 ft
5OO gm/
5OO gm/l

2^ 2 ft IOOO gm/
z--I-T-I-T-i ––––– 2 ft 500 gm/l

1.70 | |
O O.O2 O.O.4 O.O6 O.O8

SHELL ABSORPTION, X,

CORE DIAMETER, IO ft.

O.

O.

O.42

BLANKET THORIUM
THICKNESS CONCENTRATION
- 2 ft IOOO gm/
---- 2 ft 500 gm/

O O.O2 O.O4 O.O6 O.O8

SHELL ABSORPTION, 2at
Fig. 4.2.18—U-233 Two-region Converter Reactor; Effect of Blanket Concen
tration and Thickness on Core Concentration. Submitted by Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-51-10-110. System at 250°C.

537
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

|. O CORE BLANKET THORIUM

DIAMETER THICKNESS CONCENTRATION
A. 5 ft 2 ft IOOO gm/
B. 5 ft 2 ft 500 gm/
C. |O ft 2 ft IOOO gm/
D. |O ft 2 ft 5OO gm/l
E. 5 ft 3 ft 500 gm/l
F. 5 ft | ft 500 gm/l

\
O.95 \ \\
\

\ Y”
O.9 O \ N N

O.85 * N
V NN
scº YA S
NS
O.80 \ NS NA

\ NS
O.75 ^ ~s
N *N
N *
A. F
N SJ
N. ^ *

O.7O
SS N SSS
*

O.65
\\ N.
N
N N.
*

N.
N.
\
N.
*
O.60 *
O O.O2 O.O4 O.O6 O.O8

SHELL ABSORPTION, X,t

Fig. 4.2.19–U-233 Two-region Converter Reactor; Effect of Blanket Concen
tration and Thickness on Conversion Ratio for an Unpoisoned Reactor Operating
at 250°C. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted
from ORNL-51-10-110.

538
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

0.44

*
E0.42 º- L-T
• -T _---" "
º *
--"
r) ... }_* -
*No.40 ~~
-)
-
..ºr
...”
eº
#. ..”
90.38
H. *. e’ *
O º

un ,”
- CORE TEMP BLANKET TEMP
—l
$oss 250 °C 250 °C
u- - - - 250 °C | OO eC
u. ---- |OO "C 25 O "C
O - - - - || OO "C |OO "C

50.34
F
«
0.
H.

ão.32
O
2
O
O

O.30

___--—H. --TT ""

O.28
—- ====-- _- + -- "T

-
_---TT
_-"
O.26
O O.O. O.O2 O.O.3 O.O4 O.O5 O.O6 O.O7 O.O.8 O.O.9

SHELL ABSORPTION, zat

Fig. 4.2.20 —U-233 Two-region Converter Reactor; Dependence of Fuel Con
centration on Shell Absorption at Various Temperatures. Submitted by Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-51-10-110. Core
diameter, 10 ft; 2-ft-thick blanket of 1000 gm Th/l.

539
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

I.OOH
\

fl \\
\ \ CORE TEMP BLANKET TEMP

5 ossly \ 250 °C 250 °C –

% \ W - - - 250 °C | OO "C
O \ \N ---- |OO "C 250 °C
e \\. \ - - - - |OO "C IOO eC
§ osol-A—A N N
Q
~)
\ \ - N
º \ \ Nº -

3 oss \ \
\
N
H.
O
\ 'N
90
—l
\\ |\
\ NN
Li
O \ N N
& ovs \ \ -

> -
\ \.
0.
Lil \ N -
º
Cl- \
O O.7O
Lil \
*.
N.
N - - -

5: \ N
Lil \ N º

ź \ º
9 O.65
O
\;N \.N º

s
or.
N
N
N.
N
º

£
H.
oso *:N º
s

wº
O
NN º
º

> N --

O.55 N

O.5O
O O.O2 O.O4 O.O6 O.O8

SHELL ABSORPTION, zai

Fig. 4.2.21—U-233 Two-region Converter Reactor; Effect of Temperature on
Conversion Ratio for a 10-ft diameter Core, 2-ft-thick Blanket of 1000 gm Th/l.
Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from
ORNL-51-10-110. Initial Operation: unpoisoned, no build-up of heavy elements.

540
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

O.53

.*..
O.52 E->

O.5 ! 2” *
_*1
º
o,502

O.49
S.

š
.O.48 ==-
_---f
º, --~~1
§ ...~~
50.47 *
=~~ Til--
u r

*...]
HO.4 ir-r

3
-

—l -“”
_-"T *

ul O.45 * ...~" -T
R ...” ...~"
u- ...~" L-T _--T
O
O.44
_*" _T z-
_*

3 LT ...~" -T
-
H. __” * L-T ... •
*

§ 04:Ha-4 w

F- L^T.J. T. •*
z 2. T __T
§ L’’
: 0.42 -*
5*P*
O
BLANKET
£255 20026)
25
20128) Étº -
-

O.4| %OF CORE zºoso, zo(U*o.so, L 'z,(23) BLANKET

O O O O

-- - 10 O.O4O O O
O.4O - - - - - IO O. I O2 O O

-- -- 8 O. 16 | O O
- -- - 3 O. O.15 O O
O.39 - - -- - 5 O O. I O2 O | O
----- 46 O. 16 | O.O44 |O

O.38 | L | | | | |
O O.O2 O.O4 O.O6 O.O8 O. l O

SHELL ABSORPTION, zat

Fig. 4.2.22 – U-233 Two-region Converter Reactor; Dependence of U-235 Con

centration Required for Criticality on Shell Thickness at Various Power Levels
for System with 10-ft-diameter Core and 2-ft-thick Blanket of 1000 gm Th/l.
Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from
ORNL-51-10-110. System at 250°C with 2,0ſission products)/2a(UO2SO4) = 0.02
in core.

541
CHAP. 4.2 AquEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

1.2O T- I I I I I I I

O
Lil &
"#" L
zo (26)
25
Žo (28)
25
ſº PROD]
= | 15 x of SoRE 2a(U’’O2SO4) Eo (U"O2SO4) 3.23 Jalaº
% - O O O O
O --- IO O O O
O 1. IO - -- || O O. O. 4 O O O
ſº " - ---- || O O. I O2 O O
No -** - 8 O. l 6 | O O
O - -- - 5O O. I O2 O |O
3. ---- - 46 O. I 6 | O.O44 |O

Lu 1.05
Cl
O
H.

3
~ 1.ooh
—l
\
# N
u- \

a o 95 \NN
> \
\
NY, N
Dr. -

# |\\ \N
N's NA
fl
0-
O.9C) V * NV,
O
ad
\
M N y

Éo.85 WN N
*—h NA

ro
CN
N NNN\ N W
(N
on
aſo.so
*.
KN N
S-k—e. N
*
N *

>
H. 'NN. NN,
NN ~ *
NN *
Lil
z O.75
NN N.
>JN NS -

NN N.N.
N.
N
N.N. SN
O.7O NS Rºs s
O.65 \\
O. 6O
O O.O2 O.O4 O.O6 O.O8 O.I.O

SHELL ABSORPTION, Žot

Fig. 4.2.23–U-233 Two-region Converter Reactor; Dependence of U-233 Pro

duction on Shell Absorption at Various Power Levels for System with 10-ft
diameter Core with 2-ft-thick Blanket of 1000 gm Th/l. Submitted by Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-51-10-110. System at
250°C with 2,0ſission products)/2A(UO,SO) = 0.02 in core.

542
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

in Fig. 4.2.25. For a given shell absorption, the larger breeding gains are obtained with
the smaller cores. To realize a positive breeding gain, 2 at must be less than 0.035, 0.043,
and 0.061 for core diameters of 10, 8, and 5 ft, respectively. The presence of fission
product macroscopic cross sections to the extent of 2 percent of the value for the fuel re
duces the breeding gain by approximately 0.02.

O.30

- Initial Operation.
No Fission Products;

O.25
\ No Build-up of Heavy Elements.
-

zo (Fission Products)
——F--002:

O.2O
M N o
Blonket
Power
Time
-

\ - - - Zero initial Operation

\
\
N O
A
IO%
IO%
200 Days
8OO Days
\ N d IO% Infinite

O.15 \ N
W

O. l O \ WN N.
- N
O.O5
\\V N N
\
\ Core Diometer, 5 ft
\
N
V

N
\

-O.O5 \ N
\
A.
v
N
Core Diometer, IO ft Y-NN N. Core Diometer, 8 ft

-O. I O
w
N NSN
vº

N
—

N
N N
YA
-
-O.15
O O.O2 O.O4 O.O6 O.O8

SHELL ABSORPTION, z,

Fig. 4.2.24—U-233 Two-region Breeder Reactor; Dependence of Breeding Gain

on Shell Absorption for a 2-ft Blanket of 1000 gm Th/l. Submitted by Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-51-10-110. System at
250°C.

543
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

2.OO

_-T
_-T
1.90

1.80 LT
S. LT CORE: DIAMETER, 5 ft
5. NO POISON

~ 1.7O
LL]
or.
O
O O O.O2 O.O4 O.O6 O.O 8
z SHELL ABSORPTION, 2at
ſº
ro
CN
| O.68
3.
LL

3,
H. O.66
O |-

—l
Lu
º; o 64
u

u
O o62H-T CORE: DIAMETER, 8 ft
3 -> NO POISON

F
<ſ
Or
H.
z
Liu
O

3
3 O 42

O.4O

DIAMETER, loft
---2% POISON
O.38 -NO POISON

O.36
O O.O2 O.O4 O.O6 O.O.8

SHELL ABSORPTION, X,
Fig. 4.2.25— U-233 Two-region Breeder Reactor. U-233 Concentration in
Core as a Function of Shell Absorption. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Labo
ratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-51-10-110. Two-ft-thick blanket
of 1000 gm Th/l; system at 250°C; no blanket power.

544
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

HIGHER ISOTOPES

In Fig. 4.2.24, results are presented for a breeder with a 10-ft-diameter core, ratio of
blanket to core power of 0.1, and periods of operation corresponding to 200 days, 800 days,
and infinite time. The cross-section ratios of the various uranium isotopes are given in
Table 4.2.8. The values of the breeding gain for these three cases fall on the curve cor
responding to zero blanket power level and no core poison, the initial condition of operation.

Table 4.2.8–Cross-section Ratios of Uranium Isotopes

- - 2a(24)
~ a Nº º z 2a(25)
d Xaa (26)
Days operation 2a(23) 2a(23) 2a(23)

200 0.059 0.059 0.0022

800 .091 .091 .0095
oo .093 .093 .0142

Although the breeding gain remains fairly constant with operating time, the net quantity
of uranium-233 produced will decrease if the reactor is operated at a constant power level.
This is brought about by the build-up of uranium-235 which contributes to the fission rate.
To maintain a constant power level, the neutron flux must be reduced, decreasing the burn
up of uranium-233 in the core, and, since the breeding gain remains constant, the output of
uranium-233 must also be reduced.

BLANKET POWER LEVEL

The desired ratio of blanket power to core power determines the common rate of chemi
cal processing for the removal of uranium, protactinium, and fission products from the
blanket, the removal rate decreasing with increasing power level ratio. As noted previously,
build-up of the higher uranium isotopes as well as fission products is determined by the
processing rate.
The characteristics of breeder reactors with a 10-ft-diameter core and 2-ft-thick blanket
of Thoz in D2O are listed in Table 4.2.9, for a range of blanket power levels, with thick and
thin zirconium shells, and with the corresponding equilibrium concentrations of higher iso
topes and fission products in both the core and blanket. The breeding ratio for a given shell
thickness reaches a maximum for a ratio of blanket power to core power of 0.5. For higher
values of this ratio, the increase in concentration of fission products in the blanket with de
creasing chemical processing rates required to attain the higher power-level ratios begins
to offset appreciably the benefits of the blanket fissions. No breeding gain is realized in
any case where the thickness separating the core and blanket is sufficient to withstand the
entire core pressure.

NEUTRON CHAIN REACTOR KINETICS IN AQUEOUS HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEMS

(P. R. Kasten)

A study of the kinetics of a reactor leads to a determination of the stability or instability

of any given over-all reactor design. By stability is meant the ability of a reactor to oper
ate in a steady-state and to return to a steady-state condition when certain disturbances are
introduced into the system. Kinetic studies will also give a measure of the degree of sta
oility or safety of any given system as determined by the extremes encountered in operating

545
:
-00422
0.3852 .01.21
0.228 0.846 0.157 163
.
- -.142
0.95 2.00 1.23
4.5 14.1
1970

.00622 .001.27
0.3700 0.0981
0.172 .142 .122
0.95 1.53 .88 1.01 9.76 .20
1.0
1 840

.000975
.00534
0.3863 0.0886
0.162 181 –.065
. —.058
0.80 1.45 .82 1.06 10.83
4.5
1 842

.00376 .00053
0.3762 0.0705
0.145 .145 .188 .162
0.80 1.31 .73 1.17 8.11
1.0
1 514

.000138
4.2.9—U-23
Table
Reactor*
Breeder
Two-region 0.3958
.00283
pr0-ofd.02
(ſission
1*2
0salt),
2core
core,
6in
=
power
Th/1,
gm
1000
megawatts
tuc30
-tbd)il/Ea,mn(ekftuetrl
0.0589
0.135 .104 —.016 -.015
1.21 .69 1.00
4.5
1 460 T.20

.000138
.00165
0.3868 0.0424
0.118 .083 .202 .162
1.08 .58 1.14 5.41
1.0
278

.000247
0.4144 .0936 0.0.146
.860 .459 0.740 0.035 -.041 -.038
0.10 1.44
4.5 88.4 10-"
x
6.9

.000108
0.4048 .0890 .4363 0.0094
.818 0.819 0.033 .154 .141
0.10 1.08
1.0 59.7 10-"
x
1.9

equilibrium, (initial
at
Core
0 operation)

4.5
0.4130

: 0.
–0.054 -.054

equilibrium,
at
Core
0
operation)
(initial

1.0
0.4036

: 0.138 .135

ratio
power
Blanket blanket
in
(U-233)
process
Chemical gm/1 Na
blanket,
in
Nix gm/1N14/N13
blanket,
in blanket Nis/Nis
in in blanket Ea
blanket Nis/Nas
in prod.)/2a
(fiss. re ferred
ratio
Breeding initial
to
thick ness
shell
Core oncentration in
cm CU-233
(Zr),
gm/l
core,
N14/NIs in
coreNis/Nis
in core blanket
For ratio
Breeding rate
burn-up
days
cycle,
core
For

Nis/Nis

§
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

variables (e.g., nuclear power, reactor core temperature, and pressure) for a given disturb
ance. The mathematical system describing the kinetics of the reactor is a function of the
specific reactor design, and in general, for mathematical simplicity, the variables refer to
average or bulk values; hence, the results obtained should be applied only in discriminating
between first- and second-order effects. More general equations of motion have been dis
cussed only briefly (see pp 98-102, Ref 2).

CIRCULATING NONBOILING SYSTEMS

The kinetic behavior of homogeneous reactors” and particularly that of the HRE”
has been analyzed in detail. Hence, a circulating, nonboiling reactor system of the HRE
type will be considered. Figure 4.2.26 is a schematic diagram of such a system. The soup
passes out of the reactor core through the pressurizer pipe, into the outside piping, and
thence through the heat exchanger and pump back to the core.

PRESSURIZER

WATER

HEAT EXCHANGER

REACTOR CORE

Fig. 4.2.26—Schematic Diagram of a Circulating, Nonboiling Reactor System.

Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

POWER EQUATIONS

The nuclear power equations”" can be written as:

dP
T = At [k(1–3) — kc] P + 2 Aici (39)

dci -

dt + Aici = A03ikcoP (40)

where: P = nuclear power generated within reactor

Aq = 1/7 kc & 1/To kco
k = material multiplication constant = mä pf
8 = 216 = fraction of fission neutrons which are delayed
ko = k required for criticality

547
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

kco = ke evaluated under initial conditions

Ai = decay constant associated with the i'th group of delayed-neutron emitters
ci = a measure of the concentration of the i'th group of delayed-neutron emitters
T = average lifetime of a neutron
To = T evaluated under initial conditions

It has been found”" that Eqs. (39) and (40) are approximated rather closely by consid—
ering a constant source of delayed neutrons. This approximation yields:

dP
it = Ao [k(1–3) — kc] P + Ao (3kco Po (41)

where: Po = P evaluated under initial conditions.

In evaluating 3, the delayed neutrons lost while the soup is outside the reactor must be
considered” although it has been shown” that under certain operating conditions, the ef
fect of losing a portion of the delayed neutrons is small.

REACTIVITY CONSIDERATIONS

A common method of studying the stability and safety of a reactor is to note its behavior
following an increase in the reactivity. This is easily done by considering an instantaneous
increase in k and the behavior of the reactor dependent upon the resultant variation in ko.
In general, kc will be a function of the temperature, pressure, and fraction gas plus vapor
in the core:

kc = kco + o (T-To) + o-(p-po) + o-3(fg-fgo) (42)

where: T = average temperature of the core

p = average pressure of the core
fg = average fraction of gas plus vapor in the core
9
0.1, 0.2, O 3, - 9x , where x is the variable in question averaged over the specific range
covered
x0 = variable x evaluated under initial conditions
Under appreciable power operation, the effect of temperature on criticality arises
mainly through density variations of the core material” although in general the scattering
cross sections are functions of temperature which will influence bkc/8 T to some degree.*.*
The effect of pressure on kc arises through its influence on core density, and although this
effect is not great under certain operating conditions, large power surges may result in un
desirable stable-pressure oscillations** unless certain restrictions are imposed upon the
pressurizer and core dump line designs.” Gas in the core will also lower density and
thus change kc. Therefore, with density as the determining influence on kc, Eq. (42) can be
written in the form:

kc = f(p) (43)

where p is the core average density. p can be expressed as:

p = p1(1-fg) + pgfg (44)

where: p1 = average density of liquid phase = f(p,T)

-

pg. = average density of gaseous phase = fz(p,T)

fg. = average fraction of core which is gas plus vapor = ſgo f3(p,T) F (P)

548
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

Under most conditions, the last term in Eq. (44) can be neglected. Functions fi, f2, and fs
are evaluated from thermodynamic relations.

CONNECTING RELATIONS BETWEEN NUCLEAR AND PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

The presence of gas and vapor will effect stability in a manner dependent upon the form
of the function describing the gas generation within the core. This functional relation be
tween fg and P is complex, although some plausible relations have been presented.”
To obtain the pressure surges arising from power pulses, negligible error is introduced
by considering the density of the liquid ejected into the pressurizer pipe as constant*** or:

do — Av
# = ... p. (45)

where: A = average cross-sectional area of pressurizer pipe

v = deviation from steady state value of fluid velocity in pressurizer pipe
W = volume of reactor core

Pressure surges can then be obtained from the force equation:

dy
a di = Ap – aiv – azv v. (46)

where: ao, a 1, a2 Constants

-
Ap pressure deviation from normal value

To complete the mathematical system, the relation between T and P is required. The
core temperature will depend on the power generation and rate of cooling. For safety cal
culations, times of interest are so short that the temperature of the soup entering the re
actor can be considered constant” and under this condition:

dT
# = e (P-P) (47)

where: e = reciprocal heat capacity of core

For stability calculations, relations describing the functioning of the heat exchanger
boiler system are required, and for the HRE, some specific cases have been analyzed.”

TECHNIQUES FOR SOLUTION OF THE EQUATIONS

The solution of the above nonlinear system of equations appears to be best solved for
individual cases by high-speed digital machines, although useful approximate formulas
have been developed which are valid for short time intervals.”
Certain of the variables have proved to be relatively unimportant insofar as peak powers
obtained for a step increase in reactivity. By assuming instantaneous fuel ejection from the
core with decreasing soup density, and neglecting the gas effects, the mathematical system
1S:

doſ
# = Aſk(1-5) — ke] g + A, Bkco
k = kco + Ak
kc = kco + d 1 (T-T0) (48)
dT_ _,
d = < (0–1)

549
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

where: O = *—and e' = e Po

Po

The above is a nonlinear system of differential equations, but it can be solved graphically
in the phase plane by the method of isoclines as follows: Let:

w = k(1–3) — kc = a measure of the excess reactivity of reactor

Differentiating:

dw
- - -
dkc - - * - 49
#=-ji==-ge (9-1) (49)

On combining the above with the power equation, time is eliminated and the phase plane
relation is:

dw
- -
— one "(0–1) - 50
do A0(wo + 3kco) (50)

By assuming various values for dw/do, curves of w vs 0 called “isoclines” can be drawn
which give the positions at which the final desired curve can have the assumed slope.
Given initial conditions, the desired curve can be approximated closely by considering a
sufficient number of isoclines. With the phase-plane plot, the time relations of the vari
ables can be obtained by graphical integration of the initial equations. Results of such
analyses show that the delayed neutrons have an extreme dampening effect on any power
oscillations arising from reactivity addition. Some typical plots of the variables consid
ered are given in Fig. 4.2.27. The curves indicate that the reactor system being consid
ered exhibits a highly dampened behavior to reactivity disturbances and is therefore self
stabilizing. Specific cases for the system and cases in which the pressurizer effects have
been included are presented elsewhere.”

- SMALL Ak
----- LARGE Ak

a
2-->*w y**\\
z w *
w w # *
f w t w
w º w
b
I
! w
\ b I
n
w
W rº

©
*
1
n
W
w
o
F
!
n
\
\
uſ
Gr
<ſ I W <ſ I w ->
or. t or l w H
I w t \ §
º: 1 w or t * u!
#| | \ ul t N Cl.

3|
Cl-
|
t
\w 3:
O
I *
*
>
ul • *
---
*-
I w 0. º H. .*
t \ .*2
t *

-
~22

ExCESS REACTIVITY, w TIME, t TIME, t

Fig. 4.2.27 —Typical Plots for Temperature and Power Ratio Behavior as a
Function of Impressed Ak. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25,
1952.

550
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

BOILING REACTOR KINETICS

Another possible aqueous fuel reactor is the boiling-type reactor illustrated in Fig.
4.2.28. In this reactor, the fission energy vaporizes the liquid, the rising steam condenses
on the heat exchanger and then drops back into the core. The kinetics of this reactor type
are similar to the one previously discussed, except the relation between fg and P now as
sumes great importance, and the reactor has in effect a large pressurizer chest. Material
pertaining to boiling reactor kinetics has appeared in reports concerning homogeneous re
actors in general” and more recently has been presented specifically.****

VAPOR CHEST

HEAT EXCHANGER

ZZZZZZZ Z.Z.Z.Z.Z Z Z Z.Z. A Z Z ZZ Z

~~~~
22 ~ ~~~~
2^

%2. 23
º º
º2 º*º º L^º
~23
2222.
2^ L’
2^ 2 21.
REACTOR CORE

º 2. 22 2. 2^ 22.
22 22.
2223 2_2~~
_^21
__ 22°2 222
21 21

s—” ~~ 222

Fig. 4.2.28—Schematic Diagram of a Boiling-type Reactor. Submitted by Oak

Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

Any lag in the formation of vapor with respect to nuclear power will be detrimental to
stability. This can be easily seen by considering the formation of vapor to lag power by
some discrete amount £. The mathematical system is then:

do.
dt 7 A6(wo + 3kco)

k = kco + Ak
(51)
kc = kco + a 3(fg-fgo)
df
*# = bſo (t–E) – 1
† = Moſt-9-1)
Linearizing the above:

d’o do
dº * A0 (Bkco-o'sbäl dt + A003b (0–1) = 0 (52)

551
CHAP. 4.2 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

In this equation, (3kco – cyabč) is the dampening coefficient. The delayed neutrons, 3, thus
have a positive damping action, whereas & acts in opposition to 3 and has a deleterious ac
tion on reactor stability.

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

INHERENT STABILITY

In any reactor, it is desirable that an inherent power coefficient of reactivity exist, so

that, as the nuclear power rises during a power surge, the reactivity will decrease at such
a rate as to prevent the power from rising excessively. In aqueous systems, this property
can exist either as a temperature coefficient (as in an HRE-type circulating reactor) or as
a bubble coefficient (as in a boiling-type reactor). The size of the coefficient along with the
response of the variable to power changes will determine the inherent safety of the reactor.
Thus, although the temperature coefficient is not so large as the bubble coefficient," the
response of temperature to power is instantaneous, but the response of gas and vapor bub
ble formation to power is not immediate.”

REFERENCES

1. Hughes and Eggler, Resonance Absorption of Thorium, Univ. Chicago, CP-3093, July 1945.
2. C. E. Winters and C. H. Secoy, ORNL-925, Jan. 30, 1951 (classified).
3. J. M. Stein and P. R. Kasten, ORNL-1062, Nov. 23, 1951 (classified).
4. T. A. Welton, ORNL-CF-51-11-163, Nov. 27, 1951 (classified).
5. K. Cohen, H. K. Ferguson Company, HKF-109, Dec. 15, 1950, pp 3.15-3.29 (classified).
6. H. Hurwitz, Jr., On the Derivation and Integration of the Pile-Kinetic Equations, Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, AECD-2438,
Apr. 5, 1948 (Declassified Jan. 4, 1949).
7. F. de Hoffman, Criticality of the Water Boiler and Effectiveness of Delayed Neutrons, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, AECD
3051, Dec. 8, 1944 (Declassified Jan. 30, 1951).
8. W. C. Sangren, ORNL-1205, Apr. 1, 1952 (classified).
9. J. A. Swartout, C. H. Secoy, T. A. Welton, and C. E. Winters, ORNL-1221, Mar. 13, 1952 (classified).
10. J. A. Swartout, C. H. Secoy, and C. E. Winters, ORNL-1121, Dec. 27, 1951 (classified).
11. C. E. Winters and C. H. Secoy, ORNL-990, May 18, 1951 (classified).
12. C. E. Winters and A. M. Weinberg, ORNL-730, July 6, 1950 (classified).
13. C. E. Winters, ORNL-630, Apr. 21, 1950 (classified).
14. C. B. Graham, C. H. Secoy, L. Spiewak, E. H. Taylor, A. M. Weinberg, C. E. Winters, and J. L. English ORNL-527, Aug. 28, 1949
(classified).
15. Winters and Secoy, ORNL-925, p 78 (classified).
16. Stein and Kasten, ORNL-1062 (classified).
17. Winters and Secoy, ORNL-925, pp 80 ff (classified).
18. Swartout, Secoy, Welton, and Winters, ORNL-1221, pp 82-88 (classified).
19. Winters and Secoy, ORNL-925, p. 48 (classified).
20. Winters and Secoy, ORNL-990, pp. 34-39 (classified).
21. Winters and Weinberg, ORNL-730, p 54 (classified).
22. S. Glasstone and M. C. Edlund, ORNL-CF-51-9-128, Oct. 31, 1951, pp XI 31-50 (classified).
23. E. Greuling and G. Goertzel, Atomic Energy Commission, TAB-84, Aug. 3, 1950 (classified).
24 Swartout, Secoy, and Winters, ORNL-1121, pp 88-102 (classified).

25. T. A. Welton, ORNL-CF-51-8-53, Aug. 7, 1951 (classified).

26. Swartout, Secoy, Welton, and Winters, ORNL-1221, pp 79-81.
27. R. E. Aven, ORNL-CF-52-1-77, Jan. 11, 1952 (classified).
28. R. E. Aven and G. T. Trammell, ORNL-CF-51-10-21, CCt. 2, 1951 (classified).
29. T. A. Welton, ORNL-CF-51-8-31, Aug. 6, 1951 (classified).
30. Swartout, Secoy, Welton, and Winters, ORNL-1221, pp 62-64 (classified).
31. Winters and Weinberg, ORNL-730, pp 67 ff (classified).
32. Swartout, Secoy, Welton, and Winters, ORNL-1221, p. 89 (classified).
33. Winters and Weinberg, ORNL-730, pp 66 and 70 (classified).
34. Swartout, Secoy, Welton, and Winters, ORNL-1221, pp 64-68 (classified).
35. J. E. Wilkins, Clinton Laboratories, CP-3068, June 26, 1945 (classified); CP-3088, 1945 (classified); CP-2709, Feb. 10, 1945
(classified); CF-3067, June 25, 1945 (classified).
36. J. A. Swartout, C. H. Secoy, T. A. Welton, and C. E. Winters, ORNL-1280, June 25, 1952, pp. 90-94 (classified).
37. L. C. Widdoes, G. H. Cohen, K. W. Downes, F. R. Grisak, J. H. Hill, V. P. Kovacik, and D. G. Ott, ORNL-CF-51-8-84. Aug. 6, 19%
pp 35-47 (classified).

552
NEUTRON CHAIN REACTIONS CHAP. 4.2

38. W. H. Bowman and G. T. Parish, Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Division, Oak Ridge, Tennesee, K-25 Area, KT-95, Nov. 15, 1950
(classified).
39. R. Bakal and D. L. James, Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Division, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, K-25 Area, KT-97, Oct. 23, 1950
(classified).
40. Winters and Weinberg, ORNL-730, pp 56, 60, 69, 70 (classified).
41. W. M. Breazeale, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, June 11, 1952 (classified).

- 553
 CHAPTER 4.3

Properties of Aqueous Solution Systems

URANIUM SALT SOLUTIONS

THE SYSTEMS UO, SOA-H2O AND UO, SOA-D2O

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Chemical Stability (C. H. Secoy)

Solubility

The utility of an aqueous solution in a homogeneous reactor depends on its physical and
chemical stability over the range of desired reactor conditions. Of prime importance is
the preservation of homogeneity over the desired concentration and temperature range.
The solubility of uranyl sulfate in H2O has been determined by Secoy” from the ice —
UO, SO, 3H2O eutectic at -38.5° to 370°C. The data are given in Table 4.3.1 along with
points determined by Helmholtz and Friedlander” at 30°, 35°, and 40°C and by Dittrich" for
the freezing points of very dilute solutions. Other data appearing in the early literature”
are not in good agreement and are not included in the table. Figure 4.3.1 shows the phase
diagram for the system. From Fig. 4.3.1 it is apparent that, insofar as solid–liquid equi
libria are involved, the solubility of uranyl sulfate in H2O is higher at all temperatures
from room temperature to 370°C than that required for any proposed homogeneous reactor.
The analogous study of the solubility of uranyl sulfate in D2O has not been made, but it
is assumed that the values would not be sufficiently different from those in light water to
affect the feasibility of a uranyl sulfate-D2O solution.
Solutions of uranyl sulfate in H2O not saturated with respect to the solid display a two
liquid phase region (miscibility gap) with a minimum critical solution temperature of
284.5°C. The upper limit of the region is the critical temperature of H2O (374.0°C), at
which temperature the water-rich liquid phase and the vapor phase become identical. This
region has been studied extensively by Secoy" and by Jones and Marshall," and their data
are given in Table 4.3.2. A graph of the region plotted from the data of Jones and Marshall
is included in Figs. 4.3.1 and 4.3.2. The data of the latter are believed more nearly correct
than the earlier values in that there was a likelihood that the salt used by Secoy was con
taminated with traces of acid. Table 4.3.3 and Fig. 4.3.2 give analogous data for the
UO,SO,-D.O system as determined by Jones and Marshall." The upper temperature limit
of homogeneous-reactor operation is determined by these curves.

'References appear at end of chapter.

555
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.1—Solubility of Uranyl Sulfate in Water

(Solid–liquid equilibria)

m, moles UO2SO,
Temp., "C per 1000 gm H2O Solid phase Reference

– 0.0705 0.03 Ice

—. 1100 .05 Ice
— .200 ... 10 Ice
— .516 .30 Ice
—.948 .60 Ice
– 17.7 2.87 Ice
— 22.9 3.33 Ice
–38.5 3.82 Eutectic
– 27.0 3.84 UO2SO4·3H2O
30.0 4.135 UO2SO, .3H2O
35.0 4.171 UO2SO4·3H2O
40.0 4.225 UO2SO4·3H2O
46.8 4.31 UO2SO, .3H2O
57.3 4.50 UO2SO4·3H2O
71.7 4.73 UO2SO4·3H2O
80.8 4.70 UO2SO4·3H2O
90.1 5.02 UO2SO4·3H2O
93.5 5.06 UO2SO4·3H2O
106.2 5.26 UO2SO4·3H2O
116.8 5.59 UO2SO,-3H2O
118.4 5.73 UO2SO4·3H2O
119.9 5.66 UO2SO4·3H2O
125.2 5.90 UO2SO4·3H2O
134.9 6.25 UO2SO4·3H2O
139.0 6.51 UO2SO4·3H2O
140.7 6.55 UO2SO4·3H2O
145.1 6.72 UO2SO4·3H2O
149.6 6.89 UO,SO,-3H,0
153.6 7.14 UO2SO4·3H2O
168.6 7.75 UO2SO4·3H2O
181 8.66 Transition
152 8.97 UO2SO4·H2O (m)
287 7.75 UO2SO4· H2O
311 7.57 UO2SO4·H2O
347 7.33 UO2SO4·H2O
365 7.24 UO2SO4·H2O
49.2 4.70 UO2SO4·2H2O(m)
53.2 4.73 UO,SO,-2H.O(m)
75.5 5.06 UO2SO4·2H2O(m)

556
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

400 T I T
Unsofurated Solution (L2) + Vapor

Tc UO2SO4· H2O

350 Z / + ...
Solution

Two – Liquid Phoses

*N- -

25O

Unso furofed Solution

2OO

W
\
5O

IOO

UO2 SO4 - 3 H2O + Solution

50

Ice + Solution

-50 Ice + UO2 SO4 3 H2O

| |
O I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

m, moles / ſooo grº H2O

Fig. 4.3.1 — Phase Diagram for the System UO2SO-H2O. Submitted by Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

557
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.2—Solubility of Uranyl Sulfate in Water

(Liquid–liquid equilibrium)

m, moles UO2SO, Phase appearing Critical temp.

Temp., "C per 1000 gm H2O or disappearing* of Li

Data from Secoy

335.1 0.021 L2
3.19.4 .089 Lz
3.10.1 .170 Lz - - -

299.9 .383 L2 374.3

295.8 .700 L2 - - -

295.5 1.265 Li 374.0

297.5 1.876 Li 374.2
302.3 2.527 Li 374.2
308.2 3.399 Li - - -

312.5 3.872 Li 374.4

316.2 4.201 L1
320.5 4.517 Li
339.6 5.655 Li
363.0 6.687 Li

Data from Jones and Marshall

304.7 0.107 L2
303.7 .110 L2
300.8 .114 Lz
287.6 .357 L2
284.7 .683 L2
284.7 1.294 Li
285.0 1.464 Li
288.1 2.550 Li
294.5 3.986 Li

* Li = water-rich liquid; L = UO2SOA-rich liquid

558
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

3ioſi
• In H2O
O In D2O
3ool

e /

28O {
\ | L’
27O
O I 2 3 4 5

m, moles UO2SO, / | OOO gm H2O, D2O

Fig. 4.3.2 —Two-liquid Phase Region of Uranyl Sulfate in Ordinary and Heavy
Water. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

Table 4.3.3 — Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium in the System UO,SO,-D2O"

m, moles UO2SO,
Temp., “C per 1000 gm D.O

282.7 0.231
277.7 .375
274.7 .684
274.7 1.540
276.3 2.105
278.8 2.791
286.6 3.934
305.5 5.412

559
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Since it is conceivable to operate a homogeneous reactor with a solution in which the

mole ratio of UO3 to SO3 is other than unity, studies of the miscibility gap in the three
component system UO3-SO3-H2O have been made by Secoy and co-workers." Their data
are given in Tables 4.3.4, 4.3.5, and 4.3.6 and are presented graphically in Figs. 4.3.3 and
4.3.4. The marked elevation of the miscibility gap by the addition of sulfuric acid makes
possible much higher temperatures of operation, provided a suitable container material
for the more acid solution is available and provided the increased pressure which ac
companies the increase in temperature is not excessive.

Hydrolysis
Uranyl sulfate solutions are quite acidic because of hydrolysis. No extensive study of
the hydrolytic equilibrium and its temperature dependence has been made, but the pH as a
function of concentration has been measured by McInnes and Longsworth," Helmholtz and
Friedlander,” and Lietzke, Wright, and Marshall.” Their data are shown graphically in
Figs. 4.3.5 and 4.3.6.
Also of interest in connection with the hydrolytic stability is the solubility of UO3 in
uranyl sulfate solutions as a function of temperature and concentration. Although a com
plete study has not been made, some data are available. These are presented in Tables
4.3.7, 4.3.8, 4.3.9, and 4.3.10. The acidity of the UO3-rich solutions has also been studied,
and some of the data are included in Tables 4.3.9 and 4.3.10. Additional pH data are given
in Tables 4.3.11 and 4.3.12.
The general trends indicated by the data are (1) that the solubility of UOs in uranyl sul
fate solutions decreases markedly with increasing temperature and (2) that the solubility
is nearly independent of the uranium concentration except in very dilute solutions where
it also decreases sharply.

Reduction of the Uranyl Ion

At elevated temperatures, the uranyl ion is subject to reduction if reducing species are
present either in the solution or as constituents of the containing vessel. The products are
either black insoluble UO2 or U3O8 or both.

Radiation Stability (H. F. McDuffie)

When fissioning takes place in aqueous fuel solutions of uranyl sulfate, the observable
effects are those which follow upon the decomposition of water to hydrogen, oxygen, and
peroxide. Except for the precipitation of uranyl peroxide as discussed below, it has not
been possible to demonstrate any radiation instability of the uranyl sulfate. The leading
reference for the decomposition of water by fissioning solutions" presents initial yields
of hydrogen gas production for aqueous solutions of uranyl sulfate, fluoride, nitrate, and
uranous sulfate, determined as functions of uranium concentration, isotopic enrichment,
temperature, hydrogen ion concentration, and the presence or absence of various anions
and added solutes. Values for GH, (molecules of hydrogen produced per 100 electron volts
of energy absorbed by the solution) are presented in Table 4.3.13 and Figs. 4.3.7 and
4.3.8. For calculations in connection with aqueous reactor systems, it may sometimes be
convenient to use the derived formula relating reactor power density to gas production:

K = 0.0052 X G XPD moles hydrogen/(1)(min) (1)

where PD = the reactor power density in kw/1, and G = value appropriate for the solution
being considered. This formula assumes that all the fission energy is absorbed by the

560
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.4—Two-liquid Phase Coexistence Curve for Acid-rich Solutions in the

System UO3-SO3-H2O

Phase
H.SO4, M UO2SO4, m* Temp., “C separating Temp., “C Reference

0.099 0.118 346.3 L2 381.5 10

.296 323.9 L2 10
.900 305.5 L2 381.6 10
1.405 304.1 L2 10
2.618 307.8 Li 10
3.971 3.18.0 Li 10

0.248 0.112 383.9 L2 393.0 10

.300 347.5 L2 10
.308 349.8 L2 9
.755 327.5 L2 9
.877 326.4 L2 392.9 10
1.406 322.2 L2 10
2.581 323.8 Li 10
2.730 323.9 Li 9
3.901 331.2 Li 10

0.365 0.722 340.2 L2 9

.750 338.9 L2 9
1.187 333.9 L2 9
1.892 331.2 L2 9
2.641 331.7 Li 9
3.466 333.7 Li 9

0.480 1.189 353.2 L2 9

1.858 342.7 L2 9
2.695 343.1 Li 9
3.244 344.8 Li 9

0.624 2.940 355.8 Li 9

* m = moles/1000 gm H2O

561
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.5—Two-liquid Phase Coexistence Curve" for UOs-rich Solutions in the

System UOs–SOs–H2O
(work of E. v. Jones and W. L. Marshall)
,--

m, moles/1000 gm H2O
Mole ratio, UOs/SOs UOs SOs Temp., "C

1.1 0.333 0.303 291.3

1.1 .451 .410 282.3
1.1 .572 .520 281.3
1.1 .872 .793 279.3
1.1 1.168 1.062 279.3
1.1 1.803 1.639 279.3
1.1 2.498 2.271 279.3
1.1 3.190 2.900 279.3
1.1 3.902 3.547 283.3
1.1 4.413 4.012 290.3
1.2 0.06 0.05 >338
1.2 .12 .10 >322
1.2 .30 .25 290.3
1.2 .62 .52 280.8
1.2 .95 .79 277.3
1.2 1.62 1.35 278.0
1.2 2.34 1.95 276.6
1.2 3.11 2.59 277.3
1.2 3.86 3.22 279.3
1.2 4.66 3.88 286.3

562
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.6—Two-liquid Phase Coexistence Curve' for Acid-rich Solutions in the

System UOs–SOs–H2O
(Work of A. W. Wright, W. L. Marshall, and C. H. Secoy)

m, moles/1000 gm H2O
*-*-

Mole ratio, UOs/SOs UOs SOs Temp., "C

0.0197 0.0220 338

.0441 .0495 327
.0956 . 1074 317
.1903 .2128 308
0.893 .3173 .3551 301
.5567 .6237 299
.9000 .008 300
1.375 .540 303

| 2.341
0.0358
.1509
.2403
. .622

.0507
.2159
.3437
312

340
324
321
.3485 .4967 320
0.701
.5224 .7461 322
.7942 132 326
1.313 873 337
2.201

0.0229
.0651
.1153
: 141

.0429
.1233
.2164
355

351
342
342
.2061 .3880 339
0.531
.3766 .7098 348
.6504 .224 353
.146 . 187 379
. .240 . 156 >525

0.0141 0: .0346 364

.0319 .0793 358
.06.23 .1544 355

0.404 . . 1058 .2626 356

.1847 .4586 360
.3673 .9091 370
.6536 1.622 387
1 .133 2.816 >530

0.0072 0.0209 370

.0182 .0536 364
.0532 . 1572 366
0.339 .1267 .3742 363
.2418 .7147 372
.5367 1.585 >525
1.1.16 3.043 >530

563
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

4OO

390

380

o,624 M Hºso,

o O.480 M Hºso,

O365 m H.so,

; 32 O.248 M H2SO,

o,099 M Hºso,

No HeSO,

O I 2 3 4 5 6 7
m, moles UO2SO4 / 1000 gm H2O

Fig. 4.3.3—Two-liquid Phase Region in the System UO, SO, H, SO,-H.O. Submitted by
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

564
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

I
H G
390 º A.

// // Curve io903
Mole Rotio SO3 -

F
380 A. A 1. 20 -

/ / / B I. I. O
C I.O.O -

// D O. 893
370 E O.7O | -

/ F O.53 |
G O.404 -

/ / H O.339
36O /
2E

350 / 2^
340 / 2^
O -

uf330
Dr.
->
H.

3.ul _*
L^
sº
Lil
H. D

3|O __
*

3OO * ="

N- º- _*

280 >= B –
A

27O
O O.5 I.O 1.5 2.O 2.5 3.O 3.5

m, moles Uos/ ſooo gm H.0

Fig. 4.3.4 – Two-liquid Phase Region in the System, UOs-SOs-H,O. Submitted
by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

565
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

IO.O

5 O

O.5

O.

: O. O5

O.O.

e McInnes, Report CCA-380

O.OO5 A Recrystallized Eimer-Amend UO2SO4·3H2O
v Doubly Recrystallized E. a A. Uoeso, 3 H2O
tº Helmholtz 8 Friedlander Materiol No. 1
O Helmholtz 8 Fried londer Moteriol No. 2

O.OOl

O.OOO!
1.5 2.O 2.5 3.O 3.5 4.O
pH

Fig. 4.3.5 – The Effect of Material Preparation on the pH of Uranyl Sulfate Solu
tions of Various Concentrations at 22°C. Reprinted from MDDC-808. Submitted by
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

566
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

| O.O

5. O

O.5

O.

O.O5

O.OI

O.OO5

O.OOl

O.OOO!
I.O 1.5 2.O 2.5 3.O 3.5 4.O 4.5 5.O

pH

Fig. 4.3.6 — The Relationship of Concentration to the pH in Aqueous Uranyl

Sulfate Solutions at Various Temperatures. Submitted by Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

567
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.7—Solubility of UO, in Uranyl Sulfate Solutions”

25°C 100°C

UO, moles per SOs, moles per Mole ratio, UO, moles per SOs, moles per Mole ratio,
1000 gm H2O 1000 gm H2O UO3/SOs 1000 gm H2O 1000 gm H2O UOs/SOs

0.264 0.171 1.54 0.204 0.160 1.28

.647 .418 1.55 .470 .361 1.30
.790 .545 1.45 .708 .533 1.33
1.164 .843 1.38 .989 .785 1.26
1.513 1.029 1.47 1.335 .989 1.35
1.875 1.302 1.44 1.712 1.268 1.35
2.224 1.600 1.39 2.111 1.552 1.36
2.716 1.968 1.38 2.615 1.937 1.35
3.877 2.937 1.32 3.832 2.797 1.37

Table 4.3.8—Solubility of UO, in Uranyl Sulfate Solutions”

Temp., *C Total U, moles/liter Sulfate, moles/liter Mole ratio, UOs/SOs

25 0.168 0.105 1.600

50 .084 .056 1.500

50 .126 .083 1.518
50 .168 .113 1.487

100 .084 .062 1.355

100 .126 .093 1.355
100 .168 .124 1:355

150 .084 .068 1.235

150 .126 .102 1.235
150 .168 .136 1.235

200 ,084 .075 1.120

200 .126 ..111 1.135
200 .168 .147 1.143

250 .084 .080 1.050

250 .126 .120 1.050
250 .168 .157 1.070

568
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.9—Solubility of UOs in Uranyl Sulfate Solutions" at 250°C

(Work of J. S. Gill, E. V. Jones, and W. L. Marshall)

Total U, moles/liter Sulfate, moles/liter Mole ratio, UOs/SOs pH (25°C)

0.0134 0.01.27 1.06 3.80

.0228 .0220 1.04 3.40
.0323 .0298 1.08 3.50
.0525 .0518 1.01 3.31
.0869 .079 1.10 3.52
.1458 .1251 1.17 3.32
.2472 .2059 1.20 3.41
.6529 .5317 1.23 3.20
1.381 1. 106 1.25 2.90
1.506 1.185 1.27 2.91
1.657 1.308 1.27 2.84
2.352 1.812 1.30 2.66
2.542 1.970 1.29 2.65
3.002 2.341 1.28 2.52
3.805 3.096 1.23 1.91

Table 4.3.10—solubility of UO, in Uranyl sulfate solutions' at 175°C

(Work of E. W. Jones, J. S. Gill, and W. L. Marshall)

Total U, moles/liter Sulfate, moles/liter Mole ratio, UOs/SOs pH (25°C)

0.119 0.100 1.19 3.25

.292 .239 1.22 3.30
.594 .471 1.26 3.25
.890 .680 1.31 3.20
1.217 .948 1.28 3.20
1.528 1.178 1.30 2.73
1.790 1.360 1.31 2.80
2.508 1.934 1.30 - - -

2.986 2.397 1.25 2.30

4.020 2.964 1.36 2.20
4.370 3.370 1.30 1.70
4.440 3.380 1.31 1.90

569
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.11 — Acidity of UOs-rich Uranyl Sulfate Solutions** at 25°C

Total U, moles/liter Sulfate, moles/liter Mole ratio, UOs/SOs pH

ſ 0.0840 1.000 2.71

.0798 1.053 3.11
0.084 .0714 1.176 3.58
.0672 1.250 3.72
.0630 1.333 3.83
| .0588 1.429 3.92

ſo.1260 1.000 2.54

.1220 1.033 2.89
.1180 1.068 3.15
.1130 1.115 3.32
0.126 . 1090 1.156 3.46

... 1050 1.200 3.55

.1010 1.247 3.64
.0966 1.304 3.75
.0924 1.364 3.81

ſo.1680 1.000 2.43

.1575 1.067 2.79
.1523 1.103 3.11
.1470 1.143 3.23
0.168 .1418 1.185 3.30

.1391 1.208 3.40

.1365 1.231 3.45
.1260 1.333 3.68
. 1050 1.600 3.93

Table 4.3.12—Acidity of Uranyl Sulfate Solutions" with Excess UOs

SOI-, SOIT, Mole
pH
U, moles per moles per moles per ratio,
1000 gm H2O 1000 gm H.O liter (25°C) UOs/SOs 25.0°C 35.0°C 44.8°C 59.8°C

1.344 0.954 0.914 1.41 3.29 3.12 2.89 2.40

0.333 .236 .233 1.41 3.72 3.52 3.42 2.69
.0331 .0235 .0235 1.41 4.08 3.92 3.82 3.69
.00329 .00233 .00233 1.41 4.32 4.19 4.12 3.99
2.234 1.738 1.576 1.29 2.82 2.68 2.35 1.94
0.536 0.417 0.405 1.29 3.35 3.18 2.91 2.59
.0509 .0394 .0394 1.29 3.90 3.72 3.60 3.18
.00507 .00392 .00392 1.29 4.21 4.08 3.89 3.74
2.069 1.730 1.579 1.19 2.54 2.38 2.09 1.78
0.497 0.416 0.405 1.19 3.19 3.08 2.71 2.41
.0490 .0411 .04.11 1.19 3.78 3.59 3.46 3.08
.00487 .00409 .00409 1.19 4.09 3.96 3.88 3.75
1.904 1.738 1.606 1.10 2.10 1.96 1.72 1.36
0.460 0.420 0.410 1.10 2.89 2.76 2.42 2.13
.0455 .04.15 .04.15 1.10 3.54 3.38 3.17 2.83
.00453 .00413 .00413 1.10 3.95 3.83 3.68 3.53
1.593 1.00 1.24 1.18 0.98 0.93

570
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.13 — Initial Rates of H, Gas Production from Reactor-irradiated Uranium Solutions
Concentration, Enrichment, Fission energy:
Solute gm U/1 gm U*/l total energy pH
GH,
0.399 0.372 0.688 1.61
4.03 3.76 .957 3.26 1.66
18.6 1.63 .906 2.90 1.48
38.1 0.274 .619 0.95
40.7 37.9 .995 2.42 1.53
102.1 37.4 .995 2.00 1.35
105.2 38.9 .995 0.10 * 1.20
108.4 40.1 .995 1.35
202.3 0.063 .273 0.69
UO:SO, 202.5 37.6 .995 1.61 1. 11
203.4 189.6 .999 1.11
227.0 1.63 .906 0.98
3.10.4 0.096 .364 .62
386.0 1.63 .906
431.3 37.8 .995 1.32 .77
436.8 3.10 .949 .73
477.2 0.148 .467 .56
713.5 33.5 .995 .56
796.0 37.4 .995 1.03 .49

4.25 3.96 0.959 4.25 1.63

40.1 37.3 .995 3.32 1.58
118.8 37.1 .995 2.98 1.36
UO2F2 37.2 .995 2.64 1.11
27.2.0
377.0 39.3 .996 1.35* 0.84
405.7 42.3 .996 2.41 .95

4.24 3.95 0.960 1.63

42.3 39.4 .995 2.05 1.5
UO2(NO3)2
3.18.0 2.29 .932 1.03 0.6
420.1 36.9 .994 0.60 .55

42.2 39.3 0.995 1.95 1.45

U(SO4)2 92.5 35.1 .996 0.1 1.25

350.0 32.0 .995 0.75

*pH adjusted by adding acid

571
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

• Pure H.0
Fission Energy /Total Energy = 0.995
----- Fission Energy/Total Energy - O.906
--- Gammo Irradiation (O.O2 M Br-)

#;

O IOO 2OO 3OO 4OO 500

CONCENTRATION, gm U/1 solution

Fig. 4.3.7 – Effect of Uranium Concentration on Hydrogen Gas Yields from

Irradiated Uranyl Sulfate Solutions. Reprinted from CF-52–8–103. Submitted
by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

572
 :

4.3.8—Hydrogen
Fig.
from
Reprinted
Liter.
per
U*
of
gm
38
Containing
Solutions
Uranium
for
Yields
Gas
2OO
IOO
4OO
3OO

Composition.
of
Instead
Values
pH

Iondicates
C/
of
r espondence

sCOolution
I
U/
gmNCENTRATION,
(49-U-235/1)
Uoe(NO3)2
UO2
E
UO2SO4,
Fe,

o
Fe UO2SO4 UA
Uoe o Oe(NO3)2 LCFa-b5o2r–a8t–o1r0y3,.
National
Ridge
Oak
by
Submitted
1952.
25,
Nov.
(•
U
so,

#:

#
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

solution, whereas actually some gamma and some fast-neutron energy will escape. These
reported yields all relate to solutions in light water. No reported yields for heavy-water
solutions are known to the reviewer. Research on this problem is presently under way at
ORNL.
A secondary effect of radiation upon uranyl solutions is the formation and precipitation
of uranium peroxide. In discussing the products of irradiation, Boyle et al" present con
siderable additional support for the assumption that peroxide is an intermediate in the
formation of oxygen. Thus, for every molecule of hydrogen formed by radiation decompo
sition of water, one may assume that one molecule of peroxide is also formed; i.e., GH, =
Gho,. If environmental conditions are such that this peroxide is not destroyed, its con
centration will rise until the associated equilibrium concentration of uranium peroxide
exceeds its solubility limits. Studies of the kinetics of the decomposition of hydrogen per
oxide in uranyl sulfate solutions at temperatures up to 100°C have been carried out by
McDuffie et al.” The tolerable peroxide concentration, if precipitation is to be avoided is
related to a reactor power level, in the case of fissioning solution, by the expression:

C
PD — —BS—
= 0.005: G K1 (2)

where Css = the allowable steady-state molar concentration of peroxide

PD = reactor power density, kw/1
Ki = first-order rate constant for peroxide decomposition in the solution under
consideration, min"

A brief study” of the thermal decomposition of hydrated uranium peroxide in the pres
ence of excess liquid water was made by sealing water slurries of this compound into py
rex glass capsules which were then heated for measured lengths of time at various tem
peratures. Subsequent analyses for total uranium and peroxide uranium were used to
measure the extent of decomposition. The half-life for decomposition at 100°C was re
ported as about 400 hr, whereas the reaction was said to be essentially complete in one
hour at 185°C.
Recent experiments at ORNL" have raised the possibility of the existence of precipitated
uranium peroxide in uranyl sulfate solutions undergoing fission at high temperatures.
From this work, it appears that the temperature dependence of the decomposition of per
oxide, the tolerable concentration of peroxide to avoid precipitation, and/or the rates of
decomposition of crystalline uranium peroxide once formed must be more carefully eval
uated at elevated temperatures.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (R. B. BRIGGS)

Density

Several investigators have measured the density of UO2SO4-H2O solutions at tempera

tures between 0° and 100°C. Data have been obtained by Orban at the Mound Laboratory
for 0.174 to 2.473 molar solutions at temperatures of 20° and 30°C.” Densities were
measured at 30°C for solutions containing 25 to 60 wt-% of anhydrous uranyl sulfate and at
temperatures from 0° to 93°C for 51-, 39.9-, and 29.9-percent solutions by Helmholtz and
Friedlander at Los Alamos.” Lietzke, Wright, and Marshall” at ORNL measured the
density of 0- to 3.33-molar solutions at 25°C.
Two series of measurements of solution densities at temperatures above 100°C have
been reported by ORNL. Secoy determined the volume expansion of a 34.9—percent uranyl

574
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

sulfate solution at temperatures from 22° to 372°C. W. H. Davenport and R. H. Powell ob

tained data for several concentrations at 50°C and for 4.6-percent solution at 184° to 232°C.
These data are reported in convenient form by Marshall.”
Marshall has derived equations based on these data which relate the density of uranyl
solution to that of water at the same temperature:

***H.
U --
“ho (3)

T 120.9 1 + dh,o (4)

= -1.046
where dsoln and dH,of densities of solution and pure water, respectively, at the saturated
vapor pressure and the temperature of interest
U = concentration of uranium in wt-%
S = concentration of sulfate in wt-%

The equations agree with the experimental data to +0.5 percent at temperatures from 25°
to 300°C with solutions containing less than 10 wt-% uranyl sulfate. Agreement to +1.0 per
cent in the temperature range 120° to 250°C and to +2.0 percent in the ranges 25° to 120°C
and 250° to 280°C are obtained with concentrations from 10 to 50 percent.
Van Winkle” presents curves and formulas relating solution densities to temperature
and concentration based on a theoretical analysis. Agreement with the experiments is
reasonable but not as good as that obtained with the empirical formulas of Marshall.
Density data obtained by the investigators are presented in Tables 4.3.14 and 4.3.15. A
curve of the density of water at the saturation pressure as a function of temperature is
plotted in Fig. 4.3.9 for use with Eqs. (3) and (4).
The data are in good agreement with curves and formulas of Van Winkle and with the
following equation of Marshall obtained by substituting the density of D.O for that of H2O
in deriving Eqs. (3) and (4):

1
***H.I. + dd,o (5)
-U- -

1
(6)
-
1; – 0.944 + d
D2O

A curve for the density of D2O at the saturation pressure as a function of temperature
is also plotted in Fig. 4.3.9.

Wiscosity
Viscosity data for the UO, SOA-H2O system at 20° and 30°C as reported by Orban of the
Mound Laboratory are reproduced in Table 4.3.16. Van Winkle” has compared the data of
Roarty et al with published data for H2O and D2O to obtain the curves shown in Figs. 4.3.10
and 4.3.11. These curves are based upon extrapolation of low-temperature data to high
temperatures and are not expected to be accurate.

Heat Capacity
Van Winkle has estimated the heat capacity of dehydrated uranyl sulfate by comparison

575
 º:
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.14 – Density of Uranyl Sulfate Solutions at 20°–30°C

Conc., Conc.,
moles/liter wt-% UOISO, p;6 pi; 21
p56
3
P30
e
0.0 0.0 0.9970
.174 1.0543 1.0521
.4196 1.1295
.436 1.1381 1.1341
.644 1.2028 1.1986
.827 1.2614 1.2567
.8455 1.2668
.880 25.3 1.273
.986 1.3127 1.3068
1.10 30.0 1.349
1.233 1.3911 1.3839
1.2597 1.4002
1.36 34.9 1.420
1.406 1.4440 1.4383
1.53 38.0 1.476
1.604 1.50.72 1.5026
1.6755 1.5298
1.70 40.8 1.526
1.792 1.5658 1.5610
1.90 44.0 1.585
2.0939 1.66:10
2.11 46.8 1.652
2.3249 1.7260
2.43 50.6 1.758
2.473 1.7789 1.7727
2.5635 1.7994
2.7244 1.8573
2.8718 1.90.76
3.3309 2.0484
3.42 60.2 2.080

576
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.15—Effect of Temperature on Density of Uranyl Sulfate Solutions

Density
Temp., "C 4.4%” 4.6%.25 29.9% 34.9%% 39.9%” 51%."

0.0 1.3547 1.5350

15.0 1.3499 1.5283 1.7959
20.0 1.3479 1.5257 1.7926
22.3
25.0 1.3455 1.432 1.5228 1.7891
30.0 1.3430 1.5.199 1.7854
35.0 1.3403 1.5166 1.7816
40.0 1.3376 1.5133 1.7777
45.0 1.5099 1.7736
48.8 1.410
50.0 1.028 1.33:14 1.5064 1.7696
55.0 1.5028 1.7655
60.0 1.3249 1.4992 1.7612
65.0 1.7569
70.0 1.393 1.4913 1.7526
70.2 1.3178
75.0 1.7472
79.4 1.3106
79.9 1.4829
80.0 1.7427
88.0 1.380
93.2 1.2998
93.4 1.4713
93.6 1.7300
108.8 1.360
129.2 1.340
152.6 1.317
175.7 1.294
184 0.925
187 1.282
203 0.902
231.7 1.227
232 0.863
249.4 1.199
274 1.153
303.8 1.081
325.8 1.004
345.8 0.911
356.3 .861
366.5 .787
371.5 .753

577
#
1.2
:
T-Hºo-
*~..
-
*
*~
>+->
I.OH-E
TH-
so**-
*- *~
*- *~
*~
*—
O.9
S+S
N--F

N-
*4.
} N
SJ
N-
NA
O.8 ~
SS
N
Curve
Interpolated
*-
-
N
N Values
-Experimental
i N.
O.7
*
ºN.

N.
NN \
\
O.6}
V
\

O.5

~370°C
of
cross
Curves

O.4

o
“26
400
380
360
340
320
300
260
2
-
280
40
220
200.
160
140
12O
6O
40
IOO
8O 18O
"c
TEMPERATURE,

for
Relation
Density–Temperature
–
4.3.9
Fig.
Submitted
Water.
Heavy
and
Ordinary
Na
Ridge
Oak
by
Pressure:
one
Nov.
1952.
25,
Laboratory,
tional
saturation
point;
boiling
to
atmosphere
point
boiling
above
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.16–Viscosity of Uranyl Sulfate Solutions at 20° and 30°C

Viscosity, cp
*-

Concentration, moles/liter 20° 30°

0.174 1.128 0.8901

.436 1.359 1.063
.644 1.573 1.231
.827 1.809 1.403
.986 2.047 1.572
1.233 2.509 1.921
1.406 2.912 2.218
1.604 3.501 2.641
1.792 4.178 3.145
2.473 8.541 6.256

#i O

O.

O.I
IO 2O 4O 6O 8O IOO 2OO 400 6OO 800
TEMPERATURE, *c

Fig. 4.3.10—Absolute Viscosity vs Temperature for H, O, D.O, and Aqueous

UOISO, Solutions. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

579
É :

Q->

8
6
|
12
18
I6
14
30
28
26
24
22
20
40
38
36
34
32
50
48
46
44
42O
-?,
wi
UO2SO4,

4.3.11–Viscosity
Fig.
Concentration
vs
Solutions
Sulfate
Uranyl
for
Temperatures.
Various
at
Sub
Oak
by
mitted
Laboratory,
National
Ridge
1952.
25,
Nov.
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

with uranyl nitrate and with salts of other metals and has estimated the heat capacity of
solutions of uranyl sulfate in D2O. His estimated heat capacities of solutions at 25°C are
given” in Table 4.3.17 and plotted in Fig. 4.3.12.
The heat capacity of UO2SO4-D2O solutions at other temperatures is estimated by the
equation:

(cºr- (c.).;; (7)

where the subscripts T and 25 refer to temperatures on the Centigrade scale at which the
respective values for Cp are to be obtained.
The heat capacity of H2O as a function of temperature is presented in Fig. 4.3.13. Values
plotted are those estimated by Van Winkle.”
Included in Table 4.3.17 and Fig. 4.3.12 are estimated heat capacities for the UO2SO4–
H.O system at 25° and 250°C based upon data given by Van Winkle.* A curve of heat ca
pacity of H2O vs temperature obtained from Harrison’s report* is presented in Fig. 4.3.13.
The formula:

Cp (H2O)

where the symbols are defined as are those in Eq. (7), may be used to estimate the heat
capacities of UO2SO4-H2O solutions at elevated temperatures.

Surface Tension

The surface tension of UO, SOA-H2O solutions has been measured by Orban” at the
Mound Laboratory. These data are given in Table 4.3.18.
Van winkle” presents curves (Fig. 4.3.14) relating the surface tensions of several
uranyl sulfate solutions to temperature. They are based upon surface-tension data from
Dorsey,” Kirshenbaum's measurements” indicating that there is essentially no difference
between the surface tension of H2O and D2O at 25°C, and on measurements of UO2SO4-D,O
solutions obtained by Roarty et al” at temperatures between 30° and 80°C.

Refractive Index

The index of refraction of UO,SO,-H2O solutions at 25°C has been reported by Marshall.”
Data are presented in Table 4.3.19.

THE SYSTEM UO, F2-H2O AND RELATED SYSTEMS

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Chemical Stability (C. H. Secoy)

Uranyl fluoride, like uranyl sulfate, is strongly hydrolyzed in solution, and as a conse
quence, excess UOs is readily soluble in uranyl fluoride solutions. The solubility behavior
of the system is dependent on the stoichiometry of the salt. The system can be studied as
a simple two-component system, stoichiometric UO2F2-H2O, or it can be treated more
adequately as a three-component system, UOs–HF-H2O. In fact, at high temperatures
where the vapor phase contains HF as well as H2O, it must be treated as a three-component
system.

581
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.17 —Heat Capacities of Uranyl Sulfate Solutions

Estimated heat capacity at 25°C, cal/(gm) (*C)

UO2SO4, wt-% Do solutions Ho solutions
0 1.005 0.9983
10 0.916 .905
20 .830 .809
30 .745 .714
40 .658 .619
50 .568 .523
60 .474 .428
70 .370 .333
80 .252 .238

85.9 (UO2SO4–3D.O) .174

87.2 (UO2SO4–3H2O) . 170

N- 5

O.8 NSG is

t
=>sN.
STSN
O S N
: O.4 ST S
O YS
º
ul
r
O.2 NSN *

o5 IO 2O 3O 4O 50 6O 7o 80 Tºo
UO2SO4, wi-9,

Fig. 4.3.12—Heat Capacity of Aqueous Uranyl Sulfate Solutions. Submitted by

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

582
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Soturotion
Pressure

O 50 IOO 150 2OO 250 3OO 350 4OO

TEMPERATURE, *c

Fig. 4.3.13—Heat Capacity vs Temperature for Ordinary Water. Submitted by

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

Table 4.3.18—Surface Tension of UO2SO4-H.O Solutions at 20°C

Conc., moles/liter Surface tension, dynes/cm”

0.174 72.90
.436 73.03
.644 73.46
.827 73.88
.986 74.26
1.406 75.23

583
 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

*Z961 ‘92 “AON 'Âuoqeuoqº'I leuoņeN a ºpiºa xeo &q paņņņuuqns · suon
-níos omejins iſſue in joj put uafhæAA Kawah pune Auguſpio uoj aangeradual sa uoſsual aoejuns–#1° çºș ·?!）
00 ‘3&nıww.3dW3L
Oot Ogºs002OG-2002091OOI090

“NOISN31 30V38ns
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CHAP. 4.3

584
08
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.19 — Refractive Indices of UO,SO,-H.O Solutions at 25°C

Conc., moles/liter Refractive index

0.0 1.3320
.4196 1.3452
.8455 1.3583
1.2597 1.3705
1.6755 1.3844
2.0939 1.3973
2.3249 1.4024
2.5635 1.4089
2.7244 1.4145
2.87.18 1.4.189
3.3309 1.4312

The solubility of stoichiometric UO, F, in water has been reported by Katz,” by Kunin,”
and in a much more complete manner by W. L. Marshall, J. S. Gill, and C. H. Secoy.”
Their data are presented in Tables 4.3.20, 4.3.21, and 4.3.22, respectively, and are shown
graphically in Fig. 4.3.15. This system, like the uranyl sulfate system, displays a two
liquid phase region which, however, differs in that its upper temperature limit is an in
variant system (Solid - Liquid I - Liquid II - Vapor) rather than the critical vanishing of
One of the liquid phases.
The minimum in the two-liquid phase co-existence curve has been studied by Jones and
Marshall" in both H.O and in D.O. Their data' appear in Table 4.3.23. As in the case of
uranyl sulfate, the minimum is approximately 10° lower in D2O than in H2O.
A portion of the acid-rich system, UO, F.-HF-H, O, has been studied at 25°C by Kunin.”
His data are given in Table 4.3.24 and Fig. 4.3.16. The solubility of UOs in uranyl fluoride
solutions has been reported by Jones, Gill, Marshall, and Secoy" at 175° and 250°C and is
reported in Table 4.3.25. This study is being extended to other temperatures.
The effect of excess HF or UOs on the two-liquid phase region has not been studied
quantitatively.
The acidity of stoichiometric uranyl fluoride solutions as reported by Marshall, Gill,
and Secoy” is given in Table 4.3.26. The pH of the high-temperature UOs-saturated solu
tions as measured after cooling to 25°C is included in Table 4.3.25.

Radiation Stability
See discussion of this subject under Properties of Uranyl Sulfate Solutions.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (H. O. DAY)

Densities in the UO, F2-H2O and UOs–HF-H,O Systems”

Densities for these systems are shown in Tables 4.3.27 through 4.3.31.

Wiscosity and Thermal Conductivity

No data on these properties were found for the UOs–HF-H2O system.

Heat Capacity” of Solid UO, F,

Heat capacity is given for solid anhydrous UO.F. (no more than 0.07 wt-% impurity)
from 13° to 418°K (-260° to +145°C).

585
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.20 — Solubility of Uranyl Fluoride in Water

Temp., “C UO2F2, wt-%

25.0 67.3
75.0 69.6
99.9 72.4

Table 4.3.21 — Solubility of Uranyl Fluoride in Water

Temp., •C UO2F2, wt–%

1 61.4
25 65.6
60 71.0
100 74.1

586
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.22—The System Uranyl Fluoride-water

Invariant temp., Critical temp.,

UO, F2, wt-% Temp., *C Equilibrium phases” •C (Sa-Li-Lº-V) °C (Li-V)

44.23 –4.2 Sl-L-V

47.72 —5.0 SI-L-V
50.76 –5.9 SI-L-V
55.49 –7.8 SI-L-V
57.28 –8.1 SI-L-V
58.54 –9.2 SI-L-V
61.20 – 10.9 SI-L-V
62.58 – 11.9 SI-L-V
64.25t — 13.2f SI-So-L-V
64.28 – 10.7 So-L-V
64.30 0.0 So-L-V
64.40 10.1 So-L-V
66.09 19.7 So-L-V
66.50 30.5 So-L-V
67.78 39.8 So-L-V
67.25 51.2 So-L-V
68.45 54.3 So-L-V
68.42 60.1 So-L-V
69.37 65.8 So-L-V
71.73 75.0 So-L-V
73.02 89.8 So-L-V
76.98 125 So-L-V
81.72 150 So-Ss-L-V
81.40 195 Sa-L-V
82.61 219 Ss-L-V
83.0f 240t Sa-SA -L-V
82.53 243 So-L-V
81.22 252 So-L-V
77.05 283 So-L-V
72.31 322 So-L-V
70.5f 347t So-L1-L3-V
66.46 324 L1-L2-V 344
61.98 320 L1-L2-V
55.13 314 L1-L2-V 347
49.24 314 L1-L2-V 347
40.98 313 L1-L2-V 347
36.1 376

34.76 313 L1-L2–V 347

26.75 313 L1-L2-V 344
23.0 378

19.36 314 L1-L2-V

13.86 313 L1-L2–V
10.85 377

*SI = solid ice; Sa = solid a UO, F.2H2O; SB = solid 3UO, F2'2H.O; SA = solid ouo,F, XH.O;
L = saturated solution; L = H2O-rich liquid; L = UO2F2-rich liquid; W = vapor
t Extrapolated values

587
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

4OO I I

H y Solid + vapor
W T-U-
\ y Solid + Liquid I
V
350Hº-H=== •+l FCFS E
\
\ º
Liquid I + Liquid II * fº
W 5

$. _- 5- 5
F §
3OO +

us
cº"
->

25O
h 2D

§
$2 P .
uſzoo t
Unsofurated O
+"
ar Solution | ºw.

P
<
*CN

É g
a
> 150
ul
5–$
C
H.

IOO
O

o Q,
I c

e - 2
5O ;cu §E
P +
º

C
olº
Ice + Solution P-oooo…AB
Ice + a UO2Fe2H2O

-40 | |
O IO 2O 3O 4O 50 6O 7O 8O 90 IOO

UO2 Fe, wi-9,

Fig. 4.3.15–The System Uranyl Fluoride-Water. Submitted by Oak Ridge Na

tional Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

588
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.23 —Two-liquid Phase Temperatures for Uranyl Fluoride in H2O and D.O

In H2O In D.O
Temp., "C UO, F2, wt-% temp., "c UO,F, wi-º
350 4.42 340 5.24
326.2 14.73 340 16.12
315.8 24.77 308.4 18.67
315.8 36.99 310.4 20.85
315.3 51.90 307.4 26.01
322.2 65.15 307.4 36.25
308.7 52.43
312.6 59.86
313.1 62.80

Table 4.3.24—The System UO, F, HF-H,O at 25°

Liquid phase Wet Solid

HF, 9% UO, F2, 96 H2O, 9% Specific gravity HF, 9% UO2F2, 9% H2O, 96

0.0 65.55 34.45 2.224 -

1.28 47.58 51.14 -

3.59 39.78 56.63 - - -

9.78 32.25 57.97 1.430 - - - - - - - - -

11.88 31.88 56.24 1.440 8.52 51.95 39.53

20.70 22.29 57.01 - 18.20 32.50 49.30
25.75 18.19 56.01 - 14.51 51.25 34.24

32.51 11.35 56.14 1.231 | 12.06

3.50
64.47
83.76
23.47
12.74

41.70 6.10 52.20 - - 8.77 75.2 16.03

Table 4.3.25—The Solubility of UO, in Uranyl Fluoride Solutions at 175° and 250°C

175°C 250°C

Mole ratio Mole ratio

U, wt–% F, wt–% U/2F pH 25°C U, wt-% F, wt—% U/2F pH 25°C

1.14 0.18 1.012 4.65 3.89 0.672 0.924 2.92

3.99 .60 1.033 4.40 14.64 2.38 .982 3.50
5.23 .81 1.022 4.30 19.68 2.95 1.07 3.90
18.11 2.63 1.100 3.90 26.54 3.75 1.13 3.60
30.78 4.23 1.161 3.57 29.99 4.33 1.11 3.49
35.62 4.93 1.153 3.37 39.84 5.67 1.12 3.90
41.45 5.20 1.273 3.20 42.07 5.77 1.16 3.25
47.13 6.24 1.206 2.70 42.93 5.91 1.16 3.10
50.17 6.32 1.267 2.60 46.51 6.78 1.09 2.85
55.95 7.24 1.240 1.60

589
 C
F2
UO2
:
H.OfNT
UO.F.
o
H2O
Fe-2
UOz

Na
Ridge
Oak
by
Submitted
25°C.
O t
Fa-HF-H,
UO,
aSystem
4.3.16—The
Fig.
1952.
25,
Nov.
Laboratory,
tional
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.26—The pH of Uranyl Fluoride Solutions at 25°C

UO, F2, wt–% Density pH, 25°C

2.112 1.01.36 3.70

7.565 1.0699 3.18
13.86 1.1349 2.86
19.39 1.2005 2.69
26.75 1.3016 2.50
34.76 1.4411 2.25
40.98 1.5754 2.13
49.24 1.7511 2.05
55.13 1.9212 1.76
61.98 2.1764 1.52

Table 4.3.27—Solubility of UO, F, in Water

Temp., "C Wt-% Moles/liter Density, gm/ml

25.0 67.3 5.18 + 0.02 M 2.405

75.0 69.6 5.59 2.472
99.9 72.4 6.08 2.588

Table 4.3.28—Specific Gravity of UO, F, Solutions” at 25°C

Concentration”
*-

Concentration,” molar Molar Wt-% Sp.” grav.it

0.50 0.502 13.62 1.136
1.00 1.004 24.29 1.274
2.00 2.004 39.99 1.544
3.00 3.009 51.17 1.812
4.00 4.012 59.45 2.079
5.00 5.030 65.98 2.349
5.180 (Sat'd) 66.40 2.400

*From 0 to 4M the data are represented by the equation:

D = 0.997 + 0.277M – 0.0015M* (9)

where M = molarity
f Accuracy = +0.001 gm/ml

591
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.29—Densities in the UO, Fa-HF-Ho System”

Composition liquid, wit–% Wet Solid
-

Density (Diº) UOIF, , hr hr UOIF,

2.224 65.55 0 - - -

1.430 32.25 9.78 - - - - - -

1.440 31.88 11.88 8.52 51.95

1.231 1.35 32.51 12.06 64.47

3.50* 83.76*

* Partially dried

Table 4.3.30—Densities of Uranyl Fluoride Solutions” at 25°C

UO,F2 conc., wt-% Density* Density”

2.112 1.014 1.01.36
7.565 1.070 1.0699
13.86 1.135 1.1349
19.39 1.200 1.2005
26.75 1.302 1.3016
34.76 1.441 1.4412
40.98 1.575 1.5754
49.24 1.751 1.7511
55.13 1.921 1.9212
61.98 2.176 2.1764

* Listed in paper submitted for publication in Jour. Am. Chem. Soc.

592
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.31—Density of Uranyl Fluoride Solutions”

Density, gm/cc
UO, F1 conc., wt-%
Averaged analytical, —tº
Analytical dilutions* Exp. Cal.f 30°C (exp.)

2.495 1.0202f 1.0203

4.999 4.985 1.0443 1.0444 1.0429
5.025 1.0448 1.0448
10.20 10.20 1.0983 1.0984 1.0967
20.08 20.09 1.2164 1.2167 1.2146
20.46 20.48 1.22191 1.2219
30.09 30.10 1.3632 1.3635
30.14 30.18 1.3632 1.3646 1.3607
40.30 1.5509 1.5516 1.5481
50.27 50.27 1.7893 1.7899 1.7859
61.50 61.63 2.1627 2.1622 2.1589

*These values were obtained by considering all analyses in a series of quantitative dilutions.
Calculated values based on these concentrations. Concentration is principal uncertainty.
f Calculated by equation:

#- 1.0029 – 0.9126 F, 4 0.0578 F# (10)

where d is density and F, is weight fraction of UO, F,

f These values were determined by gradient tube method. All others by pycnometer of about
25 cc capacity

THE SYSTEM UO,(NO3)2-H2O AND RELATED SYSTEMS (E. V. JONES)

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

The monohydrate UO2(NOs), H2O is prepared by heating the dihydrate to 165°C in a

stream of HNO, vapor and CO, for 3 hr;” anhydrous UO,(NO), is prepared from
UO2(NOs), 3H2O by dehydrating below 130°C under HNO, vapor and CO, for more than 60
hr.

Thermal decomposition pressures are as follows:

Temp., “C 87 131 141 150 160*.*

Press., mm 95 157 219 340 540

2UO2(NOs), -2UOs + 4NO3 + O.

The heat of decomposition by the Nernst approximation formula is 39.442 kcal. The dis
sociation in solution is UO,(NOs), F UO.NO + NON. Alpha values are:

Eq./1 1.000 0.500 0.250 0.125 0.0625

o: 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.88 0.94

At concentrations less than 0.01 molar, a second dissociation occurs;” i.e., UO, NO =
UOft" + NOF.

593
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

The boiling points of the hydrates of UO2(NO3)2 are as follows" (vapor pressure of water
equals one atmosphere):

Monohydrate 292°C Trihydrate 176°C

Dihydrate 281°C Hexahydrate 128°C

A saturated solution of UO2(NO3), at 22°C gave a yellow cloudy solid on a quartz tube at
264°C, more at 290°C with yellow vapor, and yellow precipitate at 335°C. Vapors deepened
to wine red at 380°C. As the temperature dropped, the color changes reversed. The solu
tion was a clear yellow at all temperatures.”

Solubility
Solubility data for the uranyl nitrate—water system from 60° to 184°C are given in
Tables 4.3.32 and 4.3.33. The melting point of the dihydrate is 184°C; decomposition oc
curs above 184°C. The incongruent melting point of the trihydrate is 113°C.”
Ther: is evidence that UO,(NO3)2 - 6H2O changes to UO2(NO3)2 - 24H2O between –25° and
–35°C.
At temperatures above 250°C, uranyl nitrate solutions are found to hydrolyze,” precipi
tating anhydrous or hydrated UOs. Table 4.3.34 gives the highest temperatures at which
the solutions are stable. Stability data for UO2(NO3)2 solutions for periods greater than
200 hr, during which no significant decomposition occurs, are given in Table 4.3.35. All
runs were made with oxygen of not less than 200 psi when reduced to room temperature.
The solid phase appearing in this study was thought to be one of the two polymorphic forms
Of UOs H2O.
-

Further data showing the lowest temperatures at which UO2(NO3)2–HNOs solutions begin
to hydrolyze to UOs are summarized in Table 4.3.36. The results of a study of the thermal
decomposition of aqueous uranyl nitrate solutions are summarized in Tables 4.3.37 and
4.3.38.

Radiation Stability
See previous discussion given for uranyl sulfate systems.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF URANYL NITRATE - WATER SYSTEMS

(H. O. DAY, JR. AND C. H. SECOY)

Density

UO2(NOs), in H.O
The densities of aqueous solutions of uranyl nitrate over a wide range of concentrations
and at temperatures up to 100°C have been reported by a number of workers (references
48-51, 40, 44, and 52–55). In addition, such references as the International Critical
Tables," Gmelin's Handbuch,” the Landolt-Bornstein Tabellen,” and Mellor's Treatise”
quote values from the original literature or present smoothed values derived therefrom.
In view of the ready accessibility of these data, they are not reproduced here.
A graphic inspection of all the values for the density at 25°C as a function of concentra
tion discloses that all data obtained prior to 1940 lie on a smooth curve, whereas all values
reported since 1940 agree well with another smooth curve but are not in agreement with
the earlier data. The more recent data are consistently about 1.2 percent higher. The
reason for this increase is not obvious, and whether it reflects improved techniques in
density determinations or greater purity of materials is not known. In view of the care

594
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.32—the Solubility of Uranyl Nitrate in Water,” 60°–184°C

Solid phase
Temp., "C UO2(NO3)2, liquid, Լ UO2(NO3)2, 9% Composition

70 77.25 UO2(NO3)2·3H2O
77 87.08 (theoret. 87.95) UO2(NO3)2.3H2O
77.2 78.49 UO2(NO3)2.3H2O
85 79.92 UO2(NO3)2.3H2O
90.5 80.98 UO2(NO3)2.3H2O
92 81.37 87.05 UO2(NO3)2.3H2O
100 82.57 UO2(NO3)2·3H2O
110 84.14 UO2(NO3)2.3H2O
113* 84.67 UO2(NO3)2·3H2O +
UO2 (NO3)2. 2H2O
120 85.25 UO2(NO3)2·2H2O
130 86.13 UO2(NO3)2.2H2O
133 86.54 UO2(NO3)2·2H2O
137 87.07 UO2(NO3)2·2H2O
141.2 87.02 UO2(NO3)2·2H2O
141.5 90.58 (theoret. 91.63) UO2(NO3)2·2H2O
147 87.75 UO2(NO3)2·2H2O
154.5 88.23 UO2(NO3)2·2H2O
159 88.74 UO2(NO3)2·2H2O
160 88.94 UO2(NO3)2·2H2O
165.5 89.22 UO2(NO3)2·2H2O
172 89.92 UO2(NO3)2·2H.O
180 90.78 UO2(NO3)2·2H2O
181 91.01 UO2(NO3)2·2H2O
184f 91.63 UO2(NO3)2·2H2O

* Intersection point for incongruent melting point, trihydrate

f True melting point, dihydrate

Table 4.3.33—Melting Point Determinations”

UO2(NO3)2, wt-% 87.2 87.5 89.1 89.9 91.63

First observed melting, "C 113 113 113 112 184

595
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.34—High-temperature stability Limits of UO,(NOs), Solutions” with Excess HNO,

UO2(NOs), conc., M Excess HNOs conc., M Temp., "C

0.055 None 265 + 7

.322 None 265 + 9
.280 0.09 :271 + 3
.241 .16 281 + 3
.349 .70 301 + 11
.350 .90 >279 + 3
.322 2.00 =298
1.000 None >288 + 2

Table 4.3.35–Long-term Stabilities of UO,(NOs), at High Temperatures*

UO2(NO3)2, M HNOs, M Temp., "C Total time, hr

0.055 None 250 – 260 397

.322 None 260 + 4 213
.349 0.7 295 + 5 193
.340 .9 250 – 281 573
1.00 None 249 – 291 880

Table 4.3.36—Data on UOs–HNOs-H,O System"

Analytical molarities Molalities

Excess No. Excess NO;

Temp., "C U Total NO; (by dif.) U Total NO; (by dif.)

265 + 5* 0.055 0.110 0.000 0.055 0.110 0.000

265 + 5* .322 .644 .000 .331 .662 .000
313 + 5* .945 1.89 .00 1.025 2.05 .00
269 + 2* .015 0.10 .09 0.015 0.10 .09
281 + 2* .241 .56 .08 .247 .57 .08
329 + 2 .951 2.00 .10 1.037 2.18 .11
315 + 5 .358 1.10 .38 0.374 1.15 .40
341 + 2 .892 2.08 .30 .973 2.27 .32
350 + 2 .984 2.35 .38 1.085 2.59 .42

* Taken from previous data

596
 |
and
Nitrate-Wat
Uranyl
of er
Characteristics
Nitrate-Nitr
Solutions
Acid-Water ic
rmal
Stability
4.3.37—The
Table
Nitrate–Nitr
Uranyl
and
Nºte
Uranyl.
Aqueous
Gill,
S.
J.
Marshall
L.
(w. ic above
Solutions
Acid-Water
28,
1951)
Feb.
ORNL-990, 100°C,

of
Temperature of
vapor
Temp. direct
of
Temp. Highest
Run UO2(NO3)2, HNO3, “dry”
solid coloration,
phase precipitation *
temperature, Observations

No. M M “C
formation, •C "C
solution,
from °C run
after

. 0.171 290 observed

None observed
None 344
(explosion)
.90 300 305 observed
None (explosion)
366
.90 0.05 310 310 observed
None 325 3o
t
1
Est.
yellow
of
mg
precipitate
.90 .10 305 300 observed
None 325 3o
t
1
Est.
yellow
of
mg
precipitate
.90 .20 observed
None 300 observed
None 325 observable
No
change
.90 .20 observed
None 300 observed
None (explosion)
371
1.90
at
(sat'd 270 290 340 376 3o
t
1
Est.

22°C) yellow
of
mg
precipitate
1.80 0.03 330 290 observed
None 378 3o
t
1
Est.
yellow
of
mg
precipitate
1.80 .42 observed
None 280 observed
None (explosion)
350
observed
None 290 None 351
observed observable
No
10 1.80 .42
change

the
heat
increasing
slowly
by
5
in
h
6 or
treached
temperatures
*These
:
§
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.38—Thermal Decomposition of Aqueous Uranyl Nitrate Solutions"

Observations
UO2 (NOs)2'6H2O, Run Mixing
wt-% No. Temp., "C time, hir Solution Vapor

3.24 1 250 18 Clear Colorless

260 4 Clear Colorless
270 4 Yellow solid appeared Colorless
12.52 2 280 Clear Colorless
288 – 295 Clear Slight yellow-brown
295 Yellow solid appeared Yellow-brown

30.53 3 285 Clear Slight yellow-brown

300 Clear Yellow-brown
314 Yellow solid appeared Red-brown

54.78 4 250 Clear Colorless

260 Clear Slight yellow-brown
270 Clear Yellow-brown
320 Clear Red-brown
338 Clear Intense red-brown (tube
explosion)
54.78 5 350 Yellow solid precip Intense red-brown
itated

72.48 6 240 Clear Slight yellow-brown

275 – 300 42 Clear Red-brown
312 18 Clear Intense red-brown
328 Yellow solid appeared Intense red-brown

72.48 7 330 18 Yellow solid appeared Intense red-brown

85.83 8 208 Clear Slight yellow-brown

215 Clear Red-brown
222
280 : Yellow solid appeared
No increase in pre
cipitation (?)
Red-brown

91.62 9 184 Melting point of Red-brown above

184°C

598
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

required to obtain uranyl nitrate free of excess nitrate ion, it may be that the material
used in the earlier work was always contaminated with excess HNOs.
The curve for the more recent data can be described by the empirical equation:

Di" = x(a + b x) + 0.997.04 x,

where xi = the mole fraction of UO2(NO3)2, x2 = the mole fraction of water, and a and b are
constants (a = 18.95; b = –59). This equation reproduces all data obtained since 1940 with
a mean error of less than 0.2 percent.
The earlier data can be described by the same equation, but in order to secure equally
good agreement, it is necessary to select different values of the constants a and b for dif
ferent concentration ranges, as follows:

10°xi a b

0–1.5 15.43 – 113.3

1.5–12.6 15.00 +175.5
12.6–32.0 17.75 –43.0
32.0—saturation 18.64 –71.25

For purpose of calculation, the equation can be put in the form:

Di" = x(a – 1 + bx) + 0.99704

The temperature dependence is not so easily amenable to a simple empirical expression.
The data of Grant et al,” are more complete than those of any other and, insofar as one
can judge, are as reliable. They are reproduced in Table 4.3.39. For convenience, the
data on surface tension and viscosity taken from this reference are included in the table.

Three-component Systems: UOr (NO3)2-H, O-X

Densities for the system UO,(NOs),-HNO,-H2O are available in graphic form" and are
not reproduced here. Additional data appear in Table 4.3.40.

UO, (NOx), Solutions Containing H,SO, and HNO;

Densities of solutions of uranyl nitrate containing boun sulfuric acid and nitric acid have
been reported by Turk and Olson." Their values are given in Table 4.3.41.

Wiscosity of Uranyl Nitrate Solutions

For the data of W. E. Grant et al, see Table 4.3.49. Further viscosity data are given by
Clagett” and are presented in Table 4.3.42.

Thermal Conductivity

No thermal conductivity data could be found for the UOs-HNOs-H.O system.

Heat Capacities of Uranyl Nitrate Solutions

The Project Handbook, Report CL-697, reports the heat capacities of some uranyl nitrate
solutions. These heat capacities are shown in Tables 4.3.43 and 4.3.44. The values were
obtained by interpolation between the heat capacity of pure water and the heat capacity of
solid UO,(NO3)2 - 6H2O as determined by Coulter et al" and reproduced in Table 4.3.45.

599
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.39 —Density, Surface Tension, and Viscosity of Uranyl Nitrate Solutions

UO2(NO3)2·6H2O Density, Surface tension, Absolute

Temp., "C conc., moles/liter gm/cc dynes/cm viscosity, cp

0 0.1529 1.0509 1.90

25 . 1523 1.0473 0.943
30 .1521 1.0459 .844
40 ..1515 1.0420 .691
50 .1507 1.0365 .580
60 .1501 1.0324 .492
0 0.2291 1.0740 76.4 1.98
20 .2286 1.0714 73.3 1.11
25 .2283 1.0703 72.4 0.989
30 .2280 1.0687 71.6 .884
35 .2277 1.0671 70.6 .796
40 .2273 1.0651 69.8 .726
50 .2262 1.0609 68.5 .603
60 .2253 1.0559 66.9 .514
80 .2230 1.0457 63.2
100 .220.1 1.0315 59.9

0 0.4127 1.1328 76.6 2.19

20 .4112 1.1291 73.4 1.22
25 .4107 1,1275 72.7 1.09
30 .4102 1.1260 72.0 0.974
35 .4094 1.1240 71.3 .880
40 .4088 1.1219 70.4 .794
50 .4071 1.1175 69.0 .668
60 .4053 1. 1124 67.5 .568
80 .4019 1.1026 63.6
100 .3966 1.0889 60.6

0 0.4842 1.1575 2.26

20 .4828 1.1540 1.28
25 .4821 1.1522 1.14
30 .4815 1.1506 1.02
35 .4804 1.1488 0.195
40 .4800 1.1477 .832
50 .4777 1. 1423 .696
60 .4755 1.1369 .587

0 0.6250 1.1985 76.8 2.43

20 .6219 1.1920 73.7 1.33
25 .6210 1.1903 73.0 1.22
30 .6201 1.1886 7.2.2 1.09
35 .6.191 1.1867 71.5 0.978
40 .6181 1.1847 70.6 .892
50 .6158 1.1800 69.2 .745
60 .6131 1.1748 67.8 .632
80 .6074 1.1642 64.2
100 .5995 1.1492 61.0

0 0.8316 1.2701 77.6

20 .8271 1.2634 74.6
25 .8260 1.2615 73.9
30 .8247 1.2596 73.4
35 .8231 1.2570 72.7
40 .8215 1.2546 71.8
50 .8181 1.2495 70.3
60 .8145 1.2440 69.0
80 .8063 1.2314 65.0
100 .7980 1.218.7 61.9

600
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.40–Densities of UOs–HNOs–H.O Solutions

Temp., *C Density UOs, 36 HNO3, 96 Solid phase Reference

25 1.012 1.52 0.36 UOs-XH2O 61

25 1.033 3.28 .82 UOs-XH2O 61
25 1.073 6.71 1.81 UOs' XH2O 61
25 1.114 9.95 2.74 UOs-XH2O 61
25 1.214 17.0 4.65 UOs' XH2O 61
25 1.213 17.2 4.70 UOs' XH2O 61
25 1.241 18.5 5.11 UOs'YH2O 61
25 1.419 28.2 8.07 UOs'YH2O 61
25 1.752 40.4 13.0 UOs'YH2O 61
25 2.088 49.4 15.9 UOs'YH2O 61
25 2.101 49.8 16.0 UOs'YH2O 61
25 1.900 43.7 17.2 UO2(NO3)2·6H2O 61
25 1.821 40.9 18.2 UO2(NO3)2·6H2O 62
25 1.681 25.3 39.8 UO2(NO3)2·6H2O 62
40 1.338 22.79 10.04 60
40 1.354 22.79 12.04 60
40 1.372 22.79 14.04 60
40 1.462 28.48 12.55 60
40 1.482 28.48 14.55 60
40 1.501 28.48 16.55 60
42.5 (2.17)* 36.8 32.1 63
48.1 (2.07)* 44.9 25.5 63
50.5 (2.17)* 46.5 28.5 63
53.8 2.26 50.4 26.6 63
59.9 2.19 53.2 28.8 63
62.9 2.18 (52.4)* 31.7 63
93.5 2.50 58.0 27.6 63
96.0 2.55 58.7 26.3 63
96.0 2.54 (61.5)* 26.9 63
104.0 2.77 (59.0)* 29.6 63
106.0 2.92 62.4 26.4 63
106.0 3.11 62.8 26.9 63
106.0 2.84 62.8 31.3 63
110.2 2.92 62.9 23.9 63
111.0 3.34 (60.8)" 25.3 63
160f 2.95 64.2 28.6 63
130.0 3.17 64.5 26.2 63

* Values in parentheses are doubtful. Density units are undefined, but probably are D;
f The value is uncertain in that the report is not clear here

601
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.41 —Density of Uranyl Nitrate Solutions Containing Sulfuric Acid and Nitric Acid

Density
UHN, 9% H2SO4, 3% HNOs, % 20°C 30°C 50°C

16.5 3.0 0.8 1.144 1.138 1.130

21.8 4.0 1.1 1.204 1.197 1.188
27.2 5.1 1.3 1.268 1.260 1.250
35.0 7.1 1.9 1.374 1.364 1.354
37.7 7.1 1.9 1.423 1.4.18 1.406
40.0 8.1 2.1 1.447 1.436 1.424
43.0 8.1 2.1 1.523 1.511 1.498
48.3 9.0 2.4 1.630 1.617 1.602

Table 4.3.42—Viscosity of Uranyl Nitrate Solutions*

No. 1 spindle No. 2 spindle Solution composition

Temp., "C 100 rpm 50 rpm. 100 rpm 50 rpm UOs, # HNO3, # H2O, #
100 25 18 25 24 50.4 26.6 23.0
100 42 30 42 34 58.7 26.3 14.9
120 45 33 53 41 62.4 26.4 11.2
125 60 50 67 50 (60.8)f 25.3 14.0

*These viscosities were determined with a Brookfield Synchro-Lectric Viscometer, Multi

Speed Model RVF
f Value in parenthesis is doubtful

Table 4.3.43—Heat Capacity of Uranyl Nitrate Solutions at 25°C

Specific heat relative to H2O

Anhydrous UO2(NOs), 9% at 15°C; Cp at 25°C, cal/(gm)(C)
0 0.997
5 .97
10 .94
15 .91
20 .87
25 .84
30 .79
35 .75
40 .70
43 (eutectic) .68
45 .65
50 .59
55 .53

602
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.44—Heat Capacities of Uranyl Nitrate Solutions in Terms of

Uranyl Nitrate Hexahydrate

UO2(NOs),•6H2O, 3% Cp, cal/(gm)(C)

0 0.997
5 .975
10 .95
15 .925
20 .90
25 .875
30 .84
35 .81
40 .78 -

45 .74
50 .70
55 .66
60 .62
65 .57
70 .525

Table 4.3.45 – Heat Capacities of Solid Uranyl Nitrate Hexahydrate

Temp., "K CP, cal/(deg) (mole)

273.08% 103.2
274.73* 102.6
275.53 102.8
282.13* 105.3
283.09* 106.1
283.36 105.7
285.31* 107.1
287.63 106.6
290.65% 109.1
296.17 110.9
298.68% 112.2

* Considered the better values. 0°C is taken as 273.10°K

603
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Heat capacities of uranyl nitrate solutions are given on page 114 in Gmelin's Handbuch.”
This work quotes Dittrich.” It is stated that the average heat capacity in cal/(gm)(“C) in
the temperature range 20° to 55°C for a 0.5N UO2(NO3)2 solution is 0.892, and that of a
0.25N solution is 0.957. Gmelin also quotes W. Oechsner de Coninck” to the effect that the
specific heat of a 10-percent aqueous solution of UO2(NO3)2 - 6H2O is 0.946. No temperature
range is given.
More recent experimental heat capacities as reported by M. Lister" are given in Table
4.3.46. The report by Lister also gives heat capacities for NH4NOs, UO,(NO3)2 + NH4NOs,
and UO2(NO3)2 + NH4NO3 + HNOs solutions.

Table 4.3.46–Heat Capacities of Uranyl Nitrate Solutions

Conc. of UO2(NO3)2, Cp of solution, Conc. of UO2(NO3)2, Cp of solution,

wt–% cal/(gm) ("C) wt-% cal/(gm)(*C)

11.8 0.894 47.4 .583

25.9 .759 52.4 .530
26.2 .757 52.7 .542
39.3 .646 55.5 .493
39.3 .641 55.6 .521
46.75 .573 56.0 .513
47.2 .574

Heat capacity data for uranyl nitrate solutions in butex and HNOs are given by Jenkins
et al.” For pure UO,(NOs), solution at a concentration of 300 gm U/liter, the heat capacity
at 25°C is given as 0.93 cal/(gm)(°C).
In a paper by Katzin, Simon, and Ferrara" it is stated that a heat-capacity plot of
UO2(NO3), solution shows that composition vs heat capacity is linear from 0.770 cal/(gm)(C)
at 25 wt-% UO2(NO3)2 to the heat capacity value for pure water. This conclusion is obtained
from a combination of their own data with that of Lister's data just given.

Heats of Solution and Dilution of Uranyl Nitrate Solutions

J. Aloy” states that addition of the heat of solution for UO2(NO3)2 - 3H2O is –3.7 kcal/mole
of salt. The experimental conditions are solution of one mole of the salt in 1000 to 2500
moles of water between 18° and 20°C.
Gmelin (page 113, reference 40) quotes heats of dilution from a paper by C. Dittrich.”
Heat of dilution of a 0.5N UO2(NO3)2 solution is 4 cal when the solution is diluted from 200
to 400 cm” at 19°C. For a 0.25N solution at 15°C and for the same dilution, the heat of
dilution is 11 cal.
W. Oechsner de Coninck” gives the heat of solution of UO.)NOs), 3H2O at -3.8 kcal.
Marketos" gives some heats of solution for UO2(NO3)2 and a number of its hydrates as
follows (the dilution factors are not given):

Salt Heat of solution, kcal Salt Heat of solution, kcal

UO2(NO3)2 +16 UO2(NO3)2·3H2O +2.00

UO2(NO3)2·2H2O +5.42 UO2(NO3)2·6H2O — 4.76

de Forcrand (p. 1207, reference 38; p. 24, reference 41) is quoted by Gmelin (p. 113,
reference 39). It is stated that the heats of solution of one mole of anhydrous uranyl nitrate
and its hydrates in 1000 to 1100 moles H2O at 11° to 13°C are as follows:

604
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Salt Heat of solution, kcal

UO2(NO3)2 +19.00
UO2(NO3)2. H2O (?) 11.87
UO2(NO3)2 2H2O 5.05
UO2(NO3)2 - 3H2O 1.35
UO2(NO3)2 - 6H2O —5.45

It might be noted at this point that Colani” and Germann and Frey" deny the existence
of a monohydrate, and a heat of solution for such a species is reported only by de Forcrand
(except in other reference works in which de Forcrand is the original source). It should
also be noted that heat lost to the surroundings has been given the plus sign, a convention
which is not used at the present time.
The widely used reference work on thermochemistry by Bichousky and Rossini" gives
the following:

Heat of solution
(12°; 220 moles H2O),
Compound kcal

UO2(NO3)2 +19.0
UO2(NO3)2 H2O 11.87
UO2(NO3)2 2H2O 5.05
UO2(NO3)2 3H2O 1.85
UO2(NO3)2 - 6H2O —5.45

It will be noted that almost all the heat-of-solution values given are taken from the work
of de Forcrand. An exception is the value given for the trihydrate. This could be a typo
graphical error (8 instead of 3), or else Bichousky and Rossini made some unknown weigh
ing between other sources and that of de Forcrand.
de Forcrand (p. 24, reference 41) distinctly writes that 1000 to 1100 moles of water were
used. This makes the value of 220 moles quoted by Bichousky and Rossini a definite error.
Coulter, Pitzer, and Latimer" give the value of the heat of solution of uranyl nitrate
hexahydrate as:

AHsoln = 5.25 kcal/mole

The dilution factor was the addition of 1 mole of the UNH to 929 and 911 moles of water,
or an average of 920 moles of H2O. Here, heat lost to the surroundings is given the minus
sign.
Values for the heats of solution of uranyl nitrate and its hydrates as given on p. 52 of the
Project Handbook" are as follows:
Heat of Solution

Compound kcal/mole Btu/lb

UO2(NO3)2 19.00 86.8
UO2(NO3)2 - H2O 11.87 51.9
UO2(NO3)2 - 2H2O 5.05 21.1
UO2(NO3)2 - 3H2O 1.35 5.43
UO2(NO3)2 - 6H2O —5.25 – 18.8

It is stated that the final concentration is 1 mole of the compound in 220 moles of water.
This is a repetition of the statement by Bichousky and Rossini which has shown to be in

605
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

error. The numerical values are taken from the work of de Forcrand except for UNH.
Here the value of AH found by Coutler et al is used.
Report CL-697 gives Gmelin (pp. 113-116, reference 39), Bichousky and Rossini,” and
Borst (private communication) as the references for the values reported.
Figure 3 II C. 4 of Report CL-697 is a plot of heat of solution of uranyl nitrate hexahy
drate vs weight-percent of UNH in the solution. The origin of this plot is not discussed,
and exactly which data were used to formulate the curve are not known.
Heats of solution and dilution of UO,(NOs), 6H2O are given by Lister." The results of
two runs are as follows:

Run No. 1, 22.5°C Run No. 2, 24.35°C

Q, cal Conc. of UNH, 36 Q, cal Conc. of UNH, 36
5315 12.5 5260 17.65
5180 26.3 5340 30.0
5260 36.4 5455 39.1
5560 44.0 5630 46.1
5650 50.0 5835 51.7
5845 54.8 6130 57.6
6020 58.8 6420 62.2
6225 62.2 6690 65.9
6490 65.9

Q is the number of calories which must be added to a solution to bring it back to its
original temperature when 1 mole of solid UO2(NO3)2 - 6H2O is dissolved in water to give a
solution of the given concentration.
The most recent and perhaps the most accurate heat-of-solution data are found in a
paper by Katzin, Simon, and Ferrara.” Although the data can be found in various ANL re
ports of a previous date, all pertinent data are included in their paper, from which the
following information is taken:

Heat of solution,
Compound kcal/mole of solid
UO2(NO3)2 - 2H2O —5.37 ± 0.06
UO2(NO3)2 - 3H2O — 1.66 + .05
UO2(NO3)2 6H2O
- 5.48 + .03

The dilution ratio is 1 mole of solid to 180 moles of water. Heat lost to the surroundings
is given the minus sign. For the dihydrate the data agrees with Marketos" but not with
de Forcrand.
The value for the trihydrate is almost equal to the average between the values of
Marketos and de Forcrand. The value for the hexahydrate agrees with de Forcrand but not
with the data of Coulter et al.” The terminal concentration of the uranyl nitrate in the ex
periments of Coulter et al and de Forcrand were about five times as dilute as the solutions
used by Katzin et al.
The paper by Katzin et al includes heats of solution of uranyl nitrate in various organic
liquids.

URANYL CARBONATE SYSTEMS (E. V. JONES)

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Uranyl carbonate, UO2COs, may be prepared by the action of UOs slurry and CO, in an
autoclave at high temperature.” It forms a cream-colored crystal of density about 5.7.

606
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Solubility at 30°C is 0.0028 gm/100 gm H2O and at 60°C is 0.0083 gm/100 gm H2O. It forms
unidentified complexes with Na2CO3.
The results of detailed studies on the UO2COs-NazCOs–H2O system are presented in
Tables 4.3.47 and 4.3.48. The data in Table 4.3.47 are for Solutions in contact with Solid
UO2CO3(U/COs = 1.01 to 1.03); data in Table 4.3.48 are for solutions in contact with solid
Na4UO2(COs)s. In experiment 1030, both solids were present.
A plot of data for the 3-component system shows that the region of solubility for this
system is small. It has a sharp eutectic between the solution in contact with solid tricar
bonate and that in contact with solid uranyl carbonate.
The data for the UOs-NazCOs–H2O system are summarized in Table 4.3.49; data for the
Nasuo,(COs),-NaHCO,-H2O system" are summarized in Table 4.3.50.
Sodium uranyl carbonate, 2Na,COs-UO.COs, was obtained" by slow evaporation of UO,SO,
solution containing an excess of Na2COs while CO2 bubbled through it. Its solubilities in
various solvents at 30°, 60° and 90°C are summarized in Tables 4.3.51, 4.3.52, and 4.3.53.
Evidence for the existence of the tricarbonate ion, UO,(COs).", was obtained by spec
trophotometric methods," and an approximate value of its dissociation constant was calcu
lated for the following mechanism:

UO2(COs): == UO,(COs)" + Co.”

The approximate value of K, = 4.5 x 10".
The following metal salts were found to give complex uranyl-metal-carbonates: Ag, Hg",
Hg”, Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn, Fe", Ni, Co, Ba, and Sr. Mg, Ca, Al, and Mn did not give such com
79
plexes.
Two new complex sodium-uranyl-carbonates, Nasſ(UO2)2(COs)s] and Nasſ(UOs)3(UO2)2-
(COs);], have been prepared and their principal reactions studied.” The approximate de
composition temperatures for the complex sodium uranyl carbonates are as follows:

Nasſ(UOs)3(UO2)2(COs)s] 400°C
Nasſ(UO2)2(COs)s] 410°
Nasſuo,(CO3)3] 420°

Compounds having the general formulas [UO2(CO3)3] M, and [(UO2)2(COs)s] Ms, where M
represents Mg, Ca, Sr, or Ba, have been prepared and, in most cases, isolated.” They
are readily hydrolyzed. No similar Be salts could be obtained. The solubility of KUO,-
(COs); in K2COs solutions at 25°C is summarized by Blake and Lowrie in Table 4.3.54
(p. 36, reference 81), and a comparison of the solubility of UO.CO, in K2COs and Na2COs
solutions at 25°C is given (p. 7, reference 82) in Table 4.3.55.
A study was made of the effect of carbon dioxide pressure on the stability of saturated
(0.24M) NatuO2(COs); solutions (at 25°C) when heated to 250°C in silica tubes by H. W.
Wright and J. S. Gill (The Effect of Carbon Dioxide on the Sodium Uranyl Carbonate—
Water System. ORNL-1121, Aug. 1951). The presence of carbon dioxide retarded and de
creased the amount of yellow precipitate but did not prevent its formation at 200°C.

Radiation Stability (J. W. Boyle)

A few radiation experiments were made on uranium solutions in alkali media in 1945.
It was found” that, as the uranium concentration was changed (by adding UOs) from
0.01–0.02M and the concentration of Na2COs was varied from 0.1–0.2M, the amount of
hydrogen gas liberated per fission differed by only 5 percent in three experiments. In
an experiment” in which the uranium concentration was “varied over a wide range” in
0.3M NaHCOs, a deviation of about 10 percent from the value at 3 gm U/1 was observed.
At 70°C, there was an indication that hydrogen production was 15 percent lower than at

607
AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

*(°OO)ºon’eN Jo aouasoud saoqs anpĮsøı pĮĮos,

#*88 6*8 L"ZI 8’88 #*º 8ºz 0*II 09I’I 9*898’6I0’90I ºOOHæN + ºoOºOn 90ý
O’I6 Zºz 8°9 6°06 6’I 8’I 6°9 61,0° I Zº LZI*OI0'89 ºOOHæN + ºOoºOn †0ý
9° 1,6 9°0 8’I 9° 1,6 g’0 #*0 gº I 6IO’I 6*96°Z6°ZI ºOOHæN + ºoOºOn 80ý
0°89 8°0ľ Zº Iſº 0*89 9*8 gº9 0” LØ 06ý“I OºzLI 8’IL 0° 988 ºooºeN %8I + ºOoºOn 8 #0I
8*09 9º6 Zº08 I’I9 Zº!, 9 ºg Zº9Z # Lý“I 0"#ffI O’I 9 0° IZ8 ºoOºeN %9'I + ºOoºOn I80I
6°09 6°6 Zº6Z 8*I9 Zºſ, 8°9 Zºg? OLý”I 0’ſ; †I 8°Z9 0°608 + 'queoſ I) + ºOoºOn 080I
Iºſ：9 8' 8 I* 12 g’89 €”L !,”9 g’82 Izý“I 0*If I 9° 69 0° 81,Z ºoOºeN 3,91 + °OOºOn 8 #0I
Zº99 9°/ſ, Zº92 8º99 I’9 gºș 9°ZZ 81,8” I #*8II ſºgiº 0° 69Z ºOoºeN %ZI + ºOoºOn 0I 01
8°01, 0”E, ZºZZ I "IL gºg I’ſ 8°6I #Iº|I 8°868°68 0° IIZ ºoOºeN 3,0L + ºOoºOn I#0I
Iºſyſ, 9°9 #*6I Z * #1 L"# 0** I” LI L9Z" I ZºI39°98 9°9'LI ºoOºeN 3,8 + “OoºOn 800I
6°08 9*# gºțI 9*08 8' 8 0'8 9’ZI 88 I * I #*I9Zº9Z0’ſ， I ºoOºeN 3,9 + ºOoºOn †700I
6*98 8' 8 8’OI 8° 98 L"Z I’Z #*6 Z8I'I Z’Ziff6°9'I0°88 ºqueoſ I) + ºOoºOn 000I
9°98 #*º 0*01 L"98 L"Z 0°Z 9° 8 IZI * I #’Off#*9I9°08 ºOoºeN %ý + ºOoºOn †80I
8°26 8’I Gº G 6°Z6 #*I O’I Lº ſy I 90° I Z“IZZ *8#*Iſ; ºoOºeN \,z + ºOoºOn 900 I
8º96 6°0 8°Z Zº96 8°0 gº 0 #*Z 6ZO’I 9*01gºſL’02 °OOºeN 3,1 + °OOºOn 800 I
OºH ºOOºeN ºoOºOn OºH ºOO OºeN ºOn D.93p ºOOBN[] uoņeJedøJd Jo pouſqą w ‘ON
º ， -，
4S3.JL
uueņsÁs quæuoduuoo-8 uuaqsÁs quæuoduuoo-# Jaņſ (/uſ3
‘SĮSÁIeue uoņnĮos
uo poseq \u00.19d-qų3ļæAA
(øseųā pĮĮos ºoOºOn)
„uoſsºs oºh ººooºeN ººooºon ou L— Lłºgºſ aſqe L
CHAP. 4.3

608
 :
72.8 80.4 87.0 88.4 87.1 86.6 85.8 82.8 68.8 61.5
Ho
3-component
system
Na2COs
27.0 19.0 11.0 7.5 5.0 5.3 5.7 5.8 8.0 9.3

Weight-percent
on
based
Uo.co, 0.2 .6 2.0 4.1 7.9 8.1 8.5 11.4 23.2 29.2

ho 72.9 80.4 87.1 88.4 87.1 86.5 85.8 82.8 68.8 61.6

4-component
system
11.2 8.0 4.8 3.7 3.1 3.4 3.6 3.9 6.3 7.6
System.*
H.O
Na,CO3,
UO,CO3,
4.3.48–The
Table CO2

Na2O 15.8 11.1 6.4 4.4 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.4 4.7 5.5

[NatuO2(COs);
Phase)
Solid
UOs 0.1 .5 1.7 3.5 6.8 7.0 7.3 9.9 20.2 25.3
meamsp°C
t*All
constant
in
2made
+
26°
at
roomuereamteunrtes

d25-c 1.278 1.202 1.128 1.106 1.118 1.128 1.128 1.164 1.349 1.451

Na
COs
U 5.4 16.3
195.9 99.1
149.6
1.45 130.6 74.2 35.9
53.7 32.4 63.2
55.1 47.7 26.1
24.5 51.6
65.6 68.6 61.7 46.9
54.8 95.8
27.7 29.1 115.0
226.0 59.0
151.0
306.0
analysis,
Solution
gm/liter

preparation
of
Method
Na2COs Tricarb.
4
Tricarb. Na2COs Tricarb.
4 Na2COs Tricarb.
4 Na2COs
4
dicarb.8
4
Tricarb. +ricarb. Tricarb.
tUO2COs dicarb.8
4
H.O Tricarb.
4
Tricarb. H.O Tricarb.
4 H.O
4

See tSee
f
75
reference 74
reference

Solution
§

Test
No. : 145f 1463: 1018t 1017t 1052t

É
:
99.99 99.10 98.86 98.78 98.63 98.12 97.61 96.61 95.58
Ho 99.2 81.4 80.0

3-component
system
Na2COs
0.53 .63 .84 .
.92 1.04 1.54 2.04 3.03 4.00
17.0 18.2
O

Weight-percent
on
based

0.008
Uo, .27 .27 .30 .30 .33 .34 .35 .36 .42
1.6 1.8

99.99 99.10 99.86 98.78 98.63 98.12 97.61 96.61 95.58

H2O 99.2 81.3 80.0

4-component
system
0.22 .26 .35 .38 .43 .64 .85 1.26 1.66
CO2 7.4 7.7
System
H.O
Na,CO3,
UOs,
4.3.49—The
Table 0

Na2O 0.31 .37 .49 .54 .61 .90 1.19 1.77 2.34
9.7 10.5
0

0.008
.27 .27 .30 .30 .33 .34 .35 .36 .42
Phase)
Solid
(UOs
Uo, 1.6 1.8

25°C
d 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.01 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06
1.1 1.2

3.00 3.60
2.30
2.25 2.76 2.48
2.27 4.80 2.52
3.68 5.28 6.00
4.04 2.82
4.60
9.0 9.20
6.90
2.87 12.0
3.07 3.18
18.0 3.72
13.8 24.0 14.0
18.4 110.0
79.0 125.2
93.3
18.2
analysis,
Solution Na
CO,
U 0
0.064

gm/liter

preparation
of
Method
UO2COs
Na2COs
+
Na2CO3
CO;
UO,
+
+
UOs Na2COs UOs
Na2COs UOs
+ Na2COs
+ Na2COs
UOs + Na2COs
+ Na2COs
UOs UOg
+ Na2COs
UOs
+ UOsNa2COs Na2COs
+ UOs
+

H.O
+
UOs
NaOH NaOH
76 reference
reference
*See See
f
74

427–Lt
Test
No. 427t

:
-
f
:
3-component
system
ho 88.3 89.0 88.8 88.8

NaHCOs
6.38 3.14
8.0 9.6

Weight-percent
on
based

tri
hio 3.76 4.65 8.06
2.3

89.06 89.64 89.14

89.8 87.8

4-component
system
Natuo,(CO)3,
4.3.50—The
Table
System"
H.O
NaHCOs, 5.12 4.48 3.61 5.11 5.42
CO2

Na2O 3.82 3.42 3.00 3.75 4.43

2.00 2.46 4.25 1.22 2.41

uo,

d25-c 1.100 1.092 1.098 1.112 1.140

Na
COs
U 76.7 22.3
31.2
18.15 66.7 38.8
27.7 77.5 22.8
31.0
54.0 11.3
24.4 84.2
37.5
analysis,
Solution
gm/liter

preparation
of
Method
No. NTt
4ricarb.
aHCOst fNTricarb.
4aHCOst fNTricarb.
4aHCOst 315
NaHCOs; Tricarb.
4
Tricarb. N314
4 aHCOs;
Solid phase
t
only
tricarb.
phase Solid
*
only
NaHCOs

See
f
75
reference
N*atuO2
(CO3)3

Test

:
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.51—Solubility of Sodium Uranyl Carbonate at 30°C

Solubility expressed
as grams of Solubility expressed
2Na2COs'UO2COs as grams of U3Os
contained in 100 ml contained in 100 ml Density of pH of satu
Solvent of Solvent of solvent Saturated solution rated solution

Water 14.38 7.45 1.118 8.78

0.51M Na2COs 7.36 3.81 1.106 10.99

1.03M Na2COs - 3.72 1.93 1.128 11.28
2.11M Na2COs 1.23 0.64 1.202 11.40
3.24M Na2COs 0.33 .17 1.278 11.60
0.41M NaHCOs 8.83 4-57 1.098 8.72
0.83M NaHCOs 5.08 2.63 1.092 8.25
0.05M NaHCOs 4.13 2.14 1.100 8.32
0.50M Na2SO4 6.45 3.34 1.110 8.78
0.50M Na2SO,
0.51M Na2COs 3.98 2.06 1.138 11.00
0.50M Na2SO,
0.42M NaHCOs 4.53 2.35 1.120 8.17
0.51M K2SO, 4.09 2.12 1.094 8.78
0.51M KSO, - - - .18
0.41M NaHCOs 2.82 1.46 1.111 8
0.48M (NH4)2CO3 20.01 10.36 1.201 8.47
0.48M (NH4)2CO3 8.05
0.35M NaHCOs 17.20 8.91 1.197
Water saturated 15.20 7.87 1.123 6.85

with CO2

612
Lºr
*** -

PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.52—Solubility of Sodium Uranyl Carbonate at 60°C

Solubility expressed
as grams of Solubility expressed
2Na2COs'UO2COs as grams of USOs
contained in 100 ml contained in 100 ml Density of pH of satu
Solvent of Solvent of solvent saturated solution rated solution

tº ºr
Water* 12.31 6.38 1.094 8.72

0.52M Na2COs 4.81 2.49 1.079 11.22

1.05M Na2COs 2.15 1.11 1.106 11.31

2.12M Na2COs 0.66 0.34 1.187 11.58

3.31M Na2COs .19 .10 1.278 11.68

0.43M NaHCOs 6.56 3.40 1.070 8.32

0.05M Na2COs
0.68M NaHCO, 3.46 1.79 1.062 8.38

1.47M NaHCOs 1.86 0.96 1.076 8.32

1.64M NaHCOs
1.38 0.71 1.099 8.50
0.18M Na2COs
0.51M Na2SO4 5.02 2.60 1.092 8.50
0.50M Na2SO4
2.34 1.21 1.113 11.12
0.51M Na2COs
0.50M Na2SO,
2.80 1.45 1.098 8.32
0.48M NaHCOs
0.50M K-SO, 4.58 2.37 1.091 8.86
0.50M K-SO,
2.90 1.50 1.124 11.27
0.52M NaCOs
0.49M K:SO,
3.30 1.71 1.106 8.38
0.48M NaHCO,
Water saturated 12.85 6.65

with Co,

*0.02M NazCOs and 0.02M NaHCO, present because of decomposition

613
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.53—Solubility of Sodium Uranyl Carbonate at 90°C

Solubility expressed
as grams of Solubility expressed
2Na2CO3'UO2COs as grams of U3Os
contained in 100 ml contained in 100 ml Density of pH of satu
Solvent of Solvent of solvent saturated solution rated solution

Water* 10.17 5.26 1.074 8.78

0.53M Na2CO3 3.56 1.84 1.059 10.82

1.02M Na2CO3 2.11 1.09 1.095 10.99
2.13M Na2CO3 0.47 0.24 1.175 11.28
3.37M Na2COs .17 .09 1.259 11.32
0.52M Na2SO4 3.44 1.78 1.047 9.10
0.51M Na2SO4 -

0.53M Na2COs 1.51 0.78 1.096 10.72

Water Saturated 11.56 5.99 1.081 7.12

with CO2

* 0.02M Na2COs and 0.04M NaHCO, present because of decomposition

Table 4.3.54–Solubility of KUO,(COs); in K.CO, Solutions at 25°C

Solvent U, gm/liter Density pH

Water 36.7 1.070 9.0

Water 35.6 1.068 8.8

0.07M K.COs 30.0 1.063 10.4

0.14M K2COs 23.3 1.055 10.7
0.28M K2COs 14.3 1.056 - - -

0.28M K2COs 13.6 1.056 11.0

0.43M K2COs 9.1 1.062 11.3
0.56M K2COs 6.4 1.071 11.4
0.71M K2COs 4.5 1.083 11.5

Table 4.3.55–Solubility of UO2COs in K.COs and Na2COs at 25°C

Wt-% of 4-component system

Test No. Solvent U, gm/liter UO, M2O CO2 H2O

B-119 1% K2COs 8.0 1.0 0.5 0.4 98.1

1003 1% Na2COs 20.7 2.4 0.5 0.8 96.2

B-123 6% K2COs 46.1 5.1 3.3 2.4 89.6

1004 6% Na2COs 124.0 12.6 3.0 3.8 80.6

614
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

lower temperatures (presumably 20°C). More recent experiments with uranyl solutions
other than carbonates cast some doubt on this temperature effect. It should be checked
before being accepted. It was also found” that the gas liberated per U” fission in 0.1 to
0.2M Na2CO3 solution was the same as that liberated per Pu” fission in 0.5M H.SO. This
is probably true only in dilute solutions.
The concentration of H2O2 was determined in six samples together with the total amount
of gas.” These data are presented in Table 4.3.56.
Table 4.3.57 gives the yield of hydrogen gas at 100°C in eight ampoules” containing 4 gm
U*/l (about 83-percent enriched). The net yield of hydrogen gas per 100 evabsorbed in
the solution is presented in the last column and is to be compared with the pressure col
umn to show the effect of pressure on the net yield of decomposition.
Chemical analyses were not carried out on any of the solutions in Table 4.3.57, but in
the longer irradiation, 2.2 percent of the H2O present in the samples was decomposed to
its elements without any visible deterioration of the solution. No precipitates were noted.
The gas analyses were all about the same and averaged 67.1 percent H, 31.8 percent O,
and 1.1 percent CO2. No peroxide determinations were made. The value of G max is about
2.0.” The greatest error in calculating this value is in estimating the energy absorbed in
the solution. About 96 percent of the energy comes from the fissioning uranium in the
samples and 4 percent from reactor fast neutrons and y-rays. On an absolute energy basis,
the G value of 2 is probably not better than +20 percent. Experiments with other uranyl
solutions indicate that it may be about 20 percent too high. (See discussion of radiation
stability given for uranyl sulfate systems.)
The data indicate that no peculiar radiation effects would be encountered with carbonate
or bicarbonate systems. If the system can be thermally tolerated without radiation, ap
parently the only effect of radiation would be to decompose the solvent water.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (H. O. DAY, JR.)

No density, viscosity, or thermal conductivity data exist for the system UOs–CO2-H2O
as far as can be determined. However, for the system potassium uranyl tricarbonate in
solutions of potassium carbonate at 25°C a small amount of data exists (see p. 36, refer
ence 81). These data are presented in Table 4.3.58.
Density data for Na2CO3-UO,CO3-H2O system are given (p. 6, reference 88) in Table
4.3.59. It is assumed that the temperature is 25°C. Density units are not specified.

URANYL PHOSPHATE SYSTEMS (E. V. JONES)

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Uranyl phosphate, UO2(HPO4)• 4H2O, forms yellow tetragonal crystals which are soluble
in aqueous Na2CO3 and insoluble in acetic acid.
Uranyl acetate added to solutions of mono-, di-, or tri-orthophosphates of Na, K, NH4,
or Ca gives a neutral double orthophosphate of the type UO, MPO4; with H3PO4, UO, HPO, is
formed. An excess of UO2(AcO)2 gives (UO2)3(PO4)2. All uranyl phosphates, single or
double, are soluble in H3PO, with the formation of complex ions. On dilution, a precipitate
of UO2HPO, forms. All precipitates are hydrated.”
The following dialkali-uranyl-sec.-phosphites have been prepared from saturated alkali
phosphite solutions and solutions of UO, SO, or UO,(NO3)2: KºſUO,(HPO3)2], (NH4),[UO,-
(HPOs)2], and Nazi UO,(HPO3)2]. All are yellow; the color intensity and solubility in water
decrease in the order listed.

The di-alkali-uranyl pyrophosphates of Li and Na, Li2(UO2 P2O7), and Na(UO2 P2O1), have
been prepared by adding saturated solutions of the corresponding alkali pyrophosphates to

615
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.56—Concentration of H2O, in Reactor-irradiated Aqueous Uranium Trioxide

Sodium Carbonate Samples

(Uranium conc., 4.9 gm/l; U* conc., 4 gm/l; volume of sample, 0.5 ml; temp., 20°C)

Sodium carbonate Reactor power, Irradiation time, Total gas,

molarity kW “ min H2O2, N cc (STP)

0.5M Na2COs 3650 10 0.0061 0.284

0.5M Na2CO3 4000 60 .016 - - -

0.5M Na2CO3 4000 60 - - - 2.05

0.5M Na2COs 2000 60 0.011 1.06
0.5M Na2CO3 2000 60 .01 1.1
0.3M NaHCO3 3800 60 - - - 4.1t

* It is estimated that the thermal neutron flux is approximately 8.2 x 10" at 4000 kw
f This value is apparently too high

Table 4.3.57 —Yield of Hydrogen Gas in Reactor-irradiated Uranium Carbonate Samples

(U” conc., 4 gm/1; temp., 100°C)

Wt of soln., gm * MWHſ H2 pressure, atm cc H, (STP) Gi

0.1934 12.8 >1 1.29 2.01

.2107 12.8 >1 1.38 1.98
.0448 12.8 57 0.270 1.82
.0434 12.8 70 .254 1.76
.04.18 53.9 187 .93 1.59
.0406 53.9 194 .89 1.57
.0448 68.2 302 1.24 1.57
.0446 68.2 323 1.26 1.60

* Density at 22°C = 1.017

t It is estimated that the thermal flux is approximately 8.2 × 10" at 4000 kw
f Molecules of hydrogen gas produced per 100 ev

Table 4.3.58—Properties of UOs–CO,-H,O System

Density (25°C) Solvent Solubility, gm/l

1.07.0 Water 36.7

1.068 Water 35.6
1.063 0.07M K.CO, 30.0
1.055 0.14M K2COs 23.3
1.056 0.28M K.CO, 14.3
1.056 0.28M K.CO, 13.6
1.062 0.43M K.CO, 9.1
1.071 0.56M K2COs 6.4
1.083 0.71M K.CO, 4.5

616
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.59–Density of Na2CO3-UO,CO3–H.O System

Solubility of
2Na2CO3'UO2CO3, Density of
Solution gm/100 ml solvent Molar solubility solution

H2O 14.38 0.265 1.118

0.5M Na2CO3 7.36 . 136 1. 106
1.03M Na2COs 3.72 .069 1.128
2.11M Na2CO3 1.23 .023 1.202
3.24M Na2COs 0.33 .006 1.278

solutions of UO2SO, or UO,(NO3)2. The K and NH, salts could not thus be obtained.”
Data from a study” of the thermal stability of the UOs–H3PO,-H2O system are given in
Tables 4.3.60, 4.3.61, and 4.3.62. Only one solid phase was identified, (UO2)3(PO), 4H2O,
in one or the other of its two polymorphic forms, tetragonal and orthorhombic — the former
being far more prevalent.
Uranyl nitrate and Na2HPOs give UO, HPOs, which is readily soluble in dilute mineral
acids. When heated in air, it gives a grayish residue which hydrolyzes readily and gives a
phosphate test when dissolved in HNO3. When heated with concentrated KOH solution,
UO, HPOs gives uranyl phosphate. It is easily hydrolyzed to give H3PO3 and hydrated uranyl
hydroxide; the H3POs is then oxidized to H3PO, and uranyl phosphate is obtained.”
The solubility of UO, in varying concentrations of H3PO, at 250°C, is given in Table
4.3.63 (J. S. Gill, W. L. Marshall, and H. W. Wright, The Uranium Trioxide – Phosphoric
Acid –Water System. ORNL-1121, Aug. 15, 1951). The results of exploratory studies of
the solubiltiy of UO, in 1, 2, and 3M H3PO, at temperatures ranging up to 340°C are given
in Table 4.3.64.

URANYL PHOSPHATE–H3PO,-H2O SYSTEMS (H. O. DAY, JR.)

No density, viscosity, or thermal conductivity data were found for this system.

PROPERTIES OF PLUTONIUM SALT SOLUTIONS (K. S. Warren)

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

SOLUBILITIES OF PLUTONIUM SALTS

The solubilities of plutonium salts are listed in Tables 4.3.65 to 4.3.67.

617
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.60—Thermal Stability of UOI-B, PO,-H,O Systems"

(Data on 0.3M U in 2M total H.P.O.; solutions of UO, in excess H, POA)

Analytical molarities Molarities

Temp., *C U Total phosphate U Total phosphate P/U

Initial, 25°C 0.308 1.98 0.343 2.21 6.44

161 .257 1.90 .284 2.10 7.40
199 .224 1.91 .247 2.11 8.54
256 -201 1.76 .220 1.93 8.78
267 .203 1.88 .223 2.07 9.28
274 .195 1.91 .215 2.10 9.77
298 ..198 1.95 .218 2.15 9.86
330 .258 2.24 .290 2.52 8.69
355.5 .229 2.12 .255 2.36 9.26
380 .592 2.97 .706 3.54 5.02

Table 4.3.61—Solubility Data” Obtained upon Equilibrating Excess (UOE),(POs), .4H2O with
Initially 0.3–0.5M UO, Dissolved in 2.9—3.2M HAPO,

Analytical molarities Molalities

-

Temp., "C U Total phosphate U Total phosphate P/U

25 >0.45 3.18 >0.51 3.62 <7.1

200 .559 3.12 .670 3.74 5.58
250 .601 3.40 .734 4.15 5.66
291 .561 3.29 .678 3.98 5.87
400 (Solid at room temperature) 75.6 13.7 <2.4

Table 4.3.62—Thermal Stability of UOs-H,PO,-H,O system"

(Data on 0.3M UO, dissolved in 1.7M. H.PO, * 0.3M NaH,POs)

Analytical molarities Molalities

*- *-*-
Temp., "C U Total phosphate U Total phosphate P/U

Initial, 25°C 0.16 & 0.30 1.90 <0.333 2.11 >6.34

200 .216 1.885 .238 2.08 8.73
295 .171 1.86 .188 2.04 10.9
333 .136 1.99 .150 2.19 14.6
335 .217 2.14 .242 2.39 9.99
350 .157 1.97 .173 2.17 12.5

618
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.63—Solubility of Uranium Trioxide in Orthophosphoric Acid Solutions at 250°C

Sample No. Molarity of HsPO, Molarity of UOs Mole solubility ratio, PO1/U

2.77 0.23 12
3.57 .42 8.5
4.86 .78 6.2
5.05 84 6.0
5.95 1230)
6.05 1.13 5.35
6.69 1.30 5.15
6.95 1.43 4.86

Table 4.3.64–Solubility of Uranium Trioxide in Orthophosphoric Acid Solutions*

Temperature of
Investigator H;PO4, M Uranium, M precipitation, “C

Morset 1 0.17 65–85 (dissolved)

Ryon and Kuhnt 1 .17 96 (analytical method)
Our data 1.017 .192 102
Our data 1.017 .0616 240
Our data 1.017 .0616 250
Our data 1.017 .0278 290
Ryon and Kuhn 2 .8 96 (analytical method)
Our data 2.075 .414 163
Our data 2.075 .373 176
Our data 2.075 .366 183
Our data 2.075 .271 228
Our data 2.075 .26 266'
Our data 2.075 .224 316
Los Alamos3 3 .9 250 (precipitated)
Los Alamos - 3 .9 340 (dissolved)
Our data 3.113 .546 242 (precipitated)
Our data 3.113 .617 273 (precipitated)

*W. L. Marshall, J. S. Gill, and H. W. Wright, The Uranium Trioxide–Phosphoric Acid—

Water System, ORNL-1057, Oct. 1951
t Morse, Chemical Technology Division, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., unpublished data
t A. D. Ryon and D. W. Kuhn, Solubility of Uranyl Ammonium Sulfate, Y-381, Apr. 1, 1949
§ R. P. Hammond, Los Alamos Scientific Lab., private communication

619
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.65—Solubilities of Plutonium-III Compounds”

Solid phase Aqueous phase Temp., "C Solubility, mg Pu/liter

| 1M HF 0.25M HCl 25 69
Fluoride, PuF3-xH2O 1M HF 0.50M HCl 25 49
liº HF 1.0M HCl 25 37

ſ .6M HAPO, 0.15M HNOs 25 7

.6M HAPO, 0.25M HNO, 25 8
.6M HAPO, 0.53M HNO; 25 20
.6M HAPO, 1.0M HNO, 25 28

.8M HAPO, 0.1M HCl 25 20

.8M HAPO, 0.25M HCl 25 66
.8M HAPO, 0.50M HCl 25 210
Phosphate, PuPO, .8M HAPO, 0.90M HCl 25 3890

.8M H3PO, 0.08M HASO, 25 32

.8M H3PO, 0.23M H2SO, 25 37
.8M H3PO, 0.49M H2SO, 25 199
.8M H3PO, 0.98M HASO, 25 545

.8M H3PO, 0.1M H2SO, 75 23

.8M H3PO, 0.3M H2SO, 75 120
| .8M HAPO, 0.4M H.SO, 75 900

620
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.66—Solubilities of Plutonium-IV Compounds”

Solubility,
Solid phase Aqueous phase Temp., "C mg Pu/liter

Fluoride, 0.1–2.0M HNOs plus 25 300 – 700

PuF4-xH2O 0.5–2.0M HF
Nitrate, 2M HNOs 25 500 x 10°
Pu(NO3)4-xH2O
|.1M HAPO, 0.1M HNO, 25 0.13
.1M H-PO, 0.5M HNO; 25 1.7
.1M HAPO, 1.0M HNO, 25 4.5
.1M H-PO, 2.0M HNO; 25 23.0

.6M HAPO, 0.1M HNO; 25 3.7

.6M H,PO, 0.5M HNO, 25 7.9
.6M HAPO, 1.0M HNO, 25 19.0
.6M HAPO, 2.0M HNOs 25 77.0

.1M H-PO, 0.1M H2SO, 25 4

.1M HAPO, 0.5M H,SO, 25 63
.0M HAPO, 1.0M H,SO, 25 550

Phosphate, .8M HAPO, 0.1M H2SO4 25 18

Pus(PO4)4-xH2O .8M HAPO, 0.5M H2SO, 25 81
.8M HAPO, 1.0M H2SO, 25 120
.8M HAPO, 2.0M H2SO, 25 563

.8M HsPO, 0.1M H2SO, 75 24

.8M HsPO, 0.25M H2SO, 75 36
.8M HAPO, 0.50M H,SO, 75 80
.8M HAPO, 1.0M H2SO, 75 290

.6M HAPO, 0.1M HCl 25 4

.6M HAPO, 1.0M HCl 25 12

.8M HAPO, 0.1M HCl 25 12

.8M HAPO, 0.5M HCl 25 16
.8M HAPO, 1.0M HCl 25 29
.8M HAPO, 2.0M HCl 25 72

Table 4.3.67—Solubilities of Plutonium-VI Compounds”

Solid phase Aqueous phase Temp., "C Solubility, mg Pu/liter

Chloride, Approx. 5M HCl 25 350 x 10°

PuC2Cl2·xH2O
Nitrate, Approx. 0.5M HCl 25 500 x 10°
PuC2(NO3)2·xH2O
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

AQUEOUS FISSION-PRODUCT SYSTEMS (W. L. Marshall)

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

SOLUBILITIES OF FISSION PRODUCTS

systems of fission-product sulfates in water alone are included for comparison with
studies in fuel media and for those in which the investigations were made above 100°C
(see Tables 4.3.68 to 4.3.7.6). Additional studies of sulfate salts in water up to 100°C are
compiled by Seidell.*.**

Molybdenum Oxide
Molyºcetum oxide is appreciably soluble in 1.26M UO2SO4 at room temperature. At
250°C, 1 percent or more of Moos is completely soluble in 1.26M UO2SO,.”

Zirconium Sulfate

Zirconium sulfate appeared to be at least 6.53 to 11.15 wt-% soluble in 1.26M UO2SO,
when heated to about 280°C, but at that temperature an irreversible change began which
yielded a considerable mass of white precipitate.”

Multiple Fission-product Solubilities

A few exploratory experiments have been made on multiple fission-product solubilities
in 0.125 and 1.25M UO, SO, solutions at 250°C. Of the elements studied (Ce, Zr, Cs, Mo,
Ru, Ba, Sr, La, Nb, and Y), it was concluded that Ce, Zr, Ru, Ba, and Nb would be the first
elements to precipitate because of fission-product buildup.”
Heats of Solution

An attempt has been made to interpret solubility data for Y2(SO4)3, Laz(SO4)3, Cs2SO4,
CdSO, Ag;SO, and Ce(SO.), in water, 0.126M UO.S.O., and 1.26M UO,SO,.” The data have
been plotted using the van't Hoff isochore. The results for AH solution are given in Table
4.3.77.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

GROWTH OF FISSION PRODUCTS (W. L. MARSHALL)

Calculated values are given in Table 4.3.78 for solid fission-product growths in a homo
geneous reactor operating continuously at 50 kw/liter."
Calculations of the growth and behavior of barium and xenon in a homogeneous reactor
operating with 0.13 molar UO, SO, solution at 14.3 kw/liter are presented. It is also con
cluded that BaSO4 will precipitate in from 30 min to 25 days, depending on the rate of
xenon gas removal from solution.”
The following paragraphs pertain to fission-product growth in uranium solid but can be
applied to a uranium fuel solution if fission-gas removal is neglected:
The estimated weights of fission products (in grams of element per 100 gm of sºu?”
destroyed) are listed"**** for various times of operation and cooling. Some of the re
sults are given in Table 4.3.79.
Compiled data on fission-product growth and decay of both a general and a specific
nature (but not applying directly to an aqueous homogeneous reactor) may be found in vari
ous sources. **-* The bulk of this work applies to decay schemes.

622
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.68–The Solubility of Yttrium Sulfate in Water and in Uranyl Sulfate Solutions'
Temp., “C Y2(SO4)3, wt-% Reference

In water

108 4.76 96
150 2.38 96
155 1.59 96
160 1.19 96
161 0.95 96
163 .64 96
176 .48 96
186 .23 96
195 . 12 96
190 .010 97
200 .0009 97
218 .00001 97
230 .00 175 97
240 .00028 97

In 0.126M UO,SO,
153 4.47 96
162 2.23 96
189 0.81 96
229 .22 96
210 . 144 97
235 .084 97
270 .033 97
315 .007 97
340 .001 97

In 1.08M UO,SO,
208 4.32 98
215 3.41 98
217 3.44 98
230 2.78 98
245 2. 12 98
t 1.43 98
f 1.08 98

In 1.26M UO,SO,
212 4.31 98
221 3.62 98
224 3.43 98
231 2.99 98
237 2.74 98

t 2.34 98
f 2.14 98

* The data in this table are illustrated in Fig. 4.3.17

f Two liquid layers at about 277°C. No crystals up to 320°C. Held at 320°C for 2 hr
t Two liquid layers at about 270°C. No crystals after several hours above 280° to 310°C
for 2.14 wi-% Y,(SO,)3 solution

623
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

34O

{ $ © Lietzke 8 Stoughton
Jones 8 Marshall, ORNL 1221:
I.O8 M 1.26 M
O © Solubility Doto
3OO C Two Liquid Phases H

No Precipitation of this Temp.

*
Tb-Jn
TV---.
\ C-D-

\A || ||
9 260 \ W
- \ \
ul W \
0. \
~
H. | \
<ſ |
Dr. \
#. n 1.26 M UOESO,
>
Lal
F: 220 | N

In 1.08 M UOeSO4

| 80 N.

In O.126 M UOeSO4

Ne-in tºo Gy

14 O
O 2 3 4 5 6

YTTRIUM sulfate, wi-º,

Fig. 4.3.17—Solubility of Yttrium Sulfate in Aqueous Uranyl Sulfate. Reprinted

from ORNL-1221. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

624
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.69—The Solubility of Lanthanum Sulfate in Water and in Uranyl Sulfate Solutions*

Temp., "C Laz(SO4)3, wt-% Reference

In water

0 2.91 99
14 2.53 99
26 2.04 100
30 1.86 99
50 1.47 99
75 0.95 99
100 .68 99
108 .61 96
113 .46 96
115 .37 . 96
117 .31 96
106 .598 101
155 .142 101
180 .041 101
200 .024 101
216 .012 101
278 .0062 101
350 .0061 101

In 0.126M UO2SO,
97 2.04 96
105 1.74 96
120 0.87 96
145 .29 96
169 .15 96
199 .083 96
215 .042 96

In 1.26M UO2SO,
78 4.39 98
91 and 149 3.97 98
(double point)
148 3.80 98
150 3.75 98
150.5 3.70 98
151 3.60 98
152 3.46 98
154 3.25 98
160 2.69 98
168 2.30 98
178 1.85 98
202 1.22 98
222 0.88 98

Two liquid .57 98

layers at 291°C

*The data in this table are illustrated in Figs. 4.3.18 and 4.3.19

625
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

6OO O

54O

e Reported by Zemel,
ORNL 121

O Reported by Leitzke,
480 ORNL 970

42O

36O

3OO

2 4O

18O

12O

6O

O
O 5O IOO 150 2OO 25O
— 3OO 350
TEMPERATURE, *c

Fig. 4.3.18—Solubility of Lanthanum Sulfate in Ordinary Water from 100° to

350°C. Reprinted from ORNL-1121. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Nov. 25, 1952.

626
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

325

3OO

º G) Lietzke 8 Stoughton
© Benroth
| ORNL 1221, Jones & Morshall:
275 l O Solubility Data
! Two Liquid Phases
\ No Precipitation at this Temp.

25O \
\
\
\
225 \
2OO *N
NK. 1.26 M UOeso,

| 175

150
|-

N- O.126 M UOeso,
O

*
e
O

125
Ye N
IOOH ==
In Hºp

75

5O º
O O.5 I.O 1.5 2.O 2.5 3.O 3.5 4.O 4.5

LANTHANUM SULFATE, wi-º,

Fig. 4.3.19–Solubility of Lanthanum Sulfate in Aqueous Uranyl Sulfate. Re

printed from ORNL-1221. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25,
1952.

627
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.70—The Solubility of Cesium Sulfate in Water and in Uranyl Sulfate Solutions*

Temp., "C Cs,SOA, wt-% Reference

In water

0 62.6 100
10 63.4 100
20 64.1 100
23 63.5 96
30 64.8 100
40 65.5 100
50 66.1 100
60 66.7 100
70 67.2 100
80 67.8 100
90 68.3 100
100 68.8 100
108.6 69.2 100
175 71.8 96
211 73.5 96
270 75.0 96
292 75.5 96

In 0.126M UOFSO,
53.8 64.19 102
61.6 66.00 102
77.3 67.12 102
84.2 67.55 102
104.8 68.58 102
140.2 70.07 102
177.5 71.66 102
228.6 73.48 102

In 1.26M UOISO,
167.7 0.30 102
178.5 .33 102
187.3 .37 102
214.8 .44 102
245.3 .49 102
285.6 .54 102
288.6 .78 102
293 t

* The data in this table are illustrated in Fig. 4.3.20

t Two liquid layers at 293°C much undissolved

628
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

CseSO4, wi-º,
3O O.3 O.4 O.5 36O

Z
O
2soH Z 34O

$2 *H
In 1.26 M *7 32O

#
# 24.o! º
Af 1–2–lsoo
Hº
«

§ 22 28O

ul
#*
H.
2OOH
º
A 26O

18OH 24O
•’

16O 2209

TA #
// 200g
H.

4
- •o;:
O Jones & Morshall, ORNL 128O / -E
G) Lietzke & Stoughton 16o!”
© Benrath, et. al. Z
|4O

In O.126 M UO2SO4
|OO

Pºž2% In He O
2 8O

= * A 6O

z-
2^ 4O

2O

O
$2 63 64 65 66 67 60 69 70 7| 72 73 74 75 76

Cses.O., wr-º

Fig. 4.3.20–Solubility of Cesium Sulfate in Uranyl Sulfate Solutions. Reprinted

from ORNL–1280. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

629
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.71—The Solubility of Ceric Sulfate in Water and in Uranyl Sulfate Solutions*

Temp., "C Ce(SO4)2, wt-% Reference

In water

35 7.8 103
5.71 103
50 3.31 103
65 1.85 103
82 0.98 103
100.5 .42 103
105 .300 101
139 .113 101
169 .050 101
199 .019 101
211 0.17 101
220 .013 101
.0029 101
269 .0022 101
284 .00049 101
325 .00094 101
350 .00083 101

In 0.126M UO, SO,

137 0.290 101
200 .113 101
220 .0805 101
242 .0437 101
267 .0233 101
338 .00182 101

*Some of the data in this table are illustrated in Fig. 4.3.21. Ceric sulfate exhibits a
solubility of less than 0.014 percent at room temperature in 1.26M UO2SO4–H2O solution”

630
tº

PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

“;
\

3OO \
\
\
V. ----e---- in O.126 M Uoeso, -

\ am Om In H2O

$’ 25o
uſ
0.
r
\ \\N.
vº

º
#
Ox
2OO
* • S.
<=
* Y~

15O
NS TS
*~
===
Nº- *O-
*—

TF
loos O.O5 O.IO O.15 O.2O - O.30 -

Cee (SOA)s, wi-9,

Fig. 4.3.21—The Solubility of Ceric Sulfate in Ordinary Water and in Uranyl
Sulfate Solution. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

631
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS ’’

Table 4.3.72—The Solubility of Strontium Sulfate in Water

SrSOs,
Temp., "C gm/100 gm H2O Reference

124 0.00261 104

127 .00264 104
163 0.001.25, 0.00135 104
168 •.00129, .00137 104
186 0.00066 104
199 .0008 104
220 .00063 104
250 .000248 104
260 0.0001, 0.000096 104
273 0.0001:24 104
280 .0001.23 104
319 .00005 104
194 + 2 .0032 105
203 + 1 .0025 105
208 + 1 .0031 105
259 + 2 .0026 105
284 + 5 .0029 105
293 + 4 .0017 105
307 + 4 .0022 105
333 + 2 .0013 105
339 + 2 .0018 105
348 + 1 .0016 105
381 + 2 .0009 105
401 + 3 .0003 105
426 + 2 .0005 105

632
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.73—The Solubility of Barium Sulfate in Water and in Uranyl Sulfate Solutions
Temp., "C Basot, wt-% Reference

In water

150 60.4 x 10^* 97

180 26.5 x 10−" 97
220 11.25 x 10−" 97
250 5.25 x 10−" 97
250 6.2 x 10^* 97
262 4.6 x 10−" 97
290 2.3 x 10-8 97
291 1.4 x 10^* 97

In 0.12M UOISO,
185 15 x 10^* 101
200 11 x 10-8 101
250 9 x 10-8 101
270 10 x 10-8 101
296 6 x 10-8 101

At 250°C as a function of UO2SO, concentration*

UOISO4, M Molar solubility of Baso, Reference

0.000 0.53 x 10-5 106

.125 1.46 × 10-5 106
.313 3.32 x 10-5 106
.625 8.95 x 10-5 106
.775 10.34 x 10-5 106
1.00 17.40 x 10-5 106
1.15 22.42 x 10^* 106
1.25 37.35 x 10-5 106

n.ig.Barium
4.3.22
sulfate solubility as a function of UO,SO, concentration is illustrated in

633
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

IOO.

5O

|O.O

!.5

O.4
O O.2 O. 4 O.6 O.8 I.O 1.2 1.4

SQUARE Root of MOLARITY OF Uo so,

Fig. 4.3.22—Solubility of Barium Sulfate in Aqueous Uranyl Sulfate at 250°C.

Reprinted from ORNL-1318. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Nov. 25, 1952.

634
 PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.74—The Solubility of Silver Sulfate in Water and in Uranyl Sulfate Solutions*

Temp., "C Ag2SO4, wt-% Reference

- In water

: 145 0.894 107

- 157 .65 107
- 199 .45 107
199 .376 107
- 250 .40 107
250 .35 107
305 .329 107
305 .295 107
330 .28 107

In 0.126M UO2SO,
36.0 1.04 106
54.0 1.46 106
83.3 2.18 106
107.8 2.72 106
127.4 3.01 106
140.0 A red product formed 106

In 1.26M UO2SO,
42.5 1.54 106
52.0 2.36 106
84.6 3.63 106
106.5 5.38 106
131.4 7.43 106
161.6 9.89 106
174.3 11.01 106
197.1 12.82 106
214.9 14.14 106
237.5 15.75 106
259.1 17.25 106

"The data in this table are illustrated in Fig. 4.3.23

*-

635
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

AgeSO4, w?-?),
3509 O.4 O.8 I 1.6 275

3OO
CD
/& 250

$2.25o Ra O

uſ
ſº
->
$225
ºf 200
ſº
Lal

# 1so
* M
Q- C.
2OO
-

In Woter

IOO º- 175

5O A / $2
-

150 Lu
or
~

In O.126 M Uosso n I. 26 M UO-SO

OeSO4 º
f
ſl.
O 1255
ul
H.

In Woter O
7|i y
IOO

7F-e-
j 75

- Seidell
-O- Zemel, ORNL 1057
-O- Jones & Marshall, ORNL 1318

|
AZ 50

|- 25
|

O
O 5 IO 15 18

AgeSO4, wi-º,

Fig. 4.3.23–Solubility of Silver Sulfate in Water and Aqueous Uranyl Sulfate.

Reprinted from ORNL-1318. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25,
1952.

636
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.75—The Solubility of Cadmium Sulfate in water and in Uranyl Sulfate Solutions*
Temp., "C CdSO, wt-% Reference

In water

25 43.73 108
50 43.53 108
75 40.97 108
99 36.85 108
119 32.3 109
124 29.6 96
131 26.9 109
159 15.6 109
160 14.8 96
161 14.8 109
166 12.3 109
172 9.8 109
182 7.4 96
187 4.9 109
190 3.0 96

In 0.126M UO,SO,
175 28.5 96
200 14.2 96
219 7.1 96
251 2.8 96

In 1.26M UO, SO,

21 31.62 102

47.8(209)f 31.33 102

84.2 30.50 102

102.9(215.8)f 30.12 102

215.8 29.37 102
216.8 29.69 102
220.8 28.68 102
228.7 26.54 102
230.6 25.83 102
244.3 22.51 102

"The data in this table are illustrated in Fig. 4.3.24

f Doublesolubility points
*-

637
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

275

25O *s
In 1.26 M UO2SO4 *e
N.
225 S **t“
2OO

175
`Se *
In O.126 M UO2SO, T
$’
In Hao
tal 5 *~
gºso ~s

º NG
: º

la
º

OO –Q
© Jones a Marshall, ORNL 1280
O Lietzke & Stoughton
e Benrath, et. al.
75

sol—

25

O
O 5 IO 15 2O 25 3O 35 40

Caso, , wr-º,
Fig. 4.3.24 —Solubility of Cadmium Sulfate in Aqueous Uranyl Sulfate Solution.
Reprinted from ORNL-1280. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25,
1952.

638
*PERTIES of Aqueous solution systems CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.7.6—The Solubility of Zinc Sulfate in Water

Temp., "C ZnSO4, wt-% Reference

178 34.0 96
203 25.5 96
219 22.7 96
238 17.0 96
248 11.3 96
253 8.5 96
255 5.1 96
257 2.1 96
90 50 110
115 45 110
145 40 110
175 35 110
205 25 1 10
230 20 110
255 15 110
250 10 110
255 5 110

Table 4.3.77—some Differential Heats of Solution of Fission-product Sulfates in Water

and Uranyl Sulfate Solutions”
AHsoln, kcal/mole
Salt In H2O In 0.126M UO2SO, In 1.26M UO2SO,

Y:SO), –27 – 16 –9
Laz (SO); –23 – 12 –8

ºso, – 17 – 14 —5.4
Ce(SO4), – 10 – 6.9 - - -

Aſso, +1.1 +2.3 +3.7

Cs:SO, +0.20 + 0.20 +1.5

639
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.78— Growth of Solid Fission Products

Fission-product buildup in Fission-product buildup in

operation for one month, gm/l operation for one year, gm/l
With no gas With 100% With no gas With 100%
Element removal gas removal removal gas removal

Ce 0.2 0.06 2 0.7

Nd .2 .07 2 .8
Zr .2 .08 2 .6
Cs 1 .0 2 .0
Mo 1 .1 1 1.
Ru .1 .1 1 1.
Ba .09 .0001 0.8 0.001
Sr. .08 .007 8 .1
La .07 0 7 .0
Pr .04 .0 6 .0
Nb .04 .004 .5 .1
Y 04 .0 .3 .0
Tc .03 .03 .5 .5
Rb .03 .007 .3 .01
Prm .02 .02 2 .2
Rh .006 .006 3 .3

640
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION systEMs CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.79—Estimated Weights of Fission Products for Various Times of Operation

and Cooling
(In grams of element per 100 grams of ...U” destroyed)
40* 100+

Element Of 3f 30f 100t Of 3t 30t 100t

Se 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Br .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 .06
Kr 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Rb 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8
Sr. 5.3 5.3 4.8 4.2 4.9 4.9 4.6 4.1
Y 4.5 4.4 3.8 2.8 3.9 3.8 3.4 2.5
Zr 11.0 10.9 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.6 10.5 10.8
Cb 3.8 3.9 4.3 5.1 4.2 4.3 4.6 5.3
Mo 7.2 7.2 8.1 8.7 7.9 7.9 8.5 8.8
43 2.6 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9
Ru 6.4 6.3 6.0 5.6 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.5
Rh 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.1 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.1
Pd .5 .5 .5 0.6 .5 .5 .5 0.6

Ag .03 .03 .06 .09 .06 .06 .08 .10

Sb .04 .04 .03 .02 .03 .03 .02 .02
Te 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3
I 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7
Xe 11.9 11.9 11.9 11.9 11.9 11.9 11.9 11.9
Cs 11.0 11.2 11.6 11.4 11.4 11.4 11.6 11.6
Ba 6.1 5.9 4.7 4.4 5.1 5.0 4.5 4.4
La 3.6 3.6 3.4 3.4 4.5 4.5 4.4 4.4
Ce 12.6 12.7 12.6 11.5 12.4 12.4 12.1 11.2
Pr 5.5 5.4 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.2 5.1

: 8.2 8.4 10.0 11.5 9.6 9.8 10.7 11.9

Sm 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3

Eu 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5
Gd .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02

Np 9.1 4.2 1.0 1.0 4.2 2.3 1.0 1.0

Pu 91.7 96.6 100.0 100.0 96.7 98.6 100.0 100.0

*Time of operation in days

*Time of cooling in days
*-

641
 º
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

THORIUM SOLUTIONS (W. L. Marshall)

THE SYSTEM THORIUM NITRATE – WATER

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Chemical and Phase Stability

These stabilities are shown in Tables 4.3.80 to 4.3.82, and Figs. 4.3.25 and 4.3.26.

Corrosion

No data available.

Radiation Damage
No data available.

Acidity
Schaal and Faucherre” give graphic data on variation of pH as a function of the dilution
which may be applied in the study of soluble basic salts.
Neish and Burns” present one approximate graphic pH of 2 to 3 for a 0.001N Th(NO),
H2O solution.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Density
The densities are shown in Tables 4.3.83 to 4.3.85 and Fig. 4.3.27.

Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressures are shown in Tables 4.3.86 to 4.3.89 and Fig. 4.3.28.

Refractive Index

The refractive indices are shown in Table 4.3.90.

Heat and Free Energy (Work) of Dilution and Solution

The heats of dilution and solution are given in Tables 4.3.91 and 4.3.92 and Fig. 4.3.29.
The heats and free energies of dilution are given in Table 4.3.93.

642
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.80—Solubility of Th(NO3), in H.O

Solubility Solid
Temp., "C of Th(NO3)4, wt-% ThſNO3)4, wt–% Solid phase

Part A**
—0.2 1.0 Ice
— 1.5 9.0 Ice
–4.0 20.0 Ice
– 6.0 33.0 Ice
–9.0 41.0 Ice
— 15.0 47.7 Ice
–25.0 55.7 Ice
–35 60.6 Ice
—40.6 62.0 Ice
–43.5 64.0 Ice

–22 64.2 Th (NO3)4-6H2O

0 65.0 Th (NO3)4-6H2O
+10 65.2 Th (NO3)4.6H,O
+20 65.6 Th (NO3)4-6H2O
Part B***
29.8 + 0.2 66.2 Bipyramidal crystals*
40.1 + 0.2 67.5 Bipyramidal crystals*
50.0 + 0.2 69.1 Bipyramidal crystals*
58.8 + 0.2 70.2 Bipyramidal crystals*
60.5 + 0.2 70.6 Bipyramidal crystals*
77.6 + 0.5 73.5 Bipyramidal crystals*
82.4 + 0.5 74.6 Bipyramidal crystals”
99.2 + 0.5 77.3 Bipyramidal crystals*
109.4 + 0.5 79.5 Bipyramidal crystals*
121.5 + 0.5 81.6 Bipyramidal crystals*
142.0 + 0.5 83.9 Th (NO3)4.4H2O
158.0 + 0.5 85.5 Th(NO3)4.4H2O
Part C*
37.3 67.07 81.18 Th (NO3)4-6H2O
(theor. 81.62)
54.5 69.78 Th (NO3)4.6H2O
72.0 73.39 Th (NO3)4-6H2O
90.2 76.39 80.82 Th{NO3)4-6H.O
(theor. 81.62)
99.7 78.56 Th (NO3)4-6H2O
110.4 81.11 Th (NO3)4-6H2O
110.9 81.50 Thºnos),•6H2O
111(a) - - - Th (NO3)4-6H2O + Th(NO3)4.4H2O
120.6 82.01 ThſNO3)4.4H2O
128 82.41 Th (NO3)4.4H2O
129.5 - - - 85.84 Th (NO3)4.4H2O
(theor. 86.95)
130.5 82.85 Th (NO3)4.4H2O
139.5 84.27 ThſMOs),-4H2O
146.0 85.30 Thºnos), 4H.O
149.0 85.81 Th (NO3)4.4H2O
151(b) - - - ThſMOs), 4H.O + Th(NO3), XH.O
159 87.41 Th(NO3), XH2O
211 91.82 Th (NO3)4-XH2O

* Bipyramidal crystals Th(NO3)4.6H,O (Fuhse and Misciatelli) or Th(NO3)4.51/2H,O (Templeton)

643
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table. 4.3.81—Hydrolytic and Phase Stability” Above 50°C

(Decomposition-precipitation temperatures of thorium nitrate—water solutions)

Upper temp. limit before

ThſNOs), wt-% hydrolytic pptn., "C

87.41 229
55.23 217
32.94 ~176
7.41 ~113

Table 4.3.82—Boundary curve Data” for Th/NOs),-H.O

(Calculated from density—temperature-solubility—precipitation data)

Conc. of solution at
Solubility of decomposition
Temp., "C Th (NO3)4, gm Th/cc precipitation temperature

50 0.704
60 .735
70 .779
80 .825
90 .872
100 .922
110 .979
120 1.007 - - -

130 1.026 0.040

140 1.059 .060
150 1.099 .084
160 1.144 .115
180 1.195 .200
200 1.240 .335
210 1.281 .440
220 1.302 .600
225 1.32 .715
230 1.34 1.14
232 1.35 1.35

644
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

25O

2OO

150 4– /i

12 5
o &

IOO

| 75

50
:
Solubility Dato
Decomposition Precipitotion
"Mush" Temperatures
Super Cooling
/
V f

|
|

TNN
-50

O IO 2O 3O 40 50 6O 7O 80 90 IOO
Th (Nos), º w?-?/o

Fig. 4.3.25—The Thorium Nitrate-Water System. Reprinted from ORNL-925.

Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

645
:
25O

|iT 4e.unction
FFig.
a
as
Solution
cc
per
TThorium
of
ORNL
from
Reprinted
m3p.e2r6a–tGuraem.s
Laboratory,
National
Ridge
Oak
by
Submitted
925.
solution,
complete
for
Region
Boundary
1952.
25,
Nov.

2OO
175
225

2 *

L-T
*c
E,
125
I5O
TEMPERATUR

—T
Drecoimpiotsaition
=
CB
PLine _T
Saturation
=
AB
Line
Solubility

2 IOO
75 system.
closed
(NO3)4-H2O
Th

_T

1.40

! O.80
O.6O O.4O

O.2
50

§
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.83–Density of Th(NOs),-H,O Solution”

Th (NO3)4, wt-% ThſNOs), concentration, gm/100 cc soln. Density (15°/15°)

0.7228 0.73 1.0061

1.7928 1.8 1.0140
3.5204 3.6 1.0327
5.205 5.4 1.0483
6.835 7.3 1.0639
8.419 9.1 1.0796
9.949 11 1.0962
12.87 14 1.1297
15.66 18 1.1609
18.29 22 1.1926

Table 4.3.84—Density of Th(NO3)4–H.O Solution at Room Temperature”

(Density Data of J. L. Bamberg)

ThſNO3)4, wt-% Density at room temperature, gm/cc

16.54 1.161
34.30 1.400
41.39 1.508
45.41 1.586
51.02 1.694
54.41 1.765
57.63 1.833
60.84 1.894
61.94 1.938
63.34 1.971
66.06 2.035
68.26 2.110

Table 4.3.85—Density of Th(NO3)4–H.O Solution at Saturation Temperature”

Th(NO3)4, wt-% Density at saturation temperature, gm/cc

67.07 2.09
69.78 2.17
73.39 2.23
76.39 2.37
78.56 2.41
81.11 2.44
81.50 2.45
82.01 2.54
82.85 2.53
84.27 2.70
87.27 2.70.
97.41 2.75
91.82 2.82

647
 2.75
§ :
2.50

B
Oomberg
i ©
Marshall,
Gill,
S
8 ecoy
(Ref.
107)

2. OO
i
1.75

1.50
..~
2
1.25

2O 3O 40
(Nos.),
Th
wr-9.
Fig.
4.3.27
–
T
ofhe
Density
Aqueous
Thorium
Nitrate
Solutions.
Reprinted
from
ORNL-925.
Submitted
by
Ridge
Oak
National
Laboratory,
Nov.
1952.
25,
>
**-
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

Table 4.3.86—Vapor Pressure of Thonos),-H.O Solution”

P, mm Hg
,--

Moles H.O/mole Th(NOs), 0°C 15°C

16.48 2.69s 7.72.

18.18 2.882 8.210
20.31 3.08s 8.738
29.29 3.265 9.16s
24.46 3.40s 9.533

Table 4.3.87—Vapor Pressure of Thonos),-H,O Solution*

P, mm Hg
*-*-

Moles H2O/mole Th(NOs), 0°C 15°C

14.87 2.457 7.13s

16.71 2.641 7.63,
18.74 2.862 8.214
21.87 3.141 8.91,
25.24 3.37; 9.546
28.16 3.56s 10.02s

* These data are superseded by the later results in Table 4.3.86

Table 4.3.88—Boiling Points of Aqueous Thorium Nitrate Solutions”

(At 760 mm Hg pressure)

Th"NOs), wt-% Temp., "C

22.3 101
58.0 110
72.3 130
85.3 147

649
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.89—Osmotic Pressure, Vapor Pressure, and Activity Coefficient of

Thºnos),-H,o solution***
(Osmotic coefficients at 25°C, Th(NO3)4–H.O solution)*

m Osmotic coefficient Activity coefficient

0.1 0.675 (0.279)

.2 .685 0.225
.3 .705 .203
.4 .734 .192
.5 .770 .189
.6 .807 .188
.7 .846 .191
.8 .885 .195
.9 .925 .201
1.0 .965 .207
1.2 1.044 .224
1.4 1.120 .246
1.6 1.192 .269
1.8 1.259 .296
2.0 1.325 .326
2.5 1.455 .405
3.0 1.546 .486
3.5 1.616 .568
4.0 1.659 .647
4.5 1.688 .722
5.0 1.706 .791

* By use of the equation, osmotic coefficient = —55.51/u molality ln P/p", vapor

pressures may be calculated

650
 PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

18O

16O
O
o

uj
-

or
= 140
A
7–
I. H.
<!
0.
ul
/
0.
: 120 A
y
H. L’
-64

IOO O
_* L-PT

8O
O IO 2O 3O 4O 50 6O 7O 8O 90 IOO

Th{No,), , wi-9,

Fig. 4.3.28–The Boiling Points of Aqueous Thorium Nitrate Solutions at 760

mm Hg Pressure. Reprinted from ORNL-925. Submitted by Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

Table 4.3.90—Refractive Index of Th(NOs),-H.O Solution”

Th{NOs), wt-% ThCNOs), concentration, gm/100 cc soln. Refractive index (15°C)

0.7228 0.73 1.33478

f 1.7928 1.8 1.33582

3.5204 3.6 1.33804

5.205 5.4 1.34025
* 6.835 7.3 1.34283
8.419 9.1 1.34489
9.949 11 1.34724
12.87 14 1.35235
15.66 18 1.35732
18.29 22 1.36188

651
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.91—Molar Integral Heat of Solution of Thonos),—h,o System”

(From calorimetric data)

Moles H.O/mole Th(NOs),

,--

Initial Final AH, inſmole ThūNO3)4, cal

15.65 3477
510
15.92 2912
497
17.65 2113
543
22.37 1242
545
24.68 888
553
28.18 513
562

Table 4.3.92 —Molar Differential Heat of Solution”

(From calorimetric data)*

Moles H.O/mole Th(NO3), AHoln/mole Th(NO3)4, cal

16.00 1100
16.50 550
17.00 375
20.00 175
22.00 155
26.00 132

* The data in this table are shown in Fig. 4.3.29

652
Wigs, PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

3500

CŞsis" 3OOO {
o integral (Per Mole Thino, J
• Differential [Per Mole Thtno,J
•

gzsoo \
3.
Jº
Hº

Lal

82000
->
ar
NN
Lu
ſl.

on N
tº 1500
o:
O
—l
N
<ſ
O SQ
IOOO

Ns

15
TH- 2O 25
-
3O

MOLES H.O PER MOLE Th(NOs),

Fig. 4.3.29—Integral and Differential Heats of Dilution for Thorium Nitrate.

Pata taken from reference 136. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Nov. 25, 1952.

653
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUE L SYSTEMS

Table 4.3.93 — Calculated Molar Differential Heat and Work (Free Energy) of Dilution of
Th"NO3), – H.O Solutions
(From vapor-pressure data)

Work of dilution Heat of dilution.

cal/mole cal/mole
*-*-

Moles H2O/mole Th (NO3), A orc A15-c Uo-15-c Reference

16.48 287 288 258 130

18.18 251 253 206 130
20.31 214 218 146 130
22.29 183 190 54 130
24.46 160 168 15 130

The following data are superseded by the previous results:

14.87 328 334 414 131
16.71 298 295 357 131
18.74 255 253 285 131
21.87 204 207 167 131
25.24 165 167 132 131
28. 16 135 139 65 131

REFERENCES

URANYL SULFA TE SYSTEMS

1. C. H. Secoy, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 72, 1950, p 3343.

2. C. H. Secoy, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 70, 1948, p 3450.
3. I. Helmholtz and G. Friedlander, Physical Properties of Uranly Sulfate Solutions, Los Alamos Scientific Lab., MDDC-808, 1943.
4. C. Dittrich, Z. physik Chem. 29, 1899, p. 449.
5. J. Mellor, A Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Physical Chemistry, Vol. 12, Longmans, Green & Co., Inc., New York,
1932, pp 103-105.
J. A. Swartout et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1280, June 25, 1952, pp 180-183, 190 (classified).
J. A. Swartout et al. Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1424, Dec. 17, 1952 (classified).
J. S. Gill, E. V. Jones, and W. L. Marshall, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1318, Sept. 2, 1952, pp 143-146 (classified).
R. E. Leeds and C. H. Secoy, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-870, Sept. 30, 1950, pp. 29-30 (classified).
C. H. Secoy, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-607, Dec. 31, 1949, pp 33-38 (classified).
D. A. McInnes and L. G. Longsworth, The Measurement and Interpretation of pH and Conductance Values of Aqueous Solutions
of Uranyl Salts, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, University of Chicago, MDDC-911, Nov. 24, 1942.
M. H. Lietzke, H. W. Wright, and W. L. Marshall, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1121, Dec. 27, 1951. p 124 (classified).
13. W. L. Marshall and J. S. Gill, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-990, Feb. 28, 1951, pp 134-136 (classified).
W. L. Marshall and J. S. Gill, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-630, Feb. 28, 1950, pp. 49-53 (classified).
15. W. L. Marshall and J. S. Gill, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1036, Dec. 31, 1950, pp 13-19 (classified).
16 E. Orban, Mound Laboratory Central Files Number 52-8-84, Aug. 19, 1952 (classified).
17 J. W. Boyle, J. A. Ghormley, C. J. Hochanadel, W. F. Kieffer, and T. J. Sworski, Reactor Sci. Technol., ORNL-52-8-103, 3,

No. 1, Mar. 1953, pp. 32-49 (classified).

18. H. F. McDuffie et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1318, pp 59-65 (classified).
19. D. M. Gillics, Some Studies of the Reactions of Uranium Oxides with Hydrogen, Oxygen and Water, Columbia University,
MDDC-647, June 1946.
20. H. F. McDuffie and J. W. Boyle, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., 1952 (classified).
21. E. Orban, Mound Laboratory, MLM-659, Feb. 15, 1952 (classified).
22. J. A. Swartout et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1121, Dec. 27, 1951 (classified).
23. W. L. Marshall, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF-52-1-93, Jan. 15, 1952 (classified).
24. R. Van Winkle, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF-52-1-124, Jan. 18, 1952 (classified).
25. W. H. Davenport and R. H. Powell, ORNL-CF-52-1-93, Jan. 15, 1952 (classified).
26. W. B. Harrison, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-156, Part 12, pp 7, 8, Oct 1, 1948 (classified).
27. N. E. Dorsey, Properties of Ordinary Water Substances, Reinhold Publishing Company, New York, 1940, p. 577.

654
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

28. L. Kirshenbaum, Physical Properties of Heavy Water, Columbia University, AECD-1991.

29. J. D. Roarty. S. L. Kaplan, W. D. Powers, and R. F. Redmond, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-52-3-253, Mar. 10, 1952 (classified).
30. M. S. Katz, Metallurgical Lab., University of Chicago, CC-1744, June 17, 1944 (classified).
31. R. Kunin, Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Company, A-3255, May 8, 1945 (classified).
32. W. L. Marshall, J. S. Gill, and C. H. Secoy, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-795, Oct. 30, 1950, pp. 22–28 (classified).
33. G. R. Dean, Metallurgical Lab., University of Chicago, CC-1536 (A-2211), Apr. 15, 1944, p 10 (classified).
34. G. R. Dean, Metallurgical Lab., University of Chicago, CC-2092, Sept. 23, 1944, p 5 (classified).
35. C. E. Winters, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-826 (classified).
36. J. S. Johnson and K. A. Kraus, private communication; to appear in future ORNL Chemistry Division Quarterly Progress Report
(classified).
37. Wacker and Cheney, Jour. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 39, 1947, pp 317-320.

URANYL NITRATE SYSTEMS

38. M. de Forcrand, The Dehydration and Decomposition of the Hydrates and Uranyl Nitrate, the Formation of the Monohydrate
Compt. rend. 156, 1913, pp 1044-1048 and 1207.
39. Gmelin, Handbuch der Anorganische Chemie, Vol. 55, 8th ed., Berlin, Verlag Chemie, J.M.B.H., 1936.
40. Project Handbook, CL-697, Vol. 1, Chap. II C, Metallurgical Project, University of Chicago, May 1945, pp. 47-52 (classified).
41. M. de Forcrand, Am. chim. 3, No. 9, 1915, pp 5-48.
42. W. L. Marshall, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-499, Dec. 6, 1949 (classified).
43. W. L. Marshall, J. S. Gill, and C. H. Secoy, The Uranyl Nitrate-Water System Above 60°C, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 73, 1950,
p 1867.
44. F. E. E. Germann, A. New Hydrate of Uranyl Nitrate, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 44, 1922, p 1466.
45. R. M. Bidwell et al. Los Alamos Scientific Lab., CMR-10-210, Dec. 1951 (classified).
46. R. M. Bidwell, B. J. Thamer, and R. P. Hammond, private communication, Los Alamos Scientific Lab., 1952 (classified).
47. W. L. Marhsall, J. S. Gill, and C. H. Secoy, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1053, 1951 (classified).
48. R. Jenkins, H. A. C. McKay, and A. R. Mathieson, Atomic Energy Research Establishment, AERE C/R 364, June 1949 (classified).
49. W. E. Grant, W. J. Darch, S. T. Bowden, and W. J. Jones, Jour. Phys. & Colloid Chem. 52, 1948, p 1227.
50. A. F. Kapustinskii and I. I. Lipilina, Doklady Akad, Nauk. S. S. S. R. 62, 1948, pp. 485-488 (see C. A. 43, 1242g).
51. W. L. Kay and B. F. Faris, Specific Gravity of Certain UO2(NOs), 6H,O Solutions, Hanford Works, (H) CN-3181 S-C (SE-PC-34),
May 18, 1945.
52. L. Gomez, An. Espanol 17, 1919, p 45.
53. W. Oechsner de Coninck, Compt rend. 131, 1900, p 1219, Bull. soc. Chim. France, 4, No. 17, 1915, p. 422.
54. A. Vasiliev, Jour. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc. 42, 1910, p 570; Jour. Russ. Ges. [Chem.] 43, 1911, p 1184.
$$. A. Biomer, Ber. Wien Akad. 110, Ila, 1901, p 943.
56. Becquerel, Ann. chim, et phys. 12, No. 5, 1877.
57. Internation Critical Tables, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1923-1936.
58. Landolt-Bornstein, Physikalisch-Chemische Tabellen, 5th ed., Julius Springer, Berlin, 1923; 2nd part of 3rd Supplement, 1936.
59. J. W. Mellor, A Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, Vol. XII, Longmans, Green & Co., Inc.,
New York, 1932.
80. E. H. Turk and C. M. Olson, Hanford Works, CN-3170 (SE-PC-14), Apr. 10, 1945 (classified).
61. C. A. Kraus, Brown University, A-360, NRCCL, May 26, 1942 (classified).
62. A. Colani, Bull soc. chim, France, 4, 39, 1926, p 1243.
83. F. Clagget, Hanford works, Hw-18406, July 24, 1950 (classified).
* Coulter, Pitzer, and Latimer, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 62, 1940, pp 2845-2851.
85. C. Dittrich, Z. physik. Chem. 29, 1899, p. 487.
66. W. Oechsner de Coninck, bl. Acad Belg., 1901, p 222.
*". M. Lister, Canadian Atomic Energy Project Report No. MX-234, 1946.
* - I. Katzin, D. M. Simon, and J. R. Ferraro, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 74, 1952, pp 1191-1194.
*. J. Aloy, Compt. rend. 122, 1896, p. 1541.
". M. Marketos, Compt. rend. 155, 1912, p 210.
* Germann and Frey, Jour. Coll. Wyo. Acad. Sci., 1(1), 1929, p 54.
72. F. R. Bichousky and F. D. Rossini, Thermochemistry of Chemical Substances, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York, 1936, p. 99.

URANYL CARBONATE SYSTEMS

"%. P. D. Miller, H. A. Pray, and H. P. Munger, The Preparation and Properties of Uranyl Carbonate, Battelle Memorial Institute,
AECD-2740, Aug. 1949.
* C. A. Blake, R. s. Lowrie, D. G. Hill, and K. B. Brown, Studies in the Carbonate-Uranium System, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., Y-673,
AECD-3280, Dec. 1950.
* W. E. Bunce, N. H. Furman, and R. I. Mundy, The Solubility of Sodium Uranyl Carbonate in Water and in Solutions of Various
* Princeton University, M-4238, Revised May 1947.
* R. Berlohm and E. L. Brady, A Chemical Study of Hexavalent Uranium Compounds in Sodium Hydroxide, Sodium Carbonate,
*Sodium Bicarbonate Solutions, Monsanto Chemical works, Monc-109, Mar. 1, 1946.
TT. R. I. Mundy and W. E. Bunce, Madison Square Area, Princeton Analytical Lab., A-2904, June 1945 (classified).
º ; A. Blake, R. S. Lowrie, K. B. Brown, and D. G. Hill, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., Y-794, Aug. 1951 (classified).
... Hedvall, Contribution to the Knowldege of Complex Uranyl Carbonates, Z. anorg.u. allgem. Chem. 146, 1925, pp. 225
-

* M. Bachelet et al, The Preparation and Properties of Uranyl Carbonates, Bull. soc. chim., France, 19, 1952, pp 55-60, 565-569.

655
CHAP. 4.3 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

81. K. B. Brown et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1220, Jan. 25, 1952 (classified).
82. C. A. Blake and R. S. Lowrie, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., Y-823, 1951 (classified).
83. Warren C. Johnson, Clinton Lab., Mon N-2 (classified).
84. Warren C. Johnson, Clinton Lab., MonM-26 (classified).
85. Warren C. Johnson, Clinton Lab., MonM-15 (classified).
86. J. W. Boyle, TID-272 (classified).
87. J. R. Coe and E. H. Taylor, Clinton Lab., Monn-311 (classified).
88. Joseph Kennedy, Los Alamos Scientific Lab., La-1017, June 1947 (classified).

URANYL PHOSPHATE SYSTEMS

89. André Chretien and Jean Kraft, Uranyl Orthophosphates, Bull. soc. chim... [5]5, 1938, pp. 372-385.
90. Heinrich Glasner, Alkali Uranyl Phosphites and Pyrophosphates, Z. anorg.u. allgem. Chem. 153, 1926, pp 130-134.
91. R. M. Bidwell, B. J. Thamer, and R. P. Hammond, private communication, Los Alamos Scientific Lab., 1952 (classified).
92. E. Montignie, Uranyl Phosphates, Bull. soc. chim... [5]4, 1937, pp 112-114.

PLUTONIUM SALT SOLUTIONS

93. Charles Allen Thomas, editor, MUC-JCW-223, Dec. 1944 (classified).

AquEOUS FISSION-PRODUCT SYSTEMS

94. A. Seidell, Solubilities of Inorganic and Metal organic Compounds, Vol. 1. Third Edition, D. Van Nostrand Company. Inc., 1940.
95. A. Seidell and W. F. Linke, Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic Compounds, Supplement to the Third Edition, D. Van Nostrand
Company, 1952.
96. M. H. Lietzke and R. W. Stoughton, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-970, Mar. 13, 1951 (classified).
97. B. Zemel, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-990, May 18, 1951, pp 105-106 (classified).
98. E. V. Jones and W. L. Marshall, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1221, Mar. 13, 1952, pp. 99-103 (classified).
99. W. Muthmann and H. Rölig, Ber. 31, 1898, p 1728.
100. Earl of Berkeley, Trans. Roy. Soc., (London) 203A, 1904, p 210.
101. B. Zemel, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1121, Dec. 27, 1951, pp 166-170 (classified).
102. E. V. Jones and W. L. Marshall, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1280, June 27, 1952, pp 177-180 (classified).
103. J. Koppel, Z. anorg. Chem. 41, 1904, p 377.
104. M. H. Lietzke and B. Zemel, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-990, Jan. 30, 1951, pp 251-260 (classified).
105. H. S. Booth and R. M. Bidwell, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 72, 1950, pp. 2567-2575.
106. E. V. Jones and W. L. Marshall, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1318, Sept. 3, 1952, pp 142-143 (classified).
107. B. Zemel, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1057, Oct. 10, 1951, pp 117-118 (classified).
108. A. Benrath and C. Thonnesen, Z. anorg.u. allgem. Chem. 203, 1932, 405-416.
109. A. Benrath, F. Gjedebo, B. Schiffers, and H. Wunderlich, Solubility of Salts and Salt Mixtures in Water at Temperatures Above
100", Z. anorg.u. allgem. Chem. 231, 1937, p 285.
110. A. Benrath, Z. anorg.u. allgem. Chem. 247, 1941, pp 147-160.
111. J. S. Gill and W. L. Marshall, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1280, June 27, 1952, pp 175-176 (classified).
112. O. E. Myers and M. H. Lietzke, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-990, May 18, 1951, pp 108-115 (classified).
113. T. P. Kohman, University of Chicago, Metallurgical Project, CN-522 (classified).
114. T. P. Kohman and A. Turkevich, Weights of Fission Products in Pile Material, Report for Month Ending November 10, 1943,
Metallurgical Project, University of Chicago, CN-1044.
115. E. L. Brady and A. Turkevich, Project Handbook, CL-697, Vol. II, Chap. III, Sect. D (classified).
116. M. A. Greenfield, North American Aviation, Inc., NAA-SR-6, Nov. 1, 1947 (classified).
117. H. F. Hunter and N. E. Ballou, Simultaneous Slow Neutron Fission of U-235 Atoms. L. Individual and Total Rates of Decay of
the Fission Products, Naval Radiological Defense Lab., ADC-65, Feb. 24, 1949.
118. J. Halperin and R. W. Stoughton, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1368, Sept. 29, 1952 (classified).
119. F. J. Keneshea, Jr. and A. M. Saul, Contribution by Chemical Element to the Total Beta Activity of Fission Products, North
American Aviation, Inc., NAA-SR-187, June 13, 1952 (classified).
120. J. K. Thornton and W. J. Houghton, North American Aviation, Inc., NAA-SR-45, Sept. 1, 1950 (classified).
121. K. Way and E. P. Wigner, The Rate of Decay of Fission Products, Phys. Rev. 73, 1948, p. 1318.
122. Radiochemical Studies: The Fission Products, Books I, II, III, C. D. Coryell and N. Sugarman, editors, National Nuclear Energy
Series Vol. IV, 9, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1951, p 229 Parts I-VIII.

THORIUM SOLUTIONS

123. P. Misciatelli, Gazz chim. ital. 60, 1930, p833.

124. Charles C. Templeton, The System Thorium Nitrate-Water, 20° to 160°C, Michigan University, AECU-1721, Report Number 1,
Aug. 1, 1950.
125. W. L. Marshall, J. S. Gill, and C. H. Secoy, The Th(NO)4-H,o System Above 20°C, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 73, 1951, p 4991.
126. W. L. Marshall, J. S. Gill, and C. H. Secoy, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-925, Jan. 30, 1951, pp 279-290 (classified).
127. R. Schaal and J. Faucherre, Bull. soc. chim. France, 14, 1947, pp. 927-932.
128. A. C. Neish and J. W. Burns, Can. Chem. Met. 5, 1921, p 69.
129. I. Koppel and H. Holtkamp, Zeit anorg. Chem. 67, 1910, p 290.
130. R. Fricke, Z. Elektrochem. 35, 1929, pp 631-640.
131. R. Fricke and L. Havestodt, Z. Elektrochem. 33, 1927, pp. 441-455.

656
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.3

132. R. A. Robinson and B. J. Levien, Trans. Proc. Roy. Soc., New Zealand 76, 1947, pp. 295-299.
133. R. A. Robinson and R. H. Stokes, Trans. Faraday Soc. 45, 1949, pp 612-624.

SELECTED READING LIST

DENSITY OF HEAVY WATER, Tsing-lein Chang and Lu-Ho Tung, Nature 163, (D.O. 0°-100") 1949, p. 737.
DIE KRITISCHEN DATEN VON LEICHTEM UND SCHWEREM WASSER UND IHR DICHTE-TEMPERATUR-DIAGRAMM, Riesenfeld
und Chang, Zietschrift fur Physikalische Chemie, B30:61 (D.O-near critical), 1935.
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF STEAM, Keenan and Keyes, John Wiley and Sons, 1st ed. (H.O: 0°-374°C), 1936.

657
 CHAPTER 4.4

Properties of Aqueous Slurry Systems

URANIUM SLURRIES (UOs–H2O, U3Os-H2O, UO2-H2O-U2Os–H2O)

INTRODUCTION (A. S. Kitzes)

The selection of a fuel for a slurry reactor depends upon such factors as thermal and
radiation stability, corrosion and erosion characteristics, neutron economy, pumping
characteristics, and stability to the products of reactor operation.
Uranium oxide slurry reactors are being considered because they offer better neutron
economy" than solutions of most uranium salts and because the fuel is more stable chemi
cally and less corrosive than most uranium salts. However, processing of the fuel and
control of the reactor are two factors which may, in the long run, outweigh the advantages
gained by the use of slurries.
The great amount of experimental work performed with uranium oxide slurries, espe
cially in the early days of the Manhattan Project, prohibits a comprehensive review of the
Subject. However, reference is made to the early investigations to help those about to
start an experimental study on slurries. An excellent review of early project work is given
by Kirshenbaum.”

OXIDE STABILITY

As aqueous slurries, the oxides of uranium (UOs, USOs, U.O.s, and UO) appear to possess
to an appreciable extent most of the characteristics required of a reactor fuel. Many ex
periments have been performed to determine which of these oxides would be the most
stable under simulated reactor conditions.” Heating UO, and U3O8 slurries in a stainless
steel bomb under approximately equal pressures of hydrogen and oxygen at 250°C resulted
in almost complete oxidation to the hexavalent state." In the case of uranium trioxide,
however, only slight reduction occurred when the slurry was heated in the presence of a
large excess of hydrogen. Data are reported in Tables 4.4.1, 4.4.2, and 4.4.3.
No data are available which indicate the stability of U.O; slurries to oxidation and re
duction at elevated temperatures. As a first approximation, it would be safe to assume
that these slurries behave as UsOs suspensions. Since it was concluded that uranium tri
oxide was the most stable at elevated temperatures in aqueous reactor systems, most
Work to date has been carried out with uranium trioxide.

STABILITY of oxide UNDER DYNAMIc conDITIONS (A. S. Kitzes)

Uranium trioxide, so far the only oxide that has been circulated at elevated tempera
"res, is chemically stable as the monohydrate when circulated in water at 250°C." How
T
1
References appear at end of chapter.

659
CHAP. 4.4 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.4.1 — Oxidation of UO, Slurries when Heated under Varying

Partial Pressures of Hydrogen and Oxygen

Heating conditions Gas pressure

Temp., "C Time, hir Hz, psi O2, psi Uranium oxidized, 96

200 48 63.5 31.8 64.9

250 16 202 74.5
16 378 82.2
24 70 61.5 78.4
24 70 175 91.4

Table 4.4.2 — Oxidation of U3O, Slurries when Heated for 24 Hr

under Varying Partial Pressures of Hydrogen and Oxygen

Gas pressure

Temp., "C Hz, psi O2, psi Uranium oxidized, 96

150 51.8 25.9 63.2

170 59.5 29.8 71.7
200 63.5 31.8 90.1
225 67 33.5 92.6
250 - - - 35 88.0
175 35 85.1
70 17.5 75.2
70 175 96.8

Table 4.4.3—Reduction of UO, Slurries at 250°C under Varying

Partial Pressures of Hydrogen and Oxygen

Gas pressure

Heating time, hr Hz, psi Oz, psi Uranium reduced, 96

20 263 26.3 0.5

378 - - - 1.39
24 70 35 0
68 527 26.3 0.4

660
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SLURRY SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.4

ever, the rod-type UOs • H2O when circulated at 20 ft/sec at 250°C does undergo allotropic
modification and abrasion of the rods. The rods, which are originally 2 to 3 p. in diameter
and 15 to 20 pi long, become either spherical or ellipsoidal with essentially no change in
diameter. The fragments which are abraded from the rods also become spherical.
When uranium trioxide rods are pulverized and digested at 250°C, they are converted to
platelets (delta form). A partial conversion, probably resulting from increased solubility
of the extremely fine oxide particles, was observed when the rods were circulated at 250°C
for at least 100 hr. No conversion occurs at 150°C although the rods are abraded into oval
shapes at this temperature.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY (J. O. BLOMEKE AND A. S. KITZES)

Uranium trioxide is stable in water at 250°C as the monohydrate, which was found to
exist in three allotropic modifications depending on its mode of preparation and treatment."
Uranium peroxide on heating at 300°C in air yields anhydrous uranium trioxide, which when
heated in water at 185° to 300°C is converted to uranium trioxide monhydrate in the form
of rods.” Decomposition of uranyl nitrate at 300° to 400°C yields uranium trioxide, which
on hydration at 185° to 300°C produces crystals having the form of platelets. Pulverized
uranium trioxide rods digested at 200° to 250°C are converted to the platelet form, where
as pulverized uranium trioxide platelets digested at 150° to 200°C are transformed into
rods. In the presence of several hundred ppm of uranyl ion, both the rods and the platelets
are converted to a third modification, crystals resembling truncated bipyramids.
The rods are normally 1 to 5 p. in diameter and 10 to 30 m long. The platelets are 6 to
50 pi along each edge and about 1 p thick, while the bipyramids are several microns along
each edge. X-ray diffraction studies show the rods, platelets, and bipyramids to have an
orthorhombic structure. Since the platelets are formed by digestion of pulverized or
fragmented rods, it has been concluded that the UOs monohydrate most likely to be stable
in an aqueous reactor fuel at 250°C will be that in the form of the small platelet crystals.
U.O; which has been surface treated with 0.5M NaH.POs,” does not react with water or
undergo allomorphic-changes when digested at 250°C in pyrex glass capsules. U.Os
slurries are discussed later under “Stable Slurries.”

UO, SLURRY CHARACTERISTICs (J. o. BLOMEKE)

Very encouraging slurries have been prepared of both the rods and the platelets. On the
other hand, the bipyramids, because of their size, require rather violent agitation to keep
them in suspension and are regarded as too large to be of much interest as a reactor fuel.
The characteristics of a typical uranium trioxide slurry which has been heated at 250°C
in stainless steel for several days are presented in Table 4.4.4. The viscosity at 30°C
(1.2 cp) is about 50 percent greater than that of water at the same temperature. The sig
nificance of the impurities in the indicated concentration range has not been completely
investigated; however, it is believed that they might play an important part in such factors
as chemical stability, dispersibility, and corrosion. The settling rate represented essen
tially complete settling. The soluble uranium was present in a concentration (4 ppm) which
is about the solubility of pure UOs • H.O in water at room temperature.

PARTICLE-SIZE GROWTH (L. E. MORSE)

Particle-size growth studies on UOs • H2O rods and platelets heated in water at 250°C
were made” using a concentration of 250 gm U/liter. Particle-size analyses were made by
gravitational and centrifugal sedimentation. The experimental details and results are given
in Tables 4.4.5 and 4.4.6. The particle size of both species of oxide increased very rapidly
in the first 2 hr of heating, but growth decreased markedly when the heating was extended
to 24 hr. After heating for 24 hr, the average particle size was 3.9 pi for rods and 7.8 pi for
platelets.

661
CHAP. 4.4 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 4.4.4—Characteristics of Typical Uranium Trioxide Slurry

(250 gm U/1 as UOa-H2O Platelets)

Surface area” of solids 0.5 sq m/gm

Viscosityt at 30°C 1.2 cp
Impurities
Fe 30 ppm
Ni 15 ppm
Cr 10 ppm
NOs 30 ppm
pH 6.5
Settling rate, vol. settled solid/total vol. 0.56 in 60 min
Soluble uranium 4 ppm

* Measured by nitrogen adsorption

t Measured with capillary tube viscosimeter

Specifically, the values given in Tables 4.4.5 and 4.4.6 should be considered as applying
to the actual oxides used in the experiment. Generally, the growth process can be broken
down into two parts. When small particles are present, the growth process is very rapid,
since combinations of particles are possible by a collision process leading to the dissipa
tion of the high surface energies of the small particles. However, as the particles grow,
this factor becomes less important, and the rate of growth is governed by such factors as
solubility and the rates of diffusion and deposition of solute. These latter processes
govern the ultimate sizes attained by the particles. Tables 4.4.5 and 4.4.6 show the range
of particle size as well as the soluble uranium.

STABLE SLURRIES

The criterion for stability of a solid–liquid system is difficult to establish, since the
required conditions for satisfactory reactor operation are not known. What is desired is
a suspension that is sufficiently homogeneous within the reactor core to ensure adequate
control and that can be pumped or otherwise handled like a true solution. There are two
divergent approaches to this problem: (1) a solid–liquid system that will not settle out on
standing for an arbitrary length of time, and (2) a slurry that is homogeneous only under
dynamic flow conditions but capable of being readily redispersed if it once settles.

Bentonite-stabilized Slurries (L. E. Morse and A. S. Kitzes)

Preparation of stable slurries has been directed mainly toward those suitable for use in
reactors operated at 250°C. Such a slurry is considered satisfactory if it does not settle to
less than 50 percent of its original volume in 24 to 28 hr and if it can readily be resus
pended after being heated at 250°C and allowed to cool.
UOs slurries containing 250 gm of uranium per liter of slurry cannot be stabilized with
bentonite, because the viscosity increases so rapidly that it is impossible to incorporate
the required amount of oxide.
Anhydrous UOs, prepared by the thermal decomposition of uranyl peroxide at 250°C,
forms stable thixotropic slurries at room temperatures when suspended in water at con
centrations of 40 gm of uranium per liter of slurry." However, autoclaving at 250°C for
1 hr makes the suspension unstable; the oxide settles very rapidly at room temperatures.
The ratio of settled-solids volume to total volume is found to be 0.2.

662
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SLURRY SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.4

Table 4.4.5— Particle-size Growth in UO, H.O. Rods on Heating"

Particle size, pſ
2.5 wt-% 10 wi-º, Soluble uranium

Heating conditions Average less than greater than in supernate, mg/ml

Unheated slurry 0.5 0.3 1.3

Heated to 160°C and
allowed to cool 2.6 1.0 3.9 0.134

Heated to 250°C and

allowed to cool 2.3 1.6 2.7 .096

Heated at 250°C for

1 hr. 3.0 1.6 6.1 . 135

2 hr. 3.1 1.9 4.9 .210

4 hr 3.2 1.5 5.3 .240

24 hr 3.9 1.8 5.5 .200

* Conditions: 250 gm U/1; heated in sealed quartz tubes; all particle sizes are equivalent
Spherical diameters

Table 4.4.6— Particle-size Growth in Slurries of UO, H.O. (Platelets)"

Particle size, u
2.5 wt-% 10 wt–% Soluble uranium

Heating conditions Average less than greater than in supernate, mg/ml

Unheated slurry 1.8 0.4 - - - - - -

Heated to 160°C and

allowed to cool 2.8 .7 7.4 0.250

Heated to 250°C and

allowed to cool 4.2 1.6 10.3 .310

Heated at 250°C for

1 hr. 4.8 1.3 10.4 .280

2 hr. 6.2 2.2 13.8 - - -

4 hr 6.0 2.5 13.3 0.468

24 hr 7.8 5.0 14.6 .625

* Conditions: 250 gm U/1; heated in sealed quartz tubes; all particle sizes are equivalent
spherical diameters

Bentonite, an alumino-silicate clay having cation exchange properties and an acceptably

low neutron cross section, can be used to enhance the stability of uranium oxide slurries
at 250°C. By converting the bentonite to the hydrogen form by electrodialysis, acid elution,
or ion-exchange resins and by using only those particles which are less than 25 mu, the
stabilizing power of bentonite is increased many fold. When this fractionated hydrogen
bentonite is used, slurries containing 40 gm of uranium (as anhydrous UO3) and 13 gm of
stabilizer per liter are stable after heating for 330 hr at 250°C." The pH of these Slurries
is approximately 4.

663
CHAP. 4.4 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Room temperature stability of material heated at 250°C for time T can be represented
by the following empirical expression:

** = 0.97 – 0.019 T - (1)

Vt

where: Vs = volume occupied by solids after settling 24 hr

Vt = total volume of slurry
T = days autoclaving at 250°C
Reactor radiations do not affect the sedimentation characteristics of uranium oxide
slurries stabilized by fractionated hydrogen bentonite. Slurries containing 40 gm of ura
nium (as UOs) and 13 gm of stabilizer per liter have been irradiated in the ORNL graphite
reactor for one week at 250°C in a thermal-neutron flux of 5 x 10" neutrons/(cm”)(sec)
with no apparent damage.

Stable U20s Slurries

Although a series of stable binary uranium oxide slurries containing no stabilizing
agent has been prepared, the U2O5 slurries present the best possibility as a reactor fuel.
U2O5 particles approximately 60 mp in diameter, prepared by spray-burning uranyl nitrate
dissolved in acetone, form stable slurries when treated with 0.5M NaH, PO." Samples
heated at 250°C in pyrex glass tubing for 5 hr showed a slight settling; however, the solids
are easily redispersed by mild shaking, and there is no clear supernatant liquid. Properties
of this slurry are shown in Table 4.4.7.

Table 4.4.7—Characteristics of Typical U.O. Slurry

Surface area of solids 13.2 m”/gm
Viscosity“ at 25°C 1.0 cp
pH 10.0
Color Gray-black
Specific conductance at 25°C 2.6 x 10" obm/cm
Stability of slurry after heating at 250°C Slight settling

* Viscosity determined with Brookfield Synchrolectric viscometer.

RADIATION STABILITY (J. P. McBRIDE)

Both chemical and physical changes may be expected in a uranium oxide slurry during its
use as a reactor fuel. The purpose of radiation stability studies is to determine the extent
of any such effects.
At present, information on this subject is essentially limited to three in-reactor studies
using UOs - H2O rods at a concentration of 250 gm/1.** These experiments have demon
strated that under reactor irradiation some reduction of the uranium occurs along with
considerable fragmentation but without significant growth of the slurry particles. The
ultimate fate of the slurry or the final crystal form resulting from these processes has
not yet been determined. No valid conclusions can yet be drawn with regard to the effect of
radiation on the dispersibility or caking characteristics of the slurry. Gas production,
while significant, was considerably less than in a solution of the same uranium concentra
tion. Details of the irradiation experiments are summarized in Table 4.4.8. It should be

664
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SLURRY SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.4

noted that the slurries used in these studies contained small amounts of nitrogen impurity
(approximately 50 to 100 ppm), presumably as UO2(NO3)2. To what extent the observed ef
fects are influenced by the presence of this impurity is of course unknown. Presumably, its
release from the slurry particles accounts for the increase in soluble uranium whose pres–
ence in the solution may influence some of the phenomena which occur under irradiation,
such as gas recombination or the conversion of rods to platelets.

Table 4.4.8— Summary of the Effects of Reactor Irradiation on UO3 H2O Slurries

Irradiation conditions and effects

Typical slurry 90% enriched 90% enriched

Observation properties Natural uranium uranium uranium

Neutron flux, n/(cm”)(sec) 7 x 10" 2–3 x 10" 4–5 x 10"

Irradiation time, hr 136 250 144
Temperature, *C - - - 250 250 300
Soluble uranium in < 0.020 0.080 0.445 0.180
supernate, mg/ml
U** in slurry, Ł < 0.1 11 3 5
Fluid pH 6.7 5.6 5.9 5.3
Crystal habit Rods Rods (fragments) Rods (fragments), Rods (fragments),
platelets platelets
Steady-state gas pressure 330 3000 1550
excluding steam, psia
Gas composition, %
H2 64.8

O2 32.4

CO2 1.3
Inerts 1.5
Approximate G value”
Fission products in - - - 1
supernate, 3%

* G = molecules H2O decomposed/100 evenergy absorbed

THERMAL PROPERTIES (A. S. KITZES)

Convective heat transfer involving turbulent uranium trioxide slurries can be predicted
by the relations appropriate to normal fluids, since the turbulent viscosity of these slurries
appears to be independent of the Reynolds modulus.
Slurries containing as much as 200 gm of uranium as trioxide per liter have been pumped
through a stainless-steel loop at a velocity of 10.5 ft/sec with a centrifugal pump.” Results
of periodic heat-transfer measurements at 150°C indicate that the over-all heat-transfer
coefficient is independent of the oxide concentration in the slurry and approximates within
the experimental error the value obtained when pumping distilled water through the loop.
The heat-transfer coefficient did not vary with time, indicating that film did not form on
the heat-transfer surfaces.

665
CHAP. 4.4 AQUEOUS FUE L SYSTEMS

VISCOSITY AND DENSITY

For proper engineering design of systems requiring the pumping of slurries, the vis–
cosity, density, and other related physical properties of the slurries must be known as a
function not only of the concentration of uranium but also of particle size.

Viscosity

The viscosity of slurries of UOs - H2O and H2O can be ascertained over a wide range of
temperatures by measuring the pressure drop required to give a desired flow rate of
slurry through a given length of small-diameter tubing.” The plasticity parameters
shown for amorphous UO3 - 2H2O-H2O in Table 4.4.9, can then be determined from a plot
of the shear diagrams. The coefficient of rigidity may be defined by the equation:

AP X D X , 8V
4L "gd (2)

Table 4.4.9—Plasticity Parameters of Amorphous UOs 2H2O-H2O Slurries

Temperature, *C
40 70 80 100 120 140

Concentration, 290 gm/l

Coefficient of rigidity (n), lb/(ft) (sec) 0.0023 0.002 1 0.0018 0.0016
Yield stress (T,), lb/ft? . 175 .146 .065 .065
Concentration, 190 gm/l
Coefficient of rigidity (n), lb/(ft) (sec) 0.0021 0.0018 0.0015 0.0011
Yield stress (ty), lb/ft” . 131 . . 101 .069 .030

where: AP = pressure drop for given flow rate, lb/ft”

D = diameter of tube, ſt
L = length of tube, ft
V = velocity of slurry, ft/sec
g = 32.2 (lb/lb force) (ſt/secº)
n = coefficient of rigidity = slope of curves
Apparent viscosities for UO3 H2O-H2O slurries can be calculated by using the param
eters listed in Table 4.4.5 in the following equation:

Dty
plc = n + 6V (3)

where: plc = apparent viscosity

n = coefficient of rigidity, lb/(ft) (sec)
ty = yield stress, lb/ft”
D = diameter of pipe, ft
W = velocity, ft/sec
The viscosity of UO3 H2O slurries as a function of temperature is shown in Fig. 4.4.1.
The data indicate no difference in viscosity between slurries of gamma oxide (rods) and
delta oxide (platelets) containing 250 gm U/1.

666
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SLURRY SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.4

TEMPERATURE, *c
2.O 84.1 71.8 6O.3 49.6 39.5 3O.O

e Uos-Hºp Rods
O Uos-Hºp Plotelets

º O Heo
# e-ºr
o
3 1.0
t
2-1- ~~
º
• O.8 _º 5-1
x
E O ºr
on \\1\ ~~
8 O.6 269 Qº ov
on º
> veo " qº \\1\ 2
60

O.4

O.3
OOO27 O.OO29 O.OO31 O.OO33
1/*K

Fig. 4.4.1 —Viscosity of UOs - H.O. Slurries as a Function of Temperature.

Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

Plots of the fluidity (reciprocal of viscosity) vs concentration for fixed temperatures

are shown in Fig. 4.4.2. The resulting isotherms when extrapolated to zero fluidity con
verge at a concentration of 890 gm U/1. This result is of interest since it appears to be
related to the volume occupied by the solid phase of a settled slurry that has been heated
at 250°C for 24 hr. Viscosity determinations” were made by measuring the time required
for a known volume of slurry to flow through a vertical tube of the proper dimensions.
The pressure was fixed by the head of the suspension within the viscosimeter so that only
the temperature and concentration could be varied for a given tube.
With stable suspensions, a Stoermer viscosimeter using a modified Babbitt and Caldwell
cup can also be used to determine the plasticity parameters for slurries.” A literature
review on this subject as applied to uranium oxide slurries is given by Kirshenbaum.”
Values for the turbulent viscosity of uranium trioxide slurries can also be determined
from pressure-drop data. This is done by finding the Reynolds number which corresponds
to the measured friction factor for water and solving for viscosity, for given tube-diam
eter, and for density and velocity of the slurry. For slurries containing as much as 300
gm of uranium (as UOs • H2O) per liter, the turbulent viscosity appears to be independent
of the Reynolds number as long as the slurry is in turbulent flow.

Density
The density of oxide slurries can be calculated using the following relation and assuming
the density of dry oxide to be constant up to 250°C:

di = V(d2 – d.s.) + ds (4)

667
CHAP. 4.4 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

|.8 |-| | | |

|.6

1.4

º 1.2 N
3. Nº.
c
-
: 1.O ©. TNS SºN
J.

>"
H.
Nº.
Sh
N
C ^ N. N.
50.8 Ss. S -N
º Sº,
S.
NJ
N. N N.
N N N
O.6 ~s > N

YS SJN
O.4
SJNNN ~

N. N.
~ NN
N NY
N.N. N.
O.2 >SS
NS
SS
O | | | | | N.
O 3OO 6OO 900

concent RATION, gm U/1

Fig. 4.4.2 – Fluidity of UOs. H2O (Platelet) Slurries as a Function of Concen

tration. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

where: di = density of slurry, gm/cm”

d; = density of solids, gm/cm”
ds = density of water at temperature T, gm/cm”
W = volume fraction of solids in slurry

EROSION BEHAVIOR (A . S. KITZES)

The erosion of system components by circulating uranium trioxide slurries is not as

serious as first believed. Results of many tests in which uranium trioxide slurries have
been circulated under a variety of conditions indicate that (1) 18-8 stainless steels are not
abraded (eroded) by these slurries and (2) the trioxides are much softer than the stainless
Steels.

668
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SLURRY SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.4

Amorphous uranium trioxide monohydrate shurries have been circulated continuously by

means of a fluid-bearing canned-rotor pump * (0.010-in. clearance between motor rotors
and motor cans) at room temperature for approximately 1000 hr without detectable wear.”
Examination of the pump parts after disassembly showed no visible or measurable wear
or corrosion. The oxide particles were, however, reduced in size.
Slurries, containing as much as 200 gm U/liter of water have been cycled between 150°
and 110°C while being pumped with a centrifugal pump for more than 1000 hr at a maximum
velocity of 26 ft/sec, which occurred in the throat of a venturi. Inspection of impeller,
venturi, and various bends showed no visible signs of erosion or corrosion, although the
particles were comminuted.
Examination of the pump impeller, orifice, and test samples of a loop in which UOs H2O
was circulated at 250°C for 100 hr showed no apparent signs of corrosion or abrasion other
than a shiny film." Maximum velocity in the loop was 70 ft/sec which occurred at the
throat of a venturi. The particles, originally rods 2 to 3 p. in diameter by 15 to 30 p. long,
were abraded into spheres or ovals 2 to 3 p. in diameter.
No erosion or wear was observed when a Stellited bearing and journal were lubricated
with a 100-gm/l rod-type UOs slurry supplied by a small pump. The Stellited journal,
1.4995 in. in diameter, was rotated in a 1.502 in.-diameter bearing for 100 hr at 1750 rpm
with a radial load of 20 psi,
Additional erosion data for various oxides against a variety of metals, including alumi
num, stainless steel, cold-rolled steel, beryllium oxide, and lead, are given by Kirshen
baum.” The data were obtained essentially from laboratory testing units in which test
specimens were rotated at varying speeds from 1750 to 3500 rpm in a slurry of UOz or
U3O8. According to the data, the rate of erosion depends markedly on:
(1) Particle size of the oxide
(2) Time
(3) Concentration of solids in the slurry
(4) Linear velocity at the eroding surface
(5) Physical properties of the materials
Qualitatively, the rate of erosion of the materials tested decreased in the following
order: Lead, aluminum, aluminum alloys, cold-rolled steel, stainless steel, and beryllium
Oxide. This order is in agreement with the one expected from a consideration of scratch
hardness.

THORIUM SLURRIES (Thoz-H2O)

(T. C. Runion and J. O. Blomeke)

Only a very limited amount of experimental work has been devoted to the development
of aqueous thorium oxide slurries for use as breeding blankets. Contributions to this
Subject have been made by Hellman" of the Manhattan Project and, more recently, by
Runion” of the Homogeneous Reactor Experiment at ORNL. The over-all objective of both
programs was the development of an aqueous Tho, slurry containing 1000 gm Th/l. The
principal requirements considered for these slurries were that they possess high fluidity
Concomitant with low pumping requirements and good heat transfer, low corrosivity and
erosivity in the stainless steels, stability to heat and radiation, and low settling rates
with easy dispersability. Hellman studied only unstable slurries using commercially
available Tho, of questionable purity. Runion, using Tho, obtained by laboratory calcina
tion of purified thorium salts, also prepared slurries stabilized with small amounts of
bentonite (Montmorillonite clay).

*Described in ANP-65, p 170.

669
CHAP. 4.4 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

UNSTABLE Tho, SLURRIES

A theoretical consideration of the fluidity and settling rates of 1000-gm/l Thor-H2O
suspensions indicates that particles approximately 1 p. in size should give a slurry which
could be pumped easily without excessive erosion and yet possess very favorable settling
characteristics. Starting with material covering a broad range of particle sizes, particles
were fractionated by sedimentation and centrifugation into the following size ranges: 1 to
10 p., 0.1 to 1 p., 0.1 to 0.5 pſ, and < 0.1 p. Slurries of these fractions had the properties
indicated in Table 4.4.10. Some agglomeration was observed in the slurries containing
particles less than 1 H in size, and slurries of particles of less than 0.5 p. exhibited
thixotropy. Slurry No. 3 of Table 4.4.10 was reported to have been easily dispersible after
having been allowed to stand at room temperature for one month.

Table 4.4.10—Properties of Unstable Thoz-H.O. Slurries

(Concentration, 1000 gm Th/l)

Slurry No. Particle size range, u Settling rate Viscosity Dispersibility

1 1–10 10 cm/min 2 cp Poor

2 0.1–1 1 cm/hr 2 cp Good
3 0.1–0.5 0.5 cm/hr Slightly thixotropic Good
4 0.1 0 Thixotropic

Using 0.75 to 1.0 wt-% of fractionated bentonite, stable thorium slurries were prepared
along the lines suggested by the preparation of uranium slurries. The amount of bentonite
required for slurry stabilization varied directly with bentonite particle size. If bentonite
particles less than 25 mp in diameter were used, stable slurries containing 1000 gm of
thorium per liter were obtained; nearly three times as much naturally occurring bentonite
was required to produce the same stabilization. However, no appreciable advantage was
realized by the use of particles of less than 1 p. By using a Brookfield Model LVF vis
cosimeter, a typical range of viscosities (10,000–2,000 cp) with varying shear rates was
obtained. At lower viscosities, the slurries settled rapidly, and at higher values, stiff
gels resulted.
The thermal stability of Tho, slurries was tested by heating the slurries at 250°C in
quartz tubes for periods up to two weeks. Although no appreciable change in properties
was observed in these tests, similar tests in stainless-steel autoclaves under gentle
agitation resulted in deposition of bentonite on the walls of the container and failure of the
slurry.

RADLATION STABILITY

No evidence of caking or instability was observed when a slurry was heated at 100°C for
one week in the ORNL reactor at a neutron flux of 5 x 10*.

CORROSION AND EROSION

To determine the corrosive-erosive behavior of circulating thorium oxide slurries, a

preliminary experiment was made using a slurry containing 88 gm of thorium per liter
cycled between 150° and 110°C for 100 hr. Results of this one run indicate that (1) thorium
oxide slurries are erosive, and (2) the over-all heat-transfer coefficient decreases because
thorium oxide is deposited on the heat-transfer surfaces. A need for further study of
thorium oxide slurries flowing under a variety of conditions is therefore indicated.

670
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SLURRY SYSTEMS CHAP. 4.4

REFERENCES

i. J. A. Lane et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1096, Dec. 10, 1951, pp. 26-46 (classified).
I. Kirshenbaum, United States Atomic Energy Commission, Tech. Inf. Serv., Oak Ridge, Tenn., NNES, III-48, 1951 (classified).
3. D. Vier, Columbia University, A-1277, May 26, 1944 (classified).
4- D. M. Gillies, Some Studies of the Reaction of Uranium oxides with Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water, Columbia University,
MDDC-64C, June 1946.
5. F. R. Bruce et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1280, Mar. 15, 1952, pp 101-109 (classified).
6. A. S. Kitzes et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1318, Mar. 15, 1952, pp 84-86 (classified).
7. F. R. Bruce et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1221, Nov. 15, 1951, pp -128-132 (classified).
8. R. S. Hansen et al, Reactor Sci. Tech. 2, No. 1, Apr. 1952, pp 86-88 (classified).
9. F. R. Bruce et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1318, July 1, 1962, pp 76-88 (classified).
10. L. E. Morse et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1057, May 15, 1951, pp 131-133 (classified).
11. F. R. Bruce and J. O. Blomeke, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF No. 52-3-217 (classified).
12. F. R. Bruce and J. P. McBride, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF No. 52-7-111 (classified).
13. A. S. Kitzes et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1221, Nov. 15, 1951, pp 133-134 (classified).
14. C. E. Lapple, Fluid and Particle Mechanics, University of Delaware Press, Newark, Dec. 1951, pp 115-133.
15. J. H. Perry, Chemical Engineer's Handbook, 3rd ed., p 387, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New York, 1950, p. 387.
16- A. S. Kitzes et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1280, Mar. 15, 1952, pp 84-86 (classified).
17. N. N. Hellman, United States Atomic Energy Commission, Tech. Inf. Serv., Oak Ridge, Tenn., NNES IV-17B, paper 3.20, 1952,
CC-3056 (classified).
18. T. C. Runion, Thorium, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-925, pp. 295-296 (classified); ORNL-990, pp 140-143 (classified); ORNL-1057,
pp. 123-127 (classified).

SELECTED READING LIST

THE CHEMISTRY OF URANIUM. Part I, J. J. Katz and E. Rabinowitch, NNES, VIII-5, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1951.

671
 CHAPTER 4.5

Properties of Aqueous Moderators

J. W. Boyle

RADLATION INDUCED DECOMPOSITION

The interaction of radiation with matter is discussed in a number of texts," and recent
advances in radiation chemistry, particularly with respect to aqueous solutions, have been
summarized in several excellent articles.” A brief outline of the present concepts, how
ever, involving the formation and reaction of free atoms and radicals, is given here as an
aid in understanding the discussion that follows.
Water may be considered to decompose by two separate processes: the forward reaction,
Eq. (1), in which molecular products are formed, and the radical reaction, Eq. (2), in which
free radicals are formed.

2H2O -v- H2 + H2O2 (1)

H2O ~ H + OH (2)

The symbol -v- may be read “under high-energy irradiation yields.” Some of the hydrogen
peroxide formed in the forward reaction may decompose into oxygen and water:

H2O, - %O, + H2O (3)

The products observed after irradiation are the molecular products Hz, Oz, and H2O. If the
water is pure, a low steady-state concentration of these products is reached—a condition
in which the decomposition products, both molecular and free radical, are reacting with
each other to re-form water at a rate equivalent to the decomposition rate. Two important
reactions in this back reaction process are:

H2O, + H − H2O + OH (4)

H, + OH − H2O + H (5)

This back reaction chain, Eqs. (4) and (5), is the chief method by which the molecular de
composition products are used up. If oxygen is present, e.g., as in Eq. (3), it can also be
used in the following way:

O2 + H -- HO, (6)

*References appear at end of chapter.

673
CHAP. 4.5 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

HO, + H -- H2O, (7)

H2O, + H -- H2O + OH (4)

Impure water may contain solutes" which react with or cause recombination of the free
radicals, thereby inhibiting the back reaction, Eqs. (4) and (5), so that the molecular prod
ucts, Eqs. (1) and (3), accumulate. The reader is referred to Hochanadel” and to some of
the preceding references for a more detailed discussion of the mechanisms involved.
The rate of the forward reaction, Eq. (1), depends on the intensity and type of radiation
and is independent of temperature. The rate of the back reaction, Eqs. (4) and (5), de
pends on the temperature, concentration of dissolved products (pressure), and type and
intensity of radiation.

EFFECT OF TYPE OF RADIATION

The decomposition of water by radiation can be conveniently expressed as the molecules

of hydrogen gas produced per 100 ev of energy absorbed in the water. This number, when
no back reaction of decomposition products to re-form water is present, gives the maxi
mum rate of decomposition which can occur and is called GH, for hydrogen production.
GH, may vary as much as six to eight fold depending on the type of radiation. In Table
4.5.1, GH, is given for three different types of radiation.

Table 4.5.1 –GH, Maximum Rate of Decomposition per 100 ev of Various

Radiations Absorbed in Water*

Radiation GH,

7-ray 0.3 – 0.7

Fast neutrons”
(proton recoils) 1.5
Fission fragments” 1.8

* Various reliable investigators cited by Allen” obtained the spread of

values shown in this table. Hochanadel” obtained a value near the average
of 0.46 for degassed solutions using a calorimetric measurement of the
energy input

Only Y-rays and fast neutrons cause decomposition in pure moderator water, as fission
fragments do not get into the water. See Chap. 4.3 of this section for the effects of fission
fragments on water.
By assuming that the yields for the various types of radiation are additive, the rate of
decomposition under mixed radiations can be approximated in a reactor. (The value for
fast neutrons in Table 4.5.1 was obtained by making this assumption.) For example, if 60
percent of the energy absorbed by water is derived from the proton recoils of the fast
neutrons and 40 percent of the energy from y-rays, then 0.60 × 1.5 + 0.40 × 0.46 = 1.08 =
GH,.
Thermal neutrons cause no decomposition in pure water except by a secondary process:
H* + n (thermal) – H + Y(2.18 mev) (8)

This process has a cross section of 0.31 barn and may add an appreciable contribution to
the y-ray component of the energy. For example, in the reflector of a reactor such as the
HRE, it may amount to as much as 20 percent of the y-ray component.

674
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS MODERATORS CHAP. 4.5

The type of radiation also has a marked effect on the radiation back reaction and thus
on the steady-state pressure which is reached." Gamma-rays, x-rays, and fast electrons
decompose water only to a small extent, the concentration of decomposition products
amounting to only a few micro-moles per liter at the steady state.” In heavy-particle
radiations, such as a-rays or proton recoils from fast neutrons, a higher concentration
of decomposition products is necessary before the steady state is reached.* The radia
tions in a reactor are mixed Y-rays and fast neutrons, so one would expect a steady-state
pressure between the steady-state pressures of pure y-rays and fast neutrons.
The effect of the type of radiation on the steady-state pressure has been well illustrated
by the Radiation Chemistry Group” at ORNL by the following experiment which is plotted
in Fig. 4.5.1.A and B.
A typical sample of pure water (Fig. 4.5.1A) was irradiated in a silica ampoule in a
graphite reactor until a steady-state pressure was reached; then it was re-irradiated
while surrounded with paraffin, thereby altering the y-ray component only a little while
greatly reducing the number of fast neutrons getting into the water. The steady-state pres
sure dropped to a much lower value. Another typical sample (Fig. 4.51B) was also irra
diated until a steady-state pressure was reached, then re-irradiated while surrounded
with lead. The steady-state pressure was raised since very few of the fast neutrons were
slowed down or absorbed by the lead whereas many of the y-rays were absorbed. Dif
ferent samples gave different steady-state values because the nature of the impurities
produced during radiation varied with the different samples of silica tubing; steady-state
pressure varied from 51 to 147 cm in a series of ampoules upon the first irradiation.
This experiment demonstrates that the steady-state pressure can be lowered by increasing
the y-ray/fast neutron ratio in a reactor. The time necessary to reach equilibrium de
pends upon the geometry of the sample, a nearly filled ampoule reaching equilibrium much
quicker than a half-filled ampoule. The degree of filling (gas/liquid ratio) also will affect
the magnitude of the steady-state pressure (see below).

EFFECT OF PRESSURE

Pressure does not affect the radiation decomposition of water, Eq. (1), but does have an
influence on the reactions between the decomposition products. The rate of the back reac
tion, Eqs. (4) and (5), is thermally sensitive; it is accelerated by increasing the concentra
tion of hydrogen but is decelerated by increasing the concentration of either hydrogen per
oxide or oxygen.” The concentration of dissolved gases is governed by Henry's Law
and has been measured for hydrogen and oxygen over a wide range of temperature at
Battelle Memorial Institute.”
If the pressure of the system is below the steady-state pressure, the rate of the decom
position reaction is greater than the rate of the recombination reaction, and the pressure
builds up until the steady-state pressure is reached, at which point both rates are equal
and no further net decomposition occurs. If the system has a pressure greater than the
steady-state pressure, the recombination rate is greater than the decomposition rate, and
the pressure decreases until the steady-state pressure is reached.
The ratio of the molecular decomposition product concentrations in solution is of im
portance.** If hydrogen is added to water prior to irradiation or if a solution of oxygen
and hydrogen peroxide contains a large excess of hydrogen, the decomposition of water
may be almost completely repressed. The kinetics of the back reaction in the presence of
a large excess of hydrogen is reproducible and is proportional to the concentration of hy
drogen, inversely proportional to the hydrogen peroxide concentration, and independent of
radiation intensity:

-d(Hi) Tºd(dose).
d(dose) --d(H.O.) T- —GF + K
(H2) (9)

675
CHAP. 4.5 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

IOO
| I |

:- Somple Surrounded
5 with Poroffin
75 _*-*T

>
s

3
o /
uj 50
Dr.
=>
Un
on
Lu
Dr.
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(A) TIME, arbitrary units

125
| | |

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E
->

>
*

s
£
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ſº

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Gl.

25

O | | |
O IOO 2OO 3OO

(B) TIME, orbitrary units

Fig. 4.5.1 – Effect of Radiation Type on Water Decomposition. Submitted by

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Jan. 13, 1953.

676
PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS MODERATORS CHAP. 4.5

GF is the yield of formation of hydrogen for the radiation involved and may be obtained
from Table 4.5.1.
If oxygen or hydrogen peroxide is added initially (aerated water), the rates are not re
producible, and decomposition may continue to high levels with much hydrogen and oxygen
being produced.
It follows from the preceding discussion that the gas phase/liquid phase ratio has an in
fluence on the steady-state pressure attained. If no gas phase is present, all decomposi
tion products remain in solution, a steady state is reached sooner, and the steady-state
Concentration is lower. In the latter case, much of the hydrogen and oxygen escape into
the gas phase, leaving an excess of hydrogen peroxide in solution. In the X-10 graphite
reactor where about two thirds of the energy absorbed by the water is from fast neutrons
and one third from y-rays," the steady-state concentration of hydrogen at 250°C is about
20 micro-moles/liter which is equivalent to a hydrogen pressure over the water of 20 mm
of Hg." The energy input in this case amounts to about 2 × 101s ev/(gm)(min).
If high steady-state pressures are attained, then explosive gases accumulate in the gas
phase. If neither high pressures nor the presence of explosive gases can be tolerated, the
decomposition gases have to be bled off or recombined by some external means.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

The rate of radiation-induced water decomposition is probably independent of tempera

ture, but the rate of the back reaction between the decomposition products is temperature
dependent; therefore the steady-state pressure is also dependent on temperature. The
production of hydrogen (under constant radiation dose) as a function of temperature be
tween 30° and 250°C has been studied for Uo;" solutions.” No detectable change in the
rate of hydrogen production was observed within this temperature range. The steady
state pressure is markedly reduced by an increase in temperature." The pronounced ef
fect of temperature on the radiation-induced back-reaction is shown in Fig. 4.5.2, which is

£80
5 M

#560
Un
(n
ul

{
40k
ul

ºH. \
X
wn

X-20H-
O
Nº.YG
§ |- *—
% - X
Ok— I
O 25 50 75 MOO 125 15O I75
TEMPERATURE, *C

Fig. 4.5.2— Effect of Temperature on Water Decomposition by Reactor Radiation.

Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Jan. 13, 1953.

677
CHAP. 4.5 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

a plot of an experiment carried out in the X-10 graphite reactor by members of the Radia
tion Chemistry Group at ORNL. The energy input amounted to about 2 x 10" ev/(gm)(min)
of which approximately two thirds was from fast neutrons and one third from Y-rays. A
duplicate sample differed somewhat because of trace impurities but showed the same
strong temperature dependence. Work at ORNL and elsewhere has shown that the purer
the water, the lower the steady-state pressure over the water.” It seems fair to
infer from two seemingly duplicate samples that the one showing the lower steady state
is the purer.
In a reactor where it is possible to purify the water continuously by some means such
as passing through a mixed cation-anion resin, a lower steady-state level should be en
countered than in a small container where impurities from the container wall are con
tinually accumulating in the water. It has been shown that impurities entering from the
walls of a container gradually but steadily raise the steady-state pressure.
The CP-3 Argonne heavy-water reactor has a somewhat similar history. The accumu
lation of impurities from the start-up in 1944 until 1950 lowered the pH of the water, in
creased water decomposition, and resulted in loss of reactor reactivity. In the spring of
1951, the reactor D2O was distilled in a bypass stream which reduced the impurities con
siderably. In May 1951, a mixed-bed resin column was placed in a bypass stream; since
then, net decomposition has decreased to practically zero, and excess reactivity has been
greatly increased.

THERMAL PROPERTIES

The thermal properties of both light and heavy water are given in many standard re
ferences. See also Section 1 of this volume.

REFERENCES

1. F. Rasetti, Elements of Nuclear Physics, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, 1936.

2. E. Rutherford, J. Chadwick, and C. D. Ellis. Radiations from Radioactive Substances. Cambridge University Press. London. 1930.
3. R. D. Evans, Fundamentals of Nuclear Physics. The Science and Engineering of Nuclear Power. Vol. I. Addison-Wesley Press,
Inc., Cambridge, Mass., 1947.
4. S. C. Lind. The Chemical Effects of Alpha Particles and Electrons. 2nd ed. The Chemical Catalog Company. New York. 1928.
5. M. Burton, Radiation Chemistry. Annual Reviews of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 1. Annual Reviews. Inc.. Stanford Calif... 1950.
6. F. S. Dainton and E. Collinson, Radiation Chemistry, Annual Reviews of Physical Chemistry. Vol. II. Annual Reviews. Inc.,
Stanford, Calif., 1951.
7. A. O. Allen, Radiation Chemistry, Annual Reviews of Physical Chemistry, Vol. III, Annual Reviews, Inc., Stanford, Calif., 1952.
8. M. Burton, An Introduction to Radiation Chemistry, Jour. Chem. Ed. 28, 1951, p 404.
9. A. O. Allen, Mechanism of Decomposition of Water by Ionizing Radiations. Discussions of the Faraday Society 12, 1952, p 79.
10. A. O. Allen, T. W. Davis, G. V. Elmore, J. A. Ghormley, B. M. Haines, and C. J. Hochanadel, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-130,
1949. See also Jour. Phys. Chem. 56, 1952, p 575.
11. C. J. Hochanadel, Effects of Cobalt Gamma Radiation on Water and Aqueous Solution, Jour. Phys. Chem. 56, 1952, pp 587-594.
12. J. W. Boyle, W. F. Kieffer. C. J. Hochanadel, T. J. Sworski, and J. A. Ghormley, Reactor Sci. Tech. 3, No. 1, 1953, p 32 (classified.
13. A. O. Allen, Jour. Phys. Colloid Chem. 52, No. 3, 1948, p. 479.
14. F. C. Lanning and S. C. Lind, Jour. Phys. Chem. 42, 1938, p 1229.
15. A. O. Allen et al., Jour. Phys. Chem. 56, 1952, p. 575.
16. H. A. Pray, C. H. Scheibelhut, and B. M. Minnich, Battelle Memorial Institute, BMI-T-25, 1950.
17. D. M. Richardson, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-129, 1949 (classified).
18. M. Sivetz and C. H. Scheibelhut, Reactor Sci. Tech. 2, No. 2, 1952, p 121 (classified).

678
 CHAPTER 4.6

Nuclear Design Data

CONTROL OF HOMOGENEOUS AQUEOUS REACTORS

INTRODUCTION (R. B. Briggs)

Control requirements for aqueous homogeneous reactors are similar to those for other
types. It must be possible (1) to start the reactor and bring it to a prescribed operating
power and temperature, (2) to make changes in operating power and temperature while the
reactor is operating, (3) to control reactivity disturbances which might cause damage to the
equipment, and (4) to shut down the reactor at will. The fluid nature of both the fuel and
moderator make several methods of control possible in addition to the method using con
ventional mechanical control rods.
Calculations for the Homogeneous Reactor Experiment (HRE) at ORNL indicate that
the negative temperature coefficient of reactivity is large enough to control any foresee
able disturbances in the reactivity, item (3) above, before the equipment can be damaged.
If the power level and temperature are permitted to vary about prescribed mean values,
the negative temperature coefficient makes the reactor self-regulating.
Other means are required to accomplish items (1), (2), and (4) above. Some of these
which have been considered are control of fuel concentration, control of fuel enrichment,
control of rate of heat removal, control of reflector level in D2O-reflected reactors, and
dumping the fuel solution.

NONMECHANICAL CONTROL METHODS (R. B. Briggs)

CONCENTRATION CONTROL

Using an aqueous solution fuel permits changing the reactivity of the reactor by adjusting
the fuel concentration. A typical curve of critical concentration vs temperature is shown in
Fig. 4.6.1. The reactor may be started at 100°C or below by filling the circulating system
with D2O and gradually adding fuel until the reactor becomes critical. With the reactor
operating at lower power, the fuel concentration is increased which increases the tempera
ture correspondingly; this is continued until the desired fuel concentration and operating
temperature are reached. During operation, slow changes in operating temperature can be
achieved by adjusting the fuel concentration. Evaporators are provided to separate excess
fuel solution into D2O and a fuel concentrate.
The effectiveness of concentration control during operation depends on the slope of the
temperature-concentration curve at the operating point. In the case of the HRE, where the
reactor is operated with ~ 90 percent uranium-235 in 25 to 40 gm/l solution, Ök/öc = 1.3 ×
10° per gm uranium-235 per kg of H.O at 100°C and 1.0 x 10° per gm uranium-235 per kg
of H2O at 200°C.

6.79
:

ºf
0%
OO.O2O
O.O19
O.O2]
O.O23
O.O22
O.O24
.OI8
O.O25
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2N
/
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Temperoture, 22O
vs.
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—
4.6.1
6Fig.
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HConditions
Proposed
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Core
fmto-gdeianmeotuesr
3-U/2.
-
8
gAt
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at
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1952.
25,
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\
\

g-U/kg-D2O
A, / M
_

I
...
Z
\
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NUCLEAR DESIGN DATA CHAP. 4.6

ENRICHMENT CONTROL

As an alternative to varying the concentration in order to change the reactivity of an

aqueous homogeneous reactor, it is possible to vary the fuel enrichment. A typical curve
of critical enrichment vs temperature is shown in Fig. 4.6.1. In starting the reactor, the
circulating system can be filled at 100°C with fuel solution of less than the desired operat
ing concentration and less than the critical enrichment for operation at 100°C. Enriched
fuel can be added to the reactor as it becomes critical and as the temperature rises until
the desired operating temperature and fuel concentration are reached. Changes in operat
ing temperature can be achieved by adjusting the enrichment of the fuel added continuously
or at frequent intervals.

CONTROLLED RATE OF HEAT REMOVAL

Aqueous homogeneous reactors are designed and fueled to operate at a specified average
temperature. The operating power can be controlled by the rate at which the fuel solution
is pumped through the reactor and by the difference in temperature between the average
reactor temperature and the inlet fluid temperature. The operating power of a given sys
tem can be increased by removing more heat in the external system, i.e., by decreasing
the reactor inlet temperature. It can be decreased by removing less power in the external
system which results in a higher reactor inlet temperature. If the heat-removal equipment
is operated to maintain a constant temperature of fluid entering the core, the power can be
varied by varying the flow of fluid.

DUMPING FUEL

Fluid-fueled reactors can be shut down by dumping a part of the fuel from the core.
Valves are provided which open upon a signal from the operator or the control instruments
to dump the fuel into external storage tanks.

REFLECTOR-LEVEL CONTROL

The reactivity of the HRE can be controlled by regulating the level of the D.O reflector
which surrounds the core. Measurements made during the critical experiments showed the
reflector to be worth 6.6 percent in Akeff at 20°C.

MECHANICAL RODS OR PLATES (C. L. Segaser and R. B. Briggs)

In addition to means for varying the fuel-solution concentration and the reflector level,
the HRE was provided with three sets of mechanical control plates in the reflector sur
rounding the core tank. These are shown in Fig. 4.6.2.
Figures 4.6.3 and 4.6.4 show the mechanism devised for raising and lowering the safety
plates and the regulating plate, respectively." All mechanisms pertaining to the control
plate drives are contained within thimbles attached mechanically to the top flange closure.
The pressure within these thimbles is maintained at the same value (1000 psi) as in the
reflector pressure vessel, but the temperature is reduced by running coolant through
jackets surrounding the thimbles. The portions of the drive mechanism (electrical insula
tion and the like) which are likely to be damaged by radiation are located at the maximum
practical distance from the core tank and are partially shielded by the 10-in.-thick steel
top flange closure.
Pressure is maintained in the control mechanism thimbles and in the reflector vessel by
introducing helium at 1000 psi near the top of each thimble. This helium, as it flows down
ward through thimbles, prevents diffusion of dissociation gases (D, and Oz), thus reducing
the possibility of an explosion.

*References appear at end of chapter.

681
CHAP. 4.6 AquEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

PRESSURIZER VENT -
ſ SAFETY PLATE
----- DRIVE

PRESSURIZER COOLING
- JACKET

GAS AND FUEL

LET DOWN

FUEL LEVEL LINES _FUEL OUT

2

PREssurizes ſº
STEAM IN

cooling 44% ºw
WATER OUT

REFLECTOR IN / S.
CONDENSATE OUT REFLECTOR
vessel
*
HELIUM OUT

**
_REFLECTOR
REGULATING FLOW LINER
PLATE

CORE TANK

º ER
2 THIMBLE
BRIDGE Pº
TUBE

REFLECT6R OUT
CORE TANK APPROxiMATE SCALE IN FEET
DRAIN o I 1 ;
La - 1 = a_i = a a 1–1 }

Fig. 4.6.2— Homogeneous Reactor Experiment Reactor Tank Assembly

Reprinted from ORNL-1318, Sept. 9, 1952; submitted by Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

682
 :
zº
VESSEL
PRESSURE

SPHERE
CORE

º
º
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PRESSURE
FLANGE
WESSEL
ASSEMBLY
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Laboratory,
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1952.
25,
Nov.

PLATE
SAFETY
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PositionER
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3.
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38-1/2"———-
:
BORAL
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–
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-
-
-
-
-
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1000

IN
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Experiment.
Reactor
Homogeneous
for
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Rod
4.6.4—
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Fig.
Nov.
1952.
25,
Laboratory,
National
Ridge
Oak
by
Submitted
NUCLEAR DESIGN DATA CHAP. 4.6

The safety plates are connected by a rod through a hole in the top flange closure to an
armature in the safety-rod thimble. An electromagnet, above the armature, is driven by a
power screw connected to a vertically mounted gear-motor. The magnet may be lowered
to engage and magnetically connect the armature, and by reversing the motor, it will lift
the rod and connected plate from around the core tank. By de-energizing the magnet, the
rod will fall by gravity plus an initial acceleration imparted by the force of a compressed
spring. A shock absorber stops the rod at the termination of its drop by absorbing a por
tion of its kinetic energy. The safety plates can be withdrawn at a rate of 4 in./min. They
drop into place around the core in 0.15 sec.
The regulating plate is connected by a rod through a hole in the top closure to a guided
nut in the regulating-rod thimble. A power-driven screw varies the position of the regu
lating plate relative to the core tank as demanded by small changes in reactivity. The
three holes through the top closure for the control-plate drive-rods are limited in size
and are located as far from the center of the closure as possible to avoid weakening the
flange. The regulating plate can be withdrawn or inserted at a rate of 4 in./min. Rapid
fluctuations in reactivity are controlled by the power or temperature coefficient.
The control plates were made by enclosing boral sheet (a mixture of boron carbide and
aluminum) in a stainless-steel envelope. An improvement in this technique consists of
cladding a boron carbide copper compact with stainless steel. Measurements obtained in
critical experiments show each of the safety plates to be worth 0.48 percent in Akeff at
100°C and 0.64 percent at 200°C. The regulating plate controls 0.33 percent in Akett at
100°C and 0.44 percent at 200°C.

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

INHERENT STABILITY

See “Neutron Chain Reactor Kinetics” in Chapter 4.1.

GAS EXPLOSIONS (P. N. Haubenreich)

The generation of hydrogen and oxygen from the decomposition of water in aqueous
homogeneous reactors presents a possible explosion hazard. Gas bubbles will form, and if
the system pressure is sufficiently high, these bubbles will contain an explosive mixture of
hydrogen, oxygen, and water vapor. Explosions might occur in the core, gas separator, re
combiner system, and connecting piping.
A chemical explosion may occur by one of two distinct processes:
(1) Deflagration, or smooth burning, which is controlled by chemical reaction rate and
mixing processes and is characterized by a relatively low velocity of flame propagation.
(2) Detonation, which is largely a hydrodynamic phenomenon and is characterized by a
shock wave which travels through the unburned gas at a velocity greater than that of sound.
The measured explosion (deflagration) limits of mixtures of hydrogen, oxygen, and water
vapor indicate that when the concentration of hydrogen and oxygen in stoichiometric ratio
is less than 25 percent, the mixture is generally nonexplosive, and the mixture is definitely
nonexplosive when the concentration is less than about 17 percent. The explosive limits
vary little over the pressure range of 1 to 68 atm.
Pressures from constant-volume deflagrations can be calculated quite accurately as
confirmed by experimental data. A more realistic approach is to consider the effect of
changes in gas volume resulting from compression of the surrounding liquid and the ex
pansion of the vessel as the gas burns. In this case, unlike the constant volume process,
the explosion pressure is a function of both gas and liquid volumes and vessel design. If
the explosion occurs in a large vessel, a shock wave may build up in the medium surround
ing the explosion and reach the wall of the vessel. The peak pressure would then be

685
CHAP. 4.6 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

approximately twice the calculated equilibrium explosion pressure.* If the pressure wave
striking the wall is reflected without appreciable energy loss, the peak pressure may be
fourfold greater than the equilibrium pressure.
Figure 4.6.5 shows the equilibrium explosion pressures and resultant shell stresses for
the deflagration of various amounts of gas in the core of the ISHR when operating at 250°C
and 1000 psia. The volume of the core is 113.1 cu ft, and in this case, the spherical shell
is assumed to be 2.5 in. thick. Compression of the liquid and expansion of the shell were
taken into account, but the effect of the pressurizer was not considered, assuming instead
that no liquid escapes from the core during the explosion. Since the change in gas volume
owing to shell expansion is quite small compared with that from compression of the liquid,
the pressures shown for a particular gas-to-liquid ratio should apply in any part of the
system where the initial pressure and temperature are approximately the same as in the
core. In the gas separator, the gas-to-liquid ratio will be much higher than in the core,
with resultant higher explosion pressures. In the lines carrying only gas, the explosion
pressure will approach that for constant-volume deflagration, which is 4710 psia for
initial conditions of 250°C and 1000 psia.
Composition limits of detonability are not well defined, since a detonation may begin in
a more combustible mixture and progress into a mixture of poor detonability. However, in
such a case the detonation wave becomes unstable and degenerates to a normal compres
Sion wave.
The occurrence of a stable detonation wave is a strong function of the geometry of the
system, in general existing only in channels not widely diverging in cross-sectional area.
A fully formed detonation wave can be degenerated by allowing it to encounter obstacles
such as a wire helix, baffles, numerous bends and elbows, or a series of expanding and
diverging sections to bring about irreversible energy losses. A combustible mixture in a
large sphere will not detonate even if the source of ignition is a detonation wave that has
progressed through a tube that terminates in the center of the sphere. Hence, there is little
likelihood of a detonation occurring in the core vessel unless there is a vortex through
which the detonation could progress in unidirectional flow. In any component of the reactor
equipment where the combustible gas mixture exists as a continuous gas phase in a rela
tively long, straight tube, there is a possibility of detonation and high impact pressures.
If the gas is a stoichiometric mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in equilibrium with water at
250°C and 1000 psia, the stable detonation wave velocity would be about 6920 ft/sec with a
resulting impact pressure of 14,400 psia. Since the detonation wave, once formed, travels
so rapidly, there is little chance of pressure relief by means of surge capacities in the
system. If reflection occurs, the peak pressure may be two fold greater than the calculated
impact pressure.

INDUCED ACTIVITY IN EXTERNAL EQUIPMENT

(P. N. Haubenreich)

A problem of special importance in circulating-fuel reactors is the difficulty of main

tenance because of induced radioactivity. Even when pumps, valves, and heat exchangers
are separated from the reactor compartment by shielding, they will become radioactive
because of the capture of delayed neutrons emitted by the circulating fuel. The level of
activity depends on the density of neutron emission in the fuel, the size and shape of the
liquid volume, and the nature of the materials exposed to the neutrons.
The density of delayed-neutron emission is fixed by the reactor power level, the system
volume and flow rate, and the location of the point being considered. The total number of

* The pressure which would be measured after the pressure transients have died out and before
cooling of the combustion products.

686
NUCLEAR DESIGN DATA CHAP. 4.6

6000 6O,OOO

- - - Constant Volume Explosion

- Explosion with Exponsion

5000 5O,OOO

* * * *= ºm me - - - - - - - - - - - - --

4.OOO 4O,OOO

mee- - - - &m sm * * * * * * ** - - ---

3OOO 3O,OOO

2OOO 2. 2O,OOO

IO,OOO

O | 2 3 4.

INITIAL GAS VOLUME, cu ft.

Fig. 4.6.5—Calculated Pressures and Stresses Resulting From an Explosion in

the Core of the Proposed Homogeneous Reactor. Submitted by Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

687
CHAP. 4.6 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

ASSUMED ANALYSIS, PER CENT

Iron 67.48
4 Chromium 18. OO
Nickel | O.5 O
Manganese 2.OO
Corbon O.O 8
2 - Silicon I.O.O
Phosphorus O. O 4
Sulfur O. O.3
Niobium O.8 O
IO Cobo It O.O.5
Tonto lum O.O2

; 2

8
|O

O 5 |O |5 2O 25 3O 35

DECAY TIME, hours

Fig. 4.6.6— Decay of Induced Radioactivity in Type 347 Stainless Steel. Sub
mitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Predicated on 2-yr
irradiation with 2.3 x 10" absorptions/(cm”)(sec).

688
NUCLEAR DESIGN DATA CHAP. 4.6

delayed neutrons being emitted is determined by the reactor power, whereas the flow rate
and relative volumes of reactor and external circulatory system fix the fraction emitted
outside the core. As the ratio of external volume to core volume becomes larger, the
fraction of delayed neutrons emitted in the external system also increases, but because of
a longer decay time per cycle which reduces the concentration of delayed neutron precur
sors, the emission density becomes smaller.
The size and shape of the liquid volume affect the leakage probability and the multipli
cation, which in the case of larger volumes appreciably increases the number of neutrons.
Calculation of the actual number of absorptions in equipment is sometimes difficult because
of complicated geometry. A convenient assumption is the upper limit in which all neutrons
emitted in a piece of equipment are absorbed in the walls. For simple shapes, a closer
approximation can be had by taking into account flux distributions and absorption cross
Sections.
To predict accurately the induced activities in equipment, the energy distribution of the
leakage neutrons should be considered, since some reactions which lead to radioactive
isotopes [such as Niº (n,p)Co"] take place only at higher energies. Other necessary in
formation includes the analysis of the material, and the abundances, absorption cross
sections, and decay schemes of the isotopes. A careful analysis is necessary since ele
ments which appear in only trace amounts may be major sources of activity. Notable
examples are cobalt, which appears to some extent in almost all alloys, and tantalum,
which shows up in stainless steel containing niobium. Both these elements are trouble
some because of a large cross section, high yield of penetrating gamma rays, and a
long half-life.
Figure 4.6.6 shows the calculated upper limit of induced activity in the walls of a 20-in.
pipe in a Homogeneous Reactor after operation at 48,000 kw for two years. The figures
are for a flow rate of 20,000 gpm, a core volume of 113 cu ft, and an external system vol
ume of 272 cu ft. For these conditions, 0.6 of the delayed neutrons are emitted in the ex
ternal system, giving an average delayed-neutron emission density of 2.2 × 10° neutrons/
(cm”)(sec). Taking into account leakage probabilities and multiplication in a 20-in. pipe,
the leakage is 2.3 × 1010 neutrons/(sec)(cm°) of external surface. If all these are absorbed
in the pipe walls, the source strength will be shown. After a 24-hr decay, the activity will
be 0.0033 curies/cm’ of surface with an average photon energy of about 1 mev.

REFERENCE

1. A. Zulliger, Design Report on Control Rods for the HRE, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF-52-3-36, Mar. 10, 1952 (classified).

SELECTED READING LIST

GAMMA ACTIVITY INDUCED IN ENGINEERING MATERIALs, C. D. Bopp, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1371, Dec. 22, 1952.

689
 CHAPTER 4.7

Engineering Design Information

REACTOR CONFIGURATION (R. B. Briggs)

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Two basic configurations have been considered for aqueous homogeneous reactors,
namely the single-region reactor, which is essentially a bare reactor, and the two-region
reactor, which consists of a core surrounded by a reflector or by a blanket of fertile ma
terial. Both types of reactors can be used tor breeding uranium-233 or for producing
power (Figs. 4.7.1 and 4.7.2).
Two-region reactors have been suggested primarily as thorium-uranium-233 breeder
reactors. Thev consist of a core of fissile material and moderator surrounded by a blanket
of fertile material and moderator. D2O is the moderator required for thermal breeding or
economical conversion. The core is made as small as possible consistent with the power
to be removed and the criticality requirements. The concentration of thorium in the blan
ket is made as great as possible to obtain a thin blanket and a minimum over-all diameter.
A two-region reactor can thus be small with essentially no leakage but at the expense of
parasitic absorption of neutrons in the wall of the tank which separates the core from the
blanket. When the core is small, the critical concentration can be 1 to 5 gm U/1; the in
ventory of fissile material in the core can thus be less than 15 kg while that in the external
system can be half or less than half of that required in a single-region reactor.
There is little difference between one- and two-region reactors that produce power by
consuming highly enriched fissile material without producing additional fissile atoms. In
either case, the reactor can be small and moderated by either H2O or by D2O. When H2O
is used, the uranium-235 concentration must be greater than 10 gm/l; by using D2O, the
uranium-235 concentration can be reduced to 1 to 5 gm/1, and the cost of the fuel solution
is usually less in this case. A reflector surrounds the core of a two-region power pro
ducer of this type. The reflector reduces the critical concentration required in the core,
and if a fluid reflector is used, it provides a control method through adjustment of the re
flector level.

DESIGN PROBLEMS OF ONE- AND TWO-CORE REACTOR WESSELS

The problems encountered in designing pressure vessels for one- and two-region re
actors (the outer vessel in the two-region reactor) are similar in most respects. Both
are designed on the basis of the same maximum permissible stress for a given material
of construction. The construction material can be chosen on the basis of corrosion re
sistance and structural and thermal properties with little regard for nuclear properties.
Two principal types of stresses must be considered in designing the pressure vessels:
(1) stresses resulting from the confined pressure and (2) thermal stresses resulting from
heat production, and consequent temperature differences, in the metal.

691
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

FUEL OUTLET

COOLING WATER
OUTLET

PRESSURE SHELL

THERMAL SHIELD

LINER AND
THERMAL SHIELD
(6'O" ID)

|NLETS

FUEL INLET

Fig. 4.7.1 — Typical Arrangement for Single-region Reactor. Submitted by Oak

Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

692
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

|-- 5'1" -

-— 4'4"– -

N2 schizo Pipe
H _A^T
Ž | -

ſº
In a ,
yº ſº Fº. OUTLET
º 18" sch. Bo PiPE *-
c LANKET OUTLET
6" SCH 80 PIPE

C
º 4'o" LD

-4 x 1/4" WALL

SCREENS

BLANKET INLET – º BLANKET INLET

4' sch, so Pipe" ( \| 4." SCH. Bo PiPE

N \ -

- SOUP INLET
Nº. IO" SCH. Bo PIPE

Fig. 4.7.2– Typical Arrangement for Two-region Reactor. Submitted by Oak

Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

693
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

Usually the pressure-vessel wall is thin in comparison with the inner radius of the
vessel; the “thin-wall” formulas for calculating pressure stresses are then applicable.
They are:

o6 = sº, (for cylinders) (1)

and:

Pa?
96 – 5: Taº (for spheres) (2)

where: 00 = tangential stress, lb/in.”

P = internal pressure, lb/in.”
a = inside radius, in.
b = outside radius, in.”
Thermal stresses are superposed on the pressure stresses and can be approximated by
the following formulas for hollow cylinders:
– a E (rº- a ſ”
•.-Hº (;=#|ſ tº dr–ſ r

Tr dr
) (3)

-Hº-Hº ſtrar ſ trar-tº)

% - (IT) ºb; Tai J. a (4)

O ET 2y a E b
=E – F – + 7–ºf–R Tr dr 5
o, -e, -É. Hº, ſ (5)

and by the following formulas for hollow spheres:*

°, --ī-,
2a E ( r^- a” 1 ſ” ar)
(#aſ*~- dr-iſ Tr Trºdr (6)

_ 20 E 2r” + a” b 2 1 r 2 1 )
o,-#(#a ſ trar #, ſ Tr'ar-#t (7)

where: or = radial stress, lb/in.”

og = tangential stress, lb/ in.”
g. = axial stress, lb/in.”
o: = linear coefficient of expansion, in./in. “F
E = Young's modulus, lb/in.”
y= Poisson’s ratio
r= radius, in.
a = inner radius, in.
b= outer radius, in.
T = temperature at radius, r, “F
ez = the constant axial strain, in./in., which makes the resultant of normal forces
distributed over the cross-sectional area of the cylinder equal to zero.

Equations (3), (4), and (5) apply directly to a cylinder with no mechanical constraints,
with only radial temperature gradients, and at sections distant from the ends. Maximum

*References appear at end of chapter.

694
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

tangential and axial stresses are equal and occur at the inner and outer radii. Equations
(6) and (7) apply where there are no constraints and where the temperature is a function
of radius only. Solution of the stress equations depends upon a knowledge of the radial
temperature distribution which in turn depends upon the manner in which heat is generated
in the metal wall and/or upon the temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces. Heat is
produced in the metal by the following processes:
(1) The absorption of gamma rays arising from neutron capture, from fission products,
and from fission within the vessel.
(2) The recoil energy from the scattering of fast neutrons in the shell.
(3) The absorption of gamma rays produced by the inelastic scattering of fast neutrons
in the shell.
(4) The absorption of capture gamma rays produced as neutrons are captured in the
shell.
Although it may be possible to obtain the heat production function for the desired cylin
drical or spherical geometry, it is simpler and usually sufficiently accurate to obtain the
leakage fluxes of gamma rays and neutrons into the pressure shell for the desired geom
etry and then to calculate the heat production for a slab geometry with the same leakage
fluxes into the slab. Methods for obtaining the heat production function have been de
scribed by Grotenhuis,” Segaser," Enlund,” and Spiewak." The function can usually be de
scribed by the sum and difference of several exponentials. For most purposes, a single
exponential can be used as a satisfactory approximation, and a uniform volumetric heat
production rate may often be assumed.
Carter' has reported temperature distributions and stresses for spheres, rods, tubes,
and plates for uniform heat generation. Where the heat production is defined by exponen
tial functions, the temperature distribution is usually calculated for a slab using the re
lation:

# -- (8)

where H is the heat production function and k is the thermal conductivity. The thermal
stresses can be estimated by substituting the equation for temperature distribution for
T in the stress equations. The total stress is obtained by combining the pressure stresses
with the thermal stresses as shown in Fig. 4.7.3. Pressure stresses decrease and thermal
stresses increase with increasing shell thickness such as results in a minimum com—
bined stress. Often this stress is greater than the permissible design stress; thermal
shielding must then be provided between the core and pressure vessel to reduce heat pro
duction and obtain a reasonable stress. Use of a thermal shield is illustrated in Fig. 4.7.1.
Segaser" and Spiewak" report stresses and temperature distributions in spherical steel
shells for various boundary conditions.
Designing the core tank in a two-region reactor presents special problems. Compared
to the pressure vessel, the core tank may be made of a different material and may operate
at a different temperature leading to problems of differential expansion. Bellows expansion
joints in the piping or a piping design, as shown in Fig. 4.7.2, that will permit bending of
the piping may be required to compensate for differential expansion. Absorption of neu
trons by the core tank constitutes an important loss, and the core tank must be made as
thin as is consistent with the strength requirements dictated by the pressure differences
which can exist between the core and the blanket. The selection of materials must be based
on a compromise between mechanical and nuclear properties of the construction materials.
Some properties of four possible core tank materials are tabulated in Table 4.7.1. The
ranges listed should not be taken as authoritative but only as representative of the values.
The factor a F/k is directly proportional to the thermal stresses, and the product Xa t is a
measure of the number of neutrons absorbed in passing through vessel walls of the same
strength.

695
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

90,000

ºn
a 80,000 *
g - - - - - - - THERMAL STRESS 22*
E 7O,OOO TOTAL STRESS *—ze
§ PRESSURE STRESS º e'

u 60,000 2% *
O
on 2' ,”2^ 2^ 75 kw/1

= 50,000 2"
*
g .21 ×
on 40,000
Uſ) º
2 º
º
Lal .” 2^
É 30,000 -—Pr"
to ‘’”
Lal
NS ,”
V’
A.

15 kw/1

– 20,000 S- .* -

£
Lil
H 10,000 24
º Sºst-i-L. - =-|---
•Kº -
- -- -*
* -~*
*

O -------irr
O I 2 3 4
SHELL THICKNESS, in.

Fig. 4.7.3–Tensile Stress at Inner Surface of 6-ft-ID Spherical Reactor Core

Vessel. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

Table 4.7.1—Properties of Core-tank Materials

Austenitic
Property Carbon Steel stainless Steel Titanium Zirconium

a x 10°, in./(in.)(*F) 5.6—6.3 8 – 11.2 4.95—5.12 2.9–4.9

(32°–212°F) (32°–1200°F) (80°–1350°F) (300°–700°F)
E x 10-%, lb/in.” 31–26.7 29–24 14 (70°F) 10 (70°F)
(70°–752°F) (212°–752°F)
k, Btu/(hr)(ft)(*F) 30–25 8 – 12.8 7.5–10 (32°F) 11.3–10.7
(70°–700°F) (212°–932°F) (32°–500°F)

** - 5.8–6.7 29–21 9.3–7 2.5–4.5

Ultimate strength, lb/in." ~65,000 80–100,000 70–80,000 20–30,000

Yield strength, lb/in.” ~35,000 35–60,000 45–55,000 ~11,000
Thickness (t), in.” 1 1 – 0.58 0.78–0.64 3.2
2
2 a., cm -1 thermal 0.202f 0.244t 0.316i 0.0072i.
2 at neutrons 0.202 0.244–0.142 0.246 – 0.202 0.021

*t is relative thickness based on yield strength of carbon steel as unity

f Calculated from values of oa obtained from H. Pomerance, ORNL

696
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

FORCED-CONVECTION COOLING (R. B. Briggs and C. L. Segaser)

Cooling by forced convection is the method commonly proposed for removing heat from
aqueous homogeneous reactors. The term “forced convection” is used in the sense that
the water solution or slurry of fuel is pumped through a circuit consisting of the reactor
core, heat exchangers, and connecting piping. A mechanical pump is usually proposed,
although gas and vapor lifts have often been considered. The power that can be removed
from a reactor cooled by forced convection depends upon the rate at which the fluid can be
pumped through the core, the heat capacity of the fluid, and the permissible temperature
rise. The volume of voids present in the core is minimized by pressurizing the system.
In high-temperature systems where steam is generated in the heat exchanger and passed
through a turbogenerator to produce power, the steam temperature is significantly below
the minimum fuel-solution temperature. The increased thermodynamic efficiency of the
steam cycle with increasing temperature is an incentive to reduce the difference between
the maximum and minimum fuel-solution temperatures in a system of fixed maximum
temperature. This reduction can be accomplished by increasing the circulation rate; this,
in turn, requires larger pumps, piping, and heat exchangers, increases the holdup of re
actor fluid in the external system, and increases pumping costs. Optimizing such a
reactor-power-plant system entails balancing the costs of equipment, fuel solution, and
pumping against the increased power-plant efficiency and the value of the electricity pro
duced. An optimization of this type was made in ORNL-1096.” For an aqueous homogeneous
reactor operating with a maximum temperature of 250°C, an optimum steam temperature
near 200°C was indicated.
The net efficiency of large nuclear power plants operating at 250°C to produce steam at
200°C and using forced-convection cooling should be approximately 22 percent. A boiling
reactor operating with the same maximum temperature but producing steam at a tempera
ture of 240°C should have a net efficiency near 25 percent. In systems cooled by flash
vaporization, the pumps would consume essentially all the electricity produced.
Although the boiling reactor has a higher efficiency than a reactor cooled by forced con
vection for the same maximum temperature, it appears likely that more heat can be ex
tracted from a given reactor volume or from the total volume of fuel solution in a circu
lating-fuel reactor. The maximum specific power that can be achieved in a large boiling
reactor may be 5 kw/l or less. An over-all specific power of 15 kw/l (and perhaps as high
as 25 kw/l) appears possible in a forced-convection system.
To achieve a specific power as great as 25 kw/1, the volume of the circulating system
must be reduced to a minimum, and the equipment arrangement must be compact. Fluid
velocities through the piping should be in the range of 20 to 30 ft/sec. The effectiveness
of the heat exchangers must be high. Examples of such exchangers are the Homogeneous
Reactor Experiment (HRE) exchanger (shown in Fig. 4.7.23) and the 50-mw exchanger
(shown in Fig. 4.7.4) which is one of several proposals for installation in the proposed
Homogeneous Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. In both exchangers, the fuel
solution flows through the tubes, and steam is produced in the shell. Small tubes are
used to minimize holdup. The maximum tube diameter considered is % in. OD, and
significant savings in the required amount of fuel solution may be achieved by reducing
the tube diameter to *s or % in.
Calculation methods for heat transfer in the 50-mw exchanger have been reported by
Segaser.” The over-all heat-transfer coefficient for such an exchanger is about 750
Btu/(ft”)(hr) (“F), neglecting scaling of the tubes. This may be subdivided into an inside
convective heat-transfer coefficient of 3000 Btu / (ft”)(hr) (“F), a tube-wall coefficient of
2000 Btu/(ft”)(hr)(°F) for 16-gauge tubes, and an average boiling heat-transfer coefficient
of 2000 Btu/(ft”)(hr)(°F). Scaling of the tubes could be expected to reduce the over-all coef
ficient to 500 or less, although short-term tests on single tubes have failed to show any
important reduction in heat-transfer coefficient.

807
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

14" SCH 80 STEAM MANN ×

- - - DRY PIPE

BAFFLE
ARRANGEMENT

| f II 53" E STEAM SEPARATOR DRUM [|| \ -

ill-illi

6" SCH 80 RISER I2O

12" sch. 39
º DOWNCOMER
- — —— — J-U-1.J-ll-ll-U

VAPORIZER SH
<FUET -

60 0 DVAPORIZER
--

SHELL -

|| || || -

- – – it Riº
3" SCH 80 FEED PIPES

| ----
| DISTRIBUTION HEADER |

X- SECTION X-x

Fig. 4.7.4— Proposed Heat Exchanger for Proposed Homogeneous

Reactor. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

REMOVAL OF POWER FROM BOILING REACTORS (P. C. Zmola)

From the power-removal standpoint, the design objective is to permit the greatest vapor
disengagement from the boiling aqueous solution for a given mean density.
Vapor disengagement can be accomplished by utilizing the natural rise of the bubbles
or by providing centrifugal separators. Although natural bubble rise can be conveniently
employed in small units (high free surface-to-volume ratio), this scheme in large units
severely restricts the permissible specific power for a given mean density, and separators
must be provided to obtain a specific power as large as that which appears possible in a
small reactor. The process-solution holdup in the separator must be a small fraction of
the total inventory. Centrifugal separators in modern steam generators can produce steam
Of % to % percent moisture at rates corresponding to 1500 kw of heat per square foot of
horizontal projected drum area at an operating pressure of 1000 to 2400 psia. The severity
of the vapor disengagement problem increases if foaming occurs.
The operating mean density in small units is determined by the natural rise velocity of
the bubbles. In larger units, the radial density difference can establish a convective pat
tern which reduces the mean density for a given total power provided that a large fraction
of the vapor formed can be removed in every circulation pass. Estimates of circulation
velocities as a function of density decrement from saturated liquid values have been made
on the basis of a simplified model."
At present the only aqueous homogeneous reactor which has operated under boiling con
ditions (Los Alamos Water Boiler) has possessed an unfavorable geometry for steam re
lease. Specific power of 0.5 kw/l was attained at atmospheric pressure, but this should
not be construed as any general sort of limit.

698
 ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

FLASH WAPORIZATION (P. N. Haubenreich)

The flash-vaporization system shown in Fig. 4.7.5 has been suggested as a means of re
moving heat and preventing the formation of gas bubbles and explosive mixtures in homo
geneous reactors. In this scheme the pressure on the reactor fuel solution is suddenly
; reduced by an orifice (or some other device) to such an extent that a portion of the fluid

RECOMBINER

|
*

FLASH
º CHAMBER - - - - - -

TURBOGENERATOR

BOI LER

CORE

LINE SYM BOLS

---- STEAM
PUMP LIQUID

Q
Fig. 4.7.5—Proposed Cycle for Power Generation from Steam Derived by
Flash Vaporization. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

flashes into steam. This steam is removed, carrying with it essentially all the decomposi
tion gases. After passing through a recombiner, the steam is condensed in a heat ex
changer which serves as a boiler to provide steam for a turbogenerator through a sec
ondary circuit. The fuel solution entering the core is free of gas. The pressure and flow
rate in the reactors are maintained high enough so that the gas concentration is kept be
low saturation there.
Among the advantages of such a system are the absence of gas bubbles in the core, the
nonexplosive character of the mixture supplied to the recombiners, and a high heat-transfer
coefficient in the heat exchanger. Its major disadvantage is the large amount of pump pow
er required because of the available energy lost in flashing. The design of a device for re
ducing the pressure would also be difficult.
The results of some calculations for such a system are shown in Figs. 4.7.6 and 4.7.7.
These results are based on the following conditions:
(1) Heat release in core, 50,000 kw
(2) Gas evolution rate, 1 molecule/100 ev
(3) Gas concentration at core outlet, 80 percent of saturation
(4) Core outlet temperature, 482°F
(5) Temperature difference in heat exchanger, 20°F

699
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

28,000

25, OOO

2O,OOO N

: 15,000

IO,OOO

5,000
6OO 64O
N

68O
CORE PRESSURE, psia
72O 760

5Oo

475

450 -

4.25 -E-

400
6OO 64O 68O 720 760

CORE PRESSURE, psia

4OO

3OO

:.
2OO _*

IOO

6OO 64O 680 720 760

coRE PRESSURE, psia

Fig. 4.7.6– Pumping Rate, Pressure Drop, and Throttle Temperature vs Core
Pressure for Flash-vaporization Cycle. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Lab
oratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL CF-51-11-28.
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

15,000 I i

GENERATOR OUTPUT

*-
14,OOO *-
T
T *-
3: T

5 is,ooo - ><
>
<> 12,
Cl- NET OUTPUT

11,
3,
PUMP POWER NOTE: IO psi & 25 psi
Refer to pressure
drop across
core.

2,000
6IO 62O 640 66O 68O 7OO 72O 74O
coRE PRESSURE, psia

Fig. 4.7.7— Power vs Core Pressure for Typical Flash-vaporization Cycle.

Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from
ORNL CF-51-11-28.

The vapor pressure of the solution is assumed to be the same as that of pure water. Solu
bility data are based on those in BMI-T-25 and steam-cycle efficiencies on those in ORNL
CF-51-7-66. Pump-power requirements are calculated on the basis of 10- and 25-psi
pressure drops across the reactor core.

GAS HANDLING SYSTEMS

EXTERNAL RECOMBINERS (J. A. Ransohoff and C. B. Graham)

The operation of a reactor in which the fuel is an aqueous solution or slurry will result
in the evolution of gas from two sources. Gaseous fission fragments or their descendants
contribute a small volume, but a much greater volume is evolved as hydrogen and oxygen
from the radiolytic dissociation of water in the reactor. The fission products are produced
in small enough quantities to be adsorbed in a shielded charcoal bed, but to stabilize the
solution concentration and reduce the total volume of reactor gases, the H, and O, should
be recombined and the water returned to the system.
Two aqueous-solution reactors have been built and operated: the Los Alamos water
boiler and the ORNL Homogeneous Reactor Experiment (HRE). The gas handling problem
of the latter includes most of the difficulties anticipated in disposing of gaseous products
of aqueous-solution reactors, and the following discussion is devoted primarily to the
disposal of gas in that reactor.

701
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

HRE OFF-GAS SYSTEM

The HRE is expected to produce 2H} to Oz at a rate of about 12 cu ft* (STP)/min when
the reactor is operating at 1000 kw. The gas formed in the fuel solution at pressures up
to 1000 psi and temperatures up to 250°C is removed from the solution, reduced to at
mospheric pressure, recombined to water, and returned as such to the fuel solution.
Since the operating level may be set at any fraction of design power for prolonged periods,
the gas-handling system must accommodate any quantity of gas between 0 and 15 cu ft/min.
The removal of gas from the fuel solution is facilitated by creating a gas vortex along
the vertical diameter of the core. A simplified diagram of the HRE off-gas system is
shown in Fig. 4.7.8. The 75 liters of fuel solution in the high-pressure system are circu
lated at a rate of 100 gal/min by a canned-rotor centrifugal pump (1). The liquid flows
from the core (2) through the second of three concentric pipes stemming from the top (3)
and is pumped through a heat exchanger back into the core tangentially at (4). The fluid in
the core therefore rotates rapidly. The gas-liquid density difference causes the gas to
separate from the liquid and establish a vortex along the axis of the resulting centrifugal
force field (5). The gas in the vortex, along with a considerable quantity of liquid, flows
through the innermost of the three concentric pipes (6), through a double-pipe heat ex
changer (7) to a valve (8) which throttles the stream to atmospheric pressure. Fuel solu
tion is continually pumped by a pulsafeeder (10) from the dump tanks (9) through the inner
pipe of the double-pipe heat exchanger (7) into the core to replace the gas-liquid mixture
which is let down from the high-pressure system into the dump tanks.
The line from the let-down valve connects into the vapor space at the top of the dump
tanks. Most of the liquid in the stream drops into the dump tanks, but some is flashed with
the gas which goes to the recombiner system. The amount of steam flashed at this point
varies from 5 to 50 percent of the total gas flow, depending on the gas-liquid ratio in the
let-down stream, the core temperature, the pumping rate, and other factors. An evaporator
(12) in the dump tanks adds up to 40 scfm of steam to the gas to make the mixture flowing
from the dump tanks to the recombiner system nonexplosive.” The steam is condensed
from the gas in a large fore condenser (13); this returns the mixture to combustible form.
The condensate is either returned by gravity to the dump tanks or is collected in con
densate weigh tanks if it is desirable to concentrate the fuel solution.

Flame Recombiner

The gas flows from the condenser to the flame recombiner (14) where the H, and Oz are
burned to water. The flame is established at a many-holed nozzle upon which a spark
impinges from one of two spark plugs located along the periphery of the nozzle, Fig. 4.7.9.
The spark impluse is produced by a magneto with an ignition transformer on standby. The
combustion chamber is a 3%-ft length of 10-in. pipe, jacketed by a 12-in. pipe through
which cooling water is circulated. The cooling water removes 70 to 80 percent of the heat
of combustion even at high gas flows.” With combustible gas flows of 15 scfm, for instance,
the temperature at the downstream end of the flame recombiner did not exceed 600°C, and
70 percent of the heat of combustion was recovered in the jacket of the flame recombiner.
The additional heat was recovered in the after condenser (16). The gases remaining after
combustion [fission products plus the 1200 cc/min of excess O, which is continuously
added to the system at (11)] are adsorbed in a charcoal bed after being stripped of all

* Operation of the HRE at the design power of 1000 kw yielded 10 scfm of 2H2 + O2 per megawatt of
reactor power. On March 18, 1953, the reactor was operated at 1500 kw long enough to observe the
recombiner system in operation at its rated load. It was able to handle the 15 cfm of 2H2 + Oz pro
duced at that power; however, the temperature at the bottom of the flame recombiner reached 620°C
during the operation, and it is questionable whether the system should be submitted to higher loads.

702
 CHAP. 4.7
s: ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION

-
HEAT

º ExCHANGER

----,

LINE SYMBOLS

LIQUID
------ GAS

I. CANNED ROTOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMP | I. OXYG EN ABSORBER

2. CORE 12. FUEL EVAPORATOR
3. SECOND OF 3 CONCENTRIC PIPES 13. FORE CONDENSER
4. INLET FROM HEAT EXCHANGER TO CORE 14. FLAME RECOMBINER
5. VORTEX 15. CATALYTIC RECOMBINER
6. THIRD OF 3 CONCENTRIC PIPES 16. AFTER CONDENSER
7. DOUBLE - PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER 17. COLD TRAPS
8. LETDOWN VALVE 18, STEAMER POT
9. DUMP TANKS 19. STEAMER POT
IO. PULSAFEEDER

Fig. 4.7.8—Simplified Flow Diagram for HRE Off-gas System. Submitted by

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

703
#
:

: SPARK
PLUG
WATE
COOLIRNG
JACKE T
BURNE
NOZZ R
LE
DETA|
HEAD L

4.7.9
Primar
Flame
Recomb —
y
Fig. iner
for
Fuel
Circuit
in
Homoge
Re neous
Experi
Submit
by
Ridge
Nationa
Labora ment.
actor ted
Oak l
Nov.
25,
1952. tory,
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

their water vapor in cold traps (17); the condensed products of combustion are returned
to the dump tanks by gravity.
The flow area of the nozzle consists of 147 holes 42 in. in diameter, the total cross
section of which is 0.112 sq. in. When the flow rate is 30 cu ft/min, the velocity through
the nozzle is 640 ft/sec, and the pressure drop through the nozzle approaches the 11-ft
(water) head by which water is returned from the recombiner to the dump tanks. At flows
of less than 3 scfm, the pressure drop through the nozzle is so low that the flame burns
too closely to the tip, the nozzle overheats, and flashbacks result.

Flashbacks

To prevent flashbacks, a steamer pot (18) adds 2 to 3 scfm of steam to the gas stream
flowing from the fore condenser to the flame recombiner. This serves both to cool the
flame by diluting it and to provide the minimum flow necessary to keep the flame from
burning directly on the nozzle. At extremely low flows (less than % scfm), the spark must
operate at all times to ensure constant burning of the extremely dilute gas.
Flashbacks originating in the recombiner system create peak pressures of from 100 to
400 psi, depending on the starting pressure and the mechanism of the reaction.” Such re
actions will be quenched in the gas line between the dump tanks and the fore condenser if
the gas in the line contains more than 70 percent steam. There is, of course, a possibility
that the process-solution evaporator (12) may fail or be shut off for some reason, or that
gas flows greater than those expected will have to be handled. It was feared that if the
mixture in the off-gas line were combustible, an explosion originating in one of the re
combiners might travel back through the off-gas line to the dump tanks and thence through
the let-down valve into the high-pressure system. Tésts of the recombiner while installed
in the HRE indicate that this will not occur with the reactor operating at 1000 psi and
250°C and a pulsafeeder pumping rate of 1 gpm.
Following a flashback, a flame could be established in the fore-condenser where the gas
is combustible. In such a situation, if the cooling water to the condenser is turned off for
a few moments, the noncombustible front will move forward and should force the flame
back to the nozzle where it may become reestablished in the presence of a spark. To pro
tect the condenser, however, it is advisable to reduce the power level of the reactor to a
point where less than one scfm of gas is being produced.

Catalytic Recombiner
At extremely low power levels (less than 20 kw), operation of the flame recombiner is
inconsistent, and over-all recombiner operations are usually improved if the spark is shut
off and the gas-steam mixture is allowed to flow into the catalytic recombiner (15) where
the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen is catalysed by platinum. The catalytic recombiner
is shown in Fig. 4.7.10. The thin layer of platinum metal used as catalyst is supported by
%-in. alumina pellets which offer extremely high surface area per unit volume. The per
missible space velocity for 99.9 percent conversion through a bed of %-in. alumina pellets
is more than 3 × 10°hr"; the 5%-in. length of 3-in. pipe used in the HRE is thus only
partially used in recombining the % scfm of gas, the maximum load anticipated during
operation of the reactor.” Local overheating will occur in the catalyst bed, and unless
the gases are diluted below the explosive limit, backflashes will result.” Since most of
the steam that flows with the combustible gas through the flame recombiner nozzle is con
densed on the cold walls of the recombiner chamber, another steamer pot (19) was placed
between the flame recombiner and catalytic recombiner to dilute the combustible gas. This
pot operates continuously, and at full load (about 3 scfm), it produces enough diluent to pre
vent flashbacks from the catalyst for all combustible-gas flows up to % Scfm.

705
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

THERMocoupl_E
WELL

RETAINER
ASSEMBLY

COOLANT
JACKET

LATINIzéd
ALUMINA

Fig. 4.7.10—Low-pressure Catalytic Recombiner for Fuel Circuit in Homo

geneous Reactor Experiment. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Nov. 25, 1952.

706
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

The catalyst may be poisoned by films of either water or iodine. Water poisoning is
avoided by jacketing the recombiner with steam, which serves to keep the catalyst dry at
all times. Since iodine is one of the more predominant fission products, iodine poisoning
is possible unless the recombiner is heated occasionally to 400°C to volatilize the iodine.”
This can be done either by the heat from the catalytic reaction of the combustible gases or
by the heat produced in burning the gases, which is carried over into the catalyst bed at
high gas-flow rates.
Plans for future reactors indicate that it might be desirable to recombine the gases at
high pressure rather than either at atmospheric pressure, as is now done in the HRE, or
at reduced pressure as is done in the water boiler.” At high pressures, however, the con
sequences of an explosion would be quite severe, and it is highly desirable that a noncom
bustible mixture exist at all times. Since a flame recombiner can of course not operate
with a non-combustible gas mixture, a high-pressure flame recombiner can not be con
sidered, and accordingly, all development work after satisfactory operation of the HRE
flame recombiner was achieved has been directed toward determining the reaction con
trolling mechanism on platinum as the first step toward designing a high-pressure catalytic
recombiner.””
One high-pressure catalytic recombiner has already been operated satisfactorily. In
the reflector system of the HRE, the formation of approximately /, scfm of gas is expected
as a result of radiation when the reactor is operating at 1000 kw. The gas space of the re
flector vessel is filled with He gas which is circulated through a high-pressure catalytic
recombiner that is similar to the low-pressure recombiner described above. The He
serves as a diluent for the decomposed gas, and the gas mixture is pulled through the
catalyst bed by a liquid jet at a rate of more than 5 scfm; this ensures a combustible-gas
composition of less than 5 percent in the gas stream. The recombiner has been operated
several times with a reflector pressure of 600 psi and a temperature of 200°C while ap
proximately % scfm of stoichiometric gas was added to the system. The recombiner is
heated with 220-psi steam to keep the catalyst dry, since the partial pressure of water
vapor at 200°C (reflector temperature) is about 200 psi.
A similar catalytic recombiner is also used in the low-pressure reflector system of
the HRE to recombine any dissociated gas admitted to that part of the system when the
reflector is dumped.

GAS PRODUCTION

Chapter 4.3 has described the effects of fission fragments upon the decomposition of
water to hydrogen and oxygen. Values of G (the molecules of hydrogen produced per 100 ev
of energy absorbed by the solution) have been presented for a variety of fissionable species
at different concentrations, temperatures, enrichments, and the like. For convenience, the
gas production in a reactor solution may be calculated from the simple equation:

K= 0.312 x G x PD (9)

where K = moles hydrogen per liter per hour

PD = the power density of the reactor in kilowatts per liter

This equation may easily be derived from a more comprehensive expression given in
ORNL-1280.”

707
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT DESIGN

PUMPS

ROTAR Y PUMPS (W. L. Ross, R. J. Kedl, and C. B. Graham)

Five-gpm Allis-Chalmers Pump

A small, canned-rotor, 3600-rpm, 60-cycle, 110-v pump has been developed by the
Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co. for applications where leakage cannot be tolerated. The unit,
shown in Figs. 4.7.11 and 4.7.12. can be produced at a relatively low cost.

--

** shawless sree,
****usal ºurse *on
*oooºst sysres, **s-sune

****-*** weap- *oo-ºp

*** A c. – single **as -

-

**on starr-enessºns -eaning

-
-

Fig. 4.7.11—Allis-Chalmers 5-gpm Enclosed-rotor Pump. Submitted by Oak

Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Allis-Chalmers Photo No. 164399.

708
 STEEL
STAINLE
ALL SS
FOR
PUMP
CENTRIFUGAL
PREssu
EM
syst
PSI
2000 re
RPM
HEAO-3
FT
3
-
G
5 5
PM 600
PHASE
N
5
-
A.C.
VOLT
*10GLE
BEARNG
START-
O
T R
CAPAC S
PREssu re

*=
-->
Labora
Nationa
Ridge
Oak
by
Submit
Pump.
Enclos
Allis- tory,
l
ted
Chalmeor
rs
pm
4.7.1 2–5-g
Fig. ed-rot
164400
No.
Photo .Chalmers
Allis-
1952.
25,
Nov.

i
§
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

The pump is rated at 5 gpm of water against a 35-ft head, but higher flows and heads
can be obtained (up to 18 gpm x 40) as shown in the characteristic curves, Fig. 4.7.13.
Suction pressures up to 2000 psi and temperatures up to 500°F may be used; special stator
windings would permit higher temperatures. All wetted parts of the pump are made of
type 347 stainless steel, and provisions have been made to permit a welded closure, if
one is desired. Some of the wearing parts have been chrome-plated, but this is believed
to be unnecessary.

4O | 16

35 14

3O 12
- "T-
*
o __
L+T :
s
> 25 Lºr 10
Ch.

*- L^ -

2O 8 O
t …~" 2
L^ ul
c
<I
15 2 69
uſ
Lil
I
L^ * la
tal

IO 4.

P’
|-LPrº- I
2

o: 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 16 is.”
CAPACITY, gpm

Fig. 4.7.13—Characteristic Curves for Allis-Chalmers 5-gpm Enclosed

rotor Pump. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

Figure 4.7.14 shows a section through the pump. The hydrostatic-type bearings are
supplied with liquid from the discharge chamber as shown by the arrows. This liquid
flows through the hollow, stationary, bearing shaft and then through orifices into the radial
bearing cavities. As the liquid leaves the bearings it flows through various passages back
to the pump suction. Thrust loads are carried by hydrostatic bearings which are incorpo
rated into the impeller shrouds, as shown. Thus the rotating, rotor-impeller assembly
“floats” on a liquid pad, without mechanical contact, during operation.

Model 100 and 100A Westinghouse Pumps

This pump was initially developed by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation. As shown
in Fig. 4.7.15, it is a totally enclosed type in which the oil-cooled stator is jacketed with a
0.040-in. sheet of Inconel and the rotor is jacketed with a 0.014-in. sheet of stainless steel.
This design eliminates packing and thus avoids the leakage problem. It also permits water
to be injected into the motor and bearing chamber; by continuously flushing water through
the labyrinth, all abrasives or corrosive material in the fluid being pumped will be kept
out of this chamber. The maximum operating pressure-temperature combination of this

710
 711
CHAP. 4.7

'zg6I ‘gz · AoN ‘KuoneuoqeT IeuoņæN 33pțH XeO Áq pannļuuqns 'duund Johou
-pasoiou3 uudº-g suauuIeųO-s! ITV qºnojų L uoņoas pagſiduuſs– † I · L’; ‘3ț¢I
d!p „tae - S 13 n1n0
S1
TO8ºnmoos º v-º,
|||||||||||||||||||||
~~~~ … ：（ （-），
S9 N 10N lae ！ 01：1S
~~~~）.
----
|-~
9 N18，738 19 naeH1 ||||||
Owaens 9. N18，739 m （7107 ！ O 10 ）
||||
|
9N1 nooo
1， º HS 9 N 1，739
Nºvº 8010：
ENGINEERING DESIGN in FORMATION

oinorin
Nv0 801v.1
~~ §<~~~S，
S9 N 10 N1 Aw » O 1，71S
§§ S -
| ſolvis
39，405||0
ſae
 SPACER
THERMAL
i
ROTOR
JACKET
ROTOR
LINING
STATOR
STATOR

HYDRAUL|C PASSAGE
OTL
COOLANT
BALANCE
THRUST WINDINGS
STATOR
PADS

|MPELLER

RINGS
SEAL

y TA

IMPELLER
DIA)
(15"
HOUSING

3~1"
|-
-
-
-
-

Sub
Pump.
Enclosed-rot
100-A
Model
Westinghouse
4.7.15–100
Fig. or
-gpm
1952.
25,
Nov.
Laboratory,
National
Ridge
Oak
by
mitted
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

pump is 2000 psi at 600°F. Figure 4.7.16 shows a plot of the discharge pressure vs capac
ity for this pump. The materials of construction in the standard pump which are in con
tact with the fluid circuit are:

Casing and impeller Type 347 stainless steel

Shaft Squirrel-cage type; copper bars in a soft iron core with
a can of 347 stainless steel welded over the assembly
Stator jacket Inconel, wrought
Bearings Carbon graphite
Journal bushings Titanium carbide, Model 100A
Chrome-plated, Model 100
Labyrinth disks Nickel

There are two models of this pump, Model 100 and Model 100A, differing principally in
bearing.design. The former has a chrome-plated journal 1 by 1% in. with the rear bearing

16O I

Hegd of 68°F
14O

- Mº
3.120
# H
mo
IOO Heod
eo C orrected
ted to 60 O’F
º

Gl- TS
§
or GO
N
<!
IC
§ 4O
O

2O

O
‘O 2O 4O 6O 8O IOO I2O 14O
CAPACITY, gpm

Fig. 4.7.16—Discharge Pressure-capacity Relation for Westinghouse Model

100-A Enclosed-rotor Pump. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Nov. 25, 1952.

mounted on the motor end plate; the latter has a titanium carbide journal 1% by 2 in., with
a removable rear bearing mount. Several smaller (approximately 30-gpm) pumps have
been built.

20,000-gpm Allis-Chalmers Pump

This pump is to be designed and built by the Allis-Chalmers company. Although con
struction has not yet started, the design is far enough along so that no major changes are
anticipated. Specifications call for 20,000 gpm, 160-ft head, 1000-psi suction pressure,
and stainless-steel construction.

713
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

The pump is a canned-rotor, totally enclosed type which employs a metallic diaphragm
to seal the motor stator from the high-pressure fluid. The canned rotor, which includes a
metal sealed armature, rotates submerged in the high-pressure fluid. The fluid fills the
space between the rotor and stator in what would normally be the air-gap in a standard
motor. Pump bearings to support and align the rotating parts are of a hydraulic-pres–
surized, fluid-piston (hydrostatic) type which utilizes either an auxiliary impeller attached
to the rotating shaft (Fig. 4.7.17) or an external source to supply pressurized water to
two radial bearings and one thrust bearing, the thrust bearing being able to take loads in
two directions.
The pump will be mounted in a vertical position with the impeller at the bottom. The
fluid-filled motor-bearing chamber will be separated from the impeller and volute by
means of a close-clearance labyrinth. By injecting uncontaminated water into the motor
bearing chamber and continuously flushing it through the labyrinth into the volute, the
corrosion on the motor and bearing parts should be reduced considerably. This auxiliary
flow also keeps radioactive material from getting into the motor-bearing chamber, thus
reducing irradiation of the electrical insulation. The flush volume is small enough to make
dilution of the pumped fluid insignificant (in the order of 1 gpm flowing into a 20,000-gpm
stream). The present design for the pump provides a cooler to keep the bearing water and
motor-chamber water at less than 150°F.
The pump power will be supplied by a 440-volt, 6-pole (1200-rpm synchronous speed)
induction motor. The stator, which is sealed from the high-pressure fluid by a metal
diaphragm, has hollow conductors. Motor cooling water will flow through the hollow chan
nels in the conductors and remove the heat developed in them. In the stator, the conductors
are the major source of heat, and the motor cooling water will remove the heat close to its
source; therefore, the conductor insulation will not be subjected to high temperatures.
The pump is so constructed that when the top flange is unbolted, the entire inside of the
pump can be lifted out, leaving only the high-pressure casing in the pipe line. The stator
or upper bearing may be replaced separately if desired. The induced radioactivity is low
at the upper end of the pumps, and this replacement of the parts is expected to be relative
ly easy.
The principal characteristics of the pump are listed in Table 4.7.2.

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS (J. S. Culver, C. B. Graham)

The pulsafeeder pump, manufactured by the Lapp Insulator Co., Inc., consists essentially
of a diaphragm and check valves actuated by a reciprocating oil pump. It is used for pump
ing small volumes (1 or 2 gpm) against high pressure (1000 psi). Its design offers several
advantages to the HRE:
(1) It is relatively simple and inexpensive.
(2) The diaphragms are within the shield, thereby isolating the radioactive fuel. As there
are two diaphragms, a rupture would not allow any radioactive material to escape from the
shield.
(3) The operating mechanism is outside the shield and easily accessible. There are no
mechanical parts within the shield other than the diaphragms and check valves.
Each diaphragm is contained in a head assembly consisting of two machined flanges,
between which the diaphragm is seal-welded, and a hoop into which the diaphragm and
flanges are strength-welded. The faces of the flanges are contoured so that stress through
out a diaphragm will be essentially uniform when it is flush against the flange face. The
maximum calculated stress in the diaphragm is 20,000 psi, permitting long-term operation
without fatigue failure. The present design will withstand static pressures up to 5000 psi.
As shown in Fig. 4.7.18, the pump operates in the following manner: on the suction stroke
of the oil pump, the intake ball-check valve opens, allowing the liquid being pumped to enter
the pumping head at atmospheric pressure. As the oil piston reverses, the intake check

714
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

12 y/3
ſºu O
| wº ~O
y

º- 8 (D FLANGE
3 (2) CASING
- 4. G) RotoR
(3) stator
2 (5) SHAFT
º (3) BEARING SUPPLY PUMP
(f) THRUST BEARINGs
RADIAL BEARING

(9) LABYRINTH SEAL

THERMAL BARRIER

(D IMPELLER
| (2) ELECTRICAL Power
---- - CONNECTION
14" to ||
7 (3) FLUSHING waſ ER
%0% º 6 NOTE: Arrows Indicote Flow of
% Bearing Supply Woter.

|*||a
8

O
- 9

|||

" -
FSN | ? -aº
F-S
T--
s —- / >\% -

-— 4'3" —

Fig. 4.7.17-Proposed Allis-Chalmers 20,000-gpm Enclosed-rotor Pump. Sub

mitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

715
: i
DISCHARGE
FUEL

VALVE
CHECK
OR
HYDROCARBON
WATER 2–
OIL
7–
|-l

HIGH-PRESSURE
VALVE
CHECK
CONDENSATE
FROM
TANK

OIL-PRESSURE / |
VALVE
RELIEF O
O
VENT
AIR
INTERMEDIATE HEAD
FUEL
HEAD
VALVE
CHECK
INTAKE

DUMP
TANK
FROM

FILTER
STROKE
sucTION

CYLINDER
OIL

TANK
OIL

National
Ridge
Oak
by
Submitted
Pulsafeeders
for
Diagram
4.7.18—Flo
Fig. .w
ORNL-1280.
from
Reprinted
1952.
25,
Nov.
Laboratory,
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

Table 4.7.2–Characteristics of Allis-Chalmers 20,000-gpm Pump

Pumps liquid at 250°C

Specific gravity, 1.1–1.5
Static pressure, 1000 psi
Head, 160 ft
Power, 1200 hp (900 kw)
Net eff., -78%
Weight, ~8 tons
Speed, 1200 rpm

valve seats, and the liquids in the connecting lines are compressed until the pressure in
the system exceeds the pressure above the discharge ball-check valve, opening it and
allowing the fluid to flow out.
The vacuum relief valve and pressure relief valve on the oil pump are essential to the
operation of the pulsafeeder. If the pressure in the system exceeds the setting on the
pressure relief valve, which happens when either of the diaphragms “bottoms” against
the flange before the piston reverses, this valve opens, and oil flows out of the oil leg
of the system until the piston reverses. If either of the diaphragms bottoms before the
piston completes its suction stroke, the vacuum relief valve opens, allowing oil to re
enter the oil leg of the pulsafeeder system.
Pulsafeeders are used for supply pumps in both the fuel and reflector systems of the
HRE. The intermediate fluid in the fuel system is water, but an insoluble fluorocarbon is
used in the reflector system, since water would be too difficult to separate from D2O in
the event of a diaphragm rupture. Suction pressure is approximately atmospheric and
discharge pressure is 1000 psi. The pressure relief setting is maintained at 1200 psi, and
the vacuum relief setting is 10 in. of Hg below atmospheric. The normal output is 1 gpm
at 50 rpm, but this may be varied as much as 50 percent of normal by varying the speed
of the oil pump. The parts of the system coming in contact with corrosive liquid are con
structed from type 347 stainless steel, and the ball-check valves are fabricated from
Stellite, which is resistant to both physical wear and corrosion.

WALVES (W. L. Ross, C. D. Zerby, P. N. Stevens, and C. B. Graham)

Several corrosion- and radiation-resistant valves were required for the HRE. Trouble
free, leakproof construction was essential because of the value and radioactivity of the
fluids. Most of the valves used were of 4 in. nominal size purchased from the Fulton
Sylphon Company (Fig. 4.7.19). Larger valves and valves for throttling service were
purchased from Belfield (Figs. 4.7.20 and 4.7.21).
All valves were sealed by a welded-in, 1000-psi, stainless-steel bellows which was
backed up by a packing gland. They were mounted in the system with the bellows on the
low-pressure side of the seat so that under normal operating conditions the bellows is
exposed only to essentially atmospheric pressure. The back-up gland was packed with
hydrocarbon-free, graphited asbestos because this material is known to stand up well
under radiation.

Pneumatic operators were used on all valves, and in regions of high radiation, all
metal construction was used (Fig. 4.7.19). Large valves were operated by neoprene
diaphragms located several feet from the valve body and connected to it by a long stem
extension.
Stellite plugs and seats were used throughout, and these were lapped to an essentially
leakfree closure. A maximum leakage rate of 1 cc of water per day was achieved with

717
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

CAST ALUMINUM SPRIN VER

SPRING COve EEL ADJUSTING NUT

STEEL SPRING (FROM FOxBORO

DIAPHRAGM TYPE VALVE
LiTE BRONZE BEARING
ACTUATOR.)

SOFT ALUMINUM GASKET

CAST ALUMINUM SYLPHON
CASING

AIR IN FOR NORMALLY

OPEN OPERATION CAST ALUMINU
BRACKET ADAPTER

BRASS syLPHON
ELLOWS ASSEMBLY

CAST ALUMINUM
YOKE

STEEL BRACKET
AIR IN FOR NORMALLY
CLOSED OPERATION

YOKE & BRACKET,

INTERCHANGEABLE To
REVERSE operation

LEAK DETECTOR SBESTOS 8 CARBON PACKING

1/2" FULTON SYLPHON

PACKLESS VALVE ASSEMBLY

4.
&
NXSY &
^*_

Fig. 4.7.19–Fulton-Sylphon One-half-inch Valve with Bellows Valve Operator.

Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

718
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

AiR IN

OPERATOR BELLOWS

OPERATOR HOUSING

xxxo~

SPRING TO KEEP
NORMALLY OPEN

PACKING

31" LEAK DETECTOR

SEAL BELLOWS

J
N.

| N
§
Fig. 4.7.20–Modified Belfield valve with Bellows Valve Operator. Submitted
by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov.25, 1952.

719
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

connection FOR BELFIELD No. 7 OO-9

DIAPHRAGM superstructure OPERATOR

SECONDARY SEAL

PACKING LUBRICATOR
CONNECTION

on NET

LEAK DETECTOR
connecTION

;
BELLOWS SEAL

UPPER BODY

PLUG

Lowe R BODY

vaLVE SEAT

-— 8" SQUARE

Fig. 4.7.21—Belfield Two-inch, Single-seat Angle Valve. Submitted by Oak

Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

720
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

1000-psi pressure drop across the valve. The valve design shown in Fig. 4.7.19 allows
the plug to align itself with the seat and avoids distortion of the parts when welding in the
bellows and when welding the valve into the piping system.

HEAT EXCHANGERS (L. F. Goode)

The main heat exchanger of the HRE provides heat-transfer surface for removing the
energy released in the reactor core. The heat is then used to generate steam which in
turn is utilized to drive a turbogenerator set. The exchanger is a shell- and U-tube-type
steam generator (Fig. 4.7.22) designed to produce 3025 lb/hr of 200-psia saturated steam
at a heat load of 1000 kw. The reactor solution is passed through %-in. tubes at an average
velocity of 15.8 ft/sec in order to provide high heat flux with minimum liquid holdup.
The rate of heat exchange is regulated by varying the steam flow; the steam pressure
at a reactor power of 200 kw is 315 psia, whereas at 1000 kw, the pressure is reduced to
200 psia.
An all-welded construction is used on components exposed to the reactor solution. Spe
cial low-holdup headers are provided, and pockets have been avoided in order to facilitate
decontamination. The heat exchanger has been provided with a double tube-sheet, the tubes
being rolled to the inner sheet and welded to the outer sheet. The space between the sheets
serves as a leak detection device.
The feedwater heater is contained in the space above the tube bundle, the feedwater being
distributed by means of a %-in.-OD perforated pipe placed in the bottom of the exchanger
and connected to the feedwater heater. Design information for the exchanger is summarized
in Table 4.7.3.

REMOTE HANDLING OF EQUIPMENT IN HOMOGENEOUS REACTORS (S. E. Beall)

The problem of remote maintenance in homogeneous reactor systems is more difficult
than in heterogeneous reactors because the fission-product activity of liquid fuels is not
confined to a package. In a homogeneous system, one is faced with the contamination
problem of chemical purification systems in addition to the induced activity problems of
solid-fuel reactors. It is logical, then, in planning remote operations on homogeneous re
actor equipment to borrow from the experience accumulated in maintaining chemical sepa
rations plants and reactors.

EQUIPMENT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The major problem in maintaining and repairing any highly radioactive equipment, of
course, is that of preventing excessive radiation exposure to personnel. In order to ac
complish this, it is often necessary that extreme measures be taken to (1) reduce neutron
activations by shielding the equipment, (2) thoroughly decontaminate fuel containers, and
(3) provide adequate shielding for operating personnel.

Reduction of Neutron Activations

The activation of construction materials in homogeneous reactor systems is a result of

(a) neutron emission inside the fuel container (prompt neutrons in the reactor vessel and
delayed neutrons in attached equipment) and (b) neutron leakage from the reactor to ex
ternal equipment.
It is unlikely that much can be done to prevent emission from fuel and fission gases
being circulated in equipment attached to the reactor, although the resultant activities can
be kept to a minimum by the proper selection of low-cross-section materials. It is not
impossible that an element such as boron, which has both a large cross section for neutron
capture and relatively weak radiation following capture, could be incorporated into the
material of construction to compete for the delayed neutrons in external equipment. In the

721
STEAM

:
FLANGE
RING

TUBE
SHEET
SSEMBLY

DISTRIBUTOR
ASSEMBLY

TUBE's
U

FEEDWATER
HEATER

eV."
s'
4.7.22—Steam
Fig.
Generator
Homogeneous
for
Experiment.
Reactor
Sub
Oak
by
mitted
Laboratory,
National
Ridge
25,
Nov.
1952.
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

Table 4.7.3—Design Data for HRE Main Heat Exchanger*

Full load conditions

Heat load
1000 kw
Over—all heat-transfer coefficient (U) 635 Btu/(hr)(ft”)("F)
Total process-solution holdup 5–5 l
Average process-solution velocity through tubes 15.8 ft/sec
Process-solution flow through tubes 100 gpm
Operating steam 200 psia (sat)
Process-solution conditions; tın = 482°F. Pin = 1000 psi
Tout = 407°F Pout = 975 psi

Tubes

Number of U-tubes 112

Tube OD % in.
Tube thickness 18 BWG
Tube length, ave. 123.8 in.
Total heat-transfer area based on tube OD 75.5 ft”
Tube material 347 stainless-steel seamless tubing, as
per ASTM A-213-46

Shell

Material ASTM-A212 GrB

Over-all length ~6 ft 11% in.
Shell diameter 28 in.
Shell thickness, radial % in.
Shell thickness, end 0.9 in. min.

Design pressures
Tube side 2000 psig
Shell side 600 psig

Test pressures

Tube side 4000 psig

Shell side 1200 psig

* The heat exchanger was fabricated by the A. O. Smith Corporation of Milwaukee as per
their following drawings: Steam generator—MV-7304 (1 of 3 sheets)—ORNL-E-9584; steam
generator—MV-7314 (2 of 3 sheets)—ORNL-E-9585; steam generator—MV-7314 (3 of 3
sheets)—ORNL-E-9586

723
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

case of double-walled vessels, e.g., heat exchangers, a neutron absorber between the walls
would reduce the activity of the outer wall.

Decontamination of Equipment
The fission-product activity of a 40 gm/l enriched uranium solution will approach 30
curies/ml after long operation in 10° neutron flux. It is obviously desirable that surfaces
contacted by such solutions be cleaned before attempting repairs. Where the inner sur
faces of piping and equipment are smooth and without scale, ordinary decontamination
treatment with citric, nitric, or other acids is satisfactory for decontamination factors of
10° or 10°. In systems such as the HRE, in which corrosion resistance depends on the ex
istence of a protective oxide coating on the metal surface, it is very difficult to remove
activity held by the firm. Decontamination factors of 10° or 10° can be achieved with normal
agents. Solutions such as 4-percent HCl, 10-percent H2SO4 by volume at 150°F give better
decontamination at the risk of high corrosion rates. No completely satisfactory agent has
yet been reported. Another possible difficulty in welded systems is incomplete penetration
of welds, leaving cracks which are difficult to clean. All joints in any liquid fuel system
should be carefully inspected to be certain of smooth surfaces.

Shielding for Operating Personnel

Assuming that all reasonable steps have been taken to prevent neutron activation of ma
terials and to remove contamination, if the 8, y activity of equipment is still intolerable,
personnel shielding must be provided. Such shielding may be constructed as high-density
solid materials, or the equipment may be so designed that it can be flooded with water. In
either case it is necessary that remote handling devices penetrate the shield to perform
the necessary operations; the advantages of a liquid shield for equipment in compartments
are numerous.

One has the choice of either shielding the equipment pieces or providing a mobile shield
for the operator. For large equipment groupings, a shielded crane cab for the operator,
with electrically-driven wrenches and lifting devices, proved satisfactory in the original
Hanford chemical separations plants. With smaller and less equipment in such an instal
lation as the HRE, it is more economical to erect temporary shields for a particular job
and to provide hand-operated tools.

TOOLS FOR REMOTE MAINTENANCE

In the design of any equipment for remote maintenance, much can be done to simplify
the tools and procedures required to effect a repair. Proper spacing and arrangement of
equipment is extremely important. Crowded cells and insufficient working space make a
simple operation difficult. Bolts on flanges and joints should be large (not less than 1 in.),
of the same size throughout if possible, and placed so that they can be easily reached. For
instance, if the work is to be done from above, all bolts should be vertical. Electrical and
instrument lines should be provided with easily detachable connectors. All removable
pieces should be equipped with lifting eyes or yokes, properly located with respect to the
center of gravity.
The types of equipment in the homogeneous reactor which are expected to require re
mote maintenance are the 100 gal/min fuel-circulating pump, the 1 gal/min feed pump,
control-rod mechanisms, and valves. Each of these items is provided with bolted flanges.
A typical procedure for replacement of an item would be as follows:
(1) Drain fuel solution to storage tanks; rinse and decontaminate fuel system.
(2) Arrange shielding plugs to provide an opening through which tools can be handled.
(3) Erect temporary shielding of concrete block.
(4) Install periscope in shielding plug close to equipment to be handled.
(5) Disconnect flange with hand- or air-operated wrench with handles extended through
shield.

724
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

(6) Attach lifting device to equipment.

(7) With building hoist, lift equipment piece into a separate shield. Provide a “shadow”
shield for the hoist operator if necessary.
(8) Lower new part into position and reconnect flanges with extension handle wrenches.
A group of simple tools which might be needed for such an operation is pictured in
Fig. 4.7.23. Tools A, B, and G are for lifting. Tool C is a knife for removing insulation.
A long-handled socket wrench is shown at D. Items E and I are special tools for removing
small parts of the control-rod mechanisms. The tool shown at F is a guide pin to aid in
aligning flanges. A right-angle drive for starting nuts on horizontal flanges is pictured in
position H, and the large air-operated wrench for tightening nuts is shown in position J.

SAMPLING EQUIPMENT (C. L. Segaser)

Operation of an aqueous homogeneous reactor, like the operation of any chemical process,
requires that numerous samples be taken in maintaining control of the chemical system. In
the case of the HRE at ORNL, equipment is provided for sampling the high-pressure re
actor fluid, the D2O reflector, and the off gases from the reactor and reflector. Because
of the radioactivity associated with the fluids, standard sampling equipment must be modi
fied, or entirely new apparatus must be devised for taking the samples. Examples of sam
ling equipment presented here were designed for use on the HRE.

HIGH-PRESSURE FUEL SOLUTION SAMPLING APPARATUS

It is necessary to take an 0.5 to 1.0 ml sample of fuel solution from the HRE for deter
mination of total uranium, tetravalent uranium, pH, nickel, suspended solids, and fission
product contents.” The solution to be sampled is at a temperature of 250°C and a pressure
of 1000 psi, and contains 40 gm U/1 of UO2SO4-H2O solution. The 8 and y activity level of
the solution is estimated to be 30 curies/ml, and delayed neutrons are emitted at a rate of
3.3 × 10° neutrons/(ml)(sec).
Figure 4.7.24 shows the sampling apparatus. It consists of a 30-ml isolation chamber
(Item 4) connected into the main circulating stream through several valves in series
(Items 1 to 6), equipment to remove the top from the isolation chamber and to pipet a
sample. Lights, a mirror, and other auxiliaries required in carrying out the sampling
operation are also provided as shown in Fig. 4.7.24. The equipment is housed in a stainless
steel box suspended within the concrete shielding structure. A 12-in.-thick plug, filled
with lead and water, protects the operator. During some parts of the operation, the box can
be flooded with water to reduce the neutron dosage to a tolerable level.
The procedure for extracting a sample of fuel solution is described briefly as follows:
A new ball, for sealing the isolation chamber, and a new pipet are placed in the sampler
chuck, and the assembly is installed in the sample carrier. The sample carrier is then
lowered through a hole in the inner carrier shield and into the sampler through the charging
port in the shielding plug.
By opening valves 1 to 6, process solution is circulated through the isolation chamber.
The valves are closed to isolate the sample, the sample is thermally cooled, and the non
condensable gases are vented through the line to the dump tanks.
The cover on the isolation chamber is removed, and the sample extracted in the pipet
using the manipulator. Because the manipulator operates only in a vertical position di
rectly above the isolation chamber, an indexing table is provided which rotates under the
manipulator and charging port to hold the cover from the isolation chamber and to deliver
the pipet.
The pipet is returned to the sample carrier. The new ball is inserted in the cover of the
isolation chamber, and the cover is screwed onto the chamber to reseal the system. The
sample carrier is removed from the sampler through the charging port and transported to
the analytical laboratory in a shielded container.

725
$ :
|

A
B
C
D
E
F
H
IG

Fig.
4.7.23—HR
Remote
Handling
Tools.
Submitted
by
Ridge
Oak
National
Laboratory,
Nov.
1952.
25, E
Re
printed
from
ORNL
52-6-160.
- ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

:
-

1.
:
:
-
-

:
|
-
".
:

444/42/4472/2-

Fig. 4.7.24—HRE Fuel Sampler and Manipulator. Submitted by Oak Ridge

National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL 52–6–160.

727
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

ANAL YTICAL LABORATORY HANDLING APPARATUS

An apparatus (Fig. 4.7.25) similar to the sampler has been developed for handling the
radioactive fuel-solution samples in the analytical laboratory. Solutions are transported
into the laboratory in a shielded carrier on a standard lift dolly. The carrier is placed
under the bench shield in line with the unloading port. A handling tool is inserted through
the upper loading tube, the auxiliary shielding block is removed, and connection is made to
the exposed upper end of the sample carrier. The lead brick is then replaced, and the sam
ple carrier is drawn up into the shielded cavity where it is transferred to the appropriate

MANIPULATOR

HANDLING WRENCH

INDEX HANDLE

AUXILIARY SHIELDING
BRICK

HANDLING DOLLY

LOADING PORT

CARRIER SHIELD

Fig. 4.7.25–Fuel Sampler for Use in Chemical Laboratory. Submitted by Oak

Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-1318.

728
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

receptacle in the turntable. The sample carrier may then be manipulated by the devices
provided for this purpose, the sample removed, and aliquots taken for analysis.

REFLECTOR SAMPLING APPARATUS

Sampling of the D2O reflector of the HRE is required for determination of pH, D2O-to
H2O ratio, corrosion inhibitor and corrosion product content, and possible uranium content
resulting from leakage into the reflector. The reflector contains some radioactivity, but
the level is low compared with that in the fuel solution; so the equipment is less compli
cated.
Figure 4.7.26 is a flow diagram which shows how the sampler is installed in a bypass
line in the reflector pumping system. A sample carrier having a capacity of 10 ml is
shown in Fig. 4.7.27. The carrier is installed in the bypass line using Hansen quick
disconnect couplings with integral check valves which close to prevent atmospheric con
tamination of the reflector and sample when the coupling halves are separated.
An alternate sampling device is shown in Fig. 4.7.28. D2O would be circulated through
the chamber and a sample would be taken by inserting the needle into the bottle and pushing
the needle assembly down to open the valve.

GAS-SAMPLING APPARATUS

Stations are provided on the HRE to obtain samples of gas from the fuel-solution system,
the waste evaporator system, and the helium pressurizing system. The proposed apparatus
and procedures for obtaining a sample from any of these systems are similar. Figure
4.7.29 is a schematic diagram of the method whereby a sample of gas from the high
pressure helium system is obtained. Two possible types of sample carriers are shown
in Fig. 4.7.30.
The connection of the sampler with the helium system is made through Hansen couplings
similar to those in the D2O sampling system. The valved socket provides an additional
block against leakage. After the sampler is coupled into the system, it is purged by opening
the isolation valves and allowing the helium to flow through the sample carrier into the
dump tanks. Upon completion of the purge, the downstream side of the carrier is valved
off and the sample brought up to the required pressure. All valves are then closed, and
the carrier is removed.

INSTRUMENTATION (W. M. Breazeale)

Instrumentation of aqueous homogeneous reactors is strongly affected by the fact that
the reactivities of these reactors have a large negative temperature coefficient. This co
efficient acts to stabilize the reactor and is also an inherent safety feature. As a result,
the requirements which the safety circuits must meet are less stringent than those for
heterogeneous, fixed fuel reactors. On the other hand, because a highly corrosive and
radioactive liquid must be handled, the process instrumentation is somewhat more com
plex. This discussion can perhaps proceed best by outlining the main features of instru
mentation of the Los Alamos “Water Boiler” and the Oak Ridge HRE.

INSTRUMENTATION OF THE WATER BOILER

The Water Boiler” is used as a source of neutrons for experimental work, and hence
the flux variation with time should preferably be as small as possible. To this end, a
standard automatic servo system is used to regulate the flux level to +0.1 percent. The
process solution normally remains in the core at all times, and the reactor is shut down
by dropping the absorbing rods. Electronic tube amplifiers and circuits are used as
sparingly as possible; wherever practical, Weston Sensitrols, operated directly by the

729
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

P f|
HANSEN COUPLINGS
(Socket with Valve)
| |
| |
| |
| |
| I

To Deo PIPING
| |
|
|
f
SYSTEM |

Note: Y' and z' refer to

connections to Dºo
Sampler Carrier.

TO PULSAFEEDERs
FROM PULSAFEEDERS

Fig. 4.7.26—D.O. Sampler in HRE Reflector System. Submitted by Oak Ridge

National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL 52–6–160.

ºr
ºlº

ſ \ % PIPE

- LEAD SHIED

t - º
--
º -

| -
-> *
º
º
t º
-

i HANSEN COUPLING
PLUGS (With Valves)
Fig. 4.7.27—D.O. Sample Carrier for HRE Reflector Sampling Apparatus. Submitted
by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL 52-6-160.

730
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

a-Q

CAGE TO HOLD BOTTLE

HEx. For wrench

HEx. FOR wrench

|
2^ l:
2

à it º § §
-
# To # clearancE

HEX. TO FIT SOCKET

º º
WRENCH FOR REMOVAL

º
:s-
Nº.

-%;
º* º Nºw

Sl OUTPUT

INPUT i

SN - T N

Fig. 4.7.28—Alternate Sampling Device for D.O. Sampling Apparatus. Sub

mitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL
52-6-160.

731
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

SHIELD-PIT IN TOP WITH

|SOLATION VALVES REMOVABLE COVER

HANSEN COUPLINGS
PRESSURE GAUGE (Socket witH
O-2,000 lb. INTEGRAL VALVE)

VAPOR VALVE

|
|
|
FROM VAPOR |
SPACE OVER |
Deo !
*
TO DUMP TANKS Q \\ | | 2-SAMPLING LINES
NJ * Pºzº
* * |
*
*
Nº. | |
NJ
^: N.J.
* i !
*
NJ N.J. l I
*_j |
NJ
*~ | ROM REFLECTOR
“, VESSEL
*

Fig. 4.7.29–Sampler for High-pressure Helium in HRE Pressurizing System.

Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from
ORNL 52-6-160.

o–2, ooo Ib PRESSURE GAUGEs

(ADJUST TO INDICATE PSIA)

SAMPLE CONTAINER
(HOKE *HD 150 cyLINDER)

SAMPLE
CONTAINER PIPE

|SOLATION
VALVES

ThàNSEN COUPLING
PLUGS WITH VALVES ISOLATION
VALVES

HANSEN COUPLING
PLUGS WITH VALVES

TYPE A TYPE B

Fig. 4.7.30–Carriers for Samples from High-pressure Helium System of HRE.

Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from
ORNL 52-6-160.

732
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

current from ion chambers, are used as safeties. However, for fast safeties, a hard vac
uum tube circuit is necessary.
Nuclear control is accomplished with the aid of five vertical absorbing rods. Three of
these are cadmium strips 2% by 30 by %. in. which move tangentially to the outside of the
core and are worth 0.9 percent each in reactivity. The other two are internal rods cadmi
um-plated and filled with boron-10; these are worth 2.7 percent each in reactivity. Either
of the internal rods can be controlled by the automatic servo system and serves as a regu
lating rod. The other four are used as shim-safety rods or can be hand controlled.

Nuclear Instrumentation

The standard chambers listed below are used to sense neutron level and supply informa
tion to various circuits.
(1) One B"-coated chamber (Fig. 4.7.31) placed in a graphite reflector 16 in. from the
core is connected directly in series with a high-voltage supply and a Leeds and Northrup
galvanometer which has a sensitivity of 10" uamp/mm at 1 meter. The range (with shunts)
is from about 107*w to full reactor power. This galvanometer is used primarily to follow
the neutron level during start-up.
(2) One B"-coated graphite chamber is connected to a logarithmic amplifier and period
circuit. The range is from 0.01 w to full power. For routine operation, the period circuit
will shut down the reactor when periods of less than 8 sec are attained, and hence will
ensure careful start-up. The location of this chamber is the same as (1) above.
(3) One small U-235 fission chamber is located so that it is in a flux of 10° neutrons/
(cm”)(sec) when the reactor is at full power. It is connected to an integrating counter and
determines the total energy during a given period of time. It also supplies an audible sig
nal (counts) to personnel at the control position.
(4) One U-235, 4%-in. safety chamber is connected to the high-voltage supply and the
safety chassis. It initiates shutdown when the neutron flux rises above a predetermined
level. It is located so that the chamber current is a little greater than 1 pamp/kw of re
actor power.
(5) One B"-coated graphite chamber jacketed in lead and located under a bismuth cur
tain for isolation is used to indicate neutron flux level and to act as a second safety cham
ber. It is connected to the electronic safety chassis also.
(6) Another chamber, the same as above, is used to control the servo system. Both
these chambers supply currents in excess of 1 pamp/kw of reactor power.
All the high-voltage supplies in the nuclear and safety systems are monitored by Weston
Sensitrol relays. If the voltage output of the supply deviates by +5 percent, the relay initi
ates reactor shutdown and indicates the trouble.

Process Instrumentation

The process instrumentation employs mostly standard sensing devices to indicate the
condition of the process-solution system, off-gas system, and the like. The principal proc
ess instruments which act to protect the facility are:
(1) A thermocouple monitors the solution temperature and initiates reactor shutdown if
the temperature rises above a predetermined value.
(2) A special set of pressure-sensitive devices shuts down the reactor if (a) the reactor
system to exhaust stack pressure builds up, or (b) the stack exhaust blower is off, as in
dicated by the absence of a slight vacuum in the reactor system.
(3) If the solution level rises too high, a probe will make contact with the electrolyte
and shut down the reactor.
(4) Three thermocouples in the catalytic recombination bed warn if temperature in
version takes place, thus indicating that the catalyst is not functioning properly.

733
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

CODE

Ø22 _STEEL

_POLY THENE

&
Exxº~x.
O & -

#3 &_LEAD

_GRAPHITE

GRAPHITE CYLINDERS

(D HIGH-volſAGE ELECTRODE
(2) collecting ELECTRODE,
COATED WiTH ENRICHED
tº BORON.

| |X| ||
*
|X. |X. -

*- |
~10%" * .
* - |

...(?) | @, ,(D

|-
--

-
L-"rose ATMOSPHERE
|-

ar

Fig. 4.7.31—Boron-10 Ionization Chamber used in Supo Model water Boiler.

Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

734
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

(5) An air-circulation safety shuts down the reactor if air flow across the surface of the
process solution is not maintained in sufficient volume to keep the H2 concentration below
that required for an explosive mixture.

INSTRUMENTATION OF HRE

The HRE at ORNL was designed to be a power producer rather than a source of neutrons
for experiments, and it is not necessary that the flux level be particularly smooth. The re
activity, i.e., the operating temperature, is controlled by adjusting the D2O reflector level
and the concentration. When the reactor is shut down in the normal fashion, the process
solution is diluted and drained into dump tanks.

Nuclear Instrumentation

The nuclear instrumentation is quite simple and is used mainly to aid in start-up and to
determine the neutron flux levels as a cross check on power. The instruments are the
same as those used on the MTR (q.v.). Excessive neutron flux scrams the reactor by
dumping the reflector and the process solution as quickly as the pneumatically operated
dump valves will function (2 to 4 sec). Rupture disks protect the core and the pressure
vessel containing the D2O from large pressure surges.

Process Instrumentation

The following discussion of the process control instruments and their functions is taken
from ORNL-1094. The essentials of the fuel system are shown in Fig. 4.7.32. The main
flow is through the heat exchanger and the 100-gpm circulating pump. The other fuel cir
cuit permits adjustment of the concentration. Process solution from the dump tank is
pumped into the core by the pulsafeeder (a diaphragm pump) and let down through the valve
operated by a level controller on the pressurizer. Thus, there is a continuous circulation
at approximately 1.5 gpm between core and dump tanks. The steam evaporator on the dump
tank operates continuously, evaporating water from the process solution in the tank. The
resulting steam is condensed, and if the concentrate valve is open, the condensate returns
to the dump tank. There is no net change of concentration in the system under this con
dition. If both the concentrate and dilute valves are closed, the condensate is collected
in the condensate tanks, and the process solution in the dump tanks becomes more con
centrated. This in turn results in the core process solution becoming more concentrated
since there is continuous circulation. To lower the concentration, the dilute valve is
opened, dumping the condensate into the pulsafeeder intake line and hence giving almost
pure water into the core. Both concentrate and dilute valves are throttling valves con
trolled from the console by the operator, so the rate of concentration or dilution may be
adjusted by the operator.
The pressure in the reactor core is determined by the vapor pressure at the free surface
in the pressurizer. The temperature of the solution here, and hence the pressure, is main
tained by a steam jacket supplied from a 10-kw electrically heated boiler. The level of
this free surface is sensed by a level indicator employing a restrained float (Fig. 4.7.33).
This instrument provides proportional control to the pneumatically operated letdown valve.
Through this valve flows a mixture of gases and wet steam to the condenser and the H,
and Oz recombiner.
Liquid flow rates are now measured by connecting a Foxboro differential cell across
an orifice. A sketch of one such arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.7.34. Such a cell placed
in a side arm can be used to measure liquid levels.
Unequal temperature coefficients of expansion of the two metals make the space between
them a function of the heater current.

735
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

PRESSURIZER
LEVEL CONTROLLER
--- -

–––.
| HEAT EXCHANGER
l,
7

|
| D
A
ſ CIRCULATING
| PUMP

CORE | CONDENSER

-- --
LETDOWN
VALVE

DUMP
VALVE

| PULSAFEEDER PUMP
LINE SYMBOLS
->

DUMP
*ºf VALVE

CONDENSATE
LIQUID TANK TANKS.–
------ CONTROL AIR
- --- INSTRUMENT ELECTRICAL LINE
º DILUTE
VALVE

Fig. 4.7.32—Simplified Fuel Flow Diagram for HRE. Submitted by Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-1094.

736
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

CN

C
No

f i

CONNECTIONS
TO TANK FLOAT 8, ROD
ASSEMBLY

Fig. 4.7.33–Level Control Float for HRE Pressurizer. Submitted by Oak

Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

737
CHAP. 4.7 AQUEOUS FUEL SYSTEMS

º |-

Louip-H C-3 O O. –c.3—l –HLoud

ORIFICE

H>|<!-><!->

PNEUMATIC
RECEIVER . REDucing
VALVE
- - - a
w —w
- A
w
S

LOW PRESSURE —{ H HIGH PRESSURE

FOXBORO d/p CELL

FILTER
AIR

Fig. 4.7.34—Typical Installation of Flow Metering Instrument on Homogeneous

Reactor Experiment. Submitted by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952.

Concentration is measured indirectly by weighing the water in the condensate tanks,

which are suspended from a Baldwin weigh cell. Knowing the initial charge of water and
uranyl sulfate, the concentration is determined from the water hold-up; so the weigh in
strument may be calibrated in terms of concentration. As a check on the entire process
solution system, as well as the concentration instrument, the process solution in the dump
tanks is also weighed. This method of determining concentration is not an absolute one
since it cannot take into account any partial precipitation and hold-up of fuel in the system,
nor is it capable of giving rapid measurements of concentration in the core itself.
Monitrons (large boron-lined chambers sensitive to neutrons) are located in strategic
places and warn of leaks in the fuel system, either into the air or into the steam system
through the heat exchanger, when the fuel solution is radioactive. They also initiate opera
tion of equipment to isolate the defective section.
Besides concentration control, the reactivity can be varied by adjusting the level of the
D.O reflector. An outline of the reflector system is shown in Fig. 4.7.35, and the normal
operation should be apparent from the figure. The reflector is pressurized by helium to a
value slightly above the core pressure and held there by a differential pressure controller.
The reflector level is raised by the pulsafeeder and lowered by opening the let-down valve.
In an emergency, the reflector can be dumped through the dump valve and, if the reflector
is full, the reactivity can be reduced some 6 percent in two or three seconds.

738
ENGINEERING DESIGN INFORMATION CHAP. 4.7

HEAT
EXCHANGER

CIRCULATING LETDOWN
PUMP VALVE

*
w

DUMP VALVE

PULSAFEEDER

Fig. 4.7.35—Simplified Diagram of HRE Reflector System. Submitted by Oak

Ridge National Laboratory, Nov. 25, 1952. Reprinted from ORNL-1094.

REFERENCES

1. S. Timoshenko, Theory of Elasticity, 1st ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1934, p 371.
2. Ibid., p 379.
3. H. Etherington et al, Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4379, Nov. 1949 (classified).
4. C. L. Segaser, Thermal Shield and Pressure Shell Design for 15-ft Homogeneous Reactor Tank, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF
51-6-42, June 12, 1951.
5. H. L. F. Enlund, Energy Absorption of Capture Gammas, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF-52-6-99, June 11, 1952.
5. L. Spiewak, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF-52-10-81, Oct. 9, 1952 (classified).
7. J. C. Carter, Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4690, Sept. 7, 1951 (classified).
8. J. A. Lane, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1096, Dec. 10, 1951 (classified).
9. C. L. Segaser, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF-52-10-195, Oct. 20, 1952 (classified).
10. W. E. Thompson, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1280, pp 86-89 (classified).
ll. D. W. Kuhn et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., Y-731, 1951 (classified).
12. H. M. McLeod et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., Y-706, 1951 (classified).
13. R. Van Winkle, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab. (Memo to C. B. Graham (classified).
14. T. H. Pigford, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1322, 1952 (classified).
15. D. W. Kuhn, A. D. Ryon, and A. A. Palko, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1209, 1952 (classified).
16. M. E. Bunker et al, Gas Recombination System of the Los Alamos Homogeneous Reactor, Los Alamos, La-1337, 1952.
17. T. W. Costikyan, C. B. Hanford, and D. L. Johnson, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Practice School, Oak Ridge, KT-130,
1952 (classified).
18. J. V. Gaven, R. B. Bacostow, and A. C. Herrington, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Practice School, Oak Ridge, KT-134,
1952 (classified).
19. H. F. McDuffie et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1280 pp 69-71, 155-172 (classified).
20. C. H. Secoy, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-CF 51-7-177, July 18, 1951 (classified).
21. L. D. P. King, Los Alamos Scientific Lab., LA-1034, Dec. 1947 (classified).

739
 Section 5

LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

Prepared by
F. T. MILES

BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY

741
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE

The authors wish to acknowledge the great help received from Dennis Puleston, Mary
Jane Sears, and Elizabeth Motz in editing and proofreading the manuscript. George Cox
Prepared many of the figures, and Paul Hogroian did the heat-transfer calculations.
This Section is based upon data available up to about April 1952. For more recent in
formation on the LMFR, the reader is referred to Nucleonics Vol. 12, No. 7, pp. 11-42,
July 1954.

F. T. Miles

743
 CHAPTER 5.]

General Reactor Characteristics

F. T. Miles

Although reactors with liquid metal fuels were suggested as early as 1941, they have
received relatively little research and development, and the reactor characteristics have
not been demonstrated in practice. It is possible, however, to list the potential advantages
of such systems and their disadvantages. Here, we must distinguish between the features
of fluid fuels in general and those of liquid metal fuels in particular. A reactor using any
fluid fuel may have the following advantages over one with solid-fuel elements:
(1) Simple structure. A fluid fuel can be cooled in an external heat exchanger separate
from the reactor core. Thus, the nuclear requirements (of the core) and the heat-flow
requirements (of the exchanger) need not both be satisfied at the same place. This may
allow design for very high specific power. For example, material of high cross section,
such as tungsten or tantalum, which could not be used in the core, could be used in the
heat exchanger.
(2) Easy fuel transport.
(3) Simplified reprocessing. The reduction to metal, fabrication, canning, and dissolving
steps are eliminated. Because of this, decontamination need not be complete. The cooling
time could be made much shorter resulting in a smaller holdup of fissionable material.
(4) Simplified waste disposal.
(5) Continuous removal of fission products. The removal of poisons would improve
neutron economy and might permit higher burn-up. With a lower inventory of radioactive
material, the potential hazard would be decreased; this might reduce the size of the ex
clusion area required for safety.
(6) Inherent safety and ease of control. Any liquid fuel which expands on heating gives
an immediate negative temperature coefficient of reactivity. This effect is not delayed by
any heat-transfer process; the rate of expansion is limited only by the speed of sound in
the liquid. This instantaneous effect tends to make the reactor self-regulating. Adjust
ment of fuel concentration can be used as a shim control.
In a system which combines these advantages, the total investment and operating costs
might be considerably lower than at present. The desirability of developing fluid-fuel re
actors is therefore primarily economic.
Among the disadvantages of fluid fuels listed below, the first two would tend to make the
control more uncertain.
(1) Possible fluctuations of reactivity caused by density or concentration changes in the
fuel, e.g., bubbling.
(2) Loss of delayed neutrons in the fuel leaving the core.

*References appear at end of chapter.

745
CHAP. 5.1 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

(3) External hold-up of fissionable material.

(4) Induced activity in pumps and heat exchangers and possible deposition of fuel and
fission products.
(5) Corrosion problems. Each fuel system has its particular corrosion problems.
These differ greatly from one system to another, but in every case, corrosion is the criti
cal problem which must be solved.
(6) Special limitations of particular fluid fuels.
Among the fluid-fuel systems which have been considered are:
(1) Aqueous systems.
(2) Liquid metals.
(3) Fused salts.
(4) Other liquids (e.g., UFs and solutions containing it).
(5) Gases (again UFs).
(6) Powders, “pebbles,” or any divided solids which can be handled as fluids.
(7) Fluidized powders.
In some of these systems, both truly homogeneous systems (solutions) and mixtures
(dispersions) must be considered. The last four systems have not been developed far
enough to warrant discussing them at this time; the first three, treated in Sections 4, 5,
and 6 of this volume, all show the potential advantages listed above, which are inherent in
fluid fuels.
Comparing one system with another involves relative advantages and disadvantages.
Liquid-metal-solution systems (in particular, solutions of uranium is bismuth) have the
following advantages over aqueous systems:
(1) Metals can be operated at high temperatures without high pressures.
(2) Metal solutions are free from radiation damage and do not give off bubbles (except
for fission-product gases). By using liquid metals, therefore, two factors which may limit
the specific power of aqueous systems are avoided.
(3) Liquid metals have better heat-transfer properties than water [but water can carry
more heat, cf. disadvantage (1) below].
(4) Metal systems do not have inherent moderating properties and can be used for fast
and intermediate reactors as well as for thermal reactors provided the critical mass re
quirements are not excessive [cf. disadvantage (5) below].
(5) Liquid metals can be circulated by electromagnetic pumps if desired, though the effi
ciency may be poor, as with bismuth.
(6) Some suitable metals, e.g., bismuth, are cheaper than D2O.
(7) Polonium, formed from bismuth by neutron capture, may be a valuable by-product
[cf. disadvantage (7) below].
Liquid-metal systems have the following disadvantages in comparison with aqueous
systems:
(1) The heat capacity is less than water. (On the basis of cal/(cm”)(*), this is partially
offset by the higher density of metals.)
(2) The higher density may be a disadvantage.
(3) Liquid metals are more difficult to pump.
(4) The absorption cross sections of the best metals (e.g., bismuth, o = 0.032 barns) are
inferior to D2O, though better than H2O. The cross section of bismuth may be low enough,
however, to allow breeding of U* from thorium by means of thermal neutrons.
(5) For a thermal reactor, moderator must be supplied [cf. advantage (4) above].
(6) The limited solubility of uranium in bismuth necessitates the use of enriched U* or
U” as fuel. Uranium-238 or thorium cannot be held in solution in sufficient concentration
to give internal breeding.
(7) Because of (4) and (5), liquid-metal-fuel reactors (LMFR) are at least 4 ft in diam
eter and cannot be scaled down as far as aqueous reactors can.

746
GENERAL REACTOR CHARACTERISTICS CHAP. 5.1

(8) The high melting point of most metals makes the start-up of a reactor difficult.
(9) Polonium may represent an additional hazard as well as a by-product [see advantage
(7) above]. However, if the polonium remains with the fission products, it should not add
to the problems already present. If it is separated, its value should pay for the additional
precautions which would be taken.
The concentration of fissionable material in solution is limited by its solubility at the
lowest temperature in the system. This limitation can be avoided by using a dispersion of
a solid in the liquid metal. A dispersion might show the following advantages over a solu
tion:
(1) The increased concentration of fissionable material might be necessary for a fast
reactor or might allow increased neutron economy, smaller core dimensions, or the in
troduction of fertile material in the core. Disadvantages (4), (6), and (7), above, might
thus be avoided.
(2) The liquid phase of the dispersion might be a low-melting eutectic, a situation that
would eliminate objection (8).
(3) With the fissionable material in a solid form, contamination of pumps and heat ex
changers might be reduced.
On the other hand, a liquid-metal dispersion might have these disadvantages:
(1) The solids might settle out and thereby cause concentration changes which would re
sult in fluctuations of reactivity. Even if this did not occur with a fresh slurry, radiation
damage and thermal cycling might result in changes in the particle size or shape that
would increase the settling rate. Extra equipment, e.g., stirrers, might be required to
keep the solids in suspension.
(2) The viscosity of the slurry might make circulation difficult. In this connection, there
is the possible use of viscous liquid-metal mixtures, e.g., pastes, which would not be cir
culated to remove heat but rather would be used in a stationary fuel element. Such an ele
ment might retain some of the advantages of a liquid metal fuel, e.g., freedom from radia
tion damage, ease of handling and processing, and good heat transfer.
(3) With the fissionable material in a solid form, the removal of fission products and
reprocessing would be more complicated.
(4) Finally, the presence of solids might cause erosion in addition to corrosion.

POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF LIQUID METAL FUELS

Of the many possible reactors using liquid metal fuels, only a very few have received
even a preliminary design. One possibility, LMFR*.*, would use a dilute solution of U” or
enriched U* in bismuth in a core of the reactor. The core would consist of a tank through
which the fuel would flow and in which beryllium rods would moderate the neutrons to
thermal energy. The heat would be removed from the fuel externally. (Several types of
external heat exchangers are discussed in Chapter 5.3.) The heat would be delivered at a
suitably high temperature to produce electrical power. A large fraction of the neutrons
would escape from the core and would be caught in a blanket to produce fissionable mate
rial. Thus, the LMFR could be either a power-breeder on the Th–U233 cycle or a power
converter consuming U* and producing U*.
In LMFR, reprocessing of both the core and the blanket would be integrated with the
reactor. This might lead to a considerable reduction in operating costs. The U-Bi solu
tion in the core would be processed in the following ways:
(1) Rare gases (especially Xe”) would be removed by gas sparging or pumping on every
cycle of the fuel (approximately every 15 sec).
(2) Rare-earth fission products would be removed by extracting the metal with a fused
salt, the eutectic mixture of LiCl and KCl. The blanket would consist of ThE4 through
which would circulate a gas containing F2. This gas would cool the blanket and would re

747
CHAP. 5.1 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

move the product U* as UFs. Chemical processing is described in detail in Volume 4.

is brief description is included here because integration of the chemical processing
with reactor operation is one of the important economic justifications of LMFR.

REFERENCES

1. H. Halban and L. Kowarski, BR-7, Oct. 1941 (classified).

2. D. H. Gurinsky et al. BNL-111 (LFR-2 Revised), June 5, 1951 (classified).
3. F. T. Miles et al. Reactor Sci. Tech. 2, No. 1, April 1952, p 7 (classified).

748
 CHAPTER 5.2

Composition and Properties

of Liquid Metal Fuels
R. J. Teitel

The range of compositions of interest as reactor fuels is limited by nuclear require

ments. Semiquantitative limits on the amount of carrier material, C, which can be added
to the fuel, F, are set by the calculation:

(NC /NF) (GC/o F)

where the first factor is the atomic ratio and the second is the ratio of absorption cross
sections. The product represents the number of neutrons lost to capture by the carrier
material per neutron captured by the fissionable material. To achieve a chain reaction,
k ... must be greater than 1, and NCOC /NF o F must be less than (n − 1). Similarly, to pro
duce more fissionable material than is consumed, g » 1, the product must not exceed
(n − 2).

Table 5.2.1 — Maximum Allowable Values of |; º

F
*

Thermal neutrons

(n − 1)or (n − 2)or
for chain reaction for breeding gain
Fuel (k - > 1), barns (g > 1), barns

U233 767 203

U235 - 721 (77)f
Pu239 1035 0

*(Dilution of fuel) x (cross section of carrier)

+U235 is not part of a breeding cycle

The values for (n − 1) o F and (n − 2) o F are given in Table 5.2.1 for different fuels and
for thermal neutrons. These numbers represent the maximum values of (Nc /NF) oc
which could be tolerated to achieve a chain reaction or a breeding gain. For example,
bismuth has an absorption cross section for thermal neutrons of 0.032 barn. Therefore,
to achieve a chain reaction with a U*-Bi solution, the dilution cannot exceed:

749
CHAP. 5.2 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

Net/Nas a 721/0.032 = 2.25 × 10°

The atomic concentration of uranium would have to be at least 44 ppm. Neutron losses to
the moderator and leakage would raise the required concentration.
This very rough rule is good enough to indicate the concentration ranges of interest for
thermal reactors, but the situation is more complicated for fast reactors. The energy
spectrum of the neutrons must be determined in this case, and this depends on various
competing processes, the cross sections for which are not well known. Inelastic scattering
may also be very important. For these reasons, the above rule, based on capture cross
sections only, should be used with caution. In general, fast reactors require more con
centrated fuels than do thermal reactors.
The capture cross sections” of possible components of liquid metal fuels are listed in
Table 5.2.2 in order of increasing melting point. Where capture cross sections for fast
neutrons are not known they can be estimated."

Table 5.2.2—Capture Cross Sections of Liquid-metal-fuel Components

Absorption cross section

Component Melting point, "C Thermal, barns Fast, barns

Hg –39 380 - - -

Hg200 — 39 60 - - -

Hg?" –39 60 - - -

CS 28 29.0 - - -

Ga 30 2.71 - - -

Rb 39 0.70 0.017
K 63 1.97 - - -

Na 97 0.49 0.00026
In 156 190 - - -

Li 186 67
Li' 186 0.033
Sn 232 .65 - - -

Bi 271 .032 0.0034

Tl 300 3.3 - - -

Col 321 2400 - - -

Pb 327 0.17 - - -

Zn 419 1.06
Te 450 4.5 - - -

Ce 600 0.70 0.005

Sb 631 6.4 - - -

Mg 650 0.059 - - -

Al 660 .215 0.00037

Ba 704 1.17 - - -

Sr. 770 1.16 - - -

Nd 840 44 0.041
Ca 850 0.43

‘References appear at end of chapter.

750
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES CHAP. 5.2

LIQUID-METAL-SOLUTION FUELS

The data in this field are scanty, and extrapolation is therefore usually necessary. For
instance, most of the liquid and solid densities are not well established, but by assuming
that the atomic volumes of the constituent atoms in the alloy do not change, a simple cal
culation gives an estimated density which is usually within 10 to 15 percent of the true
value. This approximation cannot be used for ionic compounds.
Many of the data have been taken from only a few sources. All the known data on ura
nium phase diagrams, for example, are summarized by Buzzard and Cleaves;" another
source is the unpublished information of Teitel."

URANIUM SOLUTIONS IN LIQUID METALS

The solubility of uranium in various liquid metals at different temperatures has been
reported,” and the results appear in Table 5.2.3 and Figs. 5.2.1 and 5.2.2. No specific
data on the physical properties or the stability to radiation damage appear in the litera
ture. The properties should be very similar to those of the pure liquids, however, and
radiation damage in liquid metals is believed to be negligible.

URANIUM-BISMUTH SOLUTIONS

The properties of pure bismuth, given in Table 5.2.4, provide a rough approximation of
the properties of a dilute bismuth solution. The static corrosion of container materials by
uranium-bismuth solutions has been studied in detail,” and the results indicate that these
solutions behave like bismuth. It seems likely, therefore, that those materials that cannot
be used with bismuth cannot be used with its uranium solution but that the materials which
have a good corrosion resistance with bismuth will be suitable for bismuth-uranium solu
tions. Containers that have been suggested are Cr-Mo steels, Cr-Mo-Si steels, silicon
steels, plain carbon steels, beryllium, molybdenum, tungsten, and many ceramics. Dy
namic corrosion properties are not known, and it is not possible to extrapolate from ex
perience with pure bismuth since slight additions to liquid metals" have been known to
have large effects on dynamic corrosion behavior.

THORIUM SOLUTIONS IN LIQUID METALS

Solubility data for thorium' in liquid metals are shown in Table 5.2.5. No data for the
physical properties of these solutions appear in the literature. However, since the con
centration of thorium is low, the properties of these solutions should follow closely those
of the pure metals (refer to Section 2 “Liquid-metal-cooled Systems”).

PLUTONIUM SOLUTIONS

Only a few solutions of Pu in low melting alloys have been found. The solubility of Pu in
Bi is shown in Fig. 5.2.3. Other systems show low melting eutectics at the temperature
and concentrations given in Table 5.2.6.

LIQUID-METAL-DISPERSION FUELS

To utilize higher concentrations of a fissionable component in liquid metals, disper

sions in which the solid contains the fissionable component must be considered. This
field is new, and the data are therefore meager. However, some properties can be extra
polated from the characteristics of pure liquid metals and solids.
The properties of muds and dispersions have been studied in the field of soil mechanics,”
and certain of these principles can be carried over to liquid-metal-fuel dispersions. In

751
CHAP. 5.2 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 5.2.3—Solubility of Uranium in Liquid Metals and Alloys

(TID-65, July 1948)

Uranium solubility, atomic-%

Metal or alloy 900°C 850°C 800°C 750°C 700°C 650°C 600°C 550°C 500-C 450°C

Al 4.2 3.7 3.3 2.8 2.3 1.7

62 Al :38 Mg 0.29 .21 .17

28 Al : 72 Mg 0.020 .016
94.7 Al : 5.3 Si 1.4 0.9 .5 .3 .2 .2
91.6 Al : 8.4 Si 0.6 .2 .1 .08 0.05
61 Al:39 Ag 1.5 1.2 1.0 0.8 .6 .5
88 Al : 12 Zn 3.0 2.8 2.2 1.8 1.4
70 Al : 30 Zn 3.1 2.7 2.3 1.9 1.3
47 Al : 53 Zn 1.4 1.1 0.7
Zn 0.32
1.1 Al : 98.9 Bi 6.9
Bi 12.3 9.3 7.1 5.3 3.1 1.6 0.9
46 Bi : 54 Sn 3.1 2.2 1.2 0.8 .2 .06 04
Sn 0.2 0.03
45 Bi : 55 Cd 0.40 .06
78 Bi : 22 Na 2.3 1.6 1.0
68 Bi : 32 Na 0.9 .4 2
Sb 1.5 0.9 .1
Pb 0.52 0.02
In 0.51 .34
Tl 0.13
Ga

*Not detected
f Less than 0.03 at 40°C

752
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES CHAP. 5.2

7OOH

66OH

62OH

58OH

x FILTERED
o SETTLED
46O

3OO

l l _l I l |

260; O.5 I.O |.5 2.O 2.5 3.O

URANIUM , wi -º/,
Fig. 5.2.1— The Solubility of Uranium in Liquid Bismuth. Reprinted from
BNL-75, Sept. 15. 1952. (BNL Log No. D-1558)

753
CHAP. 5.2 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

6OO I I I I i

5OO H. Oe -

O
e
4OOH-
./ -

us
ſº
-)
Hº
< 30O H -

Or
Lal
0.
>E
Lal
H.

2OO H. O -

IOO H. -

O l I l l l

.OO 5 .OIO .O15 .O2O .O25 .O3O

URANIUM, wit - %

Fig. 5.2.2— The Solubility of Uranium in Liquid 47 Bi: 53 Pb. Alloy.

Submitted by BNL, Aug. 21, 1952. (BNL Log No. D-2351)

754
 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES CHAP. 5.2

Table 5.2.4—Properties of Pure Bismuth

(Liquid Metals Handbook, NAVEXOS P-733, June 1, 1950)

Melting point, “C 271

Latent heat of fusion, cal/gm 13

Boiling point, “C 1477

Heat of vaporization, cal/gm 204.3

Vapor pressure, mm Hg
91.7 °C 1683 °F 1.0
106.7 °C 1953 °F 10.0
1257 °C 2295 °F 100.0
1325 °C 2417 °F 200
1400 °C * 2552 °F 400

Density, gm/cc
300 °C 10.03
400 °C 9.91
600 °C 9.66
802 °C 9.40
962 °C 9.20

Specific heat, cal/(gm)(°C)

271 °C 0.0340
400 °C .0354
600 °C .0376
800 °C .0397
1000 °C .0419
Viscosity, poises x 10°
304 °C 1.662
451 °C 1.280
600 °C 0.996

Thermal conductivity, "C/cm

300 °C 0.041
400 °C .037
500 °C .037
600 °C .037
700 °C .037
Electrical resistance, pu ohms/cm
300 °C 128.9
400 °C 134.2
600 °C 145.25
750 °C 153.53
Surface tension, dynes/cm”
300 °C 376
350 °C 373
ºf 400 °C 370
450 °C 367
500 °C 363

Volume change on fusion, % of solid volume 3.32

Isotopic composition of bismuth 1005 Biº

*
Nuclear properties of bismuth Thermal
Absorption cross section, barns 0.032
Scattering cross section, barns 1.35

Radiation products Po210

755
CHAP. 5.2 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

Table 5.2.5 — Solubility of Thorium in Liquid Metals and Alloys

(TID-65, July 1948)

Thorium solubility, atomic –%

<
# - -,
< ūſī
-
(; N
G -
< *ç
tº --
ſº O
"G -
ſº z
tº r tº
ºn 2
_ & sº º sº sº tº sº º SR & sº sº - sº &
T, C ~ 3; 3× 5§ 3; 5. 5 § 3 & 8, § à Jº F- ; :5
900 3.2 2.2 0.53 1.07 0.47 0.29 9
850
800
6.4
5.3 3.1
3.0
2.5
2.3
1.5 1.4 1.0
.26
.16 0.39 0.12 0.24
š*:
750 4.6 0.8 2.5 2.4 2.0 1.1 N D* .05 >
700 4.1 .6 1.9 1.7 1.3 0.7 0.1 0.4 <.03 &0.1 # 0.09

650 3.7 .4 1.4 1.1 0.5 .5 <.03

600 .3 0.9 0.5 .3 <0.03 <0.07
*
#E 0.04
550 .2 2
500
450
.1
<0.04
t•
-
º
3
*Not detected t

900
- ISOO

8OO
_PT
L-T - |400

7OO P
_PT
LT - 1200

O 2 4. 6 8 IO |2 |4 I6 I8 2O

PLUTONIUM, wi - 9.

Fig. 5.2.3 — Solubility of Pu in Bi. Submitted by Los Alamos Scientific Labo

ratory, Mar. 1953. (BNL Log. No. D-2350)

756
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES CHAP. 5.2

Table 5.2.6 — Plutonium Liquid-metal Solutions

[References (12) and (13)]

Composition, wt-% Freezing point, “C

36.7 Pu: 63.3 Ni 465
86.8 Al: 13.2 Pu 647
Pure Pu 635
35.5 Mg: 64.5 Pu 552

particular, it is known that the viscosity of a dispersion depends on the volume-percent

solids, the particle size, and the particle shape. For a particular particle size, the vol
ume concentration can be increased to a point beyond which the viscosity increases rap
idly. This threshold volume-concentration of solid is diminished with finer particle size.
For fuel dispersions, therefore, the maximum concentration of fissionable component de
creases with particle size. This property is particularly important if the fuel is to be
moved.
Another important property of dispersion is the density difference between the solid and
the liquid. This factor affects settling and the erosive action of moving streams. These
effects are insignificant for muds or pastes, however, because they are not likely to settle
or to be moved fast enough to cause an appreciable amount of erosion.
Liquid-metal-dispersion fuels can be classified into two general groups, according to
the nature of the dispersed phase: (1) intermetallic compound dispersions, in which the
solid is either a pure metal or an intermetallic compound of the fissionable component
with the liquid-metal components and (2) ionic compound dispersions, in which an ionic
compound is dispersed in the liquid phase. Phase equilibria, phase diagrams, and proper
ties of the phases are needed for Group (1), while Group (2) requires additional information
about wettability.

METHOD OF PRODUCING DISPERSIONS

The method used by Teitel“ for making intermetallic compound dispersions of uranium
has been to add uranium powder, produced from the reduction of the hydride, to the liquid
metal at approximately 400°C. This technique has produced dispersions of U(Sn,Pb)s in
Pb-Sn liquid having a particle size of 3p. Sub-microscopic sizes were produced by adding
the hydride to the metal directly. Similarly, dispersions of ThBis in Bi have been pro
duced. It is believed that dispersions of plutonium can be produced by this procedure also.
Ionic compound dispersions are produced simply by adding the ionic compound to the
clean liquid-metal surfaces.

RADLATION EFFECTS ON DISPERSIONS

No data appear in the literature on this subject.

THERMAL EFFECTS ON DISPERSIONS

An appreciable effect of temperature on a Pb-Sn-U dispersion is reported (see Pb-Sn-U

system) in the following. Thermal effects on ionic compound dispersions are expected to
be negligible.

757
CHAP. 5.2 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

URANIUM DISPERSIONS

Bi-U SYSTEM

The phase diagram of U-Bi is uncertain at present. Some time ago Ahman and Baldwin"
published the diagram shown in Fig. 5.2.4. However, more recent unpublished data by
Teitel seem to indicate that the phase diagram is really that shown in Fig. 5.2.5. The
solubility of uranium in bismuth at different temperatures has already been discussed
above with regard to bismuth-solution fuels. The dispersion that is likely to be the most
interesting is that of UBiz or UsBis (depending upon which diagram is correct) in liquid Bi.
General data on this dispersion are summarized in Table 5.2.7.

BISMUTH, -wt - %
17.99 36.9| 56.83 77.83

| TWO LIQUIDS \

15OO # º
/ | !
/ UB I + LIQUID L!QUID
/
|
O ||3O
o

# |OOO ----------
E Y+ UBi 98O *-

3. -

: 76O
-E B + UBi -

* 640 UBiz2 + LIOUID

5OO

Q + UBi º 27O

an an
-> ->

UBiz + Bi

O
O 2O 4O 60 8O |00
BIS MUTH, ATOMIC - ?,

Fig. 5.2.4—The Bismuth-Uranium System. Reprinted from CT-2961. Nov. 12,

1945. (BNL Log No. D-1992)

758
 759
CHAP. 5.2

(z6zz-CI ‘oN ºoT "ING) ºz.g61 ‘tz ºnw “INGI Áq pomſuqns ºuansºs unpuern-ųnnuisſa eųL – grzºg ºpg
18 % LM
!8O6O8O2.O9O9 O tºO2O2Ol
I−I|| I|II
-HOO |
ſg +º/gºn
-HOO.2
-HOO2

Böſll V-EdW.E.L
–|O Oſt»
ºgºnº !80 + (n - o
-HOOG
ºgºn*lgn
-HO O9
ºſg º
"1+ Sig - - - - -
|- - - - - - - - - -
*nĮgnº” -=łoO2
|- - - - - - -
180 + (n-3
- - - - -- - - - -

Oo
-HOO8
-HOO6
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

180 + (n - ( -HOOO!
–|OO||
Hoozi
Åoogi
7-ſoovi
 §5.2.7–Uranium
Table
Intermetallic-compound
Dispersions
:
Solid
Liquid
Density,”
Composition
Dispersion
b
temp.,
Melting
Composition,
Density,
Freezing"
*Temp.,
(formula)
gm/cc
system
•C
wt—%
gm/cc
•C
begins,
*C.
Notes
Bi,”
Bi-U
1000
12
(dissociates)
350
10.0
Bi
271
U,f,g
UPbsh.
Pb-U
12.98
~1250
350
10.6
325
jPb
USns'."
Sn-U
10.0
400
~1350
6.8
Sn
l231
Bi,"."
Pb-Bi-U
1000
(12)
(dissociates)
0Pb-81Bi
350
U,(10.1-10.5)
125–271
g,O
UBid.n
(11.5)
>1300
350
81Pb–95Bi
10.5
260-310
g
UPb,”
12.98
~1250
350
95Pb-100Bi
10.5—10.6
310–325
g
Usbi.”
Sn-Bi-U
12
1000
(dissociates)
0Sn-11Bi
350
10.0-9.5
271-230
g
U.Sn;*m
~1375
11Sn-12Bi
350
(9.5)
230
-
-
-
USnsk
10.0
~1350
(9.5-6.8
350
12Sn
1
— 00Bi
230–139
g
UPbski
Sn-Pb-U
12.98
~1250
350
0Sn–2Bi
(10.5—10.3)
325–320
g
U(Sn,Pb),"*
(10.0—10.5)
~1350
350
2Sn
1
—00Pb
(10.3–6.8)
320-183
g,P
.Pb).”
Sn-Pb-Bi-U
U(Sn
(10.0-10.5)
•-1350
350
52Bi-16Sn—32Pb
95
(9.7)
g,0.
UBi,4,e
Bi-Na-U
1000
(11.5)
(dissociates)
350
4Na–96Bi
(7.0)
340
r
UHg.”
Hg-U
14.6
(dissociates)
360
100
13.3
38.9
Hg
s
Al-U
UAls
(dissociates)
730
700
Al
2.36
660
s-
-
-
Ud
5
+Ce-U
19.8
1130
600
0
6.9
Ce
s-
Ud
Ca-U
19.8
1130
2
+
850
0
Ca
1.54
s-

*Densities
in
parentheses
been
have
estimated
the
on J..
|RTeitel,
Uranium-Lead
The
System,
Journal
of
assumption
atomic
the
that
volume
same
is
of
as Metals
4,
No.
1952
April
pure
the
element *Non
-pyrophoric
*Melting
temperature
compound
of
alone Treick,
A.
'D.
Carter,
H.
J.
Snow,
I.
Baldwin,
R.
*Freezing
were
points
from
taken
exclusive
alloy
the
of and
Wilson,
S.
A.
Uranium-Tin
The
System,
M-3107
uranium composition
"Limiting
decreases
higher
at
temperatures
“Pyrophoric shapes
"Irregular
*Plates o
Limiting
composition
increases
higher
at
temperatures
H.
'D.
R.
and
Ahman
Baldwin,
Uranium-Bismuth
The density
PClose
with
match
liquids
high-lead
System,
CT-2961,
Nov.
1945
12, *Extremely
point
melting
low
J.
8R.
unpublished
Teitel,
results Latimer,
‘W.
Reports,
Progress
UCRL-1054,
Sept.,
Oct.,
"Slightly
pyrophoric Nov.
1950
‘Cubes Buzzard
W.
“R.
Cleaves,
E.
H.
and
The
Alloys
Binary
of
Uranium,
TID-65,
1948
July
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES CHAP. 5.2

Pb-U SYSTEM

This system (Fig. 5.2.6) has been reported by Teitel." The solubility of uranium in
liquid lead is 0.005 at temperatures up to 700°C. A dispersion of UPbs in essentially pure
lead would have the properties summarized in Table 5.2.7.

URANIUM, atomic - %
O 8.8 Iſs 27.1 36.7 457 557 67O 778 88.8 IOO
I I

14OOH loo **** 2s sº

13OOH Tºrv. 128O • *YA

12OOH- ---º-130 UPb + L2 G

$’uool- 2-’ ū36 º ||25 ||33

- ,’ UPbst Li 996
#IOOOHA
E’900 UPb + y-U
º: LUPb
º- 77O
§soo UPb3+L UPbst UPb |—— — — — — — — — — — — —
groof UPb: B-U
* GooH UPb 65O
ºf 3
5OOH- UPb + c, -U
4OOH

§Fair Ll
l
Pb-i-UPb
I l l 3 l I I 1–1 | I I l I I I l _l I

O IO 20 3O 4O 50 60 7O 80 90 IOO
URANIUM, wt - *
Fig. 5.2.6 — The Lead-Uranium System. Reprinted from the Journal of Metals,
April 1952.

Sn-U SYSTEM

Treick et al" investigated this system, and their phase diagram is shown in Fig. 5.2.7.
Uranium is less soluble in tin than it is in lead. USns in liquid tin is a possible dispersion,
and its properties are listed in Table 5.2.7.

Bi-Pb-U SYSTEM

By adding lead to uranium-bismuth alloys, the phase equilibria can be changed and the
high uranium-bismuth compounds dispersed. This permits higher uranium concentrations
for equivalent solid/lead volume ratios, i.e., viscosity change sets in at higher uranium
concentrations. An isothermal (350°C) portion of the phase diagrams' appears in Fig.
5.2.8, and some possible dispersions for use as either a fuel or plutonium converter sys
tem are given in Table 5.2.7. The solubility of uranium in lead-bismuth liquids (Fig. 5.2.2)
is very low compared to that in pure bismuth. Phase equilibria at higher temperatures
have not been completed.

761
CHAP. 5.2 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

TIN, wt - %
II.O5 24.9 42.73 66.55

15OO I- ~
|U.Sn. T ~
i-s +LIQUIDYS U3Sns Tuovo
Fr--a
| 1375 I35O
U5Sna + LIQUID |
| |
O | |
o | |

glooo | -

= Y U + Us Sna | |
3. ! U5 Sn+ | U3 Sn 5 USn 3
#. I i + + +
-E A U+ Us Sna i U3Sn 5 US ns L|QUID
Uij Ti
H. | |
| |
5OO | |
|
a U + Us Sn 4 | |
| | 232

s!
"...i
#rol
g|T
5 US na-F Sn
-5 | P -> 3
O | | 1
O 2O 4O 6O 80 IOO
TIN, ATOMic - ".

Fig. 5.2.7— The Tin-Uranium System. Reprinted from M-3107. (BNL

Log No. D-1993)

762
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES CHAP. 5.2

Fig. 5.2.8—An Isothermal (350°C) Section of the Bismuth-Lead-Uranium

System. Submitted by BNL, Aug. 21, 1952. (BNL Log No. D-2304)

Bi-Sn-U SYSTEM

Additions of tin to uranium-bismuth alloys lower the solubility of uranium in the liquid
phase, and tin compounds appear in equilibrium with liquids containing above 11 weight
percent tin. An isothermal section at 350°C is shown in Fig. 5.2.9. Some possible dis
persions are reported in Table 5.2.7.

Pb-Sn-U SYSTEM

Lead and tin form compounds with uranium that have similar structures. Therefore it
is not surprising that lead is soluble in solid USns as shown in Fig. 5.2.10. This makes a
Very interesting group of dispersions because the density between solid and liquid (listed
in Table 5.2.7) is very close to zero. This compound is not very pyrophoric.
Tests have been made to determine the effect of thermal cycling and isothermal treat
ment on the particle size. The isothermal growth at 500° and 600°C is 0.003 p/hr. Cycling
the dispersion between 300° and 600°C caused the particles to grow an additional 0.0007
"/cycle. The total growth for any cycling speed can be calculated by the following formula:

G-G, Ge: ;
where G is total growth, GT is growth owing to mean temperature, GC is cycling growth,
*nd t is the time for one cycle.

763
CHAP. 5.2 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

SOLID PHASES

Sn Bi

Fig. 5.2.9—An Isothermal (350°C) Section of the Bismuth-Tin-Uranium Sys

tem. Submitted by BNL, Aug. 21, 1952. (BNL Log No. D-2303)

SOLID PHASES

4O

Pºku (Sn, Pb,

3O

O / UPb: U (So,Pb); L
U(Sn, Pb, +L

V V V V
Pb IO 2O 3O 4O 5O 6O 70 8O 90 Sn

TIN, wi - %

Fig. 5.2.10—An Isothermal (350°C) Section of the Lead-Tin-Uranium System.

Submitted by BNL, Aug. 21, 1952. (BNL) Log No. D-2111)

764
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES CHAP. 5.2

Pb-Bi-Sn-U SYSTEM

Figure 5.2.11 shows a plot of the liquidus of the isothermal section of quarternary sys
tem at 350°C. This section neglects the slight solubility of uranium in representing the
liquid composition. The lines in the figure separate the two-phase fields indicating the
composition of the equilibrium solid phase. This system contributes an additional dis
persion to those reported in Table 5.2.7.

U (Sn, Pb), + L

UB i + L -- ", , -,

X4- - -º/- = "VT

---- T
\/ M
U,Bist
M.
L
V

Pb |O 2O 3O 4O 5O 6O 7O 8O 90 Bi

Fig. 5.2.11—A Plot of the Liquidus of an Isothermal (350°C) Section of the

Bismuth-Lead-Tin-Uranium System. Submitted by BNL, Aug. 21, 1952.
(BNL Log No. D-2302)

Bi-Na-U.SYSTEM
It has been reported” that UBiz is stable in some bismuth-sodium liquids. A possible
dispersion for this system is given in Table 5.2.7.
Hg-U
The phase diagram for the U-Hg system appears in Fig. 5.2.12, and a possible disper
*ion from this system is given in Table 5.2.7.
U-Al

-The phase diagram for this system is shown in Fig. 5.2.13, and a possible dispersion
* given in Table 5.2.7.

765
CHAP. 5.2 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

MERCURY, wi - %
| 7.4 35.97 55.93 76.92

| OOO

O
o

ul
0.
-> \
º 5ooHº |- 455
: I UHg2 + Hg (6) 390

UHgs|UHg4 ... *
ou 3 • Hg (L)
O #|-#| #| MP ha –
>1 > | ETEEE7

O 2O 4O 6O 8O IOO

MERCURY , atomic – 9,

Fig. 5.2.12—The Mercury-Uranium System. Reprinted from TID-65, July

1948. (BNL Log No. D-2153)

U-Ce

Reports have indicated that uranium is immiscible with Ce," and therefore, it might be
possible to disperse particles of uranium in cerium. This dispersion would have the prop
erties indicated in Table 5.2.7.

U-Cal

Cd does not seem to alloy with uranium." Consequently, a dispersion listed in Table
5.2.7 is possible.

U-Ca

Apparently calcium and uranium do not alloy." A possible dispersion is given in Table
5.2.7.

766
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES CHAP. 5.2

ALUMINUM , wit - %
2.75 T.O. | 4.5 31.5
2OOO

| 5 9O
--
L| QU1D _-T N L | QUID
| 5 OO >* UA 12 N

•
T L 10 U 1 D + N
|- 1350N,
e’ + I-N
O L^ UA 12 N
o e’ |
UAJ
- -T || O 5 \
* 1125 | \
-> T \
a looo H \
o: Y + UA 12 |

º **2|UA1s + L
; 75O + | 73 O
# 7ss | UA sº 4 L
s 55 a + UAI 2 UA's UA's #8° \
+

500 UA15

a + UA 12 UAl5 + L

*I to to
< 3. <r
-> *> ->

O
O 2O 4O 6O 8O |OO

A LUM I NUM , a to m ic - %

Fig. 5.2.13—The Aluminum-Uranium System. Reprinted from TID-65, July

1948. (BNL Log No. D-2152)

767
ź :

Table
5.2.8—Compi
Data
of
Uranium
on
Compound
Ionic
Dispersions lation

Liquid-solid
contact
angle,
degrees
Cross Melting
section, point, Density
U3O8 UO2 USiz UAlz UHs
Liquid
barns •C gm/cc
(p),
8(p
=.41) (p
1=0.97) UF.
=
(p
9.98) 7(p
=.80) 1(p
=0.95)

0.032
Bi 271 10.03(300°C)
80(450°C) (300°C)
110f >90t
>90t >901. Reacts
87*(430°C)
.18
Pb 327.4 >110*(450°C)
10.68(327.4°C
>90+ ) >901 >90t Reacts
.65
Sn 231.9 6.83(409°C)
>901
130+(300°C) --90t >901. Reacts
.45
Na 97.9 0.928(100°C) 0
or
reactedt 0
or
reactedt ~901.
-

55Pb-(?)Bi
.11 125 10.16(305°C)
-
-
-
Reacts
.22
52Bi-32Pb-16Sn 95 150*(200°C)
~9.5(300°C) Reacts
430
Hg 3
—8.9 13.35(100°C) 0
in
vac
-

in
>0
gast

Teitel,
J.
*R.
BNL-113
J.
Teitel,
tR.
unpublished
data
Teitel,
J.
tR.
BNL-142
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES CHAP. 5.2

*S • *-
N / Y~
|6OOH- `s / | YS
N / –––––––S
- 1350 N/ | \
| \
$2 1200 H | \
uj - |
or |
->
H. |
< 800H |
or
Lil |
d- M

>
Lil
H.
4 OO --
ro
R º, o 27 O
- -C .C.
H. Hº

| I I I l I l l l

|O 20 30 4O 50 60 7.O 8O 90

B IS MUTH, ATOM (C - *

Fig. 5.2.14—The Bismuth-Thorium System. Reprinted from ISC-48, July 12,

1950. (BNL Log No. D-2154)

IONIC COMPOUND DISPERSIONS OF URANIUM

The stability of a dispersion depends upon whether the solid is wetted by the liquid. Usu
ally, this means that the contact angle for the liquid phase is 0°. Indeed, this is the best
condition. The available data on contact angles for the various solids and liquids as well
as the properties of the solid and liquid are given in Table 5.2.8.

THORIUM DISPERSIONS

Very few of the phase diagrams for thorium have been given in the literature for low
thorium alloys. The only intermetallic compound dispersion that can be reported” is that
of Thbis in Bi. The incomplete phase diagram appears in Fig. 5.2.14. The density of Thbis
(which is pyrophoric) is not known, but it is estimated to be close to that of bismuth. A
dispersion of this type has been produced by means of the technique of adding uranium
powder to bismuth. Bryner” has started to study intermetallic dispersions of thorium in
lead-bismuth alloys, and a tentative isothermal section of this system is shown in Fig.
5.2.15.
Nothing has been reported on the contact angles of ionic thorium compounds versus
various liquid metals.

PLUTONIUM DISPERSIONS
A few phase diagrams have appeared but none for the low-melting elements. It is known”
that PuSns and PuPbs exist, and it can be guessed that there might be a similar set of dis
persions to that of uranium. No data are available on possible ionic compound dispersions.

*Submitted by Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, March, 1953.

769
CHAP. 5.2 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

TH

UNDETERMINED

Bi
|O 20 30 40 50 60 7O 8O 90
Pb, wi - %

Fig. 5.2.15—Tentative Isothermal Section at 450°C of Th-Bi-Pb System. Sub

mitted by BNL March 16, 1953. (BNL Log No. D-2349)

REFERENCES

1. D. J. Hughes, R. C. Garth, and C. Eggler, Neutron Cross Sections, AEC Neutron Cross-section Advisory Group, AECU-2040, May
5, 1952.
2. D. J. Hughes, R. C. Garth, and C. Eggler, Fast-neutron Cross Sections and Nuclear Level Density, loc. cit., to be published; ab
stracted Phys. Rev. 83, 1951, p 234.
3. R. C. Garth, D. J. Hughes, and J. S. Levin, Level Densities from Fast-neutron Capture, presented before Amer. Phys. Soc.,
May 3, 1952; abstracted Phys. Rev. 87, July 1, 1952, p 222.
4. D. J. Hughes, W. D. B. Spatz, and N. Goldstein, Capture Cross Sections for Fast Neutrons, Phys. Rev. 75, 1949, p 1781.
5. R. W. Buzzard and H. E. Cleaves, TID-65, July 1948, pp 25-53 (classified).
6. R. J. Teitel, unpublished work.
7. E. E. Hayes and P. Gorden, TID-65, July 1948, pp 130-141 (classified).
8. D. W. Bareis, BNL-75, Sept. 15, 1950 (classified).
9. M. A. Cordovi, BNL-179, Mar. 1, 1952 (classified).
10. Liquid Metals Handbook, edited by R. N. Lyons, Department of the Navy and U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, NAVEXOS p. 733,
1st ed., June 1, 1950; 2nd ed., June 1952.
11. J. M. Dallavalle, Micromeritics, Pitman Publishing Corp., N. Y.
12. G. W. Wensch and D. D. Whyte, LA-1304, Mar. 1951 (classified).
13. R. D. Moeller and F. W. Schonfeld, LA-1000, Feb. 1950 (classified).
14. R. J. Teitel, BNL-88, p 12 (classified).
15. D. H. Ahman and R. R. Baldwin, CT-2961, Nov. 12, 1945 (classified).
16. R. J. Teitel. The Uranium-Lead System, Jour. Metals 4, No. 4, April 1952, pp. 397-400.
17. D. A. Treick, J. H. Carter, A. L. Snow, R. R. Baldwin, and A. S. Wilson, M-3107 (classified).
18. W. Latimer, UCRL-1054, Sept., Oct., Nov. 1950 (classified).
19. H. B. Johnson, ISC-48, July 12, 1950 (classified).
20. J. Bryner, BNL-142, p 8 (classified).

770
 CHAPTER 5.3

Engineering Design
HEAT TRANSFER
(Orrington E. Dwyer)

The following is essentially a topical discussion of the characterizing factors and the
underlying principles of heat transfer as related to liquid-metal-fuel reactors and is
based primarily on heat-transfer studies conducted at the Brookhaven National Labora
tory in conjunction with liquid-metal-fuel-reactor (LMFR) component investigations.
Information pertaining to heat transfer with liquid metals can be found in the Liquid
Metals Handbook," and liquid-metal heat transfer is discussed in Section 2 of this volume.
Whereas nuclear reactors utilizing solid fuel elements must be cooled internally by a
coolant flowing through the reactor, fluid-fuel reactors may be cooled either internally
or externally. In external cooling, the fuel is continuously circulated in a closed circuit
consisting of the reactor core and external heat-exchange units. A liquid-metal-fuel
reactor, particularly the generic design visualized by the Brookhaven reactor group, is
essentially a power-breeder or power-converter reactor with the emphasis on power.
Heat transfer is thus of considerable importance: first, because of the high temperature
involved and, second, because of the number of heat-exchange operations.
Ideally in the case of internal cooling, the structural material separating the liquid
metal fuel from the coolant (probably another liquid metal) should have: (1) a geometry
that will provide a large heat-transfer area without being excessively massive; (2) a low
thermal-neutron absorption cross section; (3) a reasonably high thermal conductivity, and
(4) sufficient structural strength and other physical properties to prevent cracks and
ruptures. At present, no such ideal material exists. Graphite is the best from most stand
points but is presumably deficient with regard to point (4). Graphite coils to contain either
the fuel or the coolant appear impractical, and the two liquid-metal streams must there
fore circulate through a single mass of graphite.
The apparent advantages of internal cooling are:
(1) Lower fuel inventory is possible.
(2) Primary heat exchangers and associated piping and pumps can be eliminated without
getting radioactive steam.
(3) A secondary coolant would be non-radioactive.
(4) Breeding can be accomplished in the coolant stream.
The advantages of external cooling are:
(1) A smaller reactor core is possible in the absence of both coolant and, possibly, a
separator material of relatively high neutron absorptivity.
(2) Simpler reactor construction.
(3) Less serious thermal stress problems.

*References appear at end of chapter.

771
CHAP. 5.3 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

(4) Better heat-transfer coefficients.

(5) Less critical leak problem. External heat exchange can be accomplished in several
parallel exchangers, providing greater flexibility and reliability of operation. Thus, if a
leak should develop in a particular heat exchanger, it could be isolated from the system
and replaced with another.
(6) Prompt circulation of fuel permits rapid removal of gaseous fission products.
(7) Rapid circulation of fuel permits better control of reactivity. The fuel concentration
can be changed quickly by the addition or removal of fissile material as the fuel mixture
is being circulated.
While both internal and external heat removal are being considered by the Brookhaven
workers for liquid-metal-fuel reactors, most effort to date has been spent on external
cooling. This type of cooling system is therefore the chief subject of the remainder of
this discussion.

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF COOLANTS

For external cooling, the fuel-bearing liquid should meet as far as possible the same
rigid specifications as the primary coolant for a solid-fuel reactor, in addition to the re
quirement that it satisfactorily dissolve or otherwise carry the uranium fuel. The im
portant properties of a fuel-bearing liquid metal are:
(1) Density—affects pumping power, heat-transfer-area requirements, and shielding
requirements since gamma-absorption capacity depends on density.
(2) Thermal conductivity—affects heat-transfer-area requirement and therefore fuel
inventory.
(3) Heat capacity and viscosity—affects pumping power and heat-transfer area.
(4) Melting point—increases start-up problem if liquid melts above room temperature.
At shutdown, presumably, there would be a sufficiently high concentration of fission prod
ucts to prevent freezing.
(5) Vapor pressure—determines pressure on reactor system.
(6) Coefficient of volumetric expansion—the greater the value of this property, the
easier to promote natural circulation and reactor stability.
(7) Electrical resistivity—affects applicability of electromagnetic pumps.
In general, the density, thermal conductivity, heat capacity, and coefficient of volumetric
expansion should be high; conversely, the viscosity, melting point, vapor pressure, and
electrical resistivity should be as low as possible. Obviously, vapor pressures of liquid
metals are relatively very low. Degree of “wetting” of the heat-transfer surfaces by a
liquid metal is also an important characteristic of this type of coolant.
The properties of the ideal secondary coolant are essentially the same as those of the
primary coolant (fuel stream). The one property of no importance in the case of the
primary coolant but of appreciable importance for the secondary coolant is the density
change on freezing. This property has considerable bearing on equipment shut-down and
start-up. Another property which has greater significance for a secondary coolant is
toxicity.
The Brookhaven liquid-metal-reactor system employs a fuel mixture consisting of
uranium dissolved in molten bismuth. The concentration of the uranium is around 600 ppm,
which is so low that for heat-transfer and fluid-mechanical onsiderations, the fuel mix
ture can be assumed to be liquid bismuth. Most of the proposals for power production thus
far considered involve the production of steam through the use of a secondary coolant.
Mercury, sodium, and the eutectic mixture of potassium chloride and lithium cloride have
been considered as secondary coolants in some detail. Some of their physical and thermal
properties at 450°C, along with those of bismuth, are shown in Table 5.3.1. A satisfactory
operating temperature range for coolants in a reactor system similar to LMFR may be
350° to 500°C.

772
ENGINEERING DESIGN CHAP. 5.3

COMPARISON OF COOLANTS ON BASIS OF PUMPING-POWER REQUIREMENTS

One valuable criterion for judging the merits of a coolant is the amount of pumping
power required for a given rate of heat, removal. The three main pressure drops in the
coolant system—those in the piping, the reactor, and the heat exchangers may be roughly
of the same order of magnitude. The pumping power required to circulate the coolant
through the piping system per unit rate of heat transfer for a fixed temperature rise in
the coolant is:

qbn = pumping energy required s (Ap) (1)

p heat removed Cpp

The symbols used in this and subsequent equations in this chapter are defined in Table
5.3.2.

Table 5.3.1— Physical Properties of Coolants at 450°C (842°F)

Property Bismuth Mercury Sodium KCl-LiCl eutectic

Melting point, "F 520 –38 208 664

Bolling point, “F 2691 675 1621 - - -

Density, lb/cu ft 613 785 52.5 103

Specific heat, Btu/(1b)("F) 0.036 0.035 0.30 0.27+
Heat capacity, Btu/(ft)*(*F) 22.1 25.9 15.75 27.8%
Thermal conductivity, Btu/(hr)(ft)("F) 8.95 14.6 39.4 0.75*
Viscosity, cp 1.28 0.92 0.245 1.6*
Prandtl number, Cpu/k 0.0125 .00525 .00451 1.39*

* Owing to the absence of specific data for this mixture at 450°C, the values listed are only
estimates

Table 5.3.2— Nomenclature

A = Heat-transfer area *.*

cp = Centipoises X = pºc;"
Cp = Specific heat
D = Diameter Y = 0.2 - X:
f = Friction factor, defined by Eq. (3) p“Cº- U

g = Acceleration due to gravity 0.2.0.8

G = vp = Mass velocity Z -*#:
h = Film heat-transfer coefficient
k = Thermal conductivity Greek Symbols
Cross-sectional area p = viscosity
m = Hydraulic radius = Total wetted perimeter p = density

n = Number of tubes in parallel q = pumping power

N = Length of tubes heat removal rate

p = Pressure
Ap = Pressure drop Subscripts
q = Heat flow rate H refers to heat exchanger
t = temperature n means number of tubes is held constant
At = Over-all temperature drop across tube prefers to piping
wall and films o refers to outside diameter
U = Over-all heat-transfer coefficient v means linear velocity is held constant
v = Linear velocity 1 means initial
W = Wolumetric rate of flow 2 means final

773
CHAP. 5.3 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

Available data indicate that the fluid-mechanical behavior of liquid metals is the same
as that of ordinary liquids. Therefore, combining the friction factor equation:

f = 0.046(1/Dvp)".” (2)

with the Fanning equation:

Ap _2fv'pN
gD 3
(3)

yields:

0.092v" •ºoº-ººº...?N
Ap - gD - (4)

Combining Eqs. (1) and (4) and assuming constant pipe sizes and lengths results in:

1.8.0.2
-

tant p".”qip Wººll".

©p = (a constant)
-

(5)

Since v is inversely proportional to Cp, Eq. (5) becomes:

0.2
- –H–
*r = (a constant) pºc; 8 (6)

The ratio u”/pºc;", called “x,” for a fixed heat-removal rate, temperature rise, and
tube size, is a direct measure of the pumping power required for a given heat-transfer
fluid. Table 5.3.3 gives values of X for the four fluids discussed above. The units of the
physical properties used in evaluating X were the same as those presented in Table 5.3.1.
The pumping power required for a given rate of heat removal in the heat exchanger system
1s:

_ pumping energy required £S3 (AP)

q, H heat removed Cpp (1a)

Table 5.3.3— values of u"*/p°C# * for various Coolants at 450°C

Coolant X

Bismuth 0.0305
Mercury .0224
Sodium .00793
KCl-LiCl eutectic .0041

If the pressure drop across the heat exchanger is assumed to result mainly from friction
drop in the tubes (an assumption that is not necessarily always true), AP can be evaluated
by Eq. (4). Assuming that:

774
ENGINEERING DESIGN CHAP. 5.3

(1) Total heat removal is fixed, as before

(2) Number of tubes in parallel is held constant
(3) Inside diameter of tubes is held constant
(4) Inlet and outlet temperatures are the same for all coolants
(5) Over-all temperature drop from the fluid being cooled to the fluid being heated is
the same in all cases
(6) Average bulk temperature of the fluid is 450°C
(7) Combined resistance of the tube wall and the other fluid is 0.00105 (hr)(ft)*/Btu (a
%-in. alloy-steel wall)
typical value for 1-in.-ID tubes with
and combining these assumptions with Eqs. (1a) and (4) and remembering that v varies
inversely as Cpp:

0.2
[*H]n = (a constant) #; (7)

Since N varies inversely as U:

0.2

[ºhlh = (a constant) Ełº,

;"pºu (8)

The ratio, */c;'ºu, which is a direct measure of the pumping power required to pass
a given coolant through a tubular heat exchanger, is called “Y.” Table 5.3.4 gives values
of Y for the four fluids previously mentioned based on the conditions and assumptions
stated above and the listed flow rates. General values of Y similar to those of X shown
in Table 5.3.3 are not conveniently derived because U cannot be expressed as a simple
function of the coolant properties. The film heat-transfer coefficients were calculated
from Eqs. (14), (15), and (17).
In deriving Eq. (8), the number of tubes in parallel was kept constant, and the linear
velocity of the coolant through the tubes was allowed to vary depending upon the required
volumetric flow rate of the coolant. A similar analysis can be made keeping the linear
velocity constant and allowing the number of tubes to vary. Combining Eqs. (1a) and (4)
and remembering that v and D are constant:

[bH]y = (a constant) #. (9)

but:

N = A/(mDn) (10)

Table 5.3.4—Values of Y for Various Coolants

Coolant v, ft/sec v, lb/(sec)(ft) h, Btu/(hr)(ft)*("F) U, Btu/(hr)(ft)*("F) Yx 10"

Bismuth 9.9 6000 2840 671 4.55

Mercury 8.4 6550 3500 711 2.67
Sodium 13.9 730 7750 826 0.965
LiCl-KCl
eutectic 7.85 800 1700 560 .725

775
CHAP. 5.3 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

A = q/U(At) (11)

and:

n = wº Wºłº, – ti)
- (12)

Combining the above four equations:

0.2.0.8

[4 Hk, = (a constant)+ (13)

Here again, the over-all coefficient, U, appears in the equation, and since it is not a one
term function of the physical properties of the fluid, a typical case must be chosen to
evaluate the ratio u"“p""/U which is called Z. By using the same case as before, except
that the linear velocity is held constant at 10 ft/sec for all coolants, which means that the
number of tubes in parallel varies, the results shown in Table 5.3.5 were calculated.
From the X, Y, and Z ratios shown in Tables 5.3.3, 5.3.4, and 5.3.5, it is clear that the
power requirements differ widely for the four coolants under similar operating conditions

Table 5.3.5— Values of Z for Various Coolants

Relative No. of
Coolant tubes in parallel v, lb/ſhr)(ſt”) h, Btu/(hr)(ſt”)("F) Btu/(hr)(ft”)("F) Z

Bismuth n 6130 2860 715 25.0

Mercury 0.86n 7850 3920 767 26.6
Sodium 1.43n 5250 6770 836 2.15
LiOl-KCl
eutectic 0.80n 1030 2060 652 6.9

and for the same rate of heat removal. Since a heat-transfer fluid usually flows through
two heat exchangers in series, one where it receives heat and the other where it releases
heat, and since the combined pressure drop through the heat exchangers is much greater
than that through the conduits, the Y and Z ratios have more significance than the X ratio.
Of course, Y and Z were derived on the basis that kinetic losses were small, which may not
always be the case. If the kinetic losses are not small, Y and Z should be given less con
sideration. Pressure drops resulting from kinetic effects are essentially proportional to
the density of the coolant. The above calculated results may be summarized as follows:
(1) For the same size of conduit, same length of conduit, same rate of heat removal,
and same inlet and outlet temperatures, the relative power requirements of the four fluids
are:

Bismuth 7.50
Mercury 5.50
Sodium 1.95
KCl-LiCl eutectic 1.00

(2) For a typical geometry, identical heat-transfer conditions, and the same rate of
heat removal, the relative pumping power required to circulate the four fluids through a
heat exchanger is:

776
ENGINEERING DESIGN CHAP. 5.3

n fixed v fixed

Bismuth 6.27 11.6

Mercury 3.68 12.4
Sodium 1.33 1.00
KCl-LiCl eutectic 1.00 3.21

Although the above analysis is much simplified, it shows clearly that pumping-power
requirements can vary greatly for different heat-transfer fluids and that even though the
total pumping power actually delivered to the fluid may not be great in a given situation,
the electrical power consumption may be appreciable owing to low pump efficiency.

COMPARISON OF COOLANTS ON BASIS OF HEAT-TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

For the same duty, geometry, and temperature, the size of a heat exchanger depends on
the fluids passing through it, since the area required for heat transfer is inversely pro
portional to the over-all heat-transfer coefficient, itself a function of the physical prop
erties of the fluids. Table 5.2.4 gives values of U for a typical situation where the number
of tubes in parallel is constant, and Table 5.2.5 shows the effect of keeping the linear ve
locity constant. The relative sizes (i.e., heat-transfer areas) of heat exchangers using one
of the following fluids are:

Relative sizes of exchangers

n is fixed v is fixed

LiCl-KCl eutectic 1.00 1.00

Bismuth 0.835 0.912
Mercury .788 .85
Sodium .678 .78

For a fixed geometry, the holdup volume increases with the heat-transfer area of a heat
exchanger, but the increase is not proportional owing to the header volumes.
In the above discussion, the same tube-wall thickness has been assumed for all coolants.
Because of corrosion considerations, however, this assumption may not be valid since it
is possible for the good heat-transfer characteristics of a particular coolant to be nullified
by a thicker or less conductive tube wall, necessitated by the coolant’s greater corrosive
neSS.

ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST THE USE OF A SECONDARY COOLANT

Heat can be transferred directly from the liquid fuel (primary coolant) to steam, or a
second coolant may be interposed between these two fluids. The main advantages of the
direct-transfer scheme are:

(1) Elimination of primary heat exchangers.

(2) Elimination of secondary coolant.
(3) Elimination of piping and pumps for secondary-coolant circuits.
The disadvantages are:
(1) Probably greater opportunity for leaks in the fuel circuit because the fuel will have
to flow through two or maybe three units in series, such as a superheater, reheater, and
boiler.
(2) Heavy reactor construction to withstand full steam pressures in case a leak devel
oped in any of the steam generating equipment.

777
CHAP. 5.3 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

(3) Assuming that the fuel flows inside the tubes and the water and steam outside to
minimize fuel inventory, thick-shelled heat exchangers and costly steam-generating
equipment must be provided. If the fuel flowed outside the tubes, this disadvantage would
not exist.
(4) Greater heat-transfer area and therefore greater fuel hold-up, since the steam
generating equipment would have lower over-all heat-transfer coefficients than a liquid
metal-to-metal heat exchanger.
(5) Difficulty in reducing temperature gradients to avoid high thermal stresses. It is
often desirable to produce steam at a temperature appreciably below the average tempera
ture of the liquid metal, and an intermediate heat exchanger is convenient to step down
the temperature of the fuel stream at the high-temperature end. An intermediate coolant
can provide greater flexibility of operation.
(6) Radioactive steam. This aggravates steam-plant maintenance and presents a shield
ing problem.
(7) Inferior heat-transfer characteristics and therefore larger steam-generating equip
ment than that conceivable with a secondary coolant.

HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT

Several types of heat exchangers can be used to transfer heat from the molten-metal
fuel mixture in nuclear power systems depending on the nature of the heat-transfer proc
ess and the coolant. If a liquid metal is used as a secondary coolant, the heat exchanger
may be of the shell-and-tube variety equipped with double-wall tubes with two or more
passes on the tube side and baffled on the shell side. Since a high degree of reliability is
demanded of these heat exchangers, they must be expertly designed and the thermal
stresses held at safe maxima. Liquid metal-liquid metal heat exchangers are discussed
in Section 2 of this volume.

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH PHASE CHANGE

Another way of delivering heat from a molten-metal fuel to steam is to boil mercury
with the heat released from the primary coolant, then to condense the mercury in and
thereby supply heat to the steam-generating equipment. Good heat-transfer film coeffi
cients for both boiling and condensation are realizable, but the vapor lines required are
prohibitively large, even at vapor velocities approaching 100 ft/sec. In fact, it appears
that for nuclear power purposes heat transmission using the vaporization-condensation of
mercury is out of the question because of the difficult problem of transporting the vapor.
Even when the steam boiler is placed directly above the mercury boiler and the cross
sectional area of the vapor duct is as large as the boilers themselves, the scheme does
not look promising.

SPRAY-TYPE HEAT EXCHANGERS

If the secondary coolant is a fused salt, it is possible to transfer heat from liquid
bismuth by spraying the metal in fine droplets through the salt, thereby bringing the two
fluids into intimate contact. With this type of heat exchanger, the chief problem is that of
achieving good phase separation at desirable flow rates. Two versions of spray-type heat
exchangers are shown in Fig. 5.3.1, one employing gravity separation and the other cen
trifugal separation. This type of heat exchanger, particularly the gravity-separation ver
sion, has been given some consideration by the Brookhaven Reactor Group, for it has
features that make it peculiarly adaptable to LMFR. The high heat-transfer coefficients
of spray-type heat exchangers mean low metal holdups. In addition, this system eliminates
tubes and circumvents the thermal-stress problem.

778
ENGINEERING DESIGN CHAP. 5.3

LIQUID METAL
DROPLETS
_NOZZLES FOR
FN Ll QUID METAL salt outle) NOZZLES FOR
L-1 l- LIQUID METAL
SALT OUTLET

o o o o o
0 ° o 9
d o o • , ,

, “. . . . . . . o

•. . . . . . " SALT IN LET

S.
SALT IN LET

LIQUID METAL
OUTLET
| B
LIQUID M ETAL
OUTLET

Fig. 5.3.1 — Direct-contact, Liquid-metal Salt Heat Exchangers. Submitted

by BNL, Sept. 1952.

The presence of the salt along with the liquid metal probably amplifies the corrosion
problem and would be a serious drawback. Another conceivable disadvantage is the pos
sibility of carry-over of liquid metal by the salt and/or salt by the liquid metal. The
latter phenomenon is more probable. Carry-over of salt by the bismuth in the case of
LMFR would be almost intolerable because of reactor poisoning. However, the bismuth/
salt density ratio is about six and the other pertinent properties are sufficiently favorable
so that satisfactory separation of the two phases by centrifugation may be possible. Such
separation could probably be incorporated in the centrifugal pumps located in the exit
metal and salt lines from the heat exchanger. There is a strong possibility that the Brook
haven Reactor Group will investigate experimentally the feasibility of the spray-type heat
exchanger for application to LMFR if preliminary work on the hydrodynamics of droplet
formation, phase separation, and salt creep on metal surfaces looks promising.

STEAM-GENERATING EQUIPMENT

In the direct heat-transfer system (no secondary coolant), the metal-fuel mixture re
leases its heat directly to boiling water and steam in steam-generating units. Under these
conditions, the liquid-metal fuel should flow inside the tubes to conserve fuel. When a
secondary coolant, such as sodium, is employed, however, the liquid metal may be on the
outside of the tubes, particularly in the superheaters. With liquid metal on the outside of
the tubes, the required shell thickness is small, and the steam-generating units them
selves are usually smaller because of greater heat-transfer capacity. Where the steam
generating equipment is heated with the metal-fuel mixture or with an alkali metal, the

779
CHAP. 5.3 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

tubes should be double-walled. Possible exceptions would be the tubes in the superheater
and re-heater when such units are “fired” with an alkali metal. To minimize thermal
stresses, the number of passes on the tube side should be two or some multiple thereof,
unless curved tubes are employed. -

If the secondary coolant is a heavy metal like lead, mercury, or bismuth, or a fused
salt, the design of the steam generating equipment would be similar to that using alkali
metals, except that the tubes need not be double-walled.

CALCULATION OF HEAT-TRANSFER FILM. COEFFICIENTS

In this chapter, heat-transfer film coefficients were obtained from the following re
lationships:
(1) Fused salts, inside tubes:*

º = 0.028 (DG/u)*(Conſk)” (14)

(2) Sodium, inside tubes:”

* = 7.0+0.025(DGC/k)” (15)

(3) Sodium, in-line flow outside tube banks: Same as for case (2) where:

D = 4m

(4) Sodium, cross-flow in tube banks: Film heat-transfer coefficients were obtained by
making the simple assumption that the Colburn’ equation, when used to determine outside
film coefficients for an alkali metal flowing normal to tube banks, gave results which were
as much too high as Eq. (14) above for the same metal flowing inside tubes. This has not
been checked experimentally. The Colburn equation is used in the form:

*-os (ºr, jºy"

h |l k (16)

(5) Bismuth, inside tubes:*

* = 4.9 + 0.018(DGC/k)” (17)

(6) Mercury, cross-flow in tube banks: Film heat-transfer coefficients were obtained
similarly to case (4) above.
(7) Mercury, in-line flow outside tube banks: By Eq. (17) above, where:

D = 4m

LMFR PLANT DESIGNS

In general, the design of a nuclear power plant must be predicated upon high degree of
plant reliability, minimized costs, and severe safety requirements. The Brookhaven
Reactor Group has considered the problem of heat transfer in power-plant design for

*This equation is obtained by multiplying the right-hand side of Eq. (15), the Lyon-Martinelli
equation, by 0.7. In general, the experimental data which have thus far been obtained on the heavy
metals indicate values of h about 30% lower than those predicted by the Lyon-Martinelli equation.

780
EngineERING DESIGN CHAP. 5.3

LMFR, and although no experimental work has yet been undertaken, several schemes
have been studied, three of which are discussed below. One of the more difficult problems
in the design of heat-transfer equipment for handling liquid metals, viz., that of minimiz
ing thermal stresses, is accentuated in LMFR because the temperature drop across tube
walls in the boiler may vary greatly from one end to the other as a result of sensible heat
being converted to latent heat.

SCHEMEA-MERCURY As Secondary coolant

For a liquid-metal-fuel reactor system like LMFR, mercury has certain real advan
tages, chief among which is that it does not react violently with water. Also, it has a
reasonably low vapor pressure and is a liquid at room temperature. Its nuclear properties
are satisfactory, although considerable shielding is required. The relative pumping-power
requirements for mercury are about the same as those for bismuth for a given heat-re
moval rate and similar heat-transfer conditions. In this regard, mercury compares quite
unfavorably with an alkali metal like sodium, which may require only % to % the pumping
power. The container problem with mercury is not serious but does exist. Like all heavy,
weakly-reducing metals, mercury has a high electrical resistivity which makes it unsuit
able for electromagnetic pumping. In addition, it is a fairly toxic material and is very ex
pensive on a volume basis.
The flow diagram of a hypothetical LMFR power plant using mercury as a secondary
coolant is shown in Fig. 5.3.2. The uranium-bismuth fuel mixture leaves the reactor at
950°F and is pumped through a number of heat exchangers operating in parallel (although
three heat exchangers are shown, more would probably be used in a full-scale plant, i.e.,
one of 500 megawatts total heat rate). From the heat exchangers, the fuel mixture (at
644°F) returns to the reactor. Gaseous fission products are removed in a vacuum de

PRIMARY HEAT Exchange Rs f-------- -

—i-
r- super
| | | à HEATER
!
--
-

TF-1 |
H-T-:----:
— REHEATER -

THROTTLING | -
DEvice - :
tº
* i :
! ------- 3. ºbº-O l
.
i No.1 BOILER .
REACTOR | His condéNSER):
- t

_BISMUTH H. | -
: CONDENSER
STREAM !
No.2 BOILER -
MERCURY
STREAM Tº T |
FEEDwater
HEATERS

Fig. 5.3.2— LMFR Power Plant Employing Mercury as the Secondary Coolant.
Submitted by BNL, Sept. 1952. Fuel processing equipment not shown.

781
CHAP. 5.3 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

gassing chamber, and most of the remaining fission products are removed by extraction
with a KCl-LiCl salt mixture (fuel processing is discussed in Volume 4). (Equipment for
these operations is not shown in Fig. 5.3.2.)
In the heat exchangers, mercury at about 80 psia is heated from 553° to 860°F. It then
flows through a steam superheater in which it is cooled to 811°F; after leaving the super
heater, a portion of the stream flows through a steam reheater. The two mercury streams
then unite and flow through a throttling valve which reduces the pressure to about 20 psia.
As a result of throttling, a portion of the mercury is vaporized at 700°F. This vapor is
then condensed in Boiler No. 1, the condensate from which is united with the unvaporized
mercury, and the combined stream is pumped through Boiler No. 2 where it is cooled to
560°F. The mercury is then pumped back to the primary heat exchangers to complete the
cycle. In practice, the steam-generating equipment would consist of multiple units, oper
ated in parallel.
In this scheme, tube stresses are minimized by (1) using a reheater, (2) throttling the
mercury, and (3) using double-walled tubes in the boilers. The annuli between the tubes
are filled with mercury.
The steam cycle in Fig. 5.3.2 calls for 600 psig steam with 390°F superheat at the
turbine throttle, a reheat at 115 psia to 700°F, an exhaust to 1% in. Hg pressure, and re
generative feed heating with the condensate entering the boilers at 400°F. The chief pur
pose of the steam reheater is to transfer heat from the mercury to the steam at a high
temperature under conditions where the temperature drop across the tube walls does not
vary much from one end of the heat exchanger to the other. If the high-temperature mer
cury were fed to a 600 psig steam boiler, the temperature drops across the tube walls
would be prohibitively high. There is no tube-stress problem in the first boiler because
of the uniform over-all temperature drop. Thus, of the five heat-transfer units in Scheme
A, only the No. 2 boiler has a large variation in over-all temperature drop from 70°F at
the mercury exit to 210°F at the mercury inlet. If necessary, to lower the thermal stress,
the pressure in one or both of the boilers may be raised. If the high-pressure steam is
above the optimum pressure for most economic operation, it could be throttled to the de
sired pressure before expansion in the turbines. As a satisfactory compromise between
economic and engineering considerations, the Brookhaven group decided to work with
600-psig, 800°F (390° superheat) steam.
It is obviously essential to keep the fuel inventory as low as possible. The U-Bi holdup
in the reactor is determined by nuclear considerations, but the holdups in the conduits
and heat exchangers are determined by engineering design. The holdup in the conduits
may be determined by two factors: the maximum velocity permissible from pumping and/
or erosion standpoints and the possible need for incorporating thermal pumping. In the
primary heat exchangers, holdup is essentially a question of manifold, header, and ex
changer geometry. Theoretically, the optimum conduit size would be determined by an
economic balance between fixed charges on the U-Bi holdup and piping on the one hand
and pumping costs on the other, but in all probability, the velocity in the conduits would
be determined by corrosion-erosion considerations. A similar situation exists for heat
exchanger design. From economic and shielding standpoints, it is also desirable to keep
the mercury inventory as low as possible.
Typical shell-and-tube heat-exchanger design conditions are given in Table 5.3.6, and
a typical set of design conditions for the bismuth circuit is given in Table 5.3.7.

SCHEME B-SODIUM AS SECONDARY COOLANT

Compared to mercury, sodium has one outstanding disadvantage as a secondary coolant

for LMFR and that is its violent reactivity with water; another disadvantage is that it is a
solid at room temperature. Its physical properties, however, are such that it has ex
cellent heat-transfer characteristics with low pumping-power requirements; it also has

782
ENGINEERING DESIGN CHAP. 5.3

Table 5.3.6— Design Conditions and Calculated Results of Shell-and-tube Heat

Exchangers for LMFR

Secondary coolant Mercury

Number of passes on tube side One
Heat rate 300 MW

Temperatures
Bismuth, inlet 510°C, 950°F
Bismuth, outlet 340°C, 644°F
Mercury, inlet 290°C, 553°F
Mercury, outlet 460°C, 860°F
Velocities
Bismuth, in tubes 5 ft/sec
Mercury, max. normal to tubes 2.5 ft/sec
Mercury, in-line with tubes 2.5 ft/sec
Tube data
DD 0.500 in.
OD 0.875 in.
Spacing on triangular lattice 0.250 in.
Material of construction Croloy 5–Si
Thermal conductivity 15 Btu/(hr)(ft)("F)
Maximum thermal stress 4000 lb/sq in.
Pressure drop across heat exchanger on Bi side 18 lb/sq in.
Number of heat exchangers in parallel 3
Length of tubes 16 ft
Diameter of heat exchangers 5 ft
Bismuth holdup 58 tons
Mercury holdup 160 tons

Table 5.3.7 — Typical Set of Design Conditions for U-Bi Circuit in LMFR

Heat rate 300 MW

Velocity in conduit and manifold 10 ft/sec
Diameter of conduit 2.31 ft
Effective height of convective loop 8 ft
Over-all height of total assembly 33 ft
Total length of piping, exclusive of heat exchanger manifold 52 ft
Pressure drops
Across reactor 4 lb/sq in.
Across main conduits and heat exchanger manifolds 6 lb/sq in.
Across heat exchanger 19 lb/sq in.
Total 29 lb/sq in.
Pumping power input to bismuth 320 hp
Holdups
Reactor 44 tons
Conduit 67 tons
Manifolds 24 tons
Heat exchanger (mercury) 58 tons
Total 193 tons

783
CHAP. 5.3 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

low cost. Two other advantages are that sodium can be efficiently pumped with electro
magnetic pumps and that it can be contained in 18–8 stainless steel. A disadvantage is
the fairly high level of gamma radiation induced when sodium is exposed to high neutron
fluxes, but in this respect it may not be much worse than mercury. Although this calls
for appreciable shielding, this usually is not a determining factor. While sodium is a
solid at room temperature, NaK, which has heat-transfer characteristics similar to those
of sodium, melts at 12°F. Possibly, NaK would require more shielding. Although this
discussion pertains to sodium it applies in principle to NaK also.
As a result of the work of the General Electric group at KAPL, firing steam-generating
equipment with molten sodium is no longer considered to present serious difficulties. The
problem is solved by using double-walled tubes and filling the annulus between the two
walls with a third fluid, such as mercury or the lead-bismuth eutectic, at a pressure be
tween that of the sodium and that of the water. In the event of a break in a tube wall, leak
age would thus be from the water to the annulus and from the annulus to sodium and would
be readily detected by sensitive instruments. Compared to the hazard in the steam boilers,
that in the superheating equipment is far less serious because of the relatively small
masses of water vapor contained therein. The effect on the design of the heat exchanger
described in Table 5.3.6 when the secondary coolant is changed from mercury to sodium is
shown in Table 5.3.8. From the standpoint of the primary exchanger, sodium is highly ad
vantageous.
A typical power-plant layout for a liquid-metal-fuel reactor employing sodium as the
secondary coolant would be identical, in most respects, with that shown for mercury in
Fig. 5.3.2, the only major changes being in the steam-generating equipment. The exit
sodium from the heat exchangers would flow consecutively through the superheater, re
heater, and boiler units, all identical units being connected in parallel. Steam conditions
and over-all total coolant temperature drop are the same as those for the mercury
scheme. All steam-generating equipment would be of double-walled tube construction
with an even number of passes on the tube side. The radioactivity of the sodium and its
explosive chemical reactivity with water call for very careful design and arrangement
of the steam generating equipment, especially the boilers.

SCHEME C-COMPROMISE DESIGN TO MINIMIZE FUEL INVENTORY

For the nuclear-power-plant design described in Fig. 5.3.2 and Table 5.3.7, it is at
once apparent that the U-Bi inventory is quite large. It is further evident that nearly half
of this inventory can be attributed to the hold-up in conduit and manifolds. Figure 5.3.3
illustrates a nuclear-power-plant system which nearly eliminates this type of fuel holdup

Table 5.3.8— Effects of Changing from Mercury to Sodium as Secondary Coolant on Primary
Heat Exchanger* Characteristics

Characteristics Mercury (scheme A) Sodium (scheme B)

Heat rate, Mw 300 300

Coolant film heat-transfer coefficient, Btu/(hr)(ft)*("F) 3000 7700
Over-all heat-transfer coefficient, Btu/(hr)(ft)*(*F) 430 470
Length of tubes, ft 18.6 17.0
Bismuth holdup in tubes, tons 48 44
Secondary coolant holdup, tons 160 9.75
Secondary coolant cost, $/lb 2.75 0.17
Power necessary to pump coolant, hp 36 11

*Design of the heat exchanger is described in Table 5.3.6

784
 —
—
r
|
SUPER
IHEATER
|
|PUMP
BOOSTER
|INSERTED
BE
MAY
|–
IN–––––––
HERE
—-
—
—l—
ſF-------
REHEATER
_iVACUUM
|OR
SWEEP
HELI
||UM
->
|
| |LIQUID
||LEVEL

URBINE IATE
MT| INTERMED
|—-
FOR
EXCHANGER
|
|SODIUM
|HEATING
|
|BOILER
|- — — — — —
|
|
| REACTOR
| CONDENSER

ſ-L
º

|
WATER.
FEED
HEATERS

Steam
Superheating
for
Coolant
Secondary
as
Sodium
Employing
Plant
L MFR
Power
—
5.3.3
Fig.
:
Sept.
BNL,
by
Submitted
Boiler.
Steam
to
Fuel
from
Transfer
Heat
Direct
with
but
Reheating
and
not
shown.
equipment
processing
Fuel
1952.
CHAP. 5.3 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

and thereby achieves a very great reduction in U-Bi inventory. In this scheme, the liquid
metal-fuel mixture flows vertically through the reactor, leaving it at a temperature of
510°C to enter a tubular heat exchanger located directly above the reactor. In this ex
changer, heat is transferred to liquid sodium, which then becomes the heat source for
steam superheating and reheating units. Half of the fuel stream, now at about 470°C, flows
through each of two side loops in which saturated steam is generated by direct heat trans
fer from the fuel to the steam. From the side loops, the fuel mixture (at 350° C) is returned
to the bottom of the reactor core by means of centrifugal pumps. Typical values describing
the design and performance of such a reactor system are given in Table 5.3.9.

Table 5.3.9— Typical Set of Design and Operating Conditions for Reactor Heat-transfer
System Described Under Scheme C

Heat rate 300 Mw.

Linear velocity of U-Bi fuel mixture outside tubes 10 ft/sec
Linear velocity of sodium in tubes 20 ft/sec
Tube data
ID 0.250 in.
OD .500 in.
Spacing on triangular lattice .250 in.
Material of construction “Croloy” 5–Si
Thermal conductivity 15 Btu/(hr)(ft)(*F)
Temperatures
Bismuth, outlet reactor core 510°C, 950°F
Bismuth, inlet reactor core 340°C, 644°F
Sodium, inlet 371°C, 700°F
Sodium, outlet 448°C, 840°F
Saturated Steam 25.2°C, 486°F
Approximate height of fuel-sodium heat exchanger 12.0 feet
Approximate diameter of fuel-sodium heat exchanger 3.0 feet
Approximate height of boilers 18.5 feet
Approximate diameter of boilers 2.2 feet
Approximate bismuth inventory 100 tons
Number of tubes in parallel 2080

The chief objective of this design is to minimize fuel inventory and plant investment at
some expense of plant flexibility and reliability compared to the design shown in Fig. 5.3.2.
The distinguishing features of Scheme-C design are summarized briefly as follows:
(1) The heat exchangers are essentially suspended tube bundles, which can be lifted out
of the reactor system without dumping the fuel and replaced with minimum difficulty.
(2) The tubes in the heat exchangers are either U-shaped or multipass to minimize ther
mal stresses, and all welds are located in the gas space above the liquid metal.
(3) The fuel flows outside of the tubes. By using a fuel flow inside the tubes, the in
ventory would be reduced still further, but this would mean more complicated construction,
welded tube-sheets submerged in the fuel, and greater possibility of plugging.
(4) Pressure drops through the heat exchangers are minimized by having the fuel flow
chiefly parallel to the heat-exchanger tubes.
(5) The heat used to superheat and reheat the steam is first transferred to sodium and
then to the steam. Direct heat transfer from the fuel to dry steam would require some
what larger heat exchangers because of the low heat-transfer coefficients on the steam
side. This is not true of the boiler, where the steam-side coefficients are of the same
order of magnitude as those for liquid metals. While direct heat transfer from fuel to
steam eliminates an appreciable investment, it has the disadvantages discussed earlier
in this chapter.

786
ENGINEERING DESIGN CHAP. 5.3

(6) The basic heat-transfer scheme illustrated in Fig. 5.3.3 is presumably suitable
for either a solution-type or slurry-type fuel, i.e., for breeding only in the blanket, only
in the core, or partly in each.
(7) In the figure, the pumps are shown located at the bottom of the reactor system,
which means that the fuel must be dumped before they can be removed. It is also possible
to locate additional pumps at the tops of the loops. This would provide added reliability
and flexibility of operation. Bottom pumps are desirable, however, for filling the reactor
and helping to prevent settling of particulates.
(8) Although the flow of the metal fuel mixture will realize a certain amount of thermal
pumping power, this power is not sufficient to circulate the metal at the necessary rate
in the event of a power failure. This means that standby power must be provided by bat
teries.

SCHEME D–HEAT EXCHANGE WITH IMMISCIBLE FLUIDS

All schemes for carrying out this type of heat transfer consist of first dispersing the
metal in a fused salt and then separating the two phases. Dispersion can be achieved by
high-velocity flow through spray nozzles in a pipe or chamber, and phase separation can
be effected by either gravity or centrifugal action. Figure 5.3.4 shows a flow diagram of
a nuclear-reactor power plant using KCl-LiCl eutectic as the secondary coolant and a
simple spray, gravity-separation type of heat exchanger. The centrifugal pumps in the
salt and metal streams leaving the exchanger can be so designed that final phase sepa
ration of both streams is accomplished by centrifugation. Aside from the primary heat
exchanger, the plant layout in Fig. 5.3.4 is similar to that where sodium is the secondary
coolant.

sPRAY-Type
PRIMARY HEAT Aſ --T
( j Exchange:R | !

SALT PHASE !--

º º :
(CONTINUOUS) ---superHEATER
witH |
Bismuth —
DROPLETS Bismuth T I
Phase -------
;| :I
:
REHEATER :“
| I
©
I 3 ! -----
- SALT —t---
yector STREAM ! |
! CONDENSER
SALT
REMOVAL

sau-T
surge
+TANK
FEED waſ ER
Bism UTH STREAM HEATERs
SALT ADDITION
-

Fig. 5.3.4 — LMFR Power Plant Employing Spray-type Heat Exchanger with
Salt. Submitted by BNL, Sept. 1952. Removal of fission-product gases not
shown.

787
CHAP. 5.3 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

The outstanding advantages of the liquid metal-salt type of intimate-contact heat ex

changer as applied to LMFR are:
(1) Considerably reduced fuel inventory because of high heat-transfer coefficients. The
metal-to-salt heat-transfer coefficients may be as high as five times those for conven
tional shell-and-tube heat exchangers.
(2) Removal by the salt of most of the fission products from U-Bi fuel mixture. There
is no need to remove a side-stream of metal for fuel-processing purposes.
(3) Less opportunity for leaks in fuel circuit because there are no heat-exchanger
tubes or troublesome tube-sheet welds.
(4) Higher steam pressure and thermal efficiencies because the temperature of the
heated salt can conceivably be very close to the highest fuel temperature.
(5) The possibility of maintaining the fission-product concentration in the U-Bi mixture
so low that shut-down temperature rise will not require any auxiliary cooling equipment.
(6) No thermal stress problem, since tubes are eliminated.
The disadvantages are:
(1) High level of radioactivity in secondary coolant system because of a large holdup of
fission products in the salt stream. This means appreciable shielding requirements.
(2) Carryover of salt with the metal and metal with the salt. It is presumed that final
phase separation can be achieved by centrifugal action or other means. If this should not
turn out to be the case, this type of heat exchanger would be eliminated from consideration.
(3) Possibility of salt “creep” on metal surfaces. This problem may be more apparent
than real and solved without undue difficulty.
(4) A definite corrosion problem. In addition to corrosion by the individual liquids, the
metal-salt mixture may possibly be even more corrosive.
A few other factors are pertinent but not determining. There is a slight possibility that
the presence of delayed neutrons in the salt in the steam-generating equipment would
induce some radioactivity in the steam. Such radioactivity is expected to be very minor,
however, because of the long holdup time of the neutron-emitting fission products from
the time they are produced in the reactor to the time they appear in the steam boiler.
Because it must be very pure, the salt is expensive, somewhere between $1.00 and
$1.50/lb. The salt would remove a certain amount of uranium from the metal-fuel mix
ture, but the total amount of uranium so removed would be the same as for side-stream
processing when the total salt used would equal the salt holdup in the salt-spray system.
This assumes that the concentration of fission products in the salt is the same in both
cases. In the salt heat-exchange system, the concentration of fission products in the salt
might be lower because of the much greater quantity of salt involved.

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT FOR LIQUID METAL FUELS

(Chad J. Raseman)

PUMPS

A list of references' pertaining to pumps for liquids has been compiled by the Atomic
Energy Commission. This compilation has been organized by headings which indicate
anticipated applications, namely, “Hot” Solution Pumps, Liquid Metal Pumps, Slurry
Pumps, Water Pumps, and Miscellaneous. The majority of the references pertain to
work conducted at AEC laboratories. In the case of liquid-metal pumps, which can be
classified as mechanical or electromagnetic, a good deal of development work has been
done by the Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corporation—NEPA Division, the Allis-Chalmers
Company, and the Babcock and Wilcox Company.

788
ENGINEERING DESIGN CHAP. 5.3

MECHANICAL PUMPS

Most pump development work has been aimed at pumping sodium or sodium-potassium
alloys. The most serious problem relative to the design of a mechanical, liquid-metal
pump appears to be that of suitable bearings and seals.
Bismuth was pumped by NEPA in 1950.” The system was operated for 37 hr; the maxi
mum flow rate measured was 2 gpm; the maximum head developed was 66 psi; and the
maximum bismuth temperature reached was 1765°F. The pump was a modified Browne
and Sharpe No. 206, machine-tool-coolant pump.
In another experiment," NEPA circulated bismuth with a 50-gpm centrifugal pump for
100 hr at a mean temperature of 1500°F with a temperature differential of 500°F. An
accumulation in the sump of a residue high in oxide content and dissolved elements re
duced the flow and forced suspension of operation. This residue probably resulted from
an impure inert atmosphere above the liquid metal. The containing material selected was
type-347 stainless steel which had shown some promise in bismuth solubility tests at
temperatures up to 1800°F.
The California Research Corporation made a survey of the various types of pumps that
might be used for liquid bismuth and came to the conclusion that a centrifugal pump would
best fit the need. A test unit was built that operated for 1037 hr, and a report” stated that
the centrifugal pump proved to be a very satisfactory means for circulating bismuth in an
isothermal system at 700°–750°F. The pump, designed and built by the Byron Jackson
Company, is shown in Fig. 5.3.5. The pump and driver are on a common shaft, the shaft
being top-suspended with all bearings in the motor chamber. Space was provided for a
labyrinth to separate the pump chamber from the motor chamber, although no seal was
used during operation. Table 5.3.10 lists the design conditions. Typical characteristic
curves for the pump are shown in Fig. 5.3.6. The head-capacity curve had a shut-off head
slightly lower than the maximum head in the performance test conducted by Byron Jackson
with water as the fluid.

CANNED-ROTOR PUMPS

The Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Company believes it has a canned-rotor-pump de

sign suitable for pumping bismuth or molten salt at temperatures as high as 1000°F.
Allis-Chalmers has built a leakless, canned-rotor pump that is rated at 3800 gpm against
a 165-ft head of sodium. The canned-rotor pump has also been discussed in the Homoge
neous Reactor Project Quarterly Progress Reports. In the long-range homogeneous re
actor program, emphasis is shifting from 4000-gpm circulating pumps to those of larger
capacity (20,000 gpm).

ELECTROMAGNETIC PUMPS

In the early days of the project, a magnetic pump for bismuth was described by B. Feld
and L. Szilard.” Design calculations were also made for a cylindrical electromagnetic
pump (6-coil, 3-phase, 12.5 cycles/sec) with a bismuth flow of 3200 gpm and efficiency
of 22 percent." These calculations were only preliminary and not to be taken as a prac
tical working design. They merely indicate the methods used for, and the variables in
troduced into, the design of an actual pump.
The poor electrical characteristics of bismuth compared to those of sodium or NaK
have generally ruled out the use of large electromagnetic pumps for this material. The
uncertainty of “wetting” between bismuth and container walls also made the choice of
large electromagnetic pumps questionable.
The Fuel Processing Group of Brookhaven National Laboratory required a pilot-plant
pump that would circulate uranium-bismuth fuel with absolutely no leaks. The U-Bi fuel

789
CHAP. 5.3 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

SHAFT S. MOTOR COOLER

ELECTRICAL JUNCTION S. (GAS IN)
BOX

MOTOR STATOR
COOLER

|-
(WATER OUT)
UPPER BALL BEARING-1
L ENCLOSED MOTOR

LOWER BALL BEARING ~ =

LABYRINTH

SHAFT 8: MOTOR
MOTOR STATOR COOLER
COOLER
(GAS OUT)
(WATER IN) %
LOWER BEARING
N COOLER
LOWER BEARING
(WATER OUT)
COOLER
(WATER IN )

SHAFT

OVERFLOW –
FLANGE DISCHARGE
FLANGE

|MPELLER

PUMP CASE
SUCTION FLANGE.

Fig. 5.3.5 – Molten-metal Pump; Canned-motor, Direct-drive, Centrifugal,

2-in. Pipe Size. Design by Byron Jackson Co. Submitted by BNL, Sept. 1952.

790
ENGINEERING DESIGN CHAP. 5.3

Table 5.3.10—Pump Design Conditions

(J. E. Walkey, Design, Construction, and Operation of Molten Bismuth Test
Pump, Calif. Res. Corp., SPL-51 :28, Oct. 9, 1951)

Liquid temperature 800°F

Liquid specific gravity 10
Liquid viscosity 1.7 cp
Flow rate 50 gpm
Suction pressure 15 psia
Differential 100 psi
Differential head 22 ft of liquid
Discharge pressure 115 psia

was eventually to be circulated through an experimental hole in the Brookhaven reactor

where fission products and polonium would be generated. Since a small flow rate of ap
proximately 1 gpm was desired and efficiency was of little regard, it was decided to try
an electromagnetic pump.
An experimental loop" was set up to circulate “cold” U-Bi by means of a General
Electric Model G-4 AC electromagnetic pump. This loop ran continuously for 2400 hr.
During the first 160 hr, the rig was operated isothermally at a temperature of 340°C;
during the remainder of the time, the loop was run isothermally at 450°C. The U-Bi
solution was circulated for most of this period at a rate of 1 gpm by means of the elec
tromagnetic pump. There were no signs of plugging or flow restriction.

VALVES

The standard-stem, packed, gate valves used in early NEPA bismuth tests" proved that
special valves would be required for successful liquid-bismuth operation. High leakage
rates through the packing caused maintenance difficulties throughout the tests.
A 1%-in., Fulton-Sylphon, bellows-type, stainless-steel valve was cycled 1000 times at
the rate of 77 times/min against bismuth at a temperature of 1000°F and a pressure of
25 psig. No failure of the bellows or other valve parts occurred.
NEPA also checked valves for metal-to-metal self-welding effects.” Tests of valve
operation reached 1500°F with liquid bismuth on standard Stellite-faced poppets and seats
without indication of self-welding effects.
The use of bellows-sealed valve stems is probably the solution to most liquid-metal
valve applications. Two or more bellows in series is one method of guarding against
bellows failures, and special pickup devices are used to indicate a leak in either bellows.”
Bellows tests at Argonne National Laboratory“have shown the following facts:
(1) In nearly all cases, failures occurred at a weld; therefore, bellows with the least
number of welds are favored. However, mechanically formed bellows should be examined
for cracks and other flaws that may be introduced in the forming.
(2) There was no evidence that corrosion played a part in the failure of any bellows.
(3) The predominant factor determining bellows life is the relative amount of travel.
(4) Other factors affecting bellows life are temperature and the relative distribution
between compression and extension. It was found that the outer bellows failed before the
inner bellows which operated at a higher temperature.
(5) Some bellows designs had not failed up to 10" cycles, at which point the test was
stopped.

791
 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

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92
ENGINEERING DESIGN CHAP. 5.3

Oak Ridge National Laboratory has reported on the use of special high-temperature
packing” for valve stems. This packing consists of successive layers of Inconel braid,
graphite, nickel powder, and another layer of Inconel braid.
It has been shown at practically all AEC activities that two sections of a circulation
system can be isolated from each other by freezing a short section of connecting pipe.
This plug can be remelted and flow resumed after a short wait. If mass-transfer cor
rosion or other solubility limits are approached, the use of freeze plugs should be care
fully examined.

PIPING

Complete procedure specifications have been prepared by Brookhaven National Labo

ratory for special heliarc welding of A.I.S.I., type-347, stainless steel pipe, fittings, and
vessels for use with liquid metals and liquid salts. This procedure was developed through
cooperation with the Metallurgy Division of ORNL.
Liquid-metal and liquid-salt systems should be of all-welded construction. Experi
mental and operating procedures, however, often make it advantageous to have removable
joints. An oval cross-section ring for a flanged joint was used by NEPA" in a bismuth
system between 520° and 660°F and at 300 psig. There were no leaks, and the flange was
easily disassembled.
Flanged joints were also used successfully by the California Research Corporation"
on 1%-in. piping containing bismuth at 700°–750°F.
The ability of liquid metals and liquid salts to leak through extremely small openings
has made the use of helium, mass-spectrometer, leak testers or halogen-type leak de
tectors practically a specified test step.
North American Aviation" successfully circulated molten bismuth in an all-graphite
thermal loop for two weeks with the hot leg at 1500°C and the cold leg at 1000°C. No
Serious attack on the graphite was noted. Graphite sections were joined with MoSi2 ce
ment. A larger dynamic all-graphite system is under construction.

HEATING EQUIPMENT AND INSULATION

Keeping the entire piping system above the melting point of its contents is another re
quirement and is most easily done by winding the pipes and vessels with resistance
heating wire designed for this purpose. For ease in handling, the insulation of this re
Sistance wire is armored with a woven wire sheath. Where high-intensity heat is re
quired, special strip or tubular type heaters can be used. Induction heating has been
used with good results on bismuth."
Samples of twenty-six Johns-Manville insulating materials were tested for possible re
action with molten bismuth.” In general, the results indicated that little or no reaction,
particularly of an explosive nature, occurred when molten bismuth at 1832°F came into
Contact with the unheated materials but that none of the materials would withstand contact
with the bismuth when both were at 1832°F for more than a few hours. Greatest resistance
to bismuth attack was shown by three types of asbestos millboards.

CLEANING OF EQUIPMENT
Owing to the corrosive nature of most liquid metals, the type of container employed and
We condition of the container-liquid interface is of great importance. The presence of
OXygen in a liquid-metal system, either in a dissolved form or as the oxide, can accel
*\e the attack upon the container material to varying degrees. Other impurities, soluble
*nd insoluble, can have similar effects in catalyzing the reaction between molten metal
*\ Adjacent container walls. As a result, it is desirable to remove all foreign material
from a liquid-metal system before charging.

793
CHAP. 5.3 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

The Committee of Stainless Steel Producers of the A.I.S.I. reported” several recom
mended procedures for cleaning stainless steels. They place impurities and methods of
removing them into five categories. The more important groups include:
(1) Ordinary dirt, grease, soot and product residue from stainless equipment that
operates at low temperatures. Agents—ordinary soap and water (with or without detergent)
applied with sponge, fiber brush, or cloth. To hasten action, add either soda ash, baking
soda, sodium perborate, TSP, or any of several non-abrasive commercial cleansing agents.
For non-water-soluble substances, try CC14, acetone, gasoline, ether, alcohol, and the like.
(2) Splatter or condensed vapor that has “baked” onto equipment. Agents—sometimes,
above methods may be used. Also suggested is a polish made with water and NH3 as liq
uid, and either Bon Ami, MgO, finely powdered pumice or French chalk as solid. For
more resistant deposits, use either stainless-steel scouring sponge or stainless-steel
wool of the finest texture available. Do not use common-steel wool, scouring pads, scrap
ers; wire brushes, files or other steel tools. They may mar the surface or leave small
particles of iron embedded in the stainless steel. Rusting of these particles will cause
stains. Marred surfaces collect dirt more rapidly, become progressively more difficult to
clean, and open the way to corrosive attack.
(3) Grease, oil and foreign matter in drains, vats and piping, where it is difficult to
scrub by hand. Agents—use of a strong cleaning solution, followed by thorough rinsing, is
suggested. With water-soluble materials, 4- to 6-percent solutions of Na metasilicate,
TSP, Na metaphosphate or Na pyrophosphate produce excellent results. For non-water
soluble materials, try CC14, naphtha, trichlorethylene, acetone, kerosene, gasoline, ether,
alcohol, or benzene. For truly stubborn deposits of organic or carbonaceous deposits, use
10- to 20-percent HNO3. After using any strong solution, flush thoroughly with plenty of
Water. -

The Oak Ridge technique” for decontaminating stainless steel or removing stains, is in
general, somewhat more severe since it is more essential to remove radioactive material
than to be concerned about subsequent extensive corrosion. Their methods are:
(1) Free high-pressure steam and water wash.
(2) Oxalic acid—5-percent and 2-percent solutions at 100°C.
(3) Citric acid—3-percent and 1-percent solutions at 100°C.
(4) Ammonium bifluoride-1 to 2 percent at 60°C for 4 hr.
(5) Ammonium fluorosilicate—4-percent or 5-percent HNOs at 100°C for 1 hr.
(6) NaOH−30-percent or 10-percent citric acid at 100°C.
The use of 0.5- to 1-percent HCl for less than 15 min as light pickling bath and hydrogen
passed through very hot evacuated pipes as a reducing agent have also been suggested.
In application, some of the above methods are too harsh or difficult to apply. The Oak
Ridge procedures and others” would probably etch most stainless steels. This could con
ceivably result in preferential corrosion attack by the molten metal. The same may be
said for the HCl wash. If it is necessary to remove the passivating coat of oxide that is
frequently associated with stainless steels, it may be necessary to employ the hydrogen
reduction technique at elevated temperatures. The dilution of hydrogen with helium or
argon would probably be a desirable safety feature.
The BNL procedure has been:
(1) Thorough trichlorethylene washing to remove non-water-soluble material.
(2) Detergent wash to remove all other soluble material. These washes are physically
removed, rather than evaporated away.
(3) Water rinse.
(4) Acetone rinse.
(5) If possible, rinse system with liquid metal or salt to be used.

794
ENGINEERING DESIGN CHAP. 5.3

HANDLING

Liquid-metal systems should be designed so that they can be completely drained and
vented. This makes precleaning, loading, and unloading operations easier to perform.
Bismuth should be added by means of a charging tank and inert-gas pressure. A sin
tered, stainless-steel filter in the charging tank discharge line will remove insoluble im
purities.
If possible, gravity-dumping designs should be used as pressure-dumping has on sev
eral occasions caused excessive loss of liquid metals through leaks that were the cause of
the shutdown.

After the system has been drained and, if necessary, decontaminated, inert gas is main
tained at a slight pressure in the system. Repairs may then be made with a minimum of
harm to the interior of the rig.

SAMPLING EQUIPMENT

Nonradioactive sampling has been accomplished by use of evacuated, glass tubes that
have a fragile tip at one end. The samples are taken by immersing the sealed tube in the
molten metal or salt and then breaking the glass tip against the side or bottom of the ves
sel. Because most metals and salts attack glass to varying degrees at high temperatures,
use of this technique is limited.
A molten-fuel sampler" which has been used successfully during the filling of a con
vection loop consists of a heavy-walled, 100-cc., graphite crucible held between two metal
flanges with the required transfer and gas-pressuring line attached. A spark-plug-type
level device is used to indicate when the required quantity of sample has been taken.
Another sampler has been designed by the same group that will permit repeated sam
pling of an operating system. In this design, molten fuel drips continuously through the
sampler and a vial is shifted to catch the drops when desired.
A sampler for radioactive liquid metals has been designed at KAPL.” This device will
have sufficient shielding to allow 1-gm samples to be taken at an activity level of 50 mc/gm.

INSTRUMENTATION

Successful operation of high-temperature systems circulating molten metals or salts

depends to a large extent on new instruments developed for the unique operating conditions
encountered.
Pressure can be measured by conventional pressure gauges in conjunction with seal
pots that transmit the pressure from the liquid to trapped inert gas. Each seal pot can be
equipped with one or more liquid-level indicators. Differential pressure can be indicated
by the null-balance-type of pressure gauge connected to the molten liquid by means of a
seal pot.
Another pressure instrument uses a sealed-pressure transmitter which maintains a
pressure balance across a diaphragm, and the balancing pressure is measured.
An electromagnetic pressure gauge has been designed by L. B. Vandenburg at the
Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory.” A small DC electromagnetic pump produces high
pressure liquid metals to oppose the pressures to be measured. Pump pressures greater
than the opposing pressure cause liquid metal evacuation of a vacuum-tight inlet tube
which also serves as a pump armature circuit inlet lead. The additional electrical re
sistance in the armature circuit caused by the evacuating tube restricts the armature
current. The armature current is proportional to, and controls, the pump pressure out
put. An equilibrium condition results where the pump pressure automatically balances
the pressure to be measured, and the armature current indicates the pressure to which
it is proportional.

ºth R
w up w
CHAP. 5.3 LIQUID-METAL-FUEL SYSTEMS

FLOWMETERS FOR LIQUID METALS

Three general techniques are employed for the measurement of liquid-metal flow rates.
These include:
(1) Conventional orifice-plate meters.
(2) Rotameters with electrical transmitter and remote dial indicator.
(3) Electromagnetic flowmeters.
The pressure taps associated with the orifice plate are not readily adaptable to a pres–
sure-sensitive indicator. Because of the danger of contacting the instrument with molten
metal, some intermediate container is required as a holdup and catch tank. Seal pots, in
which the levels are kept more or less constant by bleeding inert gas into or out of the pot,
can be used for this purpose. The gas pressure required to maintain these levels can be
conveniently read on a conventional pressure gauge.
A type of rotameter has been employed by KAPL and NEPA, presumably for liquid
sodium and bismuth, respectively. The device, designed by Fischer and Porter Co., per
mits the impulse to be electrically transmitted to a remote dial indicator.
An electromagnetic flowmeter has been designed and analyzed theoretically by General
Electric Company Laboratory and by Babcock and Wilcox on a NEPA contract. A perma
nent magnet is mounted around the pipe through which molten metal is flowing, with the
faces of the magnet creating a field perpendicular to the pipe. Two leads are welded to
the pipe wall, mutually perpendicular to both the pipe and magnetic flux. The electromotive
force generated by the molten metal when cutting the lines of flux is picked up by the leads
and can be transmitted to any potential-sensitive instrument. The theoretical analysis of
this type of flowmeter agrees within 6 percent of experimental results.

LIQUID-LEVEL INDICATORS

Determination of liquid levels in a closed, metallic system, such as that generally en

countered in liquid-metal work, can be approached either as a single-level problem or as
a continuously indicating level problem. The requirements for the former are:
(1) A metallic probe, preferably of the same material as the metallic container.
(2) High-temperature insulation between the probe and the vessel whose liquid level
is to be found.
(3) A gas-tight seal between insulation and both adjacent metallic parts.
(4) An appropriate external circuit to note the attainment of the particular level.
Experience at Brookhaven has shown that the most successful manner for providing both
good insulation and a satisfactory high-temperature seal is the use of automotive spark
plugs, specifically, the Firestone “Chromalox” type. It is suggested that the seal be re
moved from direct contact with the heat source by means of an appropriate pipe extension.
A stainless-steel probe can be welded to the spark plug after removal of the bent side
electrode. The external circuit consists of a transformer, relay, and indicating lights. By
the use of two probes and interlocked relays, it is possible to indicate a level beneath the
lower probe, between probes, or above the upper probe.
The continuous level indicators are of three general types:
(1) A manually adjustable probe with appropriate gasket seal.
(2) A type depending upon the change of electrical resistance of a probe as more of it
is short-circuited from the electrical path by the rising molten metal.
(3) An electromagnetic type, which is in essence a transformer whose secondary cur
rent changes as the liquid level rises.
At Brookhaven, these techniques are currently being tested. At the present time, the
electromagnetic type looks most promising, since it affords an opportunity for recording
the output (millivolts) continuously.

796
ENGINEERING DESIGN CHAP. 5.3

RADLATION MEASUREMENT

A neutron detector that operates at high temperatures has been built by the General
Electric Company.” Hanford tests of the neutron chamber were successful.”
Other tests” on ion chambers have established that they will withstand temperatures
of 700°C without damage and will operate satisfactorily in the range of 350° to 400°C de
pending on the current drawn.
Bremsstrahlung activity associated with a molten-lithium experiment has been meas
ured by ionization chambers.” The chambers operated adjacent to lines that were con
ducting the molten lithium at a temperature of 1000°F.

OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS

The findings of an evaluation survey of operational problems associated with the use
of bismuth and lithium as reactor coolants have been presented in a NEPA report.” This
report lists references which pertain to items such as the polonium hazards resulting
from neutron irradiation of bismuth. Polonium, a short half-life alpha emitter, is one of
the most poisonous substances known and, therefore, constitutes a grave handling problem
when present in the slightest quantity.

REFERENCES

1. Liquid Metals Handbook; published jointly by the Atomic Energy Commission and the Department of the Navy, June 1952.
2. W. H. McAdams, Heat Transmission, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill, New York, 1942.
3. Liquid Metals Handbook, R. N. Lyon, editor-in-chief, published jointly by U. S. Atomic Energy Commission and the Department
of the Navy, June 1950.
4. A. P. Colburn, Trans. Amer. Inst. Chem. Eng. 29, 1933, pp 17.4-210.
5. R. L. Morgan, AEC Tech. Inf. Service, TID-3015 (Rev.), Jan. 11, 1952, 10 pp (classified).
6. R. S. Wingard, Jr., Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corp., NEPA Division, NEPA-1621, Oct. 5, 1950, 58 pp (classified).
7. J. F. Collins, Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corp., NEPA Division, NEPA-1675, Dec. 15, 1950 (classified).
8. J. E. Walkey, Calif. Res. Corp., SPL-51:28, Oct. 9, 1951, 41 pp (classified).
9. B. Feld and L. Szilard, Argonne Nat. Lab., CE-279, July 14, 1942, 7 pp.
10. B. T. Feld, Argonne Nat. Lab., CP-326, Oct. 17, 1942 (classified).
11. C. Williams, BNL-176, Jan. 1-Mar. 31, 1952, 37 pp (classified).
12. NEPA-1587, Sept. 1950, 153 pp (classified).
13. A. H. Barnes, Argonne Nat. Lab., ANL-4138, Dec. 1947-Feb. 1948, p 14 (classified).
14. Argonne National Laboratory Report, ANL-4481. Mar. 1-May 31, 1950 (classified).
15. ORNL-1227. May 7, 1952, 200 pp (classified).
16. NEPA-1482, June 2, 1950, 30 pp (classified).
17. D. W. Lillie, Div. of Res., AEC, Wash-89, April 16, 1952, 7 pp (classified).
18. The Effect of Molten Bismuth on Insulating Materials, Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corp., NEPA Division, NEPA-1306-SCR-56,
Feb. 9, 1950, 16 pp.
19. American Machinist, Nov. 12, 1951.
20. D. G. Reid, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-490, Dec. 27, 1949, 20 pp (classified).
21. ORNL-1033, Oct. 23, 1951, 82 pp (classified).
22. KAPL-640, Dec. 1951 (classified).
23. KAPL-824, Nov. 25, 1952, 74 pp (classified).
24. D. H. Morley, High-temperature Ionization Chamber Mark I, General Electric Co., General Engineering Consulting Lab.,
R-50GL126, May 15, 1950, 11 pp.
25. I. M. Jacobs, General Electric Co., Nucleonics Division, HW-23694, Mar. 4, 1952, 10 pp (classified).
26. General Electric Co., Knolls Atomic Power Lab., KAPL-577, June 1951, 147 pp (classified).
27. Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1128, July 31, 1951, 77 pp (classified).
28. Varge Cornett, Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corp., NEPA-1232, Dec. 7, 1949, 33 pp (classified).

797
 Section 6

FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS

Prepared by
W. R. GRIMES

D. R. CUNEO

F. F. BLANKENSHIP

MATERIALS CHEMISTRY DIVISION

OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY

799
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE

While the use of fused salts in industrial applications is not uncommon, most of the fa
miliar salt systems are of little interest from the standpoint of nuclear reactor applica
tions. Considerable attention has, however, been given to molten chlorides, fluorides, and
hydroxides as possible reactor fluids and for use in certain chemical processing applica
tions at temperatures in the vicinity of 800°C. The results indicate a promising future for
fused salts.
This section reviews and tabulates the best measurements on fused salts as compiled
from the project literature available at the beginning of 1953. Particular emphasis has
Ween placed on salt mixtures under consideration as solvents or carriers of fissionable
materials, as moderating fluids, and as high-temperature heat-transfer fluids.
Many of the investigations pertaining to the behavior of fused salts have been of an ex
ploratory nature; much of the available information provides only preliminary indications.
As in any new field, this has made the task of sorting and evaluating data for inclusion in a
handbook very difficult. Various qualitative conclusions and tentative deductions can be
drawn from much of the early work, but because of the complexity of the phenomena, the
results cannot be reduced to quantitative values of any significance.

W. R. Grimes

801
 CHAPTER 6.1

General Reactor Characteristics

As far as it is known, no reactor which utilizes molten salts has yet been placed in oper
ation. During the past few years, however, the favorable properties of liquids as reactor
materials have been widely recognized and amply demonstrated. Fused salts have been
proposed as fuels and as moderators in thermal power producers and as fuels for fast con
verters. In addition, fused salts may be used as dissolvants for heterogeneous reactor
fuel elements, such as zirconium, titanium, and stainless steel, which are only difficultly
soluble in aqueous systems.
The state of the art has progressed to a point where it is obvious that use of fused salts
is not a panacea for reactor problems. The use of fused salts as fuels, for example, dis
poses of problems of fuel-element fabrication and stability, promises to simplify recovery
problems, and simplifies the difficulties in reactor control; however, their use as fuels
poses a different, and difficult, set of problems in compatability of materials and in the
virtually unknown technology of high-temperature liquids.
Firm statements are risky regarding the feasibility of general application of fused salts,
since much information on their fundamental properties and, especially, on details of their
technology is fragmentary or completely lacking. Nevertheless, at the present stage of
development, no unsurmountable obstacles have been encountered, and the available infor
mation encourages continued and extended study in this field.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

In common with other liquid systems, fused salts offer, at least in principle, several ad
vantages as reactor fuels. As spent fuel, they can be easily removed and processed; dif
ficult problems of fuel-element fabrication are avoided; to the extent that fission products
are removed automatically or through side-stream processing, they afford improved neu
tron economy; because they can be circulated to heat exchangers, they simplify the problem
of heat removal and effect additional neutron economy by decreasing parasitic capture by
structural metals in the core; in addition, the high thermal-expansion coefficient of the
liquids furnishes a negative component to the temperature coefficient of reactivity and thus
simplifies the control problem.
Fused-salt systems may also claim a few advantages not shared by other liquid systems
known at this time. They are capable of operating with low vapor pressures at very high
temperatures. By proper choice of component salts, the concentration of fissionable and
fertile material may be varied over wide limits, and for reactors of moderate size, the
fuel may be made self-moderating. Their radiation stability, on the basis of incomplete
experiments, seems likely to prove adequate for many if not all applications.
The most outstanding disadvantage of those fused-salt systems studied to date is the gen
erally high melting points of the salts, which are inconvenient for reactor startup. Also,
fused-salt fuel systems containing considerable concentrations of fissionable material have
moderately high viscosities in the operating-temperature range and have heat-transfer

803
CHAP. 6.1 FUSED–SALT SYSTEMS

properties that are considerably inferior to those of liquid metals. Perhaps the most
serious disadvantage of these systems is the vast lack of knowledge concerning them.

POSSIBLE REACTOR APPLICATIONS

Nuclear reactors now in operation or contemplated are intended to produce either fission
able isotopes or power alone. Each category is capable of considerable subdivision with re
gard to both nuclear considerations and physical configuration. The application of currently
known or anticipated fused-salt systems appears feasible in virtually all these classifica
tions. Considerable experimental effort will, however, be necessary before successful ap
plication can be assumed.

THERMAL REACTORS

BREEDERS

The extremely low parasitic capture losses tolerable in breeder reactors seriously
limit the number of fused salts which can be considered for these units; such compounds
are listed in Table 6.1.1. Of these, only Li'OD, Li'F, Li'D, BeF., BiFs, and Bi'Os appear to
be useful; from these compounds and the fissionable and fertile materials as fluorides, how
ever, some practicable systems may be demonstrated.
A reactor containing U” as fuel and using Th” as fertile material is generally consid
ered to be the most promising of the thermal breeders. Fuel for an internal breeder would
need a low concentration of U” and a high concentration of Th”, and an external breeder
would require the two materials in separate fluids. In principle, a mixed type in which the
core contains sufficient fertile isotopes to replenish the fuel is attractive.

Hydrogenous Fuels
The most attractive combination for an internal breeder (a solution of acceptable uranium
and thorium compounds dissolved in molten Li'OD) can probably be eliminated at once from
the standpoint of the solubility of thorium compounds. As the alternative case, an external
breeder might possibly be fueled with a dilute solution of U*Os in this vehicle. As little as
0.4 percent of U” by weight in this solvent may be adequate,' and solubilities of this magni
tude might possibly be achieved at 1100°–1200°F. If metallic zirconium (or zirconium-tin
alloy) has sufficient strength and can contain the UOs-LiOD solution at 1100°–1200°F, which
is possible but not likely, then a useful external breeder with low critical mass may be
available.

Fluoride Fuels

Mixtures of LiF-BeFz-Thf. would seem to be quite suitable blankets, and similar but
dilute UF, solutions could serve as fuels for thermal breeders.” With these materials,
however, operation of the reactor would be restricted to temperatures where molybdenum
or iron-chrome-nickel alloys would be required. These are hardly permissible in an ex
ternal breeder. However, substituting a small quantity of UF, for Thf. in the fuel should
not seriously affect the properties of the mixture, and a good internal-breeder fuel should
be possible.
To remove heat from the core, it may prove necessary to circulate the fuel and cool it
externally, even at the expense of increasing the inventory of fissionable material and losing

'References appear at end of chapter.

804
GENERAL REACTOR CHARACTERISTICS CHAP. 6.1

Table 6.1.1 – Possible Moderators and Fuel Diluents for Thermal Breeders

(R. P. Schuman and A. D. Tevebaugh, Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory in

Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Report CF-52-4-197 (classified)).

Melting point, “C Boiling point, “C

DF –83 19.4

D.O 3.82 101.4

Li" 186 1336

Li'Nºo, 261 *
Bi 271 1450

Li"B"D, 275 275 +

Li'Nºo, - - - *

Li'DF, *

Bi F3 - - - - - -

Li'N*D, 290 430

Li"OD 445 925 +

B}'O, 577 1500

LišCOs 618 1200ci
Li'D 680 *

Be F2 800
LiłC. - - - - - -

BizCs 820 1900

LiłB"D, 843
Lijn's 845 - - -

Li'F 870 1670

Li{O Sublimes 1000

*Materials decomposed

a considerable fraction of the delayed neutrons. Cooling the reactor by circulating the
Li'OD would probably (since both fluids have only fair heat-transfer properties) increase
the parasitic capture unduly by introducing metal into the core, even if the corrosion prob
lem for LiOD were solved. From the standpoint of the metal introduced in the core heat
exchanger, cooling with Li' or Bi would be preferable, but neither of these metals can yet
be contained easily at these temperatures.
At the present state of development, fused salts as breeders seem best suited for inter
nal breeding with a Li'F-BeFz-U”F.-ThP, fuel mixture in a reactor several feet in diam
eter operating in the 1350°-1100°F range with the fuel circulated to an exchanger for heat
removal. While such a reactor would involve several novel features, no unsurmountable
engineering problems appear to be involved.

FAST REACTORS

Since the generation time in a fast reactor is much smaller than that in a thermal reac
tor, fast reactors are inherently more difficult to control. The high thermal-expansion
coefficient of fused salts should be of distinct advantage in this connection. The nuclear re
quirements of fast breeders and converters, however, seriously limit the choice of compo
nents for fused-salt fuel systems. Fuel materials, in addition to having a low capture cross
section for fast neutrons, must not moderate the neutrons excessively either by elastic or
inelastic scattering. Thus, bromine and iodine have prohibitively high capture cross sec
tions and hydrogen, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine may be present only in

805
CHAP. 6.1 FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS

Table 6.1.2— Elements Which May Be Useful as Moderators or Diluents in Thermal Reactors

Average number of Moderating ratio,

collisions to ther- Oſs
Elements Absorption cross-section, o a” malize neutrons a

Natural elements
H 0.330 + 0.007 19.8 115
He 0.008 46.1 43
Be 0.009 + 0.0005 95.1 162
C 0.0045 124 169
O < .0002 163 > 2710
F < .010 193 >42
Na 0.49 + 0.02 232 0.695

Mg 0.059 + 0.004 238 .493

Al .215 + 0.008 272 .475
Si 0.13 + 0.03 282 .92
P . 19 + 0.03 3.11 3.35
S .49 + 0.02 321 0.138
K 1.97 + 0.06 391 .0384
Rb 0.6 845 .47
Sr. 1.16 + 0.06 868 . 197
Zr 0.18 + 0.02 900 .978
Ba 1.17 ± 0.10 1355 ..100
Pb 0.17 ± 0.01 2045 .637
Bi 0.032 + 0.0003 2065 2.70

Separated isotopes -

D 0.00046 + 0.0001 27.3

Li' 0.033 75.5
B11 <.05 115
N15 <.00002 150
Cl37 .61 374

* K. Way and G. Haines, Thermal neutron cross sections for elements and isotopes, CNL-33,
Feb. 29, 1948
E. Melkonian, L. J. Rainwater, and W. W. Havens, Neutron-beam spectrometer studies of
oxygen, M-2554
R. G. Nucholls, The total scattering cross sections of deuterium and oxygen for fast neutrons,
MDDC-37, June 17, 1946
K. Way and G. Haines, Tables of neutron cross sections, Monp-405, Oct. 28, 1947 (supplement
issued April 20, 1948)
H. H. Goldsmith and H. W. Ibser, Neutron cross sections of the elements, MUC-HHG-7, Dec. 5,
1945
Chart of the Nuclides, General Electric Res. Lab., Knolls Atomic Power Lab., third edition,
Oct. 1950

Nuclear Cross Sections, AEC Neutron Cross Section Advisory Group, Brookhaven National
Laboratory, Classified Cross Sections, BNL-170, May 15, 1952; supplement, BNL-170A, Nov. 1,
1952

Nuclear Cross Sections, AEC Neutron Cross Section Advisory Group, Brookhaven National
Laboratory, Unclassified Cross Sections, AECU–2040, Mar. 15, 1952. Supplement 1, AECU
2040, Nov. 15, 1952

806
GENERAL REACTOR CHARACTERISTICS CHAP. 6.1

traces because of their moderating properties. These restrictions seriously limit the choice
of anions. Silicon, phosphorus, arsenic, sulfur, selenium, and tellurium may be permissi
ble, and the latter three might be useful. To a first approximation, however, the only anion
available for fast reactors is chlorine.
Fortunately, low-melting fused-salt systems containing UCl4 appear to be feasible. Al-.
though no ternary systems containing this compound have yet been described, analogy with
the fluoride systems suggests that melting points below 400°C (perhaps even below 300°C)
should be possible at moderately high uranium concentrations. A recent study has indicated
melting points of about 315°C in the system NaCl-PbClz-UCl4.” No studies of phase equili
bria involving the chlorides of plutonium have been reported.
The corrosion problems associated with fused chlorides are likely to prove more diffi
cult than those of the analagous fluoride mixtures since, although some improvement would
normally be expected by virtue of the somewhat lower temperatures, thermodynamic con
siderations indicate that reaction of UCl4 with structural metals to yield UCls and the struc
tural-metal chloride is more likely than the analagous reactions of UF.”
The relatively low capture crbss sections of fission products for fast neutrons and the
possibility of removing these materials easily from the fluid permits large fractional burn
up of fuel in fast reactors. Fused salts have proved reasonably stable to radiation, but as
yet, no data are available on their response to appreciable fuel burnup.

REFERENCES

1. R. W. Dayton and J. W. Chastain, Jr., Battelle Memorial Institute, BMI-746, May 26, 1952, 30 pp (classified).
2. R. P. Schuman, Knolls Atomic Power Lab., KAPL-634, Aug. 24, 1951, 63 pp (classified).
3. G. Scatchard et al, Mass. Inst. Tech., MIT-5001, Oct. 15, 1952 (classified).

807
 CHAPTER 6.2

Composition of Fused-salt Systems

HYDROGENOUS FUELS

Deuterium is by far the most desirable moderator for a power-breeder, and hydrogen is
probably the most desirable moderator for a power producer. Such compounds as the nor
mal and the deuterium-substituted hydroxides, bifluorides, bisulfates, and hydrides are,
accordingly, all worthy of consideration as solvents for fissionable materials. Of these
materials, only the alkali and alkaline-earth hydroxides and lithium and calcium hydride
are thermally stable above 500°C.
Decomposition pressures of bifluorides and bisulfates could certainly be lowered, with
possible gain in melting temperature and certain loss in hydrogen content per unit volume,
by addition of normal fluoride or sulfate, respectively.
From a nuclear viewpoint, the only hydrogenous compound likely to be useful as a fuel
vehicle for a thermal power-breeder is Li'OD, although Li'OH and NaOH could probably be
used in thermal power-converters and RbCH, KOH, and the alkaline-earth hydroxides are
probably admissable in enriched power producers.
The only studies reported to date with regard to the solubility of fissionable materials in
high-temperature hydrogenous melts are concerned with the solubility of uranium com
pounds in fused hydroxides. These studies, which do not appear encouraging, are reviewed
in Chapter 6.3.
Phosphoric acid, which might otherwise be considered as a fuel solvent at relatively low
temperatures, shows extensive radiation damage at relatively low power levels.

FUSED SALTS AS REACTOR FUELS

From the viewpoint of physical and chemical properties as well as from that of antici
pated radiation stability, mixtures of halides of the fissionable materials with halides of
low-cross-section elements seem to offer the most promise as fuels. Nuclear considera
tions indicate that bromides and iodides are not suitable because of the high capture cross
Section of the anions, that fluorides are the best choice for thermal reactors, both because
of the low cross section of fluorine and because moderation by fluorine could be useful in
large reactors, and that chlorides are probably the best choice for fast-reactor fuels.
There is no reason to doubt that fluoride and chloride fuels containing plutonium could be
developed.

PHASE EQUILIBRIA IN FUSED FLUORIDES

Uranium-bearing fused salts have so far been studied largely as an exploratory pro
gram. Many possible systems had to be examined to select those which exist in the liquid
phase over proper ranges of uranium concentration. The studies have been conducted by

809
CHAP. 6.2 FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS

the method of thermal analysis which was unsupported, in many cases, by evidence from
other techniques. Diagrams for representative systems are given in Figs. 6.2.1 through
6.2.4.

PHASE EQUILIBRIA IN FUSED CHLORIDES

Comparison of Figs. 6.2.5 to 6.2.9 with the preceding figures shows that the systems
containing UCl4 as a component have lower melting points than the corresponding systems
containing UF4. This advantage, however, is probably more than offset for high-tempera
ture thermal reactors by the capture cross section of chloride ion and the relatively high
vapor pressure of UCl4. The vapor pressure can probably be lowered by substituting UCl3
as the fissionable material, and it is likely that the corrosion problem would be considera
bly simplified at the same time.
While such materials would seem to be of considerable interest as fast-reactor fuels, no
experimental studies of three-component systems containing either UCl4 or UCl3 have been
published. The immiscibility of liquid UCl4 and UCl3 is still uncertain'”, and the allowable
concentration ranges when both compounds are used in fuel mixtures are therefore ques
tionable. The miscibility of Pucl3 with UCl4 must also be determined by experiment.
A systematic study of chloride systems would be very desirable.

HEAT – TRANSFER AGENTS

HYDROGENOUS MATERIALS

While the ideal use of hydrogenous high-temperature liquids would be as fuel solvents so
that truly homogeneous reactors could be developed, important advantages could also be
gained if these materials could be used as moderator-coolants with stationary liquid- or
solid-fuel reactors.”
Of the high-temperature hydrogenous liquids available, the alkali and possibly the alka
line-earth hydroxides seem to offer a number of advantages. From rather limited data,
their radiation stability (see Chapter 6.3) and their corrosivity at temperatures below
1000°F (Chapter 6.3) appear to be acceptable. As moderator–heat-transfer agents for fuels
having good heat-transfer properties, they are almost certainly adequate; for use with fuels
having relatively poor heat-transfer properties, such as fused-salt mixtures, their practi
cability is questionable.
Figures 6.2.9 through 6.2.13 show melting-point—composition diagrams for five binary
hydroxide systems. The system NaOH-LiOH (Fig. 6.2.9) is of special interest since cer
tain mixtures of these compounds show unusual solvent action for uranium compounds
(Chapter 6.3).

FUSED SALTS

While certain mixtures of fluorides (notably LiF-BeFz) may be of value as heat-transfer

materials for special applications, the phase-equilibrium diagrams of typical fluoride sys
tems are presented in Figs. 6.2.14 through 6.2.17 primarily for their possible value as
solvents for fissionable materials.
Since relatively few diagrams of chloride systems containing fissionable-material com
ponents are currently available and since interest in these systems is increasing, the melt
ing points and eutectic compositions of various binary and ternary chloride systems are
listed in Tables 6.2.1 and 6.2.2.

'References appear at end of chapter.

810
 CHAP. 6.2

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3O
6O
8O
4O
90
5O KOH
mole-%
KOH,

6.2.10—The
Fig.
LiOH-KOH.
System
ORNL-1170,
from
Reprinted
Dec.
1951.
10,
 821
CHAP. 6.2

‘OI6T ‘CL ºuaeqO ， IsÁųď ‘Z uaoug paſdoo ‘HOX-HOeN uueſsÁs eqĽ– II （zºg （3!！!
%- 0 Iou ‘HOON
HOON O6O8O 4.O909Ot»O2O2O} HOX
O9||
WV89\/IC] NOILISNY781
3SwHd 9–p → ）
~ OO2

Oo ‘38ſ, IV83dW31
_^ `J
OGZ
COMPOSITION OF FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS

N
WV89\/IC] SnO|nòIT
OO2
NOG2
|OO。t»
:
OH
No

90

7O
8O

73,
Chem.
ysik.

2.
from
copied
NaOH-Rboh.
System
6.2.12–The
Fig.
Ph
Z.

4O
5O No
-%
w?
OH,
(NaOH)2
RboH

3O

2O 1910.

a
OH
Rb

RbCH

32O 3OO 28O

ſ
26O 24O 22O 2OO {80

§
#7
:
(OH)2
Bo

7O
6O
5O
90
8O
4O
3O
2O
|O
Ba(OH2)-Sr(OH)2.
System
6.2.13–The
Fig.
1951.
10,
Sept.
ORNL-1154,
from
Reprinted

mole-7.
Ba(OH)2,

Sr(OH)2
450 4.OO 35O 3OO

§
 :
{OOO

900
2
Ns.
8OO

7OO

652°C

6OO

5OO
LiF
{O
7O
2O
6O
5O
3O
4O
8O
90
NGF
mole-7,
F,
No

System
6.2.14—The
Fig.
from
Copied
NaF-LiF.
sci.,
acad.
rend.
Compt.
1941.
31,
U.R.S.S.
ºf

-
i
Bef,

90

80

6.2.15–The
Fig.
258,
chemie
anorg.
f.
Zeit.
from
Copied
LiF-BeF.
System

70

6O

BeF2.
mole-%
50

1950.
33,
Soc.
Ceram.
Am.
Jour.
and
1949,
40

3O

2O

s
900
OO
8 7OO

i
6OO OO
5 OO
4 3OO 2OO
LiF

§
12OO
:
f—s
{OOO

H
8OO |----—-

6OO

4OO

2OO

NOF {O 2O 3O
4O 5O 6O 8O
7O 90 BeF2
mole-7.
BeF2,
Gen.
Chem.
NaF-Bef.
Jour.
from
Copied
6.2.16–The
System
Fig. 14,
1944,
(U.S.S.R.)
1950.
Am.
33,
Soc.
Ceram.
Jour.
and
H :
F
Zr

90

8O
7O

1952.
10,
June
--1294,

6O

The
—
6.2.17
Fig.
fro,
Reprinted
KF-ZrF.
System

Zrſ.
mole-7,
KZrfs

4O
3O
2O
50

is
K22

F,
K32r

KF
Oco
1 OO
9 8OO

$2 |
OC)
7 6OO OO
5 OO
4 OO
3

§
CHAP. 6.2 FUSED–SALT SYSTEMS

Table 6.2.1–Binary Chloride Systems with Low Melting Points

(W. R. Grimes and D. G. Hill, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Y-657, July 20, 1950)

Eutectic Conc. of 2d component, Boiling points, ‘C

-

temperature, “C Components mole-% 1st component 2d component

122 T1C1-CuCl 60 720 1366

150 RbCl –CuCl 60 1390 1366
150 KC1-CuCl 65 1500 1366

171 ZnCl2-SnCl2 36 732 623

172 CuCl–SnCl2 66 1366 623
178 T1C1-SnCl2 72 720 623
180 KC1-SnCl2 62 1500 623
183 NaCl-SnCl2 68 1413 623
193 TIC1-ZnCl2 52 720 732
210 T1C1-AgCl 60 720 1550
214 CSC1-CuCl 75 1290 1366

215 NaCl-BeCl, 50 1413 520

215 SnCl2-LiCl 15 623 1353
228 ZnCl2-KCl 46 1500 732
233 SnCl2-Mncl, 5 623 1190
235 AgC1-BeCl, 40 1550 520
240 SnCl2–CoCl2 4 623 1049
242 CuCl–ZnCl2 88 1366 732
253 RbCl–AgCl 60 1390 1550
258 CsCl–AgCl 72 1290 1550
260 CuCl–AgCl 54 1366 1550
262 T1C1-PbCl, 14 720 950
262 KC1-ZnCl2 71 . 1500 732
262 NaCl-ZnCl2 59.5 1413 732
276 InCl3-ZnCl2 96 vol. 600 732

280 CuCl-PbCl, 42 1366 950

292 PbCl, -Beclz 53 950 520
300 Licł-BeCl, 56 1353 520
300 T1C1-BeCl, 56 720 520
306 KC1-AgCl 70 1500 1550
310 AgCl-PbCl, 41 1550 950
311 CoCl2–ZnCl2 93 1049 732
314(325) NaCl-CuCl 75(77) 1413 1366
316 NaCl-Incl: 39 1413 vol. º
3.18 RbCl–LiCl 58.3 1390 1353
323 CaCl-LiCl 59.3 subl. 1290 º:
327 CaCl2-BeCl2 80 960 :
340 Licl–T1C1 62 1353 500
361 LiCl-KCl 41.5 1353 subl. ſº

362 TiCl-MgCl, 26 720 º:

368 CaCl2-PbCl, 62 960 1550
369 InCls-AgCl 77 vol. 600 520
372 Baclz-BeCl, 87 1560 950
378 T1C1-PbCl, 42 720 1500
382 CaCl2-KCl 18 960 1500
388 CaCl2-KCl 47 960 720
390 CaCl-T1Cl 75 1290 1600"
400 CuCl–CaCl, 20 (wt-%) 1366

828
R. COMPOSITION OF FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS CHAP. 6.2

Table 6.2.1 — (Continued)

Boiling points, “C
Eutectic Conc. of 2d component,
temperature, “C Components mole-% 1st component 2d component

406 KCl-PbCl, 52 1500 950

406 MgCl2-CuCl 90 1412 1366
408 PbCl, -Mnclz 30 950 1190
408 LiCl–CuCl 80 1353 1366
410 Licl-PbCl, *54 1353 950
411 PbCl, -KCl 33 950 1500
411 NaCl-PbCl, 72 1413 950
412 NaCl-T1Cl 82 1413 720
419 T1C1-CaCl, 7 720 1600*
424 CoCl2-PbCl, 76.5 950 950
426 KCl-MgCl2 33 1500 1412
428 KC1-PbCl, 88 1500 950
432 ZnCl2-KCl 68.5 732 1500
438 PbCl, -PbO 22 950
450 AgCl–CaCl2 18 1550 1600*
450 NaCl-MgCl, 48 1550 1412
450 LiCl-KCl 40 1353 subl. 1500
451 RbCl–CdCl2 40 1390 960
455 AgCl-MgCl2 9 1550 1412
459 MgCl2-PbCl, 93.5 (wt-%) 1412 950
468 CaCl2-PbCl2 83 1600* 950
470 MgCl2-KCl 42 1412 1500
473 Licl-SrCl, 48 1353
476 InCls-CdCl2 51 600 vol. 960
496 Licl–CaCl2 62 1353 1600*
500 SrClz-Mncl: 46 1190
500 NaCl-CaCl, 52 1413 1600*

*Greater than

Table 6.2.2 —Ternary Chloride Systems with Low Melting Points

(W. R. Grimes and D. G. Hill, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Y-657, July 20, 1950)

Eutectic temperature, “C Components Composition, mole-%

188 KC1-T1C1-AgCl 7–37–56

203 ZnCl2-NaCl-KCl 60–20–20
3.18 RbCl–LiCl-NaCl 41.0–56.6–2.4
320 CaCl2-PbCl, -KCl 44.0–41.5-14.5
320 CSC 1-LiCl–NaCl 40.3–58.0–1.7
357 KC 1-LiCl-NaCl 24–43–33
383 PbCl,-KCl-NaCl 71 -11-18
386 NaCl-KCl–CdCl, 24–43-33
396 MgCl2-KCl-NaCl 60–20–20
415 KC1—NaCl-T1Cl 6.3–6.3–87.4
440 Baclz-MgCl2-KCl 20-60-20
450 CaCl2-NaCl-BaCl, 47.0–38.5-14.5

829
 :
{{OO

{OOO

900

$2
| 8OO

7OO
\
Thà
Li
F13
6OO
\/
O
|o
O
“O.

5OO

3O
2O
4O
{O
5O
6O
7O
8O 90 ThF4
Th
Fa,
mole-7,
Fig.
6.2.18
T
–
Lihe
System
F-Thf.
Reprinted
from
ORNL-1030,
June
19,
1951.

-----\ ---,
 :
ThFa

4444

| 5O
8O
7O
4O
3O
2O
{O
KF
90
6O
KF-3ThF,
--
S.S.S.R
Nauk
Akad.
Doklady
from
Copied
KF-ThE4.
System
—The
6.2.19
Fig.
96.O954

|
T
T|
|
-
|
|

mole”.
Thfa,
KThFs

750
|

|
3
7
"
:-|-
906 ThP.
K*Th87887O

| 1948.
60,

664 |

ſ
OO
12 H
-

|OO
4 HOOO 900 86O 8OO OO
7 600 5OO

3
§ 12OO :
11140
H.
11OO-

1OO4°
IOOO
o
F,
Th
Rbs
H.
1000
•
974

O
°900
—
-

Fs
Rbſh
-

É85.2
843
°o
=>
H.
<1
Ox
H.
800
# -

80
:7762
°
H.

–
7OO
-

664°

H.
600 -

l|||||| 500
F
3O
Rb
4O
2O
50
6O
7O
1O
8O
90
F
Th
mTh
, 4ole-7.
F4

.*.*.*.*
from
copied
RbF-Thr.
System
-The
S.S.S.R
Nauk
Akad.
Doklady

º
 i

MgF2

90

ThFa
3O
2O
5O
{O
4O
7O
6O
8O
The
—
6.2.21
Fig.
1951.
19,
June
ORNL-1030,
from
Reprinted
MgF2–Thf.
System

mole-7,
MgF2,

{2OO |IOO O
{OO

|
900 8OO 7OO 6OO

§
CHAP. 6.2 FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS

BREEDER BLANKETS

From the standpoint of nuclear properties alone, certain fluoride mixtures would seem
to be applicable as thermal-breeder blankets. While no data on systems containing both
uranium and thorium are available, it is very likely that replacement of a small fraction of
the Thf. with UFA would affect the melting temperatures only slightly; there is some pros
pect, therefore, of an internal breeder utilizing Li'F-UF,-ThE. Relatively easy product
recovery from the external breeder-blanket should be feasible by stripping UFs from the
melt with diluted fluorine or halogen fluorides.
Phase-equilibrium data for four binary systems including Thf, as one component are
shown in Figs. 6.2.18 through 6.2.21. The melting temperatures obtainable are higher than
those in the corresponding UFA system.

REFERENCES

1. C. A. Kraus, Brown Univ., M-251, July 1, 1943, 20 pp (classified).

2. V. P. Calkins and R. W. Nottorf, Iowa State Univ., CC-1975 (A-2889), Oct. 7, 1944, 15 pp (classified).
3. R. W. Dayton et al, Battelle Memorial Institute, BMI-T-51, Jan. 2, 1951, 60 pp (classified).

834
 CHAPTER 6.3

Properties of Fused-salt Systems

HYDROGEN-BEARING FUEL SYSTEMS

SOLUBILITY OF URANIUM IN HYDROXIDES

Attempts that were made to dissolve uranium compounds in molten hydroxides under
neutral or oxidizing atmospheres resulted in oxidation of the uranium to the hexavalent
state; complete reaction of the resulting compound with the hydroxide and consequent for
mation of alkali or alkaline-earth uranates proceeds very rapidly.
If reducing atmospheres are maintained, the high-temperature reaction apparently re
sults in the formation of UO2; this material appears quite insoluble in the molten hy
droxide at any readily attainable temperature.
The solubility of UO3, or its reaction products, in alkali and alkaline-earth hydroxides is
shown in Table 6.3.1. The solubility of this compound in NaOH-LiOH mixtures appears
sufficiently high – 4 wt-% U at 750°F – to be of interest if the corrosion problems could
be readily solved.
The solubility of UO3 can be improved by adding large quantities of B2O3 to the hydrox–
ide, as shown in Table 6.3.2. However, the melting point and the viscosity of the mixture
appear to be adversely affected. The addition of alkali fluorides and alkali carbonates
does not seem to improve the solubility of uranium compounds in fused caustic.
In early Project work attempts were made to dissolve various uranium compounds, such
as uranium dioxide, uranium trioxide, uranium tetrafluoride, and sodium diuranate, in
sodium hydroxide using both silver and nickel crucibles, under both oxidizing and reducing
atmospheres, and with and without prior addition of small amounts of various classes of
compounds to the caustic. No comparative data or details of the technique are given, but
it is stated that most of the systems tested exhibited very little uranium solubility.
Prior addition of tellurium chloride, elemental boron and boron compounds, and ele
mental phosphorus and phosphates to molten sodium hydroxide in silver crucibles in air
each tended to increase the solubility of uranium when the uranium was subsequently added
in the form of either uranium trioxide or sodium diuranate. Preliminary fusion of the ad
ditives with either uranium trioxide or sodium diuranate and addition of this melt to
molten sodium hydroxide also increased the solubility of uranium. However, no solubility
greater than 0.1-0.2 percent (by weight) resulted. Although an increased solubility (up to
1 weight-percent or uranium) of UO3 in NaOH with additions of K2CO3 is reported, the UOs
could not be kept in solution.
The early work suggested that both silver and nickel act as precipitants for uranium
from sodium hydroxide, as analysis of the precipitate in each case showed the presence of
nickel. An adequate uranium solubility might therefore be achieved in sodium hydroxide if
the corrosion and container problem can be sufficiently resolved. There are, at present,
no known solutions of uranium compounds in molten hydroxides which are useful at tem
peratures such that the corrosion could be tolerated.

835
CHAP. 6.3 FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS

Table 6.3.1—Solubility of UO, in Various Hydroxides"

Solvent composition, wt-%* Solubility of UOs, wt-% U
NaOH KOH LiOH Ba(OH)2 RbCH 650°C 700°C 750°C

100 0.03
100 0.5 2.0
100 0.1 0.3
75 25 0.2
50 50 2.0 4.0
25 75 1.0
100 0.1
25 75 0.1
25 75 0.1 0.2
50 50 0.1 0.3
75 25 0.4
50 50 0.1
45 45 10 1.2
40 40 20 0.8

* Purity of hydroxides used:

NaOH – Less than 0.1% Na2CO3; less than 0.1% H2O
KOH – Less than 0.5% K2COs
Lio H – Less than 0.2% Li2CO3
Ba(OH)2 - Less than 0.4% Bacos or Bao
RbCH - Contained about 5% Rb2CO3

Table 6.3.2—Solubility of UOs in Various Hydroxides with Added Boron Compounds'

Hydroxide matrix, wt–%* Material added, wt-% UOs dissolved, wt-%
,--

LiOH NaOH KOH B2O3 Na2B4O1 650°C 800°C

100 - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.5 > 2.0

92 - - - - - - 8 - - - .3
84 - - - - - - 16 - - - .9
S0 - - - - - - 20 - - - .8
100 - - - - - - - - - .03
S5 - - - 15 .3
70 - - - 30 1.3
95 - - - - - - 5 0.1 0.1
85 - - - - - - 15 .4
- 80 - - - - - - 20 .5
55 - - - - - - 45 5.0
70 - - - - 15 15 0.9 2.7
60 - - - 15 25 4.7
100 - - - - - - 0.1 > 0.3
- - - 95 5 - - - .3
- - 90 10 - - - .7
85 15 - - - 1.6
80 20 - - - 1.5
- - - - - - 75 25 - - - t
50 50 - - - - - - - - - 2.0 >4
47 48 - - - 5 - - - 1.0
43 42 - - - 15 - - - 1.7

* For hydroxide specifications, see Table 6.3.1

f Mixture melted above 700°C

'References appear at end of chapter.

836
PROPERTIES OF FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS CHAP. 6.3

SUSPENSIONS OF URANIUM IN HYDROXIDES

A very limited study of suspensions of uranium compounds in molten hydroxides has

been made. Addition of UO3 to molten hydroxides results in an unstable suspension of a
material which appears to be NazUO4. The stability of such a suspension is almost inde
pendent of the initial UO3 particle size but, as the data in Table 6.3.3 indicate, the stability
is very poor at 600°C or higher. Apparently stirring of the material for a few days causes
particle growth. A considerable increase in the stability of similar suspensions and a
greatly decreased particle growth at low temperatures are shown by the data of
Table 6.3.4. It is interesting to note that these systems may be readily resuspended after
settling for several days, no tendency for the settled particles to cake having been
observed.
Attempts to create suspensions of quadrivalent uranium compounds of comparable
stability have not been successful.

RADLATION STABILITY OF HYDROGENOUS FUELS

Hydroxides have been shown to possess considerable stability to neutrons and ionizing
radiations at lower levels up to 30 watts/cc (see “Radiation Stability of Hydroxides,” dis
cussed later in the chapter). However, no studies in which fission products were present
in the hydroxide mixtures have been made.

Table 6.3.3—Settling Rate for Suspensions of UO, in NaOH

As Functions of Temperature and Age"

Uranium remaining in suspension", 9% of original

600°C 700°C soo-c
Settling Stirred Stirred stirred Stirred Stirred Stirred
time, min 18 hr 42 hr. 20 hr 95 hr 2 hr. 20 hr

1 98 61 85 37 83 2
2 86 44 66 17 71 2
3 83 34 61 2 47 1
4 61 21 51 2 51 1
5 58 21 39 2 27 2

* In upper 25% of the liquid

Table 6.3.4—Stability of Suspensions of UO, in NaOH-KOH at 250°C.'"

(61% NaOH - 39% KOH by weight; 5 wt-% UO, added)

Uranium remaining in suspension, % of original

Stirred Stirred Stirred
Settling time, min 24 hr 48 hr 120 hr

120 95 95 95
240 75 85 85
360 55 65
960 0.2

837
CHAP. 6.3 FUSED–SALT SYSTEMS

CORFOSION BY HYDROGENEOUS FUELS

Studies of container materials for alkali hydroxides at elevated temperatures have

shown this problem to be very difficult (see “Corrosion by Hydroxides,” discussed later
in this chapter). Apparently, no corrosion tests have been reported in which dissolved or
suspended uranium compounds were present. It is likely that the presence of hexavalent
uranium compounds in the caustic would markedly increase the corrosion rates.

FUSED -SALT FUEL SYSTEMS

RADLATION STABILITY OF FUSED SALTS

Pioneer experiments on radiation stability of fused salts were apparently confined to

possible gross changes in the molten materials. Subsequent experimental work in this
field has been restricted almost entirely to reactor irradiation and cyclotron bombard
ment of uranium-bearing fluoride mixtures. These experiments are not sufficiently
diverse or extensive to permit general evaluation of fused salts. It appears, however,
that while no gross changes in composition or properties of the fused salts studied have
been observed at high power levels, the rate of attack on the container vessel is in some
cases significantly increased at levels above 1000 watts/cc. It has been definitely estab
lished whether this radiation-induced increase is a function of impurities in the fluoride
mixture or the temperature control of the irradiated specimen.

STABILITY UNDER REACTOR IRRADIATION

Stability of Chlorides'
In the only recorded irradiation of molten chlorides, a sample of LiCl-KCl eutectic was
maintained at 1200°F for 14 days in an evacuated quartz capsule at a position in the ORNL
graphite reactor where the thermal flux was 7 x 10" neutrons/(cm”)(sec). No change in the
cooling curve could be detected during or after irradiation, and there is no reason to be
lieve that molten chloride mixtures are unstable to this relatively light dosage. No studies
under fission-fragment bombardment have been reported, however.

STABILITY UNDER ELECTRON BOMBARDMENT'

The only recorded study of behavior of fused salts under electron bombardment is an
irradiation for 1 hr by 50 uamps of 2-mev electrons of a small sample of 3NaF-UF, in a
nickel container. The ionization density measured calorimetrically was 120 watts/cc.
Helium gas from the blanket in the target chamber was analyzed for fluorine, and although
decomposition of as little as 0.05 percent of the irradiated portion of the sample could have
been detected, no appreciable decomposition of the specimen was observed.

VOLATILITY OF FISSION PRODUCTS

One of the advantages claimed for high-temperature liquid fuels is that low-boiling
poisons, especially Xe”, will be continually removed from the fuel by volatilization.
Qualitative observations during reactor irradiations (described above) showed that con
siderable activity was transmitted through the vapor lines to the reactor face by this
mechanism. Only one experiment dealing directly with this subject has, however, been
reported."

PHYSICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES

Data on the physical and thermal properties of fused-salt mixtures which are of interest
as reactor fuels are meager. It is noteworthy that the thermal conductivity of fused fluo

838
PROPERTIES OF FUSED–SALT SYSTEMS CHAP. 6.3

rides is decreased markedly as the UFA concentration is increased, but insufficient data
are available to ascertain whether other quadrivalent fluorides, such as Th F4, show this
effect.
Vapor pressure equations for pure fluorides are presented in Table 6.3.5.

Table 6.3.5 — Vapor Pressures of Various Fluorides”

Substance Temp. range, “C A x 10-13 B

Uranium tetrafluoride'ſ 1037–1185 9. 171 7.792

Sodium fluoridet 1396 – 1557 12.385 9. 180
Potassium fluoridet 1351–1503 9. 168 8.019
Lithium fluoridet 1353 — 1547 12.057 9.071
Rubidium fluoridef 1163 – 1410 8.753 8. 124

Beryllium fluoride" 920 – 1019 8.609 8.614

Zirconium tetra- 722 – 825 10.926 12. 113
fluoride I
Aluminum fluoridei 1094 – 1251 16.934 13.927
Magnesium fluoridet 1661–1856 15. 154 8.864
Zinc fluoridei 1156–1465 9.922 8.477
Lead fluoride 3 1078–1289 8.625 8.391

* Constants listed for equation logio P(mm Hg”) = −A/T ("K) + B

f H. von Wartenberg and H. Schulz, Z. fur Elektrochemie 27, 1921
f O. Ruff and L. LeBoucher, Z. anorg. Chem. 219, 1934
5 H. von Wartenberg and O. Bosse, Z. fur Elektrochemie 28, 1922
1R. E. More, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1294, -1375, and -1439; K. O. Johnson, Y-F-42.
Oct. 20, 1949

MODERATOR-COOLANTS

RADIATION STABILITY OF HYDROXIDES

Data on the radiation stability of pure sodium and potassium hydroxides at elevated
temperatures are promising but relatively meager. No irradiations of alkaline-earth
hydroxides, lithium hydroxide, or mixtures of hydroxides at elevated temperatures have
been reported.

STABILITY UNDER REACTOR IRRADLATION

Sodium hydroxide at reactor ambient temperature has been shown to be unstable in the
ORNL graphite reactor” by irradiation as 0.5-gm samples contained in glass ampoules in
a thermal flux of 3 × 10" neutrons/(cm°)(sec).
The fast flux was estimated to be about 10 percent of the thermal value. After irradia
tion for one week, no volatile decomposition products could be observed; after one month,
however, considerable gaseous products were evident.
Tests performed at higher temperature, where virtually complete recombination of
volatile products would be expected, have been more satisfactory. A sample of sodium
hydroxide, dehydrated in vacuo at 850°C, was exposed in an A-nickel container in the ORNL

839
CHAP. 6.3 FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS

graphite reactor for one week at 400°C and for an additional week at 700°C. The thermal
flux available was 8.5 x 10" neutrons/(cm°)(sec) with the fast flux estimated at 10 percent
of the thermal value. Cooling curves taken at 48-hr intervals revealed no detectible change
in composition during this interval.
Molten potassium hydroxide (containing less than 0.3 percent K2CO3 and 0.2 percent H2O)
showed no pressure rise when irradiated for 16 hr in a stainless-steel capsule at 450°C in
the ORNL graphite reactor at a thermal flux level of 8 × 10" neutrons/(cm”)(sec).” A
similar sample" when exposed to a thermal flux of 1.2 × 10° neutrons/(cm°)(sec) for about
60 hr at 425° to 450°C in the LITR showed a pressure rise of 3 psi. This same pressure
rise was shown, however, in a similar test without irradiation.

STABILITY UNDER ELECTRON BOMBARDMENT

Molten sodium hydroxide has been shown to be stable when irradiated for several hours
in continuously evacuated platinum containers with a 100-amp beam of 1-mev electrons
from Van de Graaff equipment. Irradiations were performed at 700°, 815°, and 980°C with
a calorimetrically determined ionization density of 30 watts/cc. A comparison of hy
drogen and water vapor yields before, during, and after irradiation revealed that less than
1 percent of the material had decomposed as a result of irradiation. The material was
similar in appearance in all respects to unirradiated caustic.

CONCLUSIONS

For use as moderator-coolants, molten hydroxide need not be stable to fission-product

recoils, and the reactor could presumably be designed so that power dissipation in the
caustic would not exceed 50 watts/cc. While radiation studies are badly needed over longer
times and with more sensitive means for detection of damage, alkali hydroxides appear to
be sufficiently stable to radiation to be applicable as reactor moderators.

CORROSION BY HYDROXIDES

Virtually all the conclusions regarding corrosion by hydroxides have been drawn from
experiments with sodium hydroxide. The relatively small amount of data obtained from
other hydroxides suggests that the same general principles apply and that the corrosion
rates are quantitatively similar.

CORROSION OF STRUCTURAL METALS BY NaOH

For each metal, there appears to be a temperature above which it reacts with sodium
hydroxide to liberate hydrogen. In the case of more noble metals, such as gold, silver,
platinum, copper and nickel, this temperature is above 1000°F; in the case of more active
metals, such as iron and aluminum, hydrogen evolution begins at 600° to 700°F. As a
result of this reaction, the metal is oxidized to a variety of dark-colored complex oxides
which often form surface layers and which are generally observable in the solid melt.
A large increase in corrosive action is evident when neutral or oxidizing atmospheres
are maintained over the molten mixture. Maintenance of reducing conditions over the
melt during the test is beneficial and prevents attack entirely on a number of noble metals
at 1000°F. No metals tested have proved to be completely unattacked at 1500°F even under
atmospheres of pure hydrogen.
Tables 6.3.6 and 6.3.7 list the results obtained when various alloys are tested for 24 hr
under static conditions in an atmosphere of 90% N2-10% H, at 1000°F and 1500°F, re
spectively.
Attempts to obtain quantitative data in support of an electromotive series for metals in
molten hydroxides have not been successful. However, it is generally recognized that,
of the common structural metals, only nickel resists corrosion to a satisfactory degree

840
PROPERTIES OF FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS CHAP. 6.3

Table 6.3.6 — Behavior of Metals and Alloys in Sodium Hydroxide for 24 Hours at 1000°F

(BMI-706, Nov. 6, 1951)

Area of Weight
specimen, change, Results of visual
Material Condition sq cm mg/sq cm or metallographic examinations

Materials Showing Little or No Attack

L-nickel sheet 11.28 + 0.115 No attack
Silver, 999.5 fine Sheet 12.87 +.015 No attack
Electrolytic copper Cold rolled 11.90 + 1.54 0.0004-in. deposit of nickel
Copper, OFHC Wrought 8.73 – 0.137 Bright; very slight nickel deposit
Chromium Hot-rolled plate 6.95 –.115 Brown discoloration; fine trans
granular crakcs, possibly from
specimen preparation
Gold Sheet 6.91 –.332 Brown discoloration; shallow
pitting, « 0.0002-in.
Platinum Sheet 7.11 + .323 Brown discoloration; no attack
Monel Sheet 12.04 –. 157 Brown discoloration; no attack
Inconel Sheet 11.15 +. 116 Brown discoloration; scale adherent on
one end; sl low intergranular attack,
0.0009 in.
Zirconium Sheet 10.02 +.558 Oxide film; scale K 0.001 in...; no other
attack
70 Au-30 Pt Sheet 7.03 +.355 Oxide film; altered surface structure,
0.0002-in. thick; no attack
90 Pt-10 ir sheet 6.78 + .530 Oxide film; no attack
Graphite E.C.A. grade 7.25 +.854 Caustic not completely removed
Aluminum 2S sheet 17.19 — .337 Caustic not completely removed; slight
pitting
High-purity French Sheet 9.76 — 1.680 No attack
aluminum
Hastelloy B Sheet 6.49 +0.030 No visible attack
Hastelloy C Sheet 7.86 —.496 Scale = 0.00153-in...; no other attack
Palladium Wire 0.553 + 6.59 Very slight pitting
Colmonoy No. 6 Rod, weld 8.674 – 0.484 Etched; change in structure, 0.0046-in.
deep
Colmonoy No. 5 Rod, weld 6.057 +.627. No attack; surface layer of different
structure, 0.002-in. deep
Chromel P wire 3.523 +.085 Possible intergranular corrosion
Colmonoy No. 9 Rod, weld 5.239 +.229 Brown scale, 0.0030-in. thick
Nickel-plated cold- Plate, 0.005 in. 15.449 +.323 Good nonporous plate is 0.006 in. thick
rolled steel
Ni-Resist (Type III) Cast 14.918 +.060 Scale 0.0007 in. thick
Nickel-plated cold- Plate, 0.010 in. 15.999 +.118 Nonporous plate 0.009 in. thick
rolled steel
Nickel-plated cold- Plate, 0.030 in. 20.662 –.150 Nonporous plate 0.024 in. thick
rolled steel
Elgiloy Solution- 10.784 –.639 Black scale 0.0046-in. thick. Few
annealed sheet shallow pits

Materials Showing Intermediate Attack or Oxidation (Scale Formation)

Cast iron Ground surface 11.27 –2.13 Loose rust
Cast iron Electropolished 12.00 – 3.02 Loose rust
Armco iron Sheet 8.96 –8.77 Loose rust; pitting more pronounced at
grain boundaries - 0.0008 in. depth
304 stainless steel Sheet 10.32 +5.35 Scale, 0.0003-in.; pitting attack and
general intergranular precipitation
Vitallium Plate 10.50 + 12.95 Scale, 0.006 in...; pitting attack
347 stainless steel Sheet 9.31 + 13.38 Scale, 0.007 in...; no other attack
Beryllium Sheet 9.60 —5.67 Pitting and exfoliation attack
Inconel X Sheet 12.34 — 7.80 Nonadherent scale, 0.001 in.
Cobalt As-cast 9.18 –4.238 No apparent attack
Cobalt Hot-rolled 7.10 — 4.888 Pitting, max. depth 0.001 in.
446 stainless steel Sheet 6.99 — 2.803 Heavy black scale

841
CHAP. 6.3 FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS

Table 6.3.6—(Continued)
Area of Weight
specimen, change, Results of
Material Condition sq cm mg/sq cm or metallographic examination

Hastelloy A Sheet 6.97 – 3. 157 Shallow pitting, max. 0.0015 in.

irregular deposition of nickel
Worthite Cast bar stock 7.65 + 2.798 Discontinuous tan scale; general
intergranular corrosion
317 stainless steel Sheet 7.82 –3.887 Heavy black scale; intergranular
corrosion
80-20 brass Sheet 10.08 — 4.335 Dezincification, 0.003 in. deep
430 stainless steel Sheet 10.94 + 0.746 Dark, rusty scale, 0.0015 in. thick
Phosphur bronze Sheet 10.11 +.038 Nickel deposited
(Grade C)
Al-Si bronze Sheet 8.746 + 15.28 Blistered; heavy zone of altered
structure
410 stainless steel Sheet 8.341 — 4.75 Dark-brown scale, 0.0007 in. thick
Ni-hard Rod, weld 5.468 —3.639 Etched; dark band, 0.0046 in. thick
Stellite No. 6 Rod, weld 5.035 – 11.142 Black scale, 0.0002 in. thick
Alumel Wire 3.656 + 0.355 Blue-black scale and intergranular
corrosion, 0.0046 in. deep
Ni-Resist (Type I) Cast bar 15.862 –2.664 Scale, 0.0015 in. thick
Ni-Resist (Type II) Cast bar 15.938 –2.014 Scale, 0.0007 in. thick
Haynes alloy multimet Sheet 6.000 + 7.850 Black scale, 0.0075 in. thick
Haynes alloy No. 25 Forged plate 11.109 + 9.172 Black scale, 0.0046 in. thick;
surface structure change
Haynes alloy No. 25 Cast 12.389 + 9.968 Black scale, 0.0061 in. thick
Haynes Stellite Rod, weld 14.913 + 6.765 Black scale, 0.0076 in. thick
No. 31
Constantan Sheet 9.140 + 2.221 Bright
Nimonic 80 A Hot-rolled 7.898 + 11.509 Black scale, 0.0006 in. thick
Nimonic 90 Hot-rolled 8.348 + 6.971 Black scale, 0.0030 in. thick
Graphitar Grade 20 12.775 + 14.13 No dimensional change
Graphitar Grade 2 10.746 + 16.61 No dimensional change
Graphitar Grade 10 8.659 + 31.08 No dimensional change
Graphitar Grade 49 14.721 – 13.409 NaOH retained by sample

Materials Severely Attacked or Dissolved

Molybdenum Sheet 9.867 –306.8 Severely attacked

Duriron Cast 27.93 Exfoliation type of attack
Tungstun Plate 22.13 –30.93 Exfoliation type of attack
Tantalum Sheet 10.41 Completely dissolved
Titanium Sheet 14.59 —23.7 Rapidly attacked
Manganese Electrolytic Completely dissolved
25-20 stainless steel Sheet 9.35 - 107.9 General uniform Solution
Silicon Cast Rapid exothermic reaction
Nickel-plated 0.015-in. thick 12.36 Nickel plate ruptured
cast iron plate
Nickel-plated 0.004-in. thick 12.33 Nickel plate ruptured
cast iron plate
Invar Bar stock 10.22 Fine precipitation or edge attack
Columbium Sheet 3.48 Rapid attack
Vanadium Cast button Completely dissolved
Boron Vapor-deposited Completely dissolved
rod
Cerium 97 percent Completely dissolved
Illium Sheet — 16.87 Exfoliation, intergranular attack,
and cracking
Cartridge brass Bar stock 19.31 –27.81 Complete dezinc ification
Magnesium Extruded rod 10.55 Completely dissolved
Manganal Rod, weld 5.012 –22.605 Gray scale
Hastelloy F Sheet 9.887 +27.8 Black and gray scale, total depth 0.0145 in.
Ni-Resist (Type Cast 11.879 — 83.84 Thin brown scale
II, ductile)
Elgiloy Rolled sheet 7.842 + 5.547 Thick gray scale
Elgiloy Age hardened 9.778 Very brittle; some pieces lost
60Cr, 25 Fe, 25Mo, Cast 8.032 – 112.4 Thick black scale
0.04C

842
PROPERTIES OF FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS CHAP. 6.3

Table 6.3.7 –Behavior of Metal and Alloys in Sodium Hydroxide for 24 Hours at 1500°F

(BMI-706, Nov. 6, 1951)

Area of Weight
specimen, change, Remarks

Material Condition sq cm mg/sq cm Visual examination Metallographic examination

Materials Showing the Least Attack

L-nickel Sheet 7.700 + 1.662 Gray scale in spots Intergranular attack, 0.0031
in. deep
Copper, OFHC Wrought 10.781 –2.161 Black scale plus Shallow pitting; nickel
nickel deposit deposit, 0.0003 in. thick
Zirconium Sheet 8.828 + 0.872 Grayish scale Scale, 0.00015 in. thick; nitride
layer, 0.00045 in. thick;
slight pitting
Silver Sheet 8.987 + 2.894 No change Zone of altered structure,
0.006 in. deep; intergrañular
corrosion, 0.02 in. deep
Monel Sheet 14.492 –4.574 General Solution Zone of altered structure,
0.0075 in. deep

Materials Severely Attacked or Dissolved

Colmonoy Rod, weld 5.834 + 70.46 Thick gray scale Pitting; change in structure,
No. 5 0.062 in. deep
Colmonoy Rod, weld 7.994 –71.85 Thick gray scale Pitting; change in structure,
No. 6 0.062 in. deep
Colmonoy Rod, weld 5.534 - - - Completely dissolved No examination made
No. 9
Inconel Sheet 6.879 - - - Completely dissloved No examination made
Gold Sheet 5.706 - - - Specimen broke Pitting; altered structure;
no gold color
Platinum Sheet 5.442 - - - Specimen broke Pitting and altered structure,
0.003 in. deep
Palladium Rod 2.885 + 175.3 Etched Zone of altered structure,
0.014 in. deep; possibly
from nickel diffusion
Chromium Hot-rolled 8.057 –40.37 Black scale; surface Black scale, 0.0015 in.
plate cracks thick; cracks from surface
70 Au-30 Pt Sheet 5.676 --- Heavy scale; broke Blistered; pitting attack
into pieces
90 Pt-10 ir Sheet 5.294 +27.18 Blistered Irregular deposition or
blistering; pitting
Hastelloy B Sheet 5.564 –53.0 Loose powdery deposit Rounded corners; pitting;
longitudinal crack and
change in structure
Chromel P Wire 3.441 - - - Completely dissolved No examination made
ni-Resist Cast 11.682 – 84.09 Etched Change in structure, 0.107
(Type III) in. deep
Graphite E.C.A. grade 10.400 - - Completely dissolved No examination made
Nimonic 80A Hot-rolled 9.859 - - - Completely dissolved No examination made
Nimonic 90 hot-rolled 9.002 - - - Completely dissolved No examination made
Elgiloy Solution- 7.934 - - - Completely dissolved No examination made
annealed sheet

Haynes
Stellite
No. 31 Rod, weld 12.947 - - - Completely dissolved No examination made
Inconel Sheet 9.310 - - - Completely dissolved No examination made

843
CHAP. 6.3 FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS

at temperatures above 1000°F. The low tensile and creep strength of nickel at such tem
peratures impose very difficult design problems insofar as reactors are concerned.
As the data in Table 6.3.8 indicate, the rate of attack of L-nickel by sodium hydroxide
increases rapidly with increasing temperature, considerably with decrease in partial
pressure of H, from 760 mm to 76 mm, and slowly with contact time. The rate of attack
appears to be nearly independent of the extent of cold working of the nickel.

Effect of NaOH on Mechanical Properties of L-Nickel

Mechanical properties of L-nickel initially in an annealed and a 50-percent cold-worked
condition have been examined after annealing at 1000°F and 1250°F in argon and after
dynamic exposure to caustic at these temperatures under various dry atmospheres.
Comparison of the data shown in Tables 6.3.9 and 6.3.10 reveals that, while L-nickel does
not anneal to the same extent in the two media, these mechanical properties are not
adversely affected and that there is no evidence for caustic embrittlement even in the cold
worked specimens.

Table 6.3.8 — Dynamic” Corrosion of L-Nickel in Sodium Hydroxidet As Function

of Atmosphere and Temperature

(BMI-794, Dec. 18, 1952)

Change in weight, mg/sq cm 1

Scale
Condition of Atmosphere Temperature, Scale not removed removed;

material above caustic •F 24 hr 48 hr 96 hr. 120 hr 168 hr 168 hr

Annealed Forming gas 1000 – 0.242 – 1.27 — 1.27 — 1.30 — 1.27 — 4.79
50% cold work Forming gas 1000 —. 19 — 1.09 — 1.11 - 1.13 - 1.13 –5.04

Annealed Hydrogen 1000 —. 125 – 0.100 –0.108 –0.162 – 0.181 –2.26

50% cold work Hydrogen 1000 –.073 —.049 – .078 —. 140 –. 151 –2.42

Annealed Nitrogen 12501 –3.2 – 10.7 –21.7 – 26.6 — 42.3 — 45.9

50% cold work Nitrogen 12501 –2.5 –9.7 –20.5 –25.0 –39.4 –42.3

Annealed Forming gas 1250T —5.0 —5.4 – 6.3 –6.6 –7.1 - - -

50% cold work Forming gas 12507 — 4.8 —5.1 – 6.0 –6.3 – 6.7 - - -

Annealed Hydrogen 12501 – 0.62 — 1.08 – 1.77 — 1.06 — 1.55 – 6.24

50% cold work Hydrogen 1250i —.62 — 1.27 – 1.95 – 1.24 — 1.66 –5.62

Annealed Hydrogen.” 12501 –.93 – 16.3 - 18.7 – 18.8 — 19.1 –21.5

50% cold work Hydrogen.” 1250T —.40 – 14.7 – 16.6 – 16.7 – 17.0 – 19.0

Annealed Forming gas 1500T - - - - - - - - - - - - – 11 1.3 – 141.5

50% cold work Forming gas 1500i - - - - - -- - – 68.5 –94.9

Annealed Hydrogen 1500i — 1.8 –2.7 —3.6 –8.5 — 12.6 – 15.0

50% cold work Hydrogen 1500T — 1.6 –2.4 –3.2 –7.8 – 11.6 - 14.6

*Specimens immersed in caustic and rotated 30 ft/min

t Bakers Special stick sodium hydroxide used
! Each value reported is averaged of 3 independent determinations
; Scale removed by treatment at 210°F with 10% HNO, solution containing 1 teaspoonful NaCl per liter
T Caustic cooled to 1000°F before samples were removed
**Sodium hydroxide used contained 5% by weight of metallic sodium

844
PROPERTIES OF FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS CHAP. 6.3

Table 6.3.9— Mechanical Properties of L-Nickel. After Argon Annealing

(BMI-794. Dec. 18, 1952)

Mechanical properties*
0.2% offset
Condition of Tensile yield strength, Elongation,
material strength, psi psi % in 1 in. VHN

Initial properties
Annealed 57,800 35,400 45 122

50% cold work 94,300 93,300 3.3 209

After anneal in argon

at 1000°F t
Annealed 57,300 25,000 46 100

50% cold work 58,800 16,900 40 90

After anneal in argon

at 1250°Ff
Annealed 56,100 23,400 46.5 91.4
50% cold work 58,800 13,600 42 76

*Average of values from 3 specimens

f Annealed for 360 hr at 1000°F or 168 hr at 1250°F

Table 6.3.10— Effect of Exposure" to Sodium Hydroxidet on Mechanical Properties of L-Nickel

(BMI-794, Dec. 18, 1952)

Mechanical propertiest
Change in 0.2% offset
Condition of Atmosphere Temperature, weight, Tensile yield strength, Elongation,
material above caustic •F mg/cm” strength, psi psi % in 1 in. VHN

annealed Argon 1000 – 0.03 57,900 28,400 44 106

50% cold work Argon 1000 —.08 78,900 66,300 12 182

annealed Argon 1250 –86 53,700 20,400 42 80

50% cold work Argon 1250 –80 50,400 12,800 39 77

annealed Forming gas 1250 – 1.0 55,100 21,500 46 84

50% cold work Forming gas 1250 —3.9 55,300 15,400 44 75

Annealed Air 1250 – 155 50,700 19,200 41 83

50% cold work Air 1250 – 116 50,800 15,000 40 76

•Specimens rotated at 30 ft/min while immersed in caustic for 360 hr at 1000°F or 168 hr at 1250°F
t Bakers special stick hydroxide: 98% NaOH, 0.0002% PO, 0.000% SO. 1.5% Narcos. 0.007+ SiO, 0.000+ heavy
metals as Ag, 0.001% C1, 0.006% Fe, 0.0003% nitrogen
1 Average of values from 4 specimens

845
CHAP. 6.3 FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS

Mechanism of Attack of Ni by NaOH

In molten sodium hydroxide above 1000°F, metallic nickel, as well as most other noble
metals, is removed in a uniform fashion from the hottest portion of the test specimen.
When the hydrogen produced is removed—for example, by sweeping with inert gas or by
evacuation—deposits of nickel oxide are observed. When the hydrogen is retained in the
system or when a reducing atmosphere is supplied, crystals of nickel are formed on
cooler portions of the apparatus; at 1500°F, these deposits are quite copious unless a pure
hydrogen atmosphere is maintained or thermal gradients are carefully avoided. This
“mass-transfer” phenomenon is not well understood but almost certainly does not result
from “physical” solubility of Ni" in the caustic.
Effect of Added Materials

The most harmful impurity in sodium hydroxide, assuming the absence of sodium
peroxide, is generally believed to be Na2O. Perhaps because of this, traces of water in the
caustic appear beneficial although larger amounts appear to cause increased attack.
The prescence of carbonate in the amounts found in C.P. sodium hydroxide appears to
have little effect.
Additions of metallic sodium and of sodium hydride apparently result in increased cor
rosion.
In a few tests, addition of sodium aluminate to sodium hydroxide appeared beneficial;
under most conditions this improvement is not observed.

CORROSION OF CERAMICS BY NaOH

The data in Table 6.3.11 show the behavior of a number of ceramic materials in static
systems of nickel containing sodium hydroxide at 1000°F. Aluminum oxide and zirconium
oxide are most resistant, although graphite and MgO-Al2O3 mixtures approaching the
composition of spinel are also satisfactory. No ceramic which lasts more than a few hours
at 1500°F has been found.

CORROSION BY OTHER HYDROXIDES

As the data in Table 6.3.12 indicate, the behavior of Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2 and LiOH in static
tests at 1500°F is similar to that of NaOH, described above. Although some evidence
suggests that KOH may be contained for 1000 hr in Inconel under an inert atmosphere at
temperatures as high as 1250°F without destructive attack, “caustic embrittlement” of this
alloy has been reported at 800°C. No experiments on corrosion by mixtures of hydroxides
have been reported.

PHYSICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROXIDES

Melting points and heat capacities of various pure hydroxides are listed in Table 6.3.13
and the densities and viscosities of sodium and potassium hydroxides are listed in
Table 6.3.14. Except for melting points (see Chapter 6.2), physical or thermal properties
of hydroxide mixtures have been reported. The thermal conductivity of sodium hydroxide
is 0.81 Btu/(hr)(ft)(“F).” Values for other hydroxides are lacking.

COOLANTS

RADLATION STABILITY

Only one fused-salt specimen of possible interest as a reactor coolant (see “Stability of
Chlorides,” above) has been studied under irradiation. However, since coolants would

846
PROPERTIES OF FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS CHAP. 6.3

Table 6.3.11 — Behavior of Ceramic Materials in Sodium Hydroxide at 1000°F for 24 Hours"
(BMI-794, Dec. 18, 1952)

Apparent Bulk Initial Change in

Material Treatment porosity, $ density weight, gm weight, % Visual observations

Materials Showing the Least Attack

Alundum. Also, Hot pressed - - - 8.3510 – 0.06 No change

Single-crystal Al-O, - - - 0.4807 –.40 Surface etched
Alundum, Ali0, Sintered - - - 12.03.25 —. 16 No change
Stabilized ZrOh, tan Fired,3090°F, air < 0.5 - - - 2.4453 –. 14 No change
Stabilized ZrOh, dark Fired 30.90°F, argon < .5 - - - 2.9676 - 1.35 No change
71.7% Also, 28.3% MgO fired 3100°r 4.5 3.24 3.6022 –0.09 No observable change
74.5% Al2O, 25.5% MgO fired 3100°F 0.047 3.33 3.3533 — .48 No observable change
75.9% A110, :24.1% MgO Fired 3100°F .13 3.36 3.9972 – .29 No observable change
77.3% Also, 22.7% MgO Fired 3100°F 1.9 3.33 4. 1000 — .26 No observable change
71.7% Also, 28.3% MgO fired 3000°F 8.91 3.15 3.9389 - - - Broke into three pieces
74.5% Al-O,-25.5% MgO fired 3000°F 5.59 3.21 4.6970 -0.52 No observable change
77.3% Also, 22.7% MgO Fired 3000°F 7.48 3.25 4.6146 –.41 No observable change

Materials Appreciably Attacked or Dissolved

75.9% A120,224.1% MgO Fired 3000°F 6.19 3.24 4.9458 – 13.2 No observable change
BeO crucible - - - 0.992.1 —39.1 General Solution
90%. Al-O, :10% Al Fired isory sº 2.00 4.1943 - - - Decomposed on contact
with water
80% A1, Os:20% A1 fired 1800°F 22.3 2.08 3.6049 - - - Decomposed on contact
with water

79.08% Also,20.9% Al fired 1000°r 35.52 2.32 3.6457 - - - Decomposed on contact

with water

71.2% Al-O,-28.8% Al fired 2400°F 30.52 2.62 3.3507 - - - Decomposed on contact

with water
CaO fired 3450°F - - - 2.9407 – 46.3 Severely attacked
tin - - - 3.4704 – 100 Completely dissolved
TiC - - - 3.5662 — 100 Completely dissolved
zrC --- 3.6962 -100 Completely dissolved
70% Fero,.20% ZnO:10% NiO Compressed and - - - 15.1392 - - - Badly cracked; pieces
sintered fell out

70% fero,.20% zno:10% Nio fired 4 hr - - - 11.5007 - - - Cracked into pieces

2450°F, air
Tungsten carbide 97% WC, 3% Co - - - 34.0609 –3.32. Matte-gray surface
TiC mix (65% TiC: 15% - - - - - - 21.9519 -3.32 Bright-appearing
CbC + TaC:20%Ni) specimen
ZnO Compressed and - - - 4.0868 –8.00 - - -

sintered

Cuno Compressed and - - - 9.7.112 - 100 Changed to a sponge

sintered like mas8

NaSbO, Compressed and - - - 5.04.13 – 100 Completely dissolved

sintered

TiO. Batch 1 Vacuum-sintered, - - - 15.91.63 – 100 Completely dissolved

3 hr 1400°F

TiO. Batch 2 Vacuum-sintered, --- 18.9498 --- Thick white scale; spec
2 hr 1400°F imen heavily attacked
B.C., Norbide Hot pressed - - - 7.2145 –32.9
Mixed borides (B4C “Tibe) Hot pressed - - - 5.442 - 100 Completely dissolved
Bonded Ali0, Axf 2616 - - - 5.8060 – 100 Completely dissolved
SiC, Cystalon - - - 2.0971 – 1000 Completely dissolved
MgO Sintered 4100°F, - - - 8.2838 –4. 11 Surface glasslike
argon

• Forming-gas atmosphere (90% N1 + 10% Hu) above caustic; specimens suspended on nickel wires; caustic contained in
individual nickel crucibles; Eimer and Amend sodium hydroxide pellets of the following analysis used:
Assay (NaOH) 97.6% Phosphate (PO4) 0.000%
Chloride (Cl) 0.005% Silica + NH4OH ppt. .000%
Iron (Fe) .001% Total nitrogen (as NH3-NO) .001%
Other heavy metals (as Ag) .000% Sulfate (SO.) .000%
Carbonate (Na2CO3) .32%

847
CHAP. 6.3 FUSED–SALT SYSTEMS

Table 6.3.12–Corrosion of Structural Metals” by Various Hydroxidest

(ORNL-1170, Dec. 10, 1951)

Weight Depth of speci

Hydroxide change, men affected,
used Structural metal g/in.” mils Metallographic observations

ſ 304 stainless steel - - - 5.5 0.010-in. oxide layer

316 stainless steel - - - 9.0 0.010-in. oxide layer
347 stainless Steel — 0.083 4.7 0.006-in. oxide layer
446 stainless steel - - - 5.0 0.008-in. oxide layer
Iron (Globe) – 0.994 8.5 Heavy oxide formed
Ba(OH)2 Zirconiumi. — .221 9.0 0.001-in. gray oxide layer
Hastelloy-B — 1.109 9.5 Heavy oxide formed
Inconel-X - - - 6.5 0.020-in. oxide layer
Nickel-Z - - - 6.0 Erratic attack, 0.002 in
average
Monel — 0.005 0.0 No evidence of attack
| Copper (O.F.H.C.) —.003 .5 No evidence of attack

304 stainless steel - - - 12.0 Heavy oxide layer

316 stainless steel - - - 3.0 0.003-in. oxide layer
347 Stainless steel - - - 7.0 0.020-in. oxide layer
446 stainless steel - - - 4.0 0.011-in. oxide layer
Iron (Globe) - - - 2.0 Heavy oxide layer, 0.017 in.
deep
Sr(OH)2 Zirconiumi - - - 7.u. 0.001-in. oxide layer
Inconel X - - - 3.0 0.007-in. oxide layer
Hastelloy B - - - 9.0 Specimen heavily oxidized
Copper (O.F.H.C.) - - - 0.0 No evidence of attack
Nickel A - - - .0 No evidence of attack
Nickel Z - - - 1.5 0.002-in. oxide layer

304 stainless steel — 0.185 4.5 0.014-in. oxide layer

LiOH Inconel +.043 4.0 0.006-in. oxide
Nickel-A — .001 0.0 No evidence of attack

*Test specimens were exposed in sealed, evacuated capsules of the same metal except
as specified -

f Exposed for 100 hr at 1500°F under static conditions

1 Samples exposed in capsules of nickel

Table 6.3.13–Melting Points and Heat Capacities of Pure Hydroxides"

Heat Capacity
Temperature
Compound Melting point, “C Cal/(gm)("C) interval, “C

LiOH 473 0.85 + 0.06 500 – 900

NaOH 323 .49 + .02 340 – 990
KOH 380 .35 + .02 400 – 950

Sr(OH): 510 .32 + .03 570 – 900

Ba(OH)2 395 .20 + .01 470 – 900

848
PROPERTIES OF FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS CHAP. 6.3

Table 6.3.14 – Density, Viscosity, and Vapor Pressure of Sodium and Potassium Hydroxides

Sodium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide

320°C – 1.786 - 320°C – 1.90 f 400°C – 1.77* 400°C – 1.85t

Density, gm/cc 400°C – 1.746* 360°C – 1.88 f 500°C – 1.673* 440°C – 1.81 f
450°C – 1.722* 400°C – 1.86t 550°C – 1.65 1"
440°C – 1.84f 600°C — 1.629*

350°C – 4.0 400°C – 2.3 550°C – 1.0

Viscosity”, cp 450°C – 2.2 450°C – 1.7 600°C – 0.8
550°C – 1.5 500°C — 1.3

– 6.894 –7,103
Vapor pressure? log10Pmm * Tºki + 7.030 log10Pmm = TºkT" 7.330

(1010° – 1402°C (1170 - 1327°C)

* Arndt and Ploetz, Z. physik. Chem. 121, 1926

f Meyer and Heck, Z. physik. Chem. 100, 1922
1 von Wartenberg and Albrecht, Z. Electrochem. 27, 1921

probably receive a radiation dosage of less than 100 watts/cc, it is likely, in view of the
radiation stability of uranium-bearing fluoride systems, that non-uranium bearing fused
salts would prove satisfactory in this regard.

PHYSICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES

Physical properties of commonly considered coolants are listed in Table 6.3.15.

Thermal-conductivity values for fused salts compare favorably with those for water and
sodium hydroxide but are much less than that of sodium and three to four times less
than those of heavy metals. The absolute viscosities of these salt mixtures are 10-fold
higher than those of heavy metals.
The system Li'F-BeF, with its resultant low induced activity, would seem to be a
promising coolant mixture.

BREEDER BLANKETS

No experiments other than phase equilibrium studies have been reported for systems
containing thorium fluoride. Since radiation stability of fluoride fuel systems has been
established at low power levels, it is likely that fused-salt breeder blankets would be
satisfactory in this respect.
Corrosion by fluoride mixtures containing Th F.' should be no worse than that exhibited by
systems containing UF, ; it is likely that the Thr’s systems would resemble the uranium
free Zrf, mixtures in this respect.
Physical and thermal properties of concentrated Thf, solutions are probably similar to
those of similar concentrated UFA systems. The relatively high viscosities and low
thermal conductivities, as well as the generally high melting points, of these mixtures will
probably be major disadvantages.

849
CHAP. 6.3 FUSED-SALT SYSTEMS

Table 6.3.15 —Heat-transfer Properties of Various Coolants

(R. C. Briant. Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., CF-52-19-9, Dec. 1, 1952)

Melting Thermal conductivity, Viscosity, Cp, Density, Cp > D,

Coolant point, “c Btu/(hr)("F)(ft) Cp cal/(gm)("C) g/cc cal/(*C)(cc)

Air - - - 0.04 0.04 0.29 0.00032 0.60008

H2O+ 0 .35 .7 1.0 1.0 1.0
NaOH 323 .7 1 0.49 1.7 0.83
Hgf - - - 7.5 1 .032 13 0.42
Pb 327 8.6 1.2 .037 10 .37
Na 98 34.5 0.2 .30 0.78 .23

*At 100°F
# At 500°F

REFERENCES

1. J. D. Redman, L. G. Overholser et al, ORNL-858, Nov. 29, 1950, p. 107 (classified).

2. J. D. Redman, L. G. Cverholser et al, ORNL-919, Feb. 26, 1951, p 235 (classified).
3. J. D. Redman, L. G. Overholser et al, Unpublished Work, ORNL (classified).
4. J. D. Redman, L. G. Overholser et al. Unpublished Work, ORNL (classified).
5. J. D. Redman, L. G. Overholser et al, ORNL-1170, Feb. 18, 1952, p. 83 (classified).
6. W. E. Browning, Chemical Radiation Damage to Molten Compounds, Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corp., TID-5021, Mar. 6,
1951, p 44.
7. W. E. Browning, op. cit., p 45.
R. M. T. Robinson and D. D. Davies, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1359, Jan. 15, 1953 (classified).
9. O. Sisman and C. D. Bopp, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-528, Dec. 10, 1950, 41 pp (classified).
10. G. W. Keilholtz et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., ORNL-1261, Sept. 25, 1952, 44 pp (classified).
11. H. F. Poppendiek et al, Oak Ridge Nat. Lab., CF-52-8-212, Aug. 28, 1952, 9 pp (classified).

850
 Section 7

HANDLING AND CONTROL

Prepared by
REMOTE CONTROL ENGINEERING DIVISION
ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY

851
 AUTHORS' PREFACE

The development of suitable means for process operation or control, at a distance or

from behind a shield, is prerequisite to the solution of many problems in nuclear reactor
technology. The four chapters of this section cover (1) viewing equipment for safely ob
serving them in process, (2) the handling of materials which are highly radioactive, (3)
integrated “hot laboratories,” and (4) nuclear reactor control equipment, methods, and
systems. The material of these topics constitutes an infant technology rather than an
established science, and its application at the various laboratories and reactor sites de
pends on the particular requirements and a proper weighing of cost and performance fac
torS.
The chapter material was prepared by several authors under the general direction of
H. I. Hull, with D. F. Uecker assisting in coordination and scheduling.
Chapter 7.1, “Remote Handling,” is believed to be the first published attempt at corre
lating the various manipulator designs that are in existence and in use. A nearly complete
catalog of manipulators developed during the past five years is included. The authors are
indebted to the many designers and operators who supplied the information on construction
and performance necessary to such a listing.
Chapter 7.2, “Remote Viewing,” examines five basic viewing methods that have found
wide application in this field. Advantages and limitations for each are given, especially for
use in conjunction with various shielding materials and manipulators. The authors used
material on periscopes published by J. M. Holeman of Hanford Works as background, and
are indebted to W. B. Doe and L. M. Safranski of Argonne National Laboratory for data on
zinc bromide and radiation-resistant glass.
Chapter 7.3, “Hot Laboratories,” attempts to show the range in end-product that has re
Sulted at the various sites when the building-blocks of viewing, manipulation, and shield
ing are combined in various ways. The five installations described are the first modern,
high-level experimental facilities constructed at their several sites, and the operating ex
perience which is accumulating may allow the future designer to narrow the field of
choice. The author wishes to thank R. T. Jones of Westinghouse Atomic Power Division,
T. J. E. Glasson of Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, and J. S. Gifford of Hanford Works
who reviewed the chapter and supplied detailed information on their respective installa
tions.
Chapter 7.4, “Nuclear Reactor Instrumentation and Control,” is believed to be a first
attempt to assemble this type of design data, and the author hopes that his colleagues in
the field will take the initiative in checking these design values so that better ones will be
available in the future.
The author thanks R. K. Swank, L. E. Johnson, A. C. Lapsley, H. Bryant, S. G. Kauf
mann, and W. C. Redman for helping him assemble data on instruments; J. R. Dietrich for
assistance on the reactor physics; T. Brill, J. S. DeShong, and W. C. Lipinski for helping
with the other phases of control. All of these men on the Argonne National Laboratory
staff gave generously of their time in both editing and consultation.
Invaluable advice and assistance was also obtained from M. A. Schultz at Westinghouse
Atomic Power Division and E. P. Epler at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The author re

853
 AUTHORS' PREFACE

grets that, owing to lack of time, he was unable to lean more heavily upon these control
specialists for assistance and ideas.
In all of the above, an attempt has been made to include developments through late 1952.
Where a field has been recognized as being especially in a state of flux, or where develop
ment work still in progress was included, the several authors have generally so qualified
their remarks.

For the Remote Control Engineering Group

H. L. Hull.”
D. F. Uecker

*Present address, Farnsworth Electronics Company, Ft. Wayne, Ind.

854
 CHAPTER 7.]

Remote Handling

R. C. Goertz and F. Bevilacqua

A continuing need exists for equipment with which to handle the radioactive specimens
and assemblies encountered in reactor development and operation. Obviously, any human
participation in such handling operations must occur behind a barrier or at a considerable
distance. Two alternatives are open to the person faced with a remote handling operation:
He may design a special-purpose machine to accomplish only the specific task at hand, or
he may use one of the general-purpose manipulators which are, however crude, mechanical
arms capable of many of the operations that the man could perform.
The advantage may lie with the special-purpose machine if the handling task is: (1) be
yond the ability, in precision or speed, of the operator or (2) sufficiently repetitive to justi
fy the time and cost of construction. These requirements are characteristic of many of the
AEC’s production operations. Of the many possible examples, however, only selected re
actor–refueling equipment is illustrated in this chapter since that handling task is common
to the design of all heterogeneous reactors.
If, as is usual in reactor development, the handling task is not well known in advance or
if it varies widely and frequently and is so complex that construction of a special-purpose
machine would be prohibitively expensive, the more versatile general-purpose manipulator
is indicated. The illustrations given here comprise a nearly complete catalog of those
general-purpose manipulator designs completed during the last five years. It is possible
that some of these may be useful in future applications with little or no modification.

REACTOR REFUE LING SYSTEMS

The complexity of a refueling system can vary over a wide range. The basic refueling
techniques, however, can be grouped into four major categories: (1) “Through-hole re
fueling” in which fuel is charged into holes on the cool side of the reactor, simultaneously
discharging spent fuel from the hot side; (2) “single-end refueling” in which a shielding
coffin is used to protect personnel; (3) “single-end refueling” in which the refueling opera
tion takes place in a shielded room from which personnel are excluded; (4) “single-end
refueling” in which refueling takes place beneath a light-water shield. An example of the
last category has been selected for detailed description below. The design details, which
are included to indicate the general complexity of the system are not typical beyond that
extent but are, instead, completely dependent on the requirements of the reactor and the
fuel elements with which it operates.

SINGLE-END REFUELING USING A LIGHT-WATER SHIELDING TANK

Representative of this system is that of the MTR reactor described in detail in the Oak
Ridge National Laboratory Manual ORNL-963 entitled Materials Testing Reactor Project

855
CHAP. 7.1 HANDLING AND CONTROL

Handbook and shown schematically in Figs. 7.1.1 and 7.1.2. Although this particular reac
tor is a 30,000-kw unit designed specifically for materials testing, a similar fuel-handling
technique could be applied to large production reactors which use light-water moderation
and cooling.
The basic advantage of this type of system is the economy resulting from the use of light
water shielding through which personnel above the reactor can work safely. Such a system
allows the use of locally controlled apparatus for unloading with direct observation of the
procedure through the shielding water.

_-TOP PLUG AND CONTROL

ROD MECHANISM

CONTROL, SHIM, OR
SAFETY: Rods

v. H. v. o. v. & . .v ..a '. AHT71–INLET water

º -Magne TiC CLUTCH

4. UPPER. G. Jide. GRID
ASSEMBLY

*L–REACTOR CORE
-

|- DISCHARGE CHUTE

ExII. WATER

—BOTTOM LEAD
SHIELD

— GATE VALVE

HYDRAULIC SEAL

- CANAL
L-T

L– DISCHARGE
MECHANISM

SCALE, ſt

Fig. 7.1.1 – MTR Schematic.

856
 REMOTE HANDLING CHAP. 7.1

- REACTOR CORE

REACTOR TANK

j-i-f
DISCHARGE ~
GATE VALVE

HYDRAULIC SEAL
\ |
| |--
|

LIGHT WATER CANAL

RECEIVER -

CYLINDER I9'-O"

TIPPING
CYLINDER

O 2 4 6
SCALE, ft.

Fig. 7.1.2–Discharge Mechanism.

*57
CHAP. 7.1 HANDLING AND CONTROL

TYPE OF REACTOR

Light-water moderated and cooled, single-end, vertical fuel-loading reactor.

TYPE OF ELEMENTS HANDLED

1. Fuel assemblies consisting essentially of 18 aluminum-clad enriched-uranium plates,

approximately 0.060 in. thick, spaced 0.118 in. apart, and brazed into aluminum side plates
to form a fuel element approximately 3 in. × 3 in. × 48 in. long.
2. Shim rods approximately 3 in. × 3 in. × 13 ft long.
3. Safety rods approximately 3 in. × 3 in. × 13 ft long.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
1. A large crane to remove the top plug.
2. A small crane to aid in handling fuel and other reactor elements.
3. A variety of long-handled tools for grappling the fuel elements under 17 ft of water.
4. An underwater light assembly to provide adequate illumination.
5. A special discharging mechanism for transferring the reactor elements from the
reactor discharge hole to the canal. This mechanism consists essentially of an assembly
receiver cylinder which can be rotated from a vertical to a horizontal position; within the
cylinder is a hydraulically operated piston

SHIELDING REQUIREMENTS
A biological shield of steel and concrete surrounds the reactor to absorb the neutron
and gamma fluxes escaping through the reflector during operation. The shield reduces
these radiations to a level safe for personnel and at which sensitive instruments can be
operated outside the shield.
The top of the reactor is shielded by approximately 17 ft of light water and a 12-in.-
thick lead-shot-filled stainless-steel plug used to support the control rods and their drive
mechanisms. With the reactor shut down the water alone provides adequate shielding for
personnel working on top of the reactor. The bottom of the reactor is shielded by approxi
mately 6 ft of light water and an 18-in.-thick lead-shot-filled stainless-steel plug.
Under the reactor runs a canal which is sufficiently deep so that personnel can handle
submerged fuel elements safely. The top of the canal is approximately 7 ft below the bot
tom of the reactor.

CONTROL SYSTEM

All operations are performed manually or with small power tools except for the element
transfer in the sub-reactor room. This operation is controlled from a station adjacent to
the reactor and the canal. Pushbuttons on the panel control the following:
(1) Elevating or lowering the receiver cylinder.
(2) Opening or closing of the seal at the discharge chute and receiver junction.
(3) “Raising” or “lowering” the piston in the receiver cylinder.
(4) Purging the discharge-chute.
(5) Opening or closing the discharge-chute gate valve.
The position of the piston in the receiver cylinder is indicated on a dial mounted on the
control board. Indicator lights on the control board provide information about the other
operations. Interlocks are provided to ensure proper sequence of operations. Indicator
lights and telephones provide additional communication between the operators at the top of
the reactor and those at the control panel.

858
REMOTE HANDLING CHAP. 7.1

TYPICAL OPERATING SEQUENCE

The reactor is shut down and allowed to cool. During this time, water pressure is re
lieved, and the shim rods and regulator rods are de-clutched, allowing them to rest in
their lowest position. The top plug with the control mechanism is unbolted, lifted, and car
ried by the main crane to a storage area. The upper guide-grid assembly is lifted from
its support casting and placed on a support rack within the reactor tank. Before any fuel
elements are lifted, two pieces of the beryllium reflector and the discharge-chute shield
ing plug are lifted and stored within the tank. With long-handled tools, men working on top
of the reactor through the light-water shielding grapple a fuel assembly, raise it clear of
the lattice, move it sideways to the discharge chute, and lower it into the discharge-chute.
The discharge mechanism is raised to the vertical position just beneath the discharge tube.
A remotely operated hydraulic seal at the lower end of the discharge tube is actuated,
joining the cylinder and the discharge tube. The piston in the cylinder is raised or lowered
to a position depending on the type of assembly to be received. A purging line attached to
the upper end of the hydraulic seal supplies demineralized water at a pressure greater
than the head pressure in the reactor tank, ensuring a steady flow of inactive water up the
discharge tube when the gate valve is opened. With the gate valve opened, the fuel element
is lowered manually into the receptacle in the piston. The gate valve is closed, the purge
stopped, the seal opened, the discharge cylinder rotated to the horizontal position, and the
fuel assembly ejected onto the receiving table. The assembly may then be picked up with
long tongs and transferred manually to the canal storage area. The discharge cylinder is
returned to the vertical position, and the cycle is repeated.
Charging of the reactor can be accomplished by either of two methods. New and inactive
elements can be manually loaded from the top of the reactor. Fuel and other elements can
also be loaded into the reactor by reversing the unloading procedure. This permits intro
ducing elements which have become active and were temporarily stored in the canal.

EXTRAORDINARY OPERATING CONDITIONS

During transfer of the fuel element into the discharge cylinder all personnel must be
excluded from the sub-reactor room. All other operations are carried on beneath a suf
ficient depth of light water to protect the personnel.
º

GENERAL-PURPOSE MANIPULATORS

A general-purpose manipulator is considered to be a remotely-controlled mechanical

arm capable of gripping diverse objects and having sufficient degrees of freedom to ma
nipulate an object to almost any orientation and position in a working volume. All move
ments of the manipulator arm are controlled by a human operator who is outside the work
ing volume and separated from it by a shielding barrier or distance. -

The general-purpose manipulator may also be considered to be a remotely-controlled

mechanical arm capable of performing the same general type of handling and manipulations
as are ordinarily done manually. Of course, the manipulator may have a lower or higher
load capacity than the human arm.
It may also be considered to be a mechanical arm remotely-controlled to follow the de
mands or actions of a human operator and to assume some of his skills of manipulation.
Manipulators which fall within one or more of the above definitions have been designed
and built in many different shapes and sizes and with different functional characteristics.
Features that may be desirable for some uses may not be desirable in others or may not
be justifiable from an economic point of view. Since the manipulator is a mechanical arm
with many degrees of freedom of motion and since all these motions are under the direct
control of an operator, the design of the manipulator system must be considered from two

859
CHAP. 7.1 HANDLING AND CONTROL

different points of view. In the first place, it is necessary to build a mechanical arm ca
pable of performing the work expected of it; that is, it must have enough degrees of free
dom, power capacity, and the like. Secondly, it is necessary to design the control system
and some additional features of the manipulator arm itself so that the operator can control
it with reliability and dexterity.

TYPES OF MANIPULATIONS AND CORRESPONDING REQUIREMENTS

In order to establish some of the fundamental requirements in the design of a remote,
general-purpose manipulator, the three most common types of manipulations will be ex
amined.

FIRST TYPE OF MANIPULATION

The first type involves the handling and orientation of solid objects without bringing them
into precise contact with fixed equipment, e.g., picking up a container from a surface,
transporting and tipping it to pour out a specimen, or picking up a solid specimen and plac
ing it into a loose-fitting chuck or vise. Requirements for this type of manipulation are
listed below.

Degrees of Freedom
The mechanical arm must have a minimum of three independent degrees of freedom of
translation and three independent degrees of rotation to position and orient its tongs and
the grasped object. The tongs must have another independent motion for opening and clos
ing their jaws. Either a rectilinear or polar system can be used to provide effectively
translational motion. Additional degrees of freedom are often needed to change the shape
of the arm, extend the working volume, add gripping motions, or to eliminate “zenith” ef
fects when two axes become parallel.

Shape of Arm
The arm should have a long slender shape with a wrist joint at the end. The tongs are
attached to the wrist joint. For any given load capacity, it should be as small as possible
to avoid visual and physical interference with other equipment in the shielded space.

Mounting
Some part of the arm must be mounted on a “rigid” structure and have the seven princi
pal degrees of freedom with respect to this reference. This mounting is needed so that the
arm may exert a force in any direction or a couple about any of its axes. The “rigid” ref
erence may be adjustable so as to move the manipulator to a new location or change its
orientation. These arms, mounted on a suitable remote-controlled vehicle, would form a
general-purpose robot.

Load Limits

Force and torque limits are needed to protect the object, equipment contacted by the ma
nipulator, and the arm itself.

Controls

This type of manipulation may use relatively simple controls such as “on-off-on” elec
tric switches. More complicated controls may be desirable to increase speed, accuracy,
and ease of operation.

860
REMOTE HANDLING CHAP. 7.1

Power Drives

Any power system may be used that is remotely controllable. The efficiency of the
prime mover, mechanical gearing, and linkages may be low.

SECOND TYPE OF MANIPULATION

This type involves the handling of precision parts or specimens and manipulating them
into place on a snug-fitting mating part of a fixed piece of apparatus. An example is to
pick up a precision cylinder from a table top, move it through space, and place it into a
close-fitting collet chuck. The operator can control the motions of the manipulator re
quired to bring the cylinder to the chuck, orient it approximately, but cannot control the
small final orientation and exact final position. The final small alignment of the cylinder
is determined by the chuck and not by the manipulator. To avoid high forces and to allow
for the alignment, the manipulator must yield a small amount.

Compliance
Some form of compliance, or effective compliance, must be included into the manipulator
arm to accomodate the final alignment. This could be in the form of elasticity, yield by
clutch slippage or, as indicated below, the drives could be bilateral.

THIRD TYPE OF MANIPULATION

This is the condition where a control part or handle on a fixed apparatus is operated by
the general-purpose manipulator. The control part is generally free to move in only one
degree of freedom. The total path of the part and the manipulator tongs gripping it is de
termined by the apparatus. Turning a crank is an example. The operator cannot control
the manipulator to follow this path exactly. Since the control on the apparatus is probably
not capable of withstanding the maximum forces that the manipulator could exert in any
direction, the manipulator must, through forces on its tongs, accommodate this path with
out exerting high forces except in the direction of the path. The path may not be easy to
follow by direct control of the manipulator and the positional and orientational errors may
be fairly large.

Bilateral Drive and Force Reflection

Although it is possible to perform some of these manipulations if the manipulator arm

has enough compliance, the more complicated control motions where forces must be care
fully limited, can better be controlled with bilateral force-reflecting drives in all of the
principal degrees of freedom. This will allow the manipulator to be driven backwards to
follow the prescribed path but at the same time to exert a force in approximately the right
direction. Efficient mechanical linkages, such as those used in “master-slave” manipu
lators, are examples of this kind of bilateral drive. Another bilateral system is an elec
trically connected force reflecting positional servomechanism. Several laboratory models
have been reduced to practice at Argonne National Laboratory.

Human Engineering and Additional Requirements

In order for the operator to control the general-purpose manipulator, it is necessary
that the over-all system be compatible with his capabilities; a brief review of these capa
bilities will be helpful.
Direct manual manipulation is one of the highly developed skills of the human being. The
Steps in manual manipulation are usually to visually observe a situation, plan the changes
desired, move the hand to grasp the object, and then apply a force to move it in the de

861
CHAP. 7.1 HANDLING AND CONTROL

sired direction. This very complicated process takes place so fluently and quickly that it
is generally taken for granted. Internal stimuli are sent from the brain causing the mus
cles to respond. The brain continually receives four general types of stimuli: visual,
kinesthetic, tactual, and auditory. Kinesthetic stimuli are sent from muscles, ligaments,
and the like to the brain to give the approximate position, speed, force, etc.. of the arm and
hand. Another important characteristic of the human arm and hand is that all of its mo–
tions are bilateral; i.e., they can be motivated by their own power drives (muscles) or can
be caused to move backwards by an external mechanical force.
In the design of a manipulative system, it is desirable to take advantage of these char
acteristics so that the operator can control the manipulator with greater accuracy and
speed.
Quite often it is desirable for the operator to control all seven principal degrees of
freedom at one time and at the same time devote most of his intelligence and attention to
the effects or results of the manipulation instead of on the manipulator controls.

Vision

Good visual means must be provided. The system should provide a natural three-di
mensional view.

MASTER-SLAVE MANIPULATORS

In an attempt to capitalize on the natural characteristics of the human operator, master

slave manipulators (Figs. 7.1.9 to 7.1. 13) were developed. All seven motions of the slave
tong are driven synchronously in orientation and position by a single master handle. All
motions have high mechanical efficiency, low inertia, low friction, and are bilateral.
Therefore, the position and force on the tongs are reflected back to the control handle so
that the forces and torques are approximately the same as if the operator had the tongs
and its grasped object in his hand.
The manipulators are easy to operate and require only a small amount of operator
training. All three types of manipulation, described above, can be carried out with good
dexterity.
The present designs have mechanical connection for all motions and consequently have
limitations of load capacities and installation. Loads are limited by the strength of the
operator’s hand as applied to the control handle (5 to 10 lb maximum). The use of bilateral
servos can extend this load capacity to much higher (or much lower) values and retain
natural movement of control handle and reflected force “feel” proportional to the load.

OTHER MANIPULATORS

Many manipulators have been designed that do not include many of the features of the
master-slave type but gain other features (Figs. 7.1.3 to 7.1.10). Generally, these manipu
lators are powered with unilateral on-off or variable-speed drives and are driven by elec
trical motors or electrically-controlled hydraulic systems. They can be designed for al
most any load capacity, require only electric wires between the controls and the mechani
cal arm, and can be constructed out of standard commercial components for the most part.
A certain amount of human engineering is included in the design of these manipulators.
For example, the controls are generally arranged in an orderly fashion and are often ar
ranged to move in a direction corresponding to the motion they control. Force indication
is often provided on the “squeeze” motion.
The operating speed and dexterity of these manipulators is much lower than those of
master-slave manipulators. Extreme care is required when working in the vicinity of
delicate equipment and apparatus. They are suitable for the first type and, to a limited
extent, the second type of manipulation described above. They are not generally suitable
for the third type of manipulation.

862
REMOTE HANDLING CHAP. 7.1

SPECIFIC MANIPULATORS

Figures 7.1.3 through 7.1.18 illustrate the over-all dimensions and brief functional
characteristics of 11 manipulators in use or well along in design or construction. This
list includes most of the general-purpose manipulators in use within the AEC and one for
use by the Army Chemical Center (Bridge Hydraulic).

tº o a-0.
*...*
-*t.
3:
- “..
º, -> *c.
tº tºo A sº

ELECTRICAL MOTORS 8, MECHANISM

FOR WRIST JOINT ROTATIONS

KOILED KORD"
ELECTRICAL

CONTROL POWER
BOX ---

e e :
. : :o
D.:
wºo sº;
º‘.
O.Q. o. o.
to

3.:
a 0 tº
3°sº *.*.*.*.* .*.*
& cº.o. tº-I-I-I-Immº, . . a. s. * .e."
O | 2 3 .*.*
SCALE, ft sº v.

Fig. 7.1.3—Argonne Rectilinear Manipulator. This light-duty manipulator

was designed to operate in confined spaces. The wrist—joint drive motors and
gripping drive are mounted at the top of the column to conserve space at the
wrist—joint. The motions are driven by DC motors whose speed and direction
are switch-controlled at the control box shown. One of four degrees of gripping
force can be selected, the highest of which generally limits the use of the manipu
lator to objects weighing 1 lb or less. The installation shown has a working vol
ume of 60 x 6 x 4 ft high.

863
CHAP. 7.1 HANDLING AND CONTROL

ELECTRICAL
CABLES

LEFT
Cºmemad
RIGHT ON

TILT
i OFF

TuRN

COL [E].
| BACK
TURN
©
CONTROL
©

DN
© ()
JAW GRIP8, PRESS

CONTROL BOX
DETAIL
JOINT E LEVATION

APPROxIMATE scALE, in ; $g7

Fig. 7.1.4— Brookhaven Electric Manipulator. A pneumatic cylinder with

controllable air pressure is used to develop gripping forces up to 175 lb. The
tongs are capable of handling objects weighing up to 15 lb, but the Z motion is
capable of a 200-lb lift. This manipulator is installed in a “benchtop” cave
having a working volume of 10 × 2 × 4.5 ft high.

864
REMOTE HANDLING CHAP. 7.1

_-GRIP MECHANISM º

LEADSCREw For
Z MOTION -
SPLINE SHAFT FOR WRIST DRIVE

Z DRIVE MOTOR
WRIST DRIVE MOTOR

/* DRIVE MOTOR

MAGNETIC CLUTCHES-> .
8. WRIST JOINT -

DiFFERENTIAL GEARING -

-El-Evaſion

| "CONTROL Box
ſ DETAIL

Fig. 7.1.5—Oak Ridge Electric Manipulator. All of the wrist motions of this
manipulator are capable of unlimited rotation as a result of the offset wrist
construction. A single motor drives the three rotations, the desired one being
selected by magnetic clutches and a planetary gearset. The motor-driven tongs,
which are interchangeable, stop automatically when a preselected gripping
force is reached. The manipulator is generally capable of handling objects up
to 20 lb. The translational motions have deliberate compliance, with electrical
limit switches in case the compliance is exceeded. The installation shown has
a working volume of 38 x 5.5 × 4 ft high.

865
CHAP. 7.1 HANDLING AND CONTROL

LEADS TO ELECTRIC MOTORS º

|N POLAR JOINTS º
-º-, -w-.
sºvº
ELECTRIC CABLE

"Y" MOTOR

tº
P -

s P -

... v . "...º. SHOULDER ELEVATION

* ...w... v. v. Yº
Y. ºv: sº v. 9.3% º WRIST
ſº … [Twist # JOINT

Im.

WINDOW ELEVATIONº E
>
N
<ſ

p : * ~ b tºº ºl. A 4
º . . e. a a bl
* * * . - a .
*º **—
e a “*.*.

– BOX –-

EEEEt-t-.
O | 2 3
Scale,ft

Fig. 7.1.6-Mechanical Arm. Model C (General Mills, Inc.). The tongs of

this manipulator can be remotely replaced with a hook which is capable of
greater force exertion and which can operate specially designed “hand tools,”
such as tin snips and an impact hammer. Meter indication is provided of the
gripping force, which is sufficient to handle objects weighing up to 75 lb. All
motions are driven with d-c motors, variable voltage being supplied from the
two-handled control console shown. The installation shown has a working vol
ume of 60 × 6 × 7 ft high.

866
REMOTE HANDLING CHAP. 7.1

tº º HOUSING FOR
º -

º
HYDRAULIC PUMP,
RESERVOIR, VALVES,
- ETC.

T
º-

= 3 ~

= Y
*2 --

†HºHºº
ºlliſ
2.
º

LINES TO
|- H=L
HYDRAULIC
ACTUATORS in
wRIST JOINT

\SV -

wº

wRIST JOINT
:
I

O I 2
APPROx. SCALE, ft CONTROL BOX DETAIL

Fig. 7.1.7 –Bridge Hydraulic (Greer Hydraulics, Inc.). All motions of this
manipulator are hydraulically driven from a single pump. The variable pump
output is directed to the several motions by solenoid valves operated from the
console shown. Visible are the forward and reverse pushbuttons for each
motion, the common speed control, and the position indicators. The tongs,
which are remotely interchangeable with a variety of special-purpose tools,
are capable of handling objects weighing up to 100 lb. The installation shown
has a working volume of 18 x 8.5 x 6 ft high.

867
CHAP. 7.1 HANDLING AND CONTROL

.*

g# #

-** a -

—HFHºº
sº
**.*

ELEVATION

O 2 3

SCALE, ft :
Fig. 7.1.8—General-purpose Manipulator (Farrel-Birmingham Co., Inc.).
The entire wrist—joint assembly of this manipulator can unscrew itself from
the column and be remotely replaced. A two-handled control console is pro
vided on which the right hand controls wrist rotations and the left hand controls
translational motions. The manipulator is capable of a 100-lb force in any
direction and a normal gripping force of 50 lb. The tongs are remotely re
placeable with others having grips of up to 300 lb.

868
REMOTE HANDLING CHAP. 7.1

T-T- -

i ----
|
|
| --
W., __º
~~~~\ll 2.x * {}
- | X---" "
U###-
H

rºl

WRIST
ELEVATION
st 9
ELBOW 5 \- 6
-

ELEVATION >
º

DO NOT SCALE

Fig. 7.1.9—Heavy Manipulator (General Electric Co.). Most of the motions

of this manipulator will be powered with amplidyne sets individually controlled
at the console. It is to be capable of a 500-lb force in any direction with a grip
ping force of 2500 lb and a straight lifting capacity of 5000 lb. The proposed
working volume is 150 x 51 x 26.5 ft high.

869
CHAP. 7.1 HANDLING AND CONTROL

P.
__-T

5 s
E_E
_P §§

SLAVE WRIST
JOINT Tº __

SLAVE TONG *ATO

MASTER HANDLE

º WRIST JOINT
º

5– : 3
APPROX SCALE, fi

Fig. 7.1.10—Argonne Master-Slave, Mod.4. This fully master-slave manipu

lator is in use in a number of installations. The slave arm normally enters the
shield through an oversize hole in the roof; the resulting scattered radiation
limits use to activities of about 500 curies, unless the roof is extended to also
cover the operator. The design has been highly refined to achieve minimum
mass, friction, and resilience and has been declassified for manufacture out
side of the AEC. It is capable of handling objects of up to 10 lb, but it is es
pecially applicable where fragile specimens or delicate equipment require
sensitive manipulation.

870
REMOTE HANDLING CHAP. 7.1

---

COUNTERWEIGHTS

[]º

dr × c
WINDOW £E
Toolo
Co-cu

SLAVE
MASTER SHIELD TONG -

| HANDLE aewoº -

- - TWIST \,
SLAVE WRIST JOINT

º wRist Joint % |
SCALE, ft
2 3
º
Fig. 7.1.11—Argonne Master-Slave Mod. 6. These manipulators work
through a slot in the cave wall and are mounted on a carriage which traverses
the length of the slot. The static coverage is further increased by a motor
driven telescoping of the horizontal tube. The later Mod. 6B achieves a similar
result with a fixed tube by translating the entire manipulator. The itinery of
the Elgiloy tapes which connect the master and slave ends is considerably com
plicated by having to pass through the horizontal tube, and there is a noticeable
increase in friction by comparison with the Mod.4 design. The Mod. 6 and 6B
designs have been declassified for manufacture outside of the AEC.

871
CHAP. 7.1 HANDLING AND CONTROL

* --— A
|

contaMINATION – ==
BOOT E
-

5 c E
E_E ==
sº -
-
=-
Dr. -

Tws teetºft.*
º
= wº

r
H
-)
DETAIL º#TV
>
N
<ſ MASTER MASTER
ELEVATION HANDLE WRIST
JOINT

N- WINDOW

SLAVE WRIST -- -

JOINT SHIELDING

g== ź 3
SCALE, ft

Fig. 7.1.12—Argonne Master-Slave, Mod. 7. A contamination boot has been

provided on this manipulator, being sealed to the roof of the cell and covering
the wrist joint so that only the tongs are exposed. The manipulator is therefore
useful for performing “open” chemistry in a shielded dry box and other situa
tions where a serious contamination hazard exists. The manipulator was de
signed to be a permanent part of a mobile shielding wall. The counter-weight
tubes can be easily lowered and the manipulator set at its lowest position for
clearance through normal-sized doors. It has a load capacity of about 4 lb.

872
 873
CHAP. 7.1

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REMOTE HANDLING
 CHAPTER 7.2

Remote Viewing

G. S. Monk, K. R. Ferguson, and D. F. Uecker

REQUIREMENTS OF VIEWING SYSTEMS

The observation of a procedure involving radioactive material is complicated by the

necessity of seeing through or around the required biological shield. “Seeing” here
denotes receiving the same visual impressions as those of an observer moving around in
side the shield. These visual impressions depend upon: (1) a wide angle of view and the
ability to scan to provide an impression of over-all size and spatial relationships in two
dimensions; (2) depth perception to “round out” the view, a powerful aid if manipulation
is contemplated; (3) the ability to view from various vantage points and distances; (4) color
perception; and (5) the ability to use optical aids for special purposes such as macro- and
micro-examinations. In addition, the image should be sufficiently free of distortion and
other optical defects to allow its prompt interpretation and of sufficient resolution to per
mit perception of fine detail.
No single viewing method has been devised which satisfies all of these requirements.
Complementary viewing methods have been provided, therefore, to satisfy the needs of a
particular installation.

BASIC TECHNIQUES

Viewing methods which are all-optical depend on the difference in degree of transmis
sion, reflection, and refraction between visible light and high-energy radiation; i.e.,
visible light may be preferentially passed through a filter of glass or liquid or propagated
by means of mirrors or lenses through a labyrinth which is essentially opaque to atomic
radiation. Methods which depend upon transparent shielding material to filter out high
energy radiation include observation of submerged operations and observation through
windows. Methods which depend upon a labyrinth effect for shielding include observation
by means of reflecting systems, periscopes, or borescopes. Television, not being all
optical, constitutes a third basic technique. The passage of the camera cable through the
shield creates little radiation hazard, but low resolution and other difficulties have pre
vented its widespread use.

SUBMERGED OPERATION

Where the nature of the radioactive material and equipment allows, the entire process
may simply be submerged to a sufficient depth in water. The method has the following ad
vantages:

875
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

(1) It is inexpensive and reliable, both as a shield and a means for viewing.
(2) It is the only satisfactory method known for very high activity levels.
(3) The open top of the tank allows freedom for more than one, operator to see and work
from various angles.
(4) It allows the use of simple, longhandled tools and grapples to accomplish rudimentary
manipulations.
An important disadvantage is that commercial machinery and equipment is not suitable
for underwater operation, and adaptation may be expensive.
The method is widely used, primarily to receive reactor fuel for cooling and for pre
liminary operations such as sorting, weighing, and gross inspection. A few installations
for experimental work are known, including a versatile machine tool which was custom
built for underwater service.
A simple and useful optical aid is a glass-bottomed box floating on the surface which
eliminates ripples. Unaided vision is thereby greatly improved, and the use of a telescope
or binoculars is made possible. For considerably magnified views, waterproofed peri
scopes have been built that dip down to the vicinity of the operation. Their optical design
is generally, not complicated by the necessity for underwater operation.
Cloudiness or contamination can be controlled by replacing the water periodically, but
facilities for handling large volumes of liquid waste are therefore necessary. An alterna
tive is the use of a recirculating filter.

WINDOWS

DESCRIPTION

A shielding window is an opening in a biological shield which is filled with a transparent

material having the same protecting properties as the surrounding shield. Water, concen
trated aqueous solutions, other dense liquids, and glasses of various compositions have
all been used. An economical and popular form of window is a simple rectangular solid,
although a frustum of a pyramid conserves window material. In either case, the optical
faces are parallel, and the resulting effects are those of a thick parallel plate.

APPLICATIONS

Some of the capabilities and limitations of windows are:

(1) They can be used to provide the gamma-shielding equivalent of up to 4 ft of concrete
(more if the exposure is intermittent).
(2) The stability of materials other than water is not as well known for neutron activity
as it is for gamma irradiation.
(3) Apertures up to 5-ft square are feasible, so that the operator has considerable bodily
freedom while observing. In the case of a small shielded enclosure, this freedom can be
used to achieve a variety of vantage points.
(4) In a large enclosure, gross changes of vantage points require multiple windows and
operator mobility. This may require multiple control stations for manipulative equip
ment or preclude the use of mechanically connected manipulators.
(5) More of the elements of normal vision are retained than with any other single viewing
method, e.g.:
(a) The field of view can approach 180°, over which the eye can rapidly scan.
(b) Unimpaired binocular vision is retained with a minimum optical distance.*

*The optical thickness of the window for small angles of incidence is 1/n of “he actual thickness,
where n is the index of refraction of the window material. For objects close to the inner surface of the
window, image size and depth discrimination are perceptibly increased.

876
REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

(6) For experimental work, standard commercial apparatus may be used with nearly
normal operator-equipment orientation.

PERFORMANCE

A shielding window tends to reduce the acuity of vision by its effect on the following
optical factors: (1) resolution; (2) discrimination of color and contrast, and (3) freedom
from distortion.

RESOLUTION

A window introduces chromatic aberration, spherical aberration, and localized optical

imperfections, all of which contribute to a slight loss of resolution.
In viewing with the unaided eye, most of the loss of resolution can be attributed to chro
matic aberration which occurs only for viewing distances shorter than a few multiples of
the window thickness. In the case of a 3-ft-thick window with a sight line having a 60°
angle of incidence, the loss of resolution is just measurable at an observer-to-object dis
tance of 8 ft, though color fringes are definitely observable at greater distances.
For magnified vision through a window, tests indicate that local imperfections are of
minor importance compared with spherical and chromatic aberrations." Resolution can be
increased by optimizing the aperture, i.e., objective-lens diameter, of the telescope as the
viewing distance is varied. For smaller apertures the resolution of the telescope-window
system is reduced by the telescope, and for larger apertures by the window aberrations.
Table 7.2.1 lists the range of optimum apertures and magnification for various distances.

Table 7.2.1–Optimum Telescope Apertures and Magnification for Vision Through Windows

Viewing distance, Aperture, Total aberrations,

ft in.” Seconds of arc Magnification

100 1.5 – 3.5 4 15

60 1.2 – 3.3 5 12
30 0.8 – 2.4 8 8
20 .8 — 1.8 9 7
10 .5 - 1.2 14 4

*At the limits of the range of apertures indicated, the aberrations are increased by 1
second of arc. The data were obtained by measurements on a 3-ft-thick glass-filled window
with white light illumination

The tabulated values of optimum magnification may be increased to allow for imperfections
in the telescope and the eye and to relieve eyestrain, but no increase in resolution will be
achieved, and excess power will limit the angle of view. When viewing at other than zero
incidence angle through a window with object distances under 100 ft and with white light
illumination, the usable magnification decreases rapidly with increasing incidence angle
and approaches unity at an incidence angle of 60°. This magnification may be increased by
a small amount by the use of monochromatic lighting.

DISCRIMINATION OF COLOR AND CONTRAST

Color is important in most viewing and can be preserved by using colorless window ma
terials and white light illumination. As pointed out previously, the use of monochromatic
lighting will increase the resolution that can be achieved in some cases. However, be

‘References appear at end of chapter.

877
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

cause of the resulting loss of color discrimination, monochromatic lighting is desirable

only where the white light would actually interfere with observation.
Object and lighting contrast is a paramount optical factor in the discrimination of detail.
With good window materials and designs, the existing contrast will not be perceptibly
altered. Haze in liquid windows, incomplete polish on glass surfaces, and multiple surface
reflections are some of the factors that must be controlled to preserve contrast.

DISTORTION

A window introduces a distortion which curves plane surfaces, since the apparent dis
tance is a function of the window thickness along the line-of-sight. This curvature is
severe only when the viewing distance approximates the window thickness or when viewing
at an angle of incidence greater than about 60°.

TRANSPARENT SHIELDING MATERLALS

It is usually desirable that the window material have approximately the same shielding
effectiveness per unit of thickness as the rest of the biological shield. Interest has been
concentrated, therefore, on materials with half-value layers* comparable to those of con
crete, steel, and other common shielding materials.
A second requirement is that the window material have such desirable optical qualities
as: a high transmission of at least a portion of the visible spectrum; freedom from im
perfections, such as local variations of index of refraction (striae); a minimum of haze or
turbidity; and a high index of refraction to permit a large angle of view through a small
window aperture.
A third requirement is stability of color and clarity against both time and intense radia
tion.
The installed cost of a window and the radiation hazard and possible toxicity of the win
dow material in case of breakage are further factors for consideration.
The materials discussed below satisfy various weightings of the above requirements.

WATER

Water is the logical choice for economy and radiation stability. Distilled water or freshly
filtered water is sufficiently clear to permit excellent vision through 10 ft or more, cheap
enough to be attractive in spite of the larger size required by its low density and index of
refraction, literally water-white, and virtually unaffected by gamma or neutron absorption.
Its low density does require a window which is 2.5 to 8 times as thick as an equivalent
glass or dense liquid window, however. Detail perception for objects near the window is
correspondingly impaired. For machinery installations and the like which cannot be
brought close to the window for examination the lower density is of less disadvantage. For
a given angle of view, a water-filled window requires a greater aperture through the shield.
This in turn will require larger and thicker cover plates and, in the extreme case,
multiple panes strengthened by mullions. -

The deposits and cloudiness observed in some windows filled with filtered water are not
well understood. The need to replace the water and remove the cover plates for periodic
cleaning should be anticipated.
ZINC BROMIDE SOLUTION

A water solution of zinc bromide is in current widespread use as a window material.”

The requirements of the “optical grade” solution are covered by a general specification.”

*A half-value layer is the thickness of any given substance required to attenuate the incident
radiation by one half, commonly abbreviated HVL.

878
REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

The density range of the zinc bromide solution has been chosen to give a freezing point
just above that of water. (This allows the solution to be shipped by common carrier with
ordinary precautions against freezing.) The solution density is 2.50 to 2.54, corresponding
to 77.0 to 78.3 percent dry weight of zinc bromide (16.0 to 16.6 lb of dry zinc bromide per
gallon of solution). At the current dry-weight price of zinc bromide, $0.60/lb, the average
price of the solution is $10/gal. Table 7.2.3 lists some properties of zinc bromide solu
tion. With material of the quality currently being produced, it is no longer necessary to
provide for periodic filtering of the solution. The light transmission of the solution is
initially excellent, and the thickness of window that may be used is limited only by the
radiation stability of the solution.

Hazes

Occasional difficulty has occurred with haze formed by the slow precipitation of alkaline
earth sulphates (barium, strontium, and calcium have been identified) thought to result
from mixing different production batches. Metallurgical experimentation was continued
without interruption through a 3-ft window while such a haze formed and settled out after
9 to 12 months.

Oxidation

Oxidation can result either by contact with the air or by exposure to radiation. In either
case the solution will be deeply colored by the oxidation of only a few parts per million of
iron. In the absence of any other reducing agent, exposure to radiation will liberate free
bromine from the solution. To prevent these effects, a reducing agent is added whose oxi
dation products introduce neither color nor haze to the solution. Hydroxylamine hydro
chloride, H:NOH-HCL, is satisfactory in this respect. The addition of 4 oz per 100 gal of
zinc bromide solution will protect a thin layer of the solution from a 10°r exposure. In a
thick window, relatively unexposed solution on the operator’s side will be thermally mixed
with exposed solution from which the reducing agent has been exhausted. On this basis, an
exposure to Co" radiation of about 10'r will be required to consume the reducing agent in
a 3-ft-thick window. With radiation having a range of energies, the low-energy component
will be absorbed in the first few layers and cause a more localized exhaustion of the re
ducing agent.
The gaseous oxidation products of hydroxylamine are somewhat soluble in the zinc
bromide solution, but incident exposures of 10° to 10°r within 24 hr will certainly cause gas
evolution. If the bubbles rise rapidly the effect may not be serious, but operating experi
ence is lacking.
The sulfide-ion concentration in the zinc bromide solution can be kept below a few tenths
part per million by completely oxidizing the solution during its preparation, as required by
the specification. Unless this is done, a haze of free sulfur, which will not be reduced by
the stabilizer, will form upon irradiation.

Contamination

Contamination can be eliminated by allowing only materials to come in contact with the
solution which have been so tested for a year or more. Nickel and cobalt are soluble in
and impart color to zinc bromide solution. Chromium from dissolved stainless steel will
precipitate slowly and form a haze. Many organic materials will impart strong color to
the solution and produce dense hazes. The following materials are suitable for equipment
coming in contact with the solution for very limited periods, preferably less than 1 day:
Polythene, Tygon, Koroseal (all types), and hard rubber. Table 7.2.2 indicates the rating
of container-lining materials.

879
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

Table 7.2.2–Container Materials for Zinc Bromide Solution

Type Excellent Limited life Not usable

Paint Amercoat 31 Amercoat 55

Baked finished Lithcote
Plastic linings Teflon - Koroseal 9234 Amerplate
Saran

Polythene
Metals Silver Copper Nickel and other
S. S. 347 common metals
Brass

Wherever feasible, a seven-coat application of Amercoat 31 over hot-rolled steel is

highly recommended because of its superior resistance to zinc bromide, ease of applica
tion, and economy.

OTHER DENSE LIQUIDS

A number of dense liquids and aqueous solutions other than zinc bromide solution have
been considered as prospective window materials. The list includes: lead acetate, zinc
chloride, methylene bromide, acetylene tetrabromide, a mixture of stannic bromide and
stannic chloride, barium and mercuric bromide, and cadmium borotungstate.” Though
development work might improve the competitive position of some of these materials,
most have been ruled out for reasons of low density, high cost, instability, or toxicity.

SHIELDING GLASSES

Table 7.2.3 presents the pertinent properties of some commercial glasses and of some
in the development stage. The properties of nonbrowning lime glass are described in a
general specification."

Table 7.2.3—Physical Properties of Transparent Shielding Materials

Optical
ºt. Radiation
Index of stability Fading Price
Type Density refraction Tungstenf Sodium Color indext index5 per pound

Commercial limeſ 2.52 1.52 94.6 94.3 Green 2.6 x 10° 2–5 $0.50
Water-white lime'ſ 2.52 1.52 99.0 99.0 Colorless 2.6 x 10" 2-5 1.25
Nonbrowning limeſ 2.68 1.53 96.8 97.0 Light yellow 1.6 x 10" 1–3 2.25
Corning 8362 3.27 1.59 97.6 98.2 Yellow 0.8 x 10" 1–3 ---

x-ray leadi" 4.88 1.76 90.0 92.0 Deep yellow 2.0 x 10" 2-5 2.50
Dense leadff 6.20 1.98 94.1 95.2 Yellow-orange 1.5 x 10° 10–50 4.00
Zinc bromide solution it 2.52 1.56 98.5 99.0 Colorless --- --- 0.47

*Optical transmittance in percent for 1-in.-thickness and average specimens, less surface reflection
f Light of the quality of I.C.I. Illuminant A
#The exposure in r required to produce a change in optical density of 0.01, for white light and a thickness of one
HVL. Optical density is the common logarithm of the reciprocal of the transmittance. The exposure rate was 100 &
700 r/min
§The ratio by which the exposure in (c) must be increased in order that the change in optical density is 0.01, 2
weeks after the termination of the exposure
TCommercial samples from the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company
**Transmittance and price are for laminated sections
ffcommercial samples from the Penberthy Instrument Company. A similar glass has been prepared experi
mentally by the Corning Glass Works -

tfcommercial samples from Dow Chemical Company

880
REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

Glass may be manufactured for windows in the form of polished plate or as cast sections.
Experience has shown that 1-in.-thick plate glass can be produced with an optical quality
suitable for windows in a maximum practicable sheet size about 5 ft square. X-ray lead
glass is manufactured in #-in. thickness only, but it can be laminated with plastic sheet to
a 3-in. thickness. Castings of dense lead glass with good optical quality have been made
with a maximum volume of 400 cu in. Large glass castings are still in the preproduction
stage. It is believed that castings as large as 36 in. square and 4- to 6-in. thick will be
feasible.

Radiation Tests on Shielding Glasses

The factors that influence the change in light transmission of glass exposed to gamma
radiation include: (1) exposure rate and total exposure; (2) continuity of exposure; (3) time
elapsed between exposure and transmittance measurement; (4) temperature during and
following exposure, and (5) for some glasses, the amount of visible light incident on the
glass during and following exposure.”
Figure 7.2.1 shows the change in optical density of commercial lime glass when exposed
to gamma radiation. From this figure it can be seen that 4 days after exposure at a rate
of 600 r/min, samples have about the same change in optical density as those measured
only 1 hr after the same exposure received at the rate of 20 r/min. All samples were kept
at room temperature and in the dark during and after exposure.
Figure 7.2.2 shows the change in optical density for nonbrowning lime glass with gamma
irradiation. If it is assumed that the coloration of the glass is a function of the total energy
absorbed per unit volume, the data presented in Figs. 7.2.1 and 7.2.2 can be applied to
gamma energies different from those emitted by Coº". The gamma-energy flux per roent
gen is about constant for gamma energies from 0.1 to 2.0 mev. Hence, gamma exposures
of different energies should produce the same change in optical density for glass thick
nesses corresponding to their respective half-value layers.
The increase in optical density with varying window thickness is shown in Fig. 7.2.3. Of
course, to obtain the final optical density of a window, it is necessary to add the initial
optical density (produced by the intrinsic color of the glass) and the increase in optical
density produced by a given irradiation. No correction was made for the change in expo
sure rate through the window. It was assumed that the radiation would follow a simple ex
ponential absorption, and an average value for a HVL was chosen to account for “build-up
effects." For a nonbrowning glass window and 1-mev gamma radiation, the density values
for a window thickness greater than 50 in. represents an extrapolation of the experimental
data. The curves are intended to be demonstrative and should be given only qualitative
significance.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

RADIATION EFFECTS

The controlling consideration is the effect of radiation on all of a window’s components,

including tank lining materials, gaskets, and laminating liquids, as well as the transparent
shielding material. The performance of complete window assemblies in gamma-ray shields
with thickness equivalents of up to 4 ft of concrete has been well tested in operation. Addi
tional laboratory testing is required to predict their performance under continuous expo
sure in thicker shields.

THICKNESS

Bulk shielding tests made on hot laboratory installations indicate that the gamma
shielding properties of ordinary concrete, magnetite concrete, zinc bromide, lime glass,
and steel may be compared approximately on the basis of specific gravity alone."

881
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

109 T III

| 6

-4

H.2

|- 4 z

Aſ
. IO
H

|-2 /

=s LEGEND -

-- EXPOSURE RATE TIME AFTER EXPOSURE -

– —-G)6OO ramin 1 hr. I

–96OO ramin 4 doys
|- 4 —O 20 r/min I hr -

|- —O 20 r/min IO doys -

—QD 20 r/min | yr
–G) 20 r/min 3 yr
|-2 -

1 | | | | | | | | l 1 I l 1 I
2 4. 6 8 2 4. 2 4
10 * 10° 10°
ExPosURE, r

Fig. 7.2.1 —The Increase in Optical Density of Commercial Lime Glass with
Gamma Irradiation. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, May 28, 1952.
Optical density is the common logarithm of the reciprocal of the light trans
mittance. Values of density are for sodium light and a thickness of one HVL.
This thickness was taken to be 3 in. for Co" radiation and the geometry of the
test. The exposure is the average received by a volume of air occupying the
same position as the glass sample.

882
REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

id' I TTTTTTTI I TTTTTTTI —I T-I-T-I-T-TTI

:
-

|-- o

I º 2. • :
/ -

| |--

i
*-4
/ I

al- I I I
4.
I I I I I I
& Cº
I
2
I I
4.
I I I | 1 ||
º e H
—1–
!
105 106 107
ExPOSURE, r

Fig. 7.2.2—The Increase in Optical Density of Nonbrowning Lime Glass with

Gamma Irradiation. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, May 28, 1952.
Values of density are for tungsten light, a thickness of one HVL, and an ex
posure rate of 4 x 10" r/hr. The HVL thickness was taken to be 2.88 in. for Co"
radiation and the geometry of the test.

883
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

109 I I–IH I-I-I-I-I-I-I I IH-TII

ſ - i i ſy" -

H. 8
L |— commeRCIAL LIME
LEGEND
INITIAL DENSITY
|
I
2P | -

--- COMMERCIAL LIME O.5-mev GAMMA | z'ſ :

F-6 ||—. COMMERCIAL LIME I. O-mev GAMMA I / -

I |
|- — - NON BROWNING LIME
-- NONBROWNING LIME
- - - NONBROWNING LIME
INITIAL DENSITY
O.5-mev GAMMA
I.O-mev GAMMA I
|/ /
/
| -

.
-2
IO I I 1 1 l l 1–1–1–1–1 I I I l I I 1–1–1–1.

WINDOW THICKNESS, in.

Fig. 7.2.3—Increase in Optical Density of Glass Windows of Varying Thick

ness with Gamma Irradiation. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory,
May 28, 1952. Densities for commercial lime glass based on sodium light and
for nonbrowning lime glass on tungsten light. All densities based on 1000 hr
continuous exposure with an intensity of 10 mr/hr at the observer. It is as
sumed that the radiation beam is parallel. For commercial lime glass, the
average HVL through the window was assumed to be 2.4 in. for 1-mev gammas
and 1.67 in. for 0.5-mev gammas.

884
REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

Lead glasses, however, are better shields than indicated by their specific gravities; a
glass with a lead oxide content of 80 percent and a specific gravity of 6.2 is equivalent to
Steel for 1-mev radiation.

LIGHTING

The same considerations are involved in lighting a shielded enclosure as those for any
other room. Proper weight must be given such factors as brightness, diffusion, and
elimination of objectionable shadows, as well as lighting level.
Once a satisfactory level of illumination is determined, it is only necessary to increase
the level to allow for the absorption of the window. The initial transmittance values should
be reduced to correct for radiation darkening of the glass sections of the window.

AREA

The minimum area of a window depends on the degree of freedom desired in observer
mobility or equipment position. For a small piece of fixed equipment, the narrow cone of
vision through a small window will suffice. If the observer is free to move from side to
side and up and down to “scan” a larger area, the next smallest aperture, whose frontal
dimensions are easily calculated from the index of refraction, will result. If the same
area must be scanned from a more fixed vantage point (limited mobility of the operator),
the aperture at the inside face of the shield will be twice as large; the window in this case
may be pyramidal, however, with a volume about equal to that for the second case. If the
operator must have freedom to move about coupled with wide visual coverage of the in
terior, as with a fully master-slave manipulator, the aperture must approach the size of
the working area.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

The following typical window constructions have been developed over the past several
years and represent the best current practice for their respective types.

ZINC BROMIDE WINDOW

Figure 7.2.4 shows a zinc bromide window, 30 × 36 × 36 in. thick, sealed in a concrete
wall by means of a liner, G, which is cast directly into the wall. The use of a removable
window allows it to be assembled in a room with special facilities and to be installed in the
shield without interruption of other construction activities. The crack between the window
tank and the liner is shielded by a step, H, made of lead which is held in place by strips of
steel over the lead. When neutron radiation is present, cracks must be not only stepped
but also calked tight with suitable material. The window tank is fabricated from hot-rolled
steel plates with minimum of welding (intermittent structural welds on the outside and light
seal welds on the inside) to decrease the possibility of warping the frame. Major machin
ing is required only on the ends of the tank to form the gasket seats. The type of clamping
arrangement illustrated here requires a minimum thickness (1} in.) of tank wall at point
M. The clamping bars B are not joined together at the corners so that each may seat indi
vidually. The gaskets, L, which will come in contact with zinc bromide should be fabricated
from Koroseal (grade 116, B. F. Goodrich Company); the inside gasket should be continuous
and cut from sheet Stock.
The inside of the tank, K, is covered with seven coats of Amercoat 31 paint. The last
coat should be black to minimize glare. All weld splatter should be removed and the welds
smoothed by grinding before the paint is applied. Pits and irregularities may be filled with
Amercoat 58 putty. All corners on the tank in contact with zinc bromide should be rounded
to prevent thinning of the paint film.

885
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

Fig. 7.2.4—Construction Details of a Zinc Bromide Window. Submitted by

Argonne National Laboratory, May 28, 1952. A, stirring port; B, clamping bars;
C, air vent; D, transfer rail guides; E, laminated commercial glass; F, window
tank supports; G, wall liner; H, lead step; J, laminated nonbrowning glass; K,
window tank lining; L, gaskets; M, window tank wall; N, expansion chamber.

It is desirable to laminate the glass cover plates. In large windows it is required for
strength, but it is always desirable as a safeguard in case one plate is damaged. The
glass may be tempered if still greater strength is required. A load safety factor of 10, as
recommended by the glass manufacturers, should always be used. The cover plate, J, on
the active side must be made from nonbrowning glass. The cover plate, E, on the opera
tor’s side can be made from commercial plate glass selected for the same optical quality
as the nonbrowning glass.
Provisions should be made to allow for the thermal expansion of the liquid. The coef
ficient of cubical expansion for zinc bromide is about 0.6 x 10"/*C. For a temperature
change of 20°C, a volume change of 1.2 percent results. If an external expansion tank is
used, it should be located directly above the window tank and should be of minimum height
so as not to increase excessively the hydrostatic pressure on the glass cover plates. An
internal expansion space, as shown at N, is a satisfactory arrangement. The air vent at C
or the vent on an external tank should be kept free at all times.

886
 REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

Striations will be encountered in the zinc bromide solution when originally filling the
window tank or when making adjustments to the liquid level. These striations can be re
moved by stirring the solution for a short time. A stirring port, as shown at A, is con
venient. A 1.5- to 2-in. pipe is lined with copper tubing which is silver-soldered to the
main tank wall. The Amercoat paint is lapped well up on the copper to cover the joint. A
steel plug is shown in the stirring port to cover the slot in the wall required to accommo
date the port. The tank is slipped into the wall liner with the cover glasses installed.
Notches in the liner at D aid in holding the rails used during the transfer from a transport
cart. The tank is supported on cast-iron pads mounted on rubber, shown at F, which slide
on runners machined in the liner, G. Only moderate pressures are thus required to jack
the tank into place.

GLASS WINDOW

Figure 7.2.5 illustrates a glass window 30 × 36 × 36 in. thick. The glass used here is
1-in.-thick plate glass. Surface reflections from the many plates are almost completely

< q
q q
* -
<!--
<!
a a- ºn

Fig. 7.2.5—Construction Details of a Glass Window. Submitted by Argonne

National Laboratory, May 28, 1952. A, air vent; B, spacers; C, glass plate
supports; D, filling tube; E, fractional thickness plates; F, window tank support;
G, radiation step; H, wall liner; J, lead step; K, gaskets; L, clamping bars; M,
window tank wall.

887
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

removed by filling the space between the plates with a mineral oil with an index of refrac
tion about equal to that of the glass. This space between the plates is maintained by soft
copper spacers at the four corners, as shown at B. The thickness of the spacer is 0.025 to
0.035 in. Since the oil is of lower density than the glass, the crack between the glass and
tank wall must be stepped as shown at G. The glass plates are supported on #-in.-thick
strips of Koroseal, grade 116, as shown at C. Koroseal also can be used for the gaskets at
K. The clamping arrangement, shown at L., utilizes standard angle stock and can be accom
modated by a plate thickness at M of as little as 1 in. It is satisfactory for sealing glass
cover plates up to 1 in. thick. The diameter of bolts should be chosen carefully since
bending stresses are developed in the bolts. The inside of the hot-rolled-steel tank can be
smoothed by hand grinding and coated with a thin coat of clear Glyptal to facilitate thor
Ough cleaning.
The glass plates are handled vertically in the washing and loading operation. Each plate
is thoroughly washed, rinsed, and dried; it is then picked up by the edges with a mechani
cal device which supports the plate as it is inserted into the window frame. Because of the
variation in thickness of the glass plates, the window might not be filled with an integral
number of plates. Any remaining space should be filled with #- or #-in. plates or a
combination of both, as shown at E. If they are installed on the operator’s side of the win
dow, these fractional-thickness plates may be commercial plate glass.
After the tank is sealed, the oil is introduced slowly through the lower filling tube at D.
A slight space is left at the top of the tank for thermal expansion of the oil. The air vent
at A must be kept open at all times.

COMPOSITE WINDOW

Combinations of transparent materials may be used to achieve a window with properties

not possible with any single material. In some high-level applications it will be necessary
to use nonbrowning glass instead of zinc bromide on the active side of the window to pre
vent bubbling of the solution. The use of dense lead glass on the operator’s side will re
duce the window thickness and the size of the window required to view a given area. In
addition, these glass sections afford some protection to personnel in case of sudden loss
of the liquid shielding. The window of Fig. 7.2.6 consists basically of zinc bromide solu
tion, which is used for its optical quality and economy, supplemented by nonbrowning glass
for radiation stability, and dense lead glass for reduced size.

SIMPLE REFLECTING SYSTEMS

One can see around a corner or through a labyrinth by reflection from one or more mir
rors. The method is simple and reliable for applications where its optical characteristics
suffice.
The angle of view is that subtended by the shield opening at the observer’s point of view.
Though direct radiation is avoided by a single reflection outside of the shield, air scatter
ing at even moderate activity levels encourages that the shield opening be a minimum and
some distance above the observer. The latter distance can be reduced by making additional
turns in a shielded labyrinth. In either case, a static angle of view of 20° would be con
sidered exceptionally large and many installations have 10° or less.
The static angle of view can easily be supplemented by a scanning mirror inside the
shield. The scanned angle can approach 90°, but the scanning mirror becomes quite large
beyond 60°, especially if coupled with a large static angle of view. One or both of the usual
mirrors inside the shield can readily be made translatable to achieve a variety of view
points. The orientation of the view varies during scanning or translation, which may be
confusing to the inexperienced observer at his fixed viewing station. An other-than-normal

888
REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

º “...a S.A.'cº aſ asºa '. A',

43%
- • *, *, 'A
*. a '..sº tºº.
-- . -

à WALL SECTION

| N

%
WINDOW DETAIL

Fig. 7.2.6—A Composite Window for High-level Applications. Submitted by

Argonne National Laboratory, May 28, 1952. A, dense lead glass (two or more
sections may be liquid-laminated with monochlorobenzene, currently used at
HW, or the surfaces may be low-reflection coated); B, zinc bromide; C, non
browning glass and liquid laminant.

orientation is intolerable to the user of a master-slave type of manipulator but is satis

factory for switch-controlled equipment.
The image is perceived at a distance equal to the developed optical length. In practical
designs, this length is two to five times the straight line distance; detail and depth percep
tion are correspondingly impaired. Detail perception can be restored by the use of bin
oculars if the mirrors are front-silvered and of high quality. Such mirrors of large size
are expensive and easily damaged. A larger angle of view and a shortened optical path are
made possible by combining a mirror system with a semi-shielding window placed to
intercept only scattered radiation from the cell interior.

889
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

PERISCOPES

DESCRIPTION

By definition, a periscope may consist of a simple reflection system as described above.

Much improvement in performance is achieved, however, by adding a suitable lens train.
A simple and much used form of periscope consists of a pair of telescopes facing each
other as shown in Fig. 7.2.7 at (A). Military instruments of this type are often called
“sights.” An important optical result is the formation of an image of the observer’s eye
at the entrance pupil, from which point of vantage it can cover a much larger field than
would be possible through the empty periscope tube.
If the hole through which the periscope must be used is long or of small diameter, addi
tional lenses may be added to lengthen the instrument without increasing its diameter, as
shown in Fig. 7.2.7 at (B). Extreme examples of this type are the gastroscope and the
cystoscope for medical use and the borescope for industrial use.
In any region where the rays from each object point are parallel, there is some latitude
in lens separation, allowing an extensible instrument. The periscope may be bent at any
point with the aid of mirrors, or, in the parallel-ray regions mentioned above, with
prisms. Some added protection against radiation may be obtained by filling the optical path
with liquid or glass of the highest optical quality.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

A periscope has the following unique advantages:

(1) For close examination of details, a large image of excellent quality can be achieved
through even a thick shield.
(2) A periscope can be used in conjunction with instruments requiring eye-presence,
such as a microscope or micro-hardness apparatus.
lts disadvantages are:
(1) The observer is closely confined to the eyepiece, which is apt to be tiring and cer
tainly impedes any simultaneous work such as manipulation. This is particularly true of
binocular or stereoscopic instruments.
(2) The usual field of 50° or less is insufficient for over-all observation. Mechanical
scanning helps but is slow and unnatural.
(3) With a basic instrument, only one person at a time may see.
(4) Increasing the versatility of a periscope to overcome the shortcomings of the basic
instrument also increases its complexity and cost.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The design of a high-performance periscope is not simple, and for a large, complex, or
expensive instrument it is strongly urged that the services of a skilled optical designer be
obtained.

OPTICAL COMPONENTS

Several standard periscope or “sight” designs employ lenses which may be adapted to
most needs. “Surplus” lenses may sometimes be used but must be selected for compati
bility if the image is to have good quality. Quite often, certain lenses must be specially
designed, and it is then usually wiser to have the entire periscope designed as a unit.
Periscope components made of standard optical glasses are not resistant to darkening
by gamma and other high-energy radiations. This shortcoming can be mitigated by placing

890
 REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

– ExIT PUPIL–
(POSITION OF EYE) -

- -THIRD
EYEPIECE TELESCOPE

FOURTH º
ERECTOR {}
º
º
§
Ay
K/
Å) REGION OF
{} PARALLEL RAYS

THIRD
ERECTOR
º

| SECOND –
- TELESCOPE -SECOND
TELESCOPE
º (EXTENDER)

> –SECOND -
ERECTOR

REGION OF - REGION OF
PARALLEL RAYS PARALLEL RAYS

§
&
ºf ES FIRST – º
§ ERECTOR

| FIRST º |- FIRST
TELESCOPE TELESCOPE
OBJECTIVE
ASSEMBLY

ENTRANCE PUPIL
(POSITION OF SCANNER)
(A) (B)

OBJECT

Fig. 7.2.7 — (A) A Simple Periscopic Sight. (B) Same with Extender Lenses.
Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, May 28, 1952.

891
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

shielding around the optical glass parts which are closest to the source of radiation. Two
alternatives are available: (1) Cerium-stabilized radiation-resistant optical glasses are
known, but lenses made of them are not commercially available at this writing; (2) achro
matic lenses that withstand intense radiation with minor effects can be made from styrene
and acrylic resins. The best of the resin lenses are polymerized in a mold, and if the
quantity involved is sufficient, they may be molded at a cost comparable to that of glass
lenses.

DIMENSIONS

The relationship of the length of a periscope to its diameter has an important bearing on
its performance. “Real” field of view (defined below), magnification, eye relief, and image
quality usually require a length: diameter ratio of 30:1 or less. The diverging bundles of
parallel rays between the erectors of Fig. 7.2.7 require either that the separation of the
erectors be small or that the size of the second one be large.

EXTENSIBILITY

An extensible periscope can be made by providing for variable extension in any region
where the image-forming rays are parallel. For a simple instrument having an aspect
ratio of 25:1, the practical limit of the maximum length: minimum length is about 3:2.
Consideration of Fig. 7.2.7 will show that if the separation is made too great some rays
will fail to pass through the second erector, and the field will be curtailed. Eye relief will
also decrease unless special designs are used.

ANGULAR FIELD OF VIEW

The “apparent” angle of view of a periscope is that subtended by the field which the
observer sees from the exit pupil. An upper limit to this angle is set by the problems of
eyepiece design. Conventional eyepieces allow an apparent angle of up to 40° or 50° before
aberrations become intolerable. The “real” angle of view is that subtended at the entrance
pupil by the field which the periscope covers without scanning. This real angle equals, by
definition, the apparent angle of view divided by the angular magnification of the instru
ment. It has a normal upper limit of 40° to 50° for the same reasons that influence eye
piece design. It can, however, be made as large as 90° by accepting fractional magnifica
tion, some curvature of field, and other distortion. Limitations encountered elsewhere in
the periscope design may further limit the angles of view.

MAGNIFICATION

Instrument magnification is the ratio of the apparent angle to the real angle of view.
Usual values for this ratio are between unity and 2. It can be made much larger but at the
expense of light intensity, image quality, or simplicity of design; in addition, the field of
view may become so narrow that the observer may lose orientation and his concept of
spatial relationship. If high magnification is required only intermittently, a turret of ob
jective or eyepiece lenses or, at greater expense, a “zoom” arrangement can be pro
vided. The apparent magnification increases considerably as the object is brought quite
close to the objective lens. Although a system designed for viewing distant objects will not
work as well for very close objects, a surprisingly large latitude in object-objective dis
tance is possible with a low-power periscope, and where occasion demands, quite high
magnifications may be obtained in this way.

EYE RELIEF

In general, the greater the eye relief, i.e., the distance between the eye lens of an eye
piece and the exit pupil, the larger the exit pupil will be, although its actual size depends

892
REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

upon the elements of the periscope. In celestial telescopes and other instruments where
high resolution is important, best results are achieved by design which results in a small
exit pupil and small eye relief. For persons engaged in manipulation and manual control,
it is desirable to have both large enough to allow considerable freedom of motion of the
head and body. This is usually, though not necessarily, achieved by low magnification.

SCANNING

The usefulness of a periscope is greatly increased if the line of sight emerging from the
objective lens can be deflected through a variable angle. Such provision enables the ob
server to scan the interior of a cell and view a larger area than the static angle of view
permits. The simplest means for achieving this is a small prism or mirror arranged to
pivot in front of the objective lens. By rotating the prism or mirror around two axes, an
entire hemisphere is easily covered. With either of these simple provisions, however, the
orientation of the view is altered. Reflection causes an inversion of field, and rotation
causes the field to revolve in the eyepiece, either of which can be compensated by addi
tional optical elements.

DEPTH PERCEPTION (BINOCULAR DESIGNS)

Although some depth perception is possible with a monocular instrument because of eye
accommodation and perspective effects, true stereopsis and eye convergence depend upon
the use of a dual instrument, which might be termed a “binocular periscope.” The optical
and mechanical problems attending a versatile binocular periscope are formidable, and the
need for stereovision should be clearly established before a design is attempted.

BORESCOPES

Often it is necessary to inspect the inside surface of a slender tube or similar configura
tion or to pass the whole length of a long periscope through a small opening. The name
“borescope” is given to this type of periscope. For use in an unlighted tube, the head may
be provided with a small lamp near the objective lens. Scanning is usually done by rotating
the whole instrument which is provided with a fixed mirror and by moving it back and
forth along the tube. Variable power and similar features common to other periscopes are
usually omitted.
An inherent optical defect of the borescope is curvature of the field, the center seeming
to be much nearer than the edge. This is an additive effect requiring special compensation
in a train of erectors. Although it is often tolerable to the eye, it is troublesome when a
camera is to be used to record the image.
In periscopes of this slender construction with a multiplicity of lenses in train, resolu
tion is not as good as in an instrument of the same length but which is not so restricted in
diameter.

REPRESENTATIVE INSTALLATIONS

The following descriptions and illustrations indicate the size, complexity, and cost of a
wide range of instruments. In general, mechanical construction costs account for 80 to 90
percent of the prices given, which are based on current production in small lots by one of
the lower bidders; commercial bids may range up to 10 times the given figure.

SHORT SCANNING PERISCOPE, FIG. 7.2.8

This simple instrument was inserted at an angle of 45° through a 24-in. concrete wall to
enter the enclosure near an inside corner. The enclosure was scanned by rotating the
entire tube and pivoting the scanning mirror. Mirror reversal and rotation of the field

893
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

INTERIOR OF
HOT CELL

Fig. 7.2.8—Short Scanning Periscope. Submitted by Argonne National Labo

ratory, May 28, 1952.

during scanning were not objectionable since the contents of the cell were well known. The
real field is about 25° and the power unity, except for very near objects. $800 to $1200.

CORNER PERISCOPE, FIG. 7.2.9

This instrument is optically similar to that shown in Fig. 7.2.8 but utilizes four bends to
baffle out the radiation. Two mirrors are used at the objective to yield uninverted images.
Scanning is accomplished by pivoting the first mirror and by motorized rotation of the
head. The real field is about 25° and the power unity, except for close objects. $2000 to
$2500.

894
REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

.g. * * or "..
. .
a .9 °ºs
. ... O a 'o' --
s.
wo. No ** @. º • ‘w w
-Q a > 0.9.3 °: . o
-

2 a. 3.0. No. 9.4:3

Fig. 7.2.9–Corner Periscope. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, May 28, 1952.

895
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

SADDLE PERISCOPE, FIG. 7.2.10

This instrument is similar in optical design to those shown in Figs. 7.2.8 and 7.2.9,
except that it also contains unit power extenders to keep the tube diameter small. It is
designed to rest on or ride along the top of a lead wall. Scanning is done by manually
turning the head and mirror. The scanning end, comprising the objective and first erector,
may be raised or lowered. The eye end is also extensible to accommodate persons of dif
ferent heights. Real field is about 25° and power, unity. $2000 to $2500.

SPOT MAGNIFIER, FIG. 7.2.11

This low-cost magnifier will serve where a 2x to 5× magnification of only a small area
is required. It should be made of noncoloring glasses. A pair of achromats a few inches
from the sample provides the prime magnification. The image thus formed at infinity is
focused at normal reading distance by a large simple lens. The image is inverted, but if
necessary a 4-mirror erector system may be added. $100 to $200.

OVER-ALL VIEWER, FIG. 7.2.12

The short-focus objective of this periscope forms a reduced image in or near the rear
surface of the third element. Using a Bausch and Lomb No. 28 aspheric condenser fol
lowed by a Cinephor No. 20 aspheric condenser, selected for quality and properly spaced,
the image is rectilinear. As shown in the figure, a bi-convex spherical element may be
added to increase the field angle. A transfer system of two achromats forms a final erect
image near the large (8- to 10-in.-diameter) field lens. No eye lens is used. Since the
rays from any object point proceed beyond the field lens in an expanding cone, binocular
observation with the unaided eyes is possible if the head is placed at an appropriate dis
tance. Field curvature must be corrected for photographic use. Chromatic and spherical
aberration, which are both considerable, are limited in effect since the aperture-stop of
the system is the pupil of the eye. The instrument is not a substitute for a conventional
periscope but can fulfill the occasional need for a very wide (90°) real angle of view. $750
to $2000.

HIGH-POWER MICROSCOPE-PERISCOPE COMBINATION, FIG. 7.2.13

Where high magnification is required, the microscope should be inside the irradiated
area; the image so formed can then be transferred through the shield by a conventional
periscope. To put the periscope first and the microscope outside the shield would require
that the former be capable of good resolution with powers equivalent to those of the latter.
One obvious disadvantage is that standard microscope objective lenses color rapidly under
the intense radiation. Another is the complexity of focusing and other manipulations. An
advantage is that the conventional periscope through the shield may serve other purposes
when not used with the microscope.

LOW-POWER PERISCOPE COMBINATION, FIG. 7.2.14

This binocular arrangement consists of two identical trains of lenses, with mirrors so
arranged that the divergent beams from the image duplicate those from the object. Both
object and image are at the principal foci of the lenses closest to them. The chief limitation
of this instrument is the relative apertures of these lenses. If their diameters are too
small in relation to their focal lengths, the field of view in the microscope will be dimin
ished, especially for higher powers. A stereoscopic camera arrangement may be substi
tuted for the binocular microscope, but field curvature is encountered. Powers up to 30x
are feasible. $1000 to $2500.

896
 s REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2
va
ſº
wu
tae
wa
！ …
ºſº
\，,
----

ſ:

. 7.2.10–Saddle Periscope. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, May 28, 1952.

897
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

OBJECT

ſ
|
2 º

$3.

SPOT MAGNIFIER

% –%

OBSERVER

Fig. 7.2.11—Spot Magnifier. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, May 28, 1952.

898
 899
· ZI ‘Z’L “8ț¢I
'zg6I ‘8z Kew ‘ÁJoyeuoqe I IeuoņeN auuoº iv Kq paņſuuqns JameſAIIe-JaaO–
CHAP. 7.2

TTVM n&H1
NOILOBS TW70|1}}B^
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~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~~
~~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~
· ·-

ZZZZZZZZZZ
· ·· · ··· · ·· · · · · ç , ， ， v.
č :p. .· · · ·
7. （ º ; …º, ， ， ， . . . . . . . »
REMOTE VIEWING

' ，'
’|

-
7 .

Q
sº
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

Fig. 7.2.13–See facing page for legend.

900
REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

Fig. 7.2.13 — High-power Microscope-periscope Combination. Submitted by

Argonne National Laboratory, May 28, 1952.

901
 HANDLING AND CONTROL

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º| 7· · ·•º’ ' ’--º ,（º.ſ.Z
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•
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!º 242
CHAP. 7.2

902
REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

BORESCOPE, FIG. 7.2.15

This instrument was built to provide inspection of process tubes in a reactor. The de
sign illustrated was 1; in. in diameter and capable of extension to 50 ft or more by the
addition of successive 8-ft or 4-ft sections. A 4-ft section contained two identical erector
lenses with parallel rays between them and their principal foci near the ends of the tube,
optically arranged as in Fig. 7.2.7 at (A). An 8-ft section contained four such lenses,
optically arranged as in Fig. 7.2.7 at (B). All sections of equal length were completely
interchangeable. Price with terminal sections and 48 ft of extenders, $4500 to $15,000.

ELEVATOR PERISCOPE, FIGS. 7.2.16, 17, 18

The objective and first erector are set horizontally with scanner and other optical parts.
Scanning is horizontal only. This assembly moves vertically from top to bottom of the hot
cell. The light-beam from it is reflected down to a tilting mirror from the upper portion
of the cell and up from the lower portion. As in Fig. 7.2.8, the receiving portion of the
periscope is horizontal and inclined at an angle to provide maximum baffling of high
energy radiations from the interior of the hot cell.
Figure 7.2.17 shows the moving portion of the periscope, exposed by rolling the steel
door aside, and a viewing tube through another door to a second system. Fig. 7.2.18 shows
the exterior with both doors closed and the entire unit in operation. $5000 to $7500.

TELEVISION

Television may be useful when:

(1) The operation is so hazardous or inaccessible as to require viewing from a distance
or more than about 100 ft.
(2) Simultaneous observation of widely separated points, by one operator or at one con
trol station, is required.
(3) The view must be brought out around numerous bends or obstructions.
(4) Viewing equipment must be provided in a minimum of time, as in case of catastrophe.
As of this writing, the view possible with the best of commercially available television
equipment is inferior to that of even a moderately good periscope if an all-optical method
is possible. Table 7.2.4 lists some characteristics of the major wired TV systems.
If the best of these pictures is viewed from a distance such that it subtends the usual
camera field of 40°, the resolution is about 5’ compared with the 1' of which the human eye
is capable. The image is further degraded by limited contrast ratio and linearity,
Since the image has no depth, television cannot provide eye-accommodation effects to
aid depth perception. Several varieties of stereotelevision have been demonstrated, how
ever. In each, the eyes are provided with displaced viewpoints, an important factor in
depth perception.
Available commercial wired-television chains have been considerably improved in sim
plicity and reliability over earlier models. In mockups and installations, however, they
require frequent service and adjustment, and skilled technicians are a practical necessity.
At least one complete stand-by unit should be provided if reasonably uninterrupted service
is expected.

903
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

VIEWING HEAD
AND LAMP

8 FT. 4 FT
SECTION SECTION

= E §:
-
-- -

= =

CROSSARM AND EYEPIECE

Fig. 7.2.15–Borescope. Submitted by Argonne National Laboratory, May 28, 1952.

904
REMOTE VIEWING CHAP. 7.2

~ >

º <".
N
Thºlº
+-steel DOOR

síº. | MOVING UNIT

TILTING MIRROR

—#E:

Fig. 7.2.16—Elevator Periscope Schematic. Submitted by Argonne National

Laboratory, May 28, 1952.

905
Chap. 7.2 hand LING AND CONTROL

Fig. 7.2.17—Moving Unit with Door Open. Submitted by Argonne National Labo
ratory, May 28, 1952.

906
REMOTE VIEWING Chap. 7.2

º|º -
-

º Nº. º

Fig. 7.2.18–Elevator Periscope with Cell in Operation. Submitted by Argonne

National Laboratory, May 28, 1952.

907
CHAP. 7.2 HANDLING AND CONTROL

Table 7.2.4—Commercial” Wired TV Chains

Resolution, Pickup tube Light level

Designation Type effective lines type requiredt

DuMont Color 450–500 Image Orthicon Medium

Remington-Rand B&W 300 Vericon High
“Vericon.”
RCA “Vidicon.” B&W 300 Vidicon High
Remington Rand Color 350 Image Orthicon Medium
Diamond Power B&W 250–300 Image Dissector Very high
Specialties Corp.

*There are many other suppliers, not listed here, who should be investigated at the time of
actual purchase. Their products are generally not as standardized as those shown
fAn image orthicon, without filters, would require “low” lighting level

REFERENCES

1. W. B. Doe, ANL Memo Report, Aug. 22, 1951 (classified).

2. W. B. Doe, ANL report, to be published.
3. Specifications and Requirements for Optical Grade Zinc Bromide Solution, ANL, July 8, 1952.
4. Nonbrowning Lime Glass for Shielding Windows, ANL, Aug. 15, 1950.
5. R. H. Kernohan and G. M. McCammon, Fading Characteristics of Gamma Induced Coloration in High Density Glass, ORNL-975,
19 pp, Mar. 20, 1951.
6. Paper 31, ANL-4670, 368 pp, May 16-18, 1951 (classified).

SELECTED READING LIST

NATIONAL NUCLEAR ENERGY SERIES, Div. IV, Vol. 8, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1954.
FUNDAMENTALS OF OPTICAL ENGINEERING, D. H. Jacobs, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1943.
The PRINCIPLES OF OPTICs, A. C. Hardy and F. H. Perrin, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1932.

908
 CHAPTER 7.3

Hot Laboratories

D. F. Uecker

Shielding, handling, and viewing means are necessary in most experiments involving
radioactivity. For a single-purpose facility accommodating a production or routine ana
lytical process, the treatment of these topics elsewhere” in this handbook may suffice. In
the case of an experimental facility or hot laboratory, the design problems are more com
plex. The nature of future experiments and the equipment to be employed may vary widely
and may be quite unpredictable at the time the facility is constructed. If the activity to be
handled is on the order of many curies of fission-product activity, a hot laboratory will
represent a major investment.
The need for versatility has been generally recognized, but different approaches to it
have been made. A choice may be made between the following extremes: (1) initially pro
viding a permanent shield with general-purpose manipulators and viewing means adequate
for any experiment or (2) initially providing only a shield having many access ports or
easily altered sections for viewing and remote-handling equipment devised specifically
for each experiment.
The high-level gamma laboratories described belowf represent various compromises of
these viewpoints. The descriptions are arranged in approximately descending order of the
emphasis placed on achieving versatility with original equipment, and the number of ex
amples has been held to the minimum necessary to illustrate this range of choice. The
approach for any such installation should be essentially an economic one, in which the cost
of the original facilities, experimental equipment, operating time, and decontamination time
are duly weighted.

ANL PHYSICS AND METALLURGY FACILITIES

DESCRIPTION

Two caves of the type illustrated in Figs. 7.3.1, 7.3.2, and 7.3.3 have been in operation
for two years. The floor area is 6 x 10 ft surrounded on three sides by a three-foot thick
ness of magnetite concrete. The fourth side consists of two steel doors, 14 in. thick, which

*See: “Radiation Shielding,” Vol. 1, Sect. 2; “Remote Handling,” Vol. 2, Chap. 7.1; “Remote
Viewing,” Vol. 2, Chap. 7.2.
t Only facilities for solid-state work are included. The chemistry of radioactive materials, fortu
nately, can often be carried out by fluid flow in closed sytems, with little need for remote handling.
The contamination hazard attending the handling of liquids and powdered materials in beakers and the
like encourages the former approach wherever possible.

909
CHAP. 7.3 HANDLING AND CONTROL

* Mºst
Nºt Arnº

Fig. 7.3.1— Operating Side of ANL Cave. Photo submitted by Argonne.

roll apart on overhead trolleys to uncover an opening 6 ft wide by 7 ft high. There is no

stepped threshold so that experimental apparatus mounted on castered dollies can easily
be rolled into and out of the cave. Two 30- X 36-in. zinc bromide windows are installed in
the front wall with a single, smaller window in each end wall. Sodium-vapor lights are
distributed around all of the edges of the front-wall windows to furnish diffuse, shadowless
lighting of any apparatus viewed through these windows. Two Mod. 6* master-slave ma
nipulators are mounted on a single carriage which can be moved across the width of the
cave in a horizontal slot in the front wall. A 1000 lb-capacity crane is situated between
the manipulators to perform heavy lifting. Movable blocks of steel close up that part of the
slot not occupied by the carriage. The working volume of the manipulators is the 36-in. by
48-in. by 10-ft space just inside the front wall windows. A row of general-purpose access
holes is provided under each window, and other holes specifically designed for periscope
observation, photography, and specimen introduction are situated at planned positions. No
portion of the shield is capable of easy alteration for additional access.

* For a description of this manipulator see Fig. 7.1.16 of this section.

910
HOT LABORATORIES CHAP. 7.3

Fig. 7.3.2—ANL Cave; Rear Side with Access Doors Open. Photo submitted by
Argonne.

OPERATION

Equipment for such standard metallurgical procedures as determination of specific grav

ity, hardness, electrical resistivity, and surface roughness has been developed and suc
cessfully used. Less usual operations, such as the removal of tightly driven and corroded
screwed fastenings and the machining of non-fissionable materials, have also been accom
plished. In these operations, the manipulators have been used not only to transport and
position the specimen but also to operate the equipment wherever their capabilities in
strength, stiffness, or dexterity were not exceeded. Specifically: a standard Rockwell hard
ness tester is completely operated by the manipulators with no alteration other than an ex
tension of the cocking lever; the table screws of a small milling machine are turned by the
manipulators with crank handles substituted for the handwheels; the coarse focus of a mi
croscope is adjusted with the manipulators, but the fine focus is electrically motorized; an
impact wrench is spring-supported from the 1000-lb crane but directed and operated with
the manipulators; the knee and table motions of a large milling machine are brought out by
chain drives and shafts through access holes for manual operation; the manipulators are

911
CHAP. 7.3 HANDLING AND CONTROL

Fig. 7.3.3—Interior of ANL Cave. Photo submitted by Argonne.

used to insert the crane hook and steady the load during heavy lifting.
Unaided vision through the front windows, sometimes supplemented by low-powered bin
oculars and views through the end windows, has been adequate for the above operations.
Dial gauges, micrometer graduations, and the illuminated scale of an analytical balance are
regularly read through the windows with binoculars. Magnified surface examinations and
photographs have been made by periscope, but no periscopes have been built or used to
supplement the windows for general viewing.

DECONTAMINATION

Experimental set-ups are frequently replaced since the cave space is too small to permit
leaving idle equipment in place. The dollies on which experimental equipment is mounted
are equipped with table-like tops which extend a foot or so beyond the apparatus. Polythene
sheeting is used to cover the table top and mask off as much of the apparatus as can be done
without interfering with manipulation. For the usual measurements of physical properties,
the apparatus is not enclosed in a hood as this would seriously hinder manipulator operation.
After experiments involving clean, corrosion-free specimens, the apparatus is manually
wiped to remove loose particles, usually leaving a fixed contamination of less than 10–15
mr/hr. With corroded specimens or containers, particles of which flake off, or after ma
chining non-fissionable materials, the apparatus and table top are first brushed and wiped
down using the manipulators. An operator wearing an assault mask completes the cleanup
of loose particles. The apparatus is not removed from the cave until a fixed-contaminatio:
level of 10–50 mr/hr is achieved. The average time required for such a procedure is
four hours.

912
 HOT LABORATORIES CHAP. 7.3

WAPD PHYSICS AND METALLURGY FACILITIES

DESCRIPTION

The cave shown in Figs. 7.3.4, 7.3.5, and 7.3.6 has been in operation for two years. A
floor area of 6 × 60 ft is shielded by magnetite concrete walls three feet thick. This area
is divided by 8-in.-thick steel barriers into five cells of equal size. The top of the cave
is covered with one-foot-thick concrete slabs laid crosswise; these slabs can be removed
by an overhead crane to install or remove large or heavy equipment. Vertically sliding,
10-in.-thick steel doors in the back wall provide access into each cell for personnel and
, light equipment. The threshold of these doors is about 3 ft above outside floor level. Two
35- × 31-in. windows in the front wall permit vision into each cell. Six of the windows are
! glass-filled; the remaining four are water-filled since certain experiments do not require
the full shielding ability of the cave walls. Sodium-vapor lights are distributed along the
top and sides of each window, and fluorescent lighting is provided for standby use. Three
types of handling equipment operate on rails running the entire length of the cave: a one
ton crane for heavy lifting; two General Mills manipulators” for intermediate hoisting and
ſ manipulation, and two Argonne-built light-duty manipulators” for operation in restricted
spaces. The barriers between cells terminate just below rail level and consist partly of a
door which opens to allow the manipulators to pass from cell to cell. The spaces between
the top of the barriers and the ceiling of the cave are closed by vertically sliding gates of
1-in. boiler plate. Vertical rows of 3-in.-diameter access holes are provided between win
dows for electrical and fluid conduits; 6-in.-diameter holes are provided over each window
for general-purpose periscopes and transfer-type optical systems.

OPERATION

Sufficient cells and work stations are available so that some equipment has been perma
nently installed. Equipment for many of the metallurgical and metallographic tests and
procedures has been modified and successfully used in the cells; a listing to date would in
clude a small milling machine, power hack-saw, punch press, analytical balances, hardness
:: * testers, impact tester, profilometer, specimen mounting press, polishing equipment, and
ºf macro- and microphotographic equipment. The manipulators are used mainly to transport
º and position specimens in the various pieces of apparatus, most of which are power driven
gº so that they can be operated independently of the manipulators. Control boxes for the ma
** nipulators and some of the apparatus are visible in the photographs.
DECONTAMINATION

The operating side of the cave is separated from the access side by a wall in which the
- º, only door
leads through a clothing-change and wash room; this arrangement tends to con
º fine contamination to the access side. Loose contamination is usually cleaned up by opera
º ...tors who enter the cells at the completion of an experiment. Ventilation and filtration
ht equipment of sufficient capacity has been installed to exhaust 500 cfm continuously from
each cell and maintain an air velocity of 180 fpm through any open cell door.
;

** HW METALLURGY CELLS

ºº
* DESCRIPTION
lſº
lºgº Four cells, as illustrated in Fig. 7.3.7 (A), are scheduled for early construction. Opera
** ting experience with these is lacking, excepting that similar cells built of lead brick have
*
ºf * For a description of these manipulators, see Figs. 7.1.8 and 7.1.11 of this section.

913
HANDLING AND CONTROL

'OldVAA 44 pºſſumqne oyoqdi 'eawo gawa yo mwa waewaedo–ſyºsº）, ºº!，

ſi ：（og indo
id：ww ， !· ·· ·
-· Bºuſſoºsv.
5 （11）. Tiº º BN30
?
CHAP. 7.3

914
HOT LABORATORIES CHAP. 7.3

Powe R AND CONTROL

cºurts FOR BALANCE

Fig. 7.3.5— WAPD Cave; Typical Equipment Installation. Photo submitted by

WAPD.

been used for several years. The cells have an interior volume of 52 x 52 x 72 in. with
steel walls either 10% or 15 in. thick. The end walls are contained in guides and may be
raised by means of an overhead crane to insert or remove equipment. One hundred and
forty holes of 7% in. diameter are provided in the sides and top of each cell; these holes
can be stopped against radiation with any of the plugs shown at (B).

OPERATION

Apparatus will be mounted on pallets which will be lifted into position by a fork truck.
Each experiment will be planned so that much of the specimen handling and all control or
operation of the equipment can be accomplished by electrical motorization or by mechani
cal connection through access plugs. Careful location of the pallet will ensure that the ap
paratus will line up with the planned access holes. The Hanford slave manipulator* is
designed so that it can be inserted through an access hole at any time and by working only

* For a description of this manipulator see Fig. 7.1.18 of this section.

915
HANDLING AND CONTROL

"CIdV^^ ^q pºſſumqne oyoqdi 'lloo qarvaa jo uoſ requq-9“ sºl, *?!）

saeidae^-，
ſaenaeae
803 8000 º aſsºvº
eolae ina inviw
Hae，
… （…），
1， … ：） --º
CHAP. 7.3

916
HOT LABORATORIES CHAP. 7.3

8 9 |O
Fig. 7.3.7—(A) HW Metallurgy Cell; (B) Access
Hole Plugs.
1. Solid steel 6. Lead-glass viewer
2. Thermocouple 7. Manipulator
3. Air flow 8. Electrical service
4. Air and gas service 9. Electrical service
5. Lighting 10. Sample entry
Drawing prepared at Argonne after a drawing
submitted by Hanford.

917
CHAP. 7.3 HANDLING AND CONTROL

from the outside. It will be used to receive the specimen at the “sample entry” plug and
transfer it to the special handling devices. It will also be used, probably, to cope with any
handling emergency that might arise from a shortcoming or malfunction of the special
purpose equipment.

DECONTAMINATION

The base of each cell contains the blowers and filters necessary to decontaminate the
air leaking through cracks and through the “air flow” plugs that will be deliberately pro
vided to control air flow in the cell. Contamination-collecting funnels or other anti
contamination means to be developed for each apparatus will accumulate heavier chips
and particles for removal in cardboard cartons. At the completion of an experiment, radia
tion probes will be introduced through access holes to survey the apparatus, which will not
be removed from the cell until the level is 50 mr/hr or less at 2 ft. Special decontamina
tion cells will be provided in th; building for more complete treatment.

KAPL RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS LABORATORY

DESCRIPTION

Two caves, illustrated in Figs. 7.3.8, 7.3.9, and 7.3.10 have recently been placed in serv
ice. The two caves are built back-to-back to utilize a common wall. The floor area of each
is 6.5 x 25.5 ft. A 12-in.-thick steel door can be closed to separate the 6.5 x 19-ft working
area from the remainder of the cave, constituting a radiation lock. The outer ends of the
locks are closed by 15-in.-thick steel doors. The walls are of magnetite concrete, 3 ft
thick.
The operating wall of each cave is divided into 3 modules 5 ft wide. Each module has
three removable rectangular plugs set into the wall, each having many access holes of a
standard size on a standard spacing. The plugs are steel boxes filled with loose iron ore
so that special openings can be provided without great difficulty as the occasion demands.
Additional access holes pass through the permanent concrete.
The first viewing system provided is a mirrored labyrinth passing through a slot at the
top of each module. The slot is partially shielded by a 6-in.-thick glass window. The mid
dle removable plug in each module is being replaced with a zinc bromide and lead-glass
window.
A carriage having vertical and horizontal degrees of freedom runs along rails on the
rear wall of each cell. To the carriage can be mounted one of the various attachments
including a mirror to supplement viewing a wrist joint for general-purpose manipulation,
a standard specimen-can handler, and a television camera.
Rails are provided on the inside of the operating wall so that experimental equipment
can be rolled into working position in the cell.

OPERATION

Many of the features of this installation were designed to accommodate experiments with
a high contamination potential. It was planned that such experiments would be set up in
dust-tight isolation boxes, access to which would be through a double-doored contamination
lock. The radioactive specimen would be placed in the lock by means of the rear-wall ma
nipulator, and the outer door would be closed. All subsequent manipulation of the specimen
and operation of the equipment would be carried out with a small manipulator* contained
wholly within the box and with special-purpose devices prepared as a part of each particu
lar apparatus.

*Details were not available, since the manipulator had not been completely developed at this writ
ing.

918
HOT LABORATORIES CHAP. 7.3

º
|LABYRINTH

Fig. 7.3.8—KAPL Cell; Outside of Operating Wall. Photo submitted by KAPL.

Experience has indicated that the contamination potential attending many experiments is
sufficiently low so that operation need not be limited to the above technique. In such cases,
one or more walls of the isolation box may be omitted, allowing participation by a manipu
lator mounted outside of the box. The back-wall manipulator, with its general-purpose
wrist-joint attachment, is being so used, and a master-slave manipulator capable of easy
insertion through the front wall is to be added in the near future.

DECONTAMINATION

Each isolation box is equipped with a small blower and filters with which the interior is
held at a slight negative pressure. At the conclusion of an experiment involving little con
tamination hazard, it should be possible to remove the box directly to “cold” storage. If
the apparatus is slightly contaminated, it will be moved to a decontamination cell where the
back of the isolation box may be removed and replaced with a glove panel. At higher levels,
the back may be removed in the cave and a preliminary cleanup made with the manipulator.
In the worst case, the box can be removed from the cave in a shielded dolly for hot stor
age or burial.

919
CHAP. 7.3 HANDLING AND CONTROL

º
º
**

* **

Fig. 7.3.9—Interior of KAPL Cell. Photo submitted by KAPL.

HW MULTICURIE CELLS

This group of cells was recently placed in service and is especially noteworthy because
of its unusual wall construction.*
As seen in Figs. 7.3.11 and 7.3.12, the operating walls consist of 9-in.-thick steel blocks
bolted to a row of vertical stepped-steel columns. The blocks are also stepped in the verti
cal direction, the larger ones increasing in height. The smaller blocks are used to chink
the gap and do not extend to the inner face. A variety of the larger blocks is available to
provide windows of dense lead-glass, thimbles for fluid and electrical conduit, and access

*A more complete description will be found in the report on the second Information Meeting on Hot
Laboratories and Equipment, held at ORNL on October 7, 8, and 9, 1952, to be published.

920
HOT LABORATORIES CHAP. 7.3

GLASS window

LINE OF SIGHT
THROUGH MIRROR
SYSTEM
MANIPULATOR
ISOLATION
dox
TYPICAL contROL
PLUG

REMOVABLE
SHIELDING PLUG (3)

|NTERCHANGEABLE HEAD

4
- * * *

CLIII-I- SAMPLE ENTRY MECHANISM

APPROx SCALE o º 2 3

Fig. 7.3.10–Cross Section of KAPL Cave. Drawing prepared at Argonne from

sketches and photos from KAPL.

holes through which larger apparatus, including the Hanford slave* manipulator, may be
passed.
The utilities blocks have their central portion of cast lead which can be easily melted
out and re-poured to accommodate a new thimble pattern. Handling equipment is avail
able with which these blocks may be readily rearranged. Such construction, which is re
portedly competitive costwise with cast dense concrete, approaches the ultimate in its
capability of being remodelled to accommodate a particular experiment.

* For a full description of this manipulator, see Fig. 7.1.18 of this section.

92.1
 HANDLING AND CONTROL

^N\
%， z
№
NèYRĘ

Fig. 7.3.11—HW Multicurie Cells with Roofs Removed. Drawing submitted by

Hanford, legend added by Argonne.

922
a Loh Saruolvuogvi WHO "d £"L

issiºn

BSN30 Ovº".
ºssºs

"31&I AAH-ZI"g". IIeo uopoes Jo Buſrexedo TsA Bulaous rempow 'uopion1;suoo

o!oud peºpunqns Aq “propush

826
 CHAPTER 7.4

Nuclear Reactor Instrumentation

and Control

J. M. Harrer

The term “control,” as it is applied to a nuclear reactor, refers to devices for changing
reactivity and regulating reactor neutron density or power. Control feasibility is first
considered when a reactor is planned. Simpler control methods are being stressed. The
reactor control picture is changing rapidly, and a basic set of rules or practices valid for
future reactor designs cannot be formulated at this time. It is assumed that the user of
the following data is familiar with mechanical and electrical design practice, including the
basic principles of automatic control and protective interlock system design; therefore,
only values, quantities, or numbers useful for the design of components are given. Refer
ences to complete designs and some qualifying statements are given to illustrate points in
selecting or designing components, but appraisal of a particular design is not intended.
Discussion of what is loosely referred to as “philosophy of reactor control” is avoided be
cause this chapter deals with generalized design.
“Reactor instrumentation” is the term generally applied to neutron-sensitive instru
ments. This field of design is well advanced in many respects since, necessarily, it pre
ceded the reactors themselves. In reactor work, information is channeled from each
sensing instrument through counters, amplifiers, and the like to the operator’s panel;
these assemblies are referred to as “instrument channels.” Many ways of assembling
channels are in use—the selection of any particular method depends upon the reactor de
sign. To present an over-all picture in the following, many typical sensing elements are
catalogued along with some of their operating characteristics. No attempt was made to
evaluate these instrument designs, all of which have been used on reactors or were tested
for use on proposed reactors. The objective is to show a wide variety of possible assem
blies which are in themselves practical units. The balance of an instrument channel is
made up of electrical circuits of which only a few have not already received detailed treat
ment in published works. Very few circuits have been included, and the listed references
should be consulted for information about channel components other than the sensitive
element itself.
Automatic neutron-density regulation has received much attention from designers of
Control systems. The chief difficulty in evaluating these designs is the lack of performance
data obtained when the systems were used to control full-scale reactors. Some data are
included here to permit evaluating the performance of proposed control systems; some
important factors to be considered when designing a system are brought out; and successful
design values are given. All details are omitted, however, except those considered neces
*ary additions to the general knowledge.

925
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

The possibilities of reactor self-regulation through the inherent reactivity stabilizing

effect of temperature is being studied with much interest at present with a view toward
planning safe and mechanically simple reactors. Very few factual data are as yet available,
however.
A discussion of reactor time-dependent behavior is included to make available certain
data taken from electrical analogue studies and frequently used to predict control-system
performance.

CONTROL SYSTEM

A generalized nuclear-reactor control system is shown on Fig. 7.4.1.

The controlled variable is average neutron density. This quantity, designated as n
(neutrons per cubic centimeter), is a direct measure of reactor power production. The
product of n and the neutron velocity (v) in centimeters per second is called the average
neutron flux and designated as nv. This is the quantity measured by a neutron-sensitive
instrument near the reactor core, in the reflector, or in the shield. The absolute value of
flux at the instrument determines the electrical current from the instrument and is a
measure of average neutron density when the element is calibrated against the average re
actor power (shown by coolant temperature rise and flow rate). The power calibration of a
neutron-sensitive instrument sometimes changes as a result of variation in neutron dis
tribution in the reactor.' Instruments used with power reactors in which xenon is a large
effective poison may require frequent calibration because of changes in flux distribution,
especially when the reactor power output is changed. Fast changes in power are measured
with flux-sensitive instruments in fractions of a second. In contrast, the coolant power
measurement is accomplished relatively slowly; measuring time is in the order of minutes.
The control variable is k or ök; k and its effect on neutron density are discussed under
“Reactor Time Dependent Behavior.” The operator determines the position for the control
element by observing the changes in average neutron density indicated by the neutron
sensitive instruments. When starting a reactor or maintaining a power level, he observes
both the rate of change and the magnitude of neutron density. Automatic protective elec
trical circuits supervise his operation and limit the rate of change of flux and its magni
tude to present safe values. These circuits shut the reactor down either slowly or rapidly
as determined by the observed maloperation; this operation is discussed more fully under
“Automatic Protective System.” Accurate position measurement of the control means for
k is most helpful in this operation; the accuracy of measurement is discussed under
“Position Measurement.” Mechanical and electrical interlocks are used to prevent damage
to the control-means drive motors and to prevent improper operating sequences. Tedious
prolonged operation at a fixed power or in a fixed-power range is sometimes assigned to
an automatic flux, power, or temperature controller; this operation is covered under
“Automatic Power Regulation.”

REACTOR TIME DEPENDENT BEHAVIOR

REACTOR EQUATIONS

The important parameters affecting the variation of reactor neutron density as a func
tion of time are k, Ök, Bi, Ai, ci and 1* (see Table 7.4.1). 1* = 1/v2, for a large (infinite)
reactor. The value of 1* varies from 2.3 x 10" sec for a large thermal heavy-water-mod
erated reactor, to as low as 107* for a natural-water-moderated thermal reactor. For

*References appear at end of chapter.

926
 IEMPERATURE
COOLANT
I

Z ATION
|ION
! REACTOR
TEMPERATURE
CHAMBERS
PRIMARY
SENSING
FLOW
8.
neutrons/cm
ELEMENT
ELEMENT
COUNTERS
|i3k
|
INDICATING
RECORDING
|8
CONTROL
AUTOMATIC
INSTRUMENT
INSTRUMENT
MEANS
SAFETY
I
PROTECTIVE
MECHANICAL
INTERLOCKS
*-
SYSTEM
DISPLACEMENT
POWER
—
CALCULATOR
|

POSITION
AUTOMATIC
POWER
-
---
+--
ſMEASUREMENT
nv _
nogator
15REGULATION
# RECORDER
| º <!
|3|0:
Biº
INDICATING
#15
POSITION
AUTOMATIC T
MEASUREMEN
AUXILIARY
R
8 ECORDING
SELECTOR
—l
|NDICATORS
INSTRUMENT SUPPLY
-
I.POWER
LEVEL
RADIATION
2.
TEMP
ELEMENT
3.FUEL
ACTIVITY
4COOLANT
OTHER
5.
l
T-
OPERATOR AUXILIARY
INDICATING
INSTRUMENTS

Ar
by
Submitted
Diagram.
Block
Control
Reactor
— eneralized
7.4.1
GFig.
:
1952.
Sept.
Laboratory,
National
gonne
§
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

Table 7.4.1 — Instrumentation Control Nomenclature

Symbol Definition Units

n Neutron density Neutrons/cu cm

n” Variation in neutron density from a specified density Neutrons/cu cm
no Minimum reactor neutron density in the regulated range Neutrons/cu cm
Ind Demand neutron density for regulation Neutrons/cu cm
nv Neutron flux Neutrons/(sq cm)(sec)
k Thermal-energy neutrons produced per thermal neutron
absorbed in a particular finite reactor Neutrons/neutron
6k Thermal-energy neutrons produced per thermal neutron
absorbed in a particular finite reactor, minus one
(k-1) Neutrons/neutron
1* Mean effective neutron lifetime or the mean time which
elapses from when neutrons are produced until they
return to fission again or are lost to the reaction Seconds
8 Total fraction of delayed neutrons Neutrons/neutron
Bl Fraction of delayed neutrons of group i Neutrons/neutron
A Decay constant for delayed-neutron emitter Seconds"
Ai Decay constant for delayed-neutron emitter of group i Seconds"
c Concentration of delayed-neutron emitter Neutrons/cu cm.”
Ci Concentration of delayed-neutron emitter of group i Neutrons/cu cm”
I Electrical current Amperes
AI Change in electrical current Amperes
E Electrical potential Wolts
AE Change in electrical potential Wolts

high-energy-neutron reactors, 1* is 10" sec or less. These parameters are related to

neutron density (n) by the following simplified equations:
5
dn Ök – 3
dt T
- - *R* n +Xxc i=1

dc i_ 81
1+

The most useful solutions for these equations are obtained from an analogue computer,”
but a useful, very close approximation” is obtained iſ:

C = # ci;
i> l
5k < 3

and an average value of A = 0.1 secT* are used:

n(t) – b – c at + 9 = * ebt (1)

n(0) T b - a b — a

where t = time in seconds:

(2)

928
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

b _ 5k – 7.6
l" × 10-? (3)

6k × 10T,
* T 1: … 10-11. 7.6 × 10−3 – 5k (4)

when the values 1* = 107° sec and 5k = 2.57 x 107* are used in Eq. (1):

"") s et/3600
n(0)

A 5k of 2.57 × 107* is, therefore, frequently referred to as an “inhour” for a reactor with
1* = 107* sec. An inhour is calculated from exact formulas; refer to Vol. 1, Chapter 1.5.
For a reactor with 1* = 107* sec or less, 6k = 2.54 x 107* times the reactivity in “inhours.”
Ök is also given in dollars and cents. The 5k in dollars equals ök/B.
Subcritical reactors where k is less than 1 behave according to Eq. (5) which gives the
equilibrium neutron density approached after infinite time has elapsed. When:

Source in
n = -T-I- (5)

the absolute value of 1 – k is & B this value of n is closely approached in about 1 sec.

INVERSE REACTOR PERIOD

The value 1/n dn/dt is called “inverse reactor period.” It is measured with a period
meter circuit, discussed more fully under “Indicating and Recording Instruments,” and is
used as a guide for the reactor operator. For a supercritical reactor, the inverse period
is a measure of Ök, a short positive period indicating a large positive 5k.
A subcritical reactor having a neutron source will exhibit an apparent period if k is
changed. Figure 7.4.2 shows the reactor power as a function of time for a uniform k rate
of change from 0.667 to above prompt critical where Ök = 3 = 7.6 × 107°.

REACTOR TRANSFER FUNCTION

The transfer-function concept of reactor neutron-density response to 6k variation is

shown on Figs. 7.4.3 and 7.4.4. Ök must be less than 3 and vary harmonically.” The re
actor gain at 0 decibel is set at n’/nök – 136. These curves are used in the synthesis of
the regulating-rod control systems and in experimental work where the effect of an ab
Sorber is to be determined. Basic limitations are discussed in the references.

Ök CONTROL MEANS

The reactor nv may be controlled by mechanically positioning absorber rods, reflector

material, and fuel or by changing the concentration of neutron absorbers in the coolant or
core. Only the mechanically controlled type is treated here. Important factors requiring
control-rod movement are: fuel depletion, fission-product poisoning, and reactor temper
ature changes. Reactors are usually designed to have a negative temperature coefficient
which, in principle, provides inherent nv-regulation since a negative 5k is produced by a

929
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

109 TTI rTri-Errrr I, ºr I TTTI TTTI T-I-T-I TTTT TTTT TTTI TTE

|- Sk = – 333 + 7 x 107*t -
I -

Io’E -

– L
H. -

H -

o'E E

5
—l
g"É E
_J T -i.

or |- CRITICAL -
LL º- | -

ulo"E | -

> E | -

5
Lil
-
-

M.
| –
-

or. | —
|- -
|
IOs |
A.

- I -

T
|-
| / E
-
|

º- |
/ -

2 J.
o'E LTT -

F
|- —PT L-T º
I
-
-

º- -

|
lo'LL Li Li Li Li Li Lil Li Li Li Li LLL LI LLL LLL Li Li Li llllllllllllllll
46O 47O 48O 490
TIME, sec

Fig. 7.4.2 – Relative Power Level as a Function of Time for a k Rate of

Change of 7 x 10" Per Second. Redrawn from Figure 62-4, Robert G. Durnal,
Reactor Kinetics, WAPD-RM-62, Aug. 1951.

930
+8

+6

+4

+2

TS #-Gs
SJ-T-sºlo-"
RN
Nsec
N
N
N
N
Nk.
ºsec

\|||N||
|\
|\
\ W\

\\g".
NEurkon
Lifetime
||N||\
\|\
O
2
O.
5.
2.0
I.O
2O
IOO
50
IO.5
2OO
5oo
IOOO

FREQUENCY,
REACTIVITY
,rod/sec
(a)

7.4.3—
Fig.
Amplitude
Relative
Density
Neutron
Reactor
as
n'
Variation,
aFunction
the
of
for
Frequency
Harmonic
a
Variation
6k
Amplitude.
Small
of
Argonne
by
Submitted
Labo
National
:
Sept.
ratory,
1952.
10,
§ O
:
-Io NS
TH
"sec
|to
5x
*
*
N º
| S-
N-
-20 \
N Lºº.
SSU
22:1. >k.
HiiTº sec
-H
2
P
2.
- NN. S 30
21
osfº
eis x
2
H 40
-

| **:::: M
-50
N N N
.N25
x1*0° NN
Sk
st
~ -60
N N Pºk
–70S
NN N-
N\,
N
Nº-
`S
*
*~ -
60
N-TH
TO-90
NH-
ASYMPTOTIC
ARE
CURVES
|| TH-E-->ERF
FREQUENCIES
oo
AND
O
AT
-90

-loo

Io
-

-120
f-neutron
lifetime
-130

o,5
5
500
IOOO
IOO
50
2O
2OO
I O
I.O.
O.2
O.I
rad/sec
u),
FREQUENCY,
REACTIVITY
ofas
unction
6k
and
n’,
Variation,
Density
Neutron
Reactor
Between
Shift
Fig.
aF7.4.4
P
–hase
Labo
National
Argonne
by
Submitted
Amplitude.
Small
of
6k
in
Harmonic
Variation
a
for
Frequency
1952.
ratory,
12,
Sept.
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

power increase. This regulation will generally be stable in the normal sense (see “Tem
perature Coefficient Power Regulation”) that no continued oscillations will occur if the
combined heat capacity of the reactor, its coolant, and heat exchanger are large, as is the
case with the Experimental Breeder Reactor (EBR). Temperature coefficient is a result
of physical changes in the reactor element size with temperature changes, changes in av
erage neutron energy, doppler broadening of resonance absorption lines and, if the coolant
is a moderator, is largely a result of coolant density changes. Temperature control of the
coolant by varying coolant flowrate is frequently employed to relieve the rods of some of
their duty in offsetting temperature-induced changes in k. Temperature changes may oc
cur rapidly and, if not controlled, must be considered in determining the speed with which
rods are moved. Depletion and poisoning occur more slowly and are seldom factors influ
encing rod-speed design.

CONTROL-ROD DRIVE REQUIREMENTS

Mechanical design of the rod drives cannot be reduced to formula at present. A presen
tation of certain basic requirements is given here to guide the designer. The rod-system
designs covered in references (6) and (7) are recommended as giving a better understand
ing of the requirements. Since a perfect design is sacrificed to certain engineering com
promises, the basic requirements are not always fully met by these referenced designs.

SAFETY RODS

EFFECTIVENESS

Safety rods are designed with an effectiveness large enough to keep k < 1 by 0.1 to 0.2
under all operating conditions.

VELOCITY

Safety rods are generally moved at a uniform displacement rate through their entire
stroke, but their effectiveness in Ök per unit displacement is not uniform. Normally, a
rate is selected which corresponds to about 0.001 at the point where they are changing k
the largest amount per unit displacement. About 5 to 10 min is normally allowed for full
stroke in the direction from maximum effect to the “ready” or minimum effectiveness
position. For safety action (that is, high-speed k change toward the minimum reactor k
position, called “scram”), the velocity is made as high as mechanically feasible. Pro
viding a large negative 5k for “scram” in the first 0.1 sec is important. A value of 0.01
ök in 0.1 sec sometimes is used as a target for design. Scram action should take place
through stored energy sources, such as gravity or springs, with a slower but positive
mechanical-drive follower to back up the primary scram method.

POSITIONING

Safety rods need not be positioned accurately along their stroke. In the “ready” position,
they should be held securely by a quick-release, fail-safe device, such as a holding electro
magnet or electromagnetically operated latch.

RELEASE

Release of the rods from the ready position should be accomplished rapidly and posi
tively. A release time of 0.05 sec after a danger signal is received is usually adequate, but

933
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

faster release is desirable. At the end of the “scram” stroke, the rods must be stopped by
shock absorbers. The effective distance through which these shock absorbers operate
should be held to about 5 percent of the rod stroke or less, if possible.

SHIM RODS

EFFECTIVENESS

Several rods called “shims” are designed into a reactor, each rod with a large 5k ef
fectiveness. They may be designed to act in banks or singly, depending upon the purpose
of the reactor. The total 5k is greater than the sum of k changes owing to the temperature
coefficient, the fission-product poisoning, and the fuel depletion between reloadings.

POSITIONING

The drive motor and mechanical linkages to a rod should be capable of positioning the
rod anywhere in its total stroke so that a resolution corresponding to 0.00002 5k exists at
the most effective rod position. When not being moved, the rods should be held absolutely
still and not allowed to vibrate or move as the result of forces developed on them by the
coolant or by gravity.

VELOCITY

The shim-rod velocity in a direction of positive or negative 5k depends upon the type of
control system being used. A wide velocity range, adjustable after installation on the re
actor, is advisable with a minimum adjustable range of 10-to-1 recommended. The unit
displacement per second is usually set at the point where the rods have the largest Ök per
unit displacement. This value varies widely over the stroke. A maximum 6k per second of
5 x 107* and a minimum of 5 x 10" are used on existing reactors where the operator
positions the shims. Sometimes the shims are positioned automatically by observing the
position of the regulating rod (see “Automatic Regulation of Power”). A maximum 5k per
second equal to about % of the regulating rod maximum speed may then be used but is
usually fixed by general safety considerations. The speed is so dependent upon the con
trol-system design in this case that a value cannot be selected independently.
A “scram” speed as high as possible, about 0.01 per second or more, is sometimes
provided to back up the safety-rod system.

MECHANICAL DESIGN

Shim rods are positioned by means of racks and pinions, lead screws and nuts, cable
hoists, and the like. The primary driving motor may be hydraulic or electrical. Electri
cal motors are used with differential gearing and brakes to provide reliable, very-wide
range speed adjustment.

REGULATING RODS

EFFECTIVENESS

The regulating rod is similar to a shim rod in most of its functions but is usually se
lected for a high effective 5k per unit displacement. The duty of regulating nv in narrow
ranges is assigned to this rod. Its stroke may be mechanically restricted to a region of
linear effect on nv for control purposes.

934
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

POSITIONING

Continuous, accurate positioning is necessary. A resolution of 0.00001 5k is used for

experimental reactors. The rod should be held stationary by a mechanical brake when not
being moved and should be guided to prevent vibration. If proportional feed-back rod
positioning control is provided (see “Automatic Power Regulation”), the brake is not used

VELOCITY

A speed of 10" to 5 x 107* 6k/sec is used for operator positioning of the rod. Speeds
for automatic positioning are discussed under “Automatic Power Regulation.”

SHIM-SAFETY RODS

A shim-safety rod" is one which combines the functions of shim and safety rods. All
values and requirements given for either a shim or a safety rod apply for this rod. It must
position accurately for shim action and move rapidly for “seram” action.

POSITION MEASUREMENT

The position of the control means for Ök is measured and displayed on the operator’s
control panel.

REMOTE-POSITION INDICATORS

These usually are operated by a standard synchrotransmitter and receiver pair having
the torque required to drive the dial selected. An instrument servomechanism for accu
rate rod-position indication" and an indicating system for a sealed reactor" have been
described.

ACCURACY OF MEASUREMENT

For experimental reactors, the rod-position measurement resolution should correspond

to about a 5k of 1 x 10" for at least one rod.

POSITION INDEXING

Accurate indexing should be provided where possible by exposing a mechanical link to

the rod-drive mechanism. The remote indicators on the operator’s panel are set to
correspond to this positive indication. For sealed systems, magnetic detectors must be
used. A special detecting device has been described.”

AUTOMATIC POWER REGULATION

Automatic power regulation is used to relieve the operator of the tedious duty of con
tinually repositioning the rods and to provide more accurate average reactor nV or aver
age temperature regulation. In general, relatively rapid changes are offset by the
designated regulating rod and slow changes by the shims. These rods are discussed under
“ök Control Means.” The principle followed is to provide a feed-back control system to
set the regulating-rod position and then to set the shim positions to keep the regulating rod

935
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

close to an optimum regulating position. The duty of positioning the shim rods is fre
quently left to the operator; however, the usefulness of the automatic system is extended
if a shim-regulating rod tie-in is provided.

REGULATING ROD CONTROL

RANGE

The designated range of maximum 5k control assigned to the regulating rod has a de
cided bearing on the selection of feed-back control-system characteristics. A linear 5k
per unit displacement over the total range is desirable because the 5k per unit displace
ment is part of the system gain and, if large changes are encountered, system tightness
and stability will be affected. For regulating rods with a maximum speed between about
0.02 ök/sec and 0.002 6k/sec, the Ök total is limited to about 0.8 B to limit accidental
short-reactor-period resulting from a rod control system malfunction. For slower rods,
the total rod ók is limited only by the linear range available or the flux distribution dis
tortion which may result from rod movement. For reasonably flexible control in a system
where the shims are not positioned automatically, a desirable 6k value is twice the tem
perature coefficient 5k which results from a power change from 1 percent to 100 percent
of operating power.

REGULATING-ROD CONTROL-LOOP

Figure 7.4.5 shows the regulating-rod control-loop. The purpose of the system is to es
tablish automatically the value Ök = 0 for the reactor at a desired reactor neutron density,
na. The loop disturbance is designated as ok, which represents k change owing to insertion
or removal of experiments, fuel depletion, temperature coefficient, or fission-product
poisoning.
The actual error signal is designed as nºr This error is time dependent upon reactor &k
or frequency dependent as shown in Figs. 7.4.3 and 7.4.4. However, the magnitude of nº is
dependent upon the magnitude of nd and so must be normalized with respect to nd to
present a fixed system gain at the input to the preamplifier. This normalized error is
designated as n}.
The control-loop shown by solid lines can be stabilized by system gain adjustment, but
the dotted internal feed-back loop is usually added to improve operation and system
tightness.
The basic loop design is predicated upon control of Ök which regulates neutron density n
to the desired value n.d.

NORMALIZED ERROR nº

The normalized error nº is equal to na divided by ng. Several methods are available for
obtaining the nº value. This operation adds to control system flexibility but also adds
somewhat to design complexity. Where the range of control to be covered by a system is
over 90 to 100 percent of design power, the change in gain and control accuracy owing to
the use of nº instead of n' is 10 percent. Where the range control can be restricted, the
calculation of né can be eliminated from the system. This is the case with the regulation
scheme of the EBR in which the deflection of a galvanometer, with about a 3-sec period,
was used to determine the difference between the ion chamber current and a fixed bucking
current proportional to the demand ná. Deflection of the galvanometer activates photocells
which operate relays and start the regulating rod running in a direction to make Ök = 0.
One useful method of obtaining n; is presented in Fig. 7.4.6. In this circuit, the load
resistance CR p decreases as reactor power rises. Chamber dynamic resistance AE/AI
also decreases as reactor power rises, and a ratio of 100 between the chamber AE/AI and

936
 :
RPOWER
|
ELECTRO
SHAFT
DRIVE
OD

HIER
MEAMPLIFIER
CHANICALTRANSDUCER Reagbuolartaitnog-ryo,d
7.4.5—
LFig.
National
Argonne
by
Submitted
Loop.
Control
1952.
Sept.

MECHANICAL
LINKAGES

| ---
H
—-—
- |
DAMPING
OR
STABILIZER
INDICATE
LINES
DOTTED
2.
__4|
FEEDBACKNETWORK

—|
r— | | !------

LEGEND

AMPLIFIER LOOP
MAIN
IS
LINE
SOL!D
I.

PRE
Skc
8ks

5k LOOP

REACTOR. n.do
=
nn
+

CHAMBER is
+nd
no
|ON

nv

:
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

the load resistance is needed to ensure a linear relation between reactor ng and chamber
current. With this circuit, the load resistance decreases as the dynamic chamber resist
ance decreases making the ratio more easily obtainable in power range. Another design is
shown in reference (7), Fig. 5.3c, in which the chamber current is fed to the total fixed
potentiometer resistance. For the circuit of Fig. 7.4.6, feedback can be employed at the
input grid of the preamplifier because the grid resistance is constant.
If Rp on Fig. 7.4.6 is made logarithmic, a constant rate of displacement of the arm will
correspond to a constant period of neutron density demand change. This type of potenti
ometer design is very special and costly for total resistance values above 0.5 × 10° ohms.
To reduce complication, the range of control nmax/n, can be limited to 10: Power
changes below nº are then made by lowering vo; however, the gain reduces as vs, and the
accuracy of control is not maintained in this lower range.
Figure 7.4.7 shows a method for obtaining n; over a wide range of n control and pro
viding an instrument calibration adjustment. This system requires an additional amplifier,
but the resistance values are normally lower than those of Fig. 7.4.6.

CONTROL-LOOP CHARACTERISTICS

The control-loop for the regulating rod can be operated as either a proportional regula
ting system or a discontinuous regulating system.
A proportional regulating system is one in which the position of the regulating rod is
changed in proportion to and in phase opposition to the error né. In this case, nº develops
either a torque or a velocity of the rod in proportion to nº magnitude. Regulation of n to
a value + 0.1 percent of ng can be obtained with this type of system.
A discontinuous regulating system is one in which no control is obtained unless the nº
error represents a deviation in n of some fixed percentage away from ng. When a suffi
ciently large error occurs, the rod is run at a set velocity. Regulation of n to + 0.5 per
cent of na can be obtained with this type of regulating system.
Choice of type of system for a particular reactor should be made on the basis of desired
control accuracy. However, if a discontinuous system is selected, it is important to note
that when the error n} is in the control “dead” zone between + 0.5 percent the rod usually
is held stationary by a mechanical brake or by friction in the rod guides to make operator
rod-positioning simple. In a proportional system, any forces acting on the rod develop an
error nº large enough to hold the rod in place through the torque developed at the rod
drive motor. For operator control, the nº error is not available and additional circuitry
is usually necessary to hold the rod in position against disturbing forces. For this reason,
discontinuous type of control offers an operating advantage over proportional control and
should be used unless the better accuracy is necessary.
An example of a proportional system is described in reference (10). A discontinuous
type system is described in reference (11).

SELECTION OF CONTROL -SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Control-system design is predicated on the selection of a drive motor for the regulating
rod. The amplifiers for a proportional system or contactors for a discontinuous system
can be selected or designed to meet requirements by using frequency analysis methods ap
plied generally to regulating systems. The transfer function of the reactor has been
presented in Figs. 7.4.3 and 7.4.4. A discontinuous system can be treated as shown in
references (11) and (13) or by the method of reference (14). Selection of a regulating-rod
drive-motor can be made from the standpoint of physical size and ambient conditions.
However, when the motor is not fixed by these conditions, a choice can be made on the
basis of system performance desired, fixing the maximum velocity torque, and accelera
tion needed by the motor as given under “System-Performance Evaluation.”

938
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

no – (4.
|
C
Rp
| /N

"MAX | INPUT TUBE

OF PREAMPLIFIER

Rb

nº as 5k

| Rs V (FIXED)

Vo
|
—L

I. C. = 09
nd (# ...
n
MAX - Tº d
o
)LEGEND
3% 2. Rp- THE INPUT PoſtNTIoMETER REsistance (5xio"
To 50 x 10° ohms)
3. no = MINIMUM REACTOR FLUx.
Rh + R
4 nMAx * -*-ºn-º.
5. Vo = MINIMUM FLUX SETTING ADJUSTMENT.
6. nds DEMAND FLUX OR CENTRAL POINT
7. R, - source of Vo (5x10"ohms)

* For LINEAR DISPLACEMENT of c vs n, Rp Must BE

AN INVERSE POTENTIOMETER.

Fig. 7.4.6– Circuit Used to Obtain Error from Ion Chamber Current. Sub
mitted by Argonne National Laboratory, Sept. 1946.

939
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

|ON CHAMBER

INST
CALIBRATION

|
–
TT––––––
|
|
|- H- |
|
H "MAX

| A > ſooo |
n
d Es
L I E2 PRE
— — — ————— Rp AMPLIFIER

|
no-6k
ox Ł
no - !

Rb

- | 1
LEGEND
I. E2 = E. = Om PER FLUX x n RL
oc oº:

2. Rex R, R = 5 x 10° ohms (SET BY Time constanT)

Rp2=5 x 10° ohms
Rb as 5 x 10 ohms
3. nd = DEMAND FLux
4. Es = amps PER FLUX x n MaxRL
5. For unlºyoc vs n, Rp is NEARLY LINEAR
when tº 2100 o

Fig. 7.4.7 — nº Circuit with Instrument Calibration. Submitted by Argonne

National Laboratory, Oct. 1952.

940
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

SYSTEM-PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

The performance of the regulating-rod control system can be evaluated as follows:

ök Disturbance

Select a 5k disturbance to be controlled by the regulating rod. This value must be less
than or equal to the total 5k of the regulating rod. Convert this 5k to rod displacement, d,
in feet. Select a time base, t, in seconds in which this value of Ök is to be handled by the
rod. Use Table 7.4.2 to convert t to the peak power ratio which indicates approximately

Table 7.4.2—nº/n3 = Peak Power Ratio = 1 + 300A 5k

A

t, Sec w, radians 1* = 10" sec 1* = 107* sec 1* = 107* sec

10.0 0.3 2.00 2.00 2.00

4.0 .75 1.50 1.50 1.5
2.0 1.5 1.00 1.25 1.25
1.0 3.0 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.4 7.5 0.75 0.85 1.00
.2 15.0 .50 .75 1.00
.1 30.0 .25 .65 1.00

how much the reactor power will deviate from the control na under the influence of a step
Ök of the magnitude selected. The value of w shown in the table is used to obtain peak
torque Tm, velocity vim, and acceleration a for the drive motor from Eqs. (6), (7), and (8):

vm = wid ft/sec (6)

a = a "d ft/secº (7)

*m = system inertia x a ft-lb (8)

The velocity vin converted to 6k per second, at the point of minimum effectiveness must
be no less than the 5k per second resulting from the temperature-coefficient effect oc
curing as a result of an expected load change. v.m. ranges from 2 x 10 * 6k/sec to 10”
ôk/sec for existing designs of proportional-type systems. For discontinuous-type systems,
vm ranges from 107° to 10" 6k/sec. For the discontinuous system, the gearing between
motor and rod is usually made a high ratio to make the load essentially only the motor
itself. For the proportional type, a similar gear ratio may be taken for a high-speed
motor, but a more direct approach has been described."

Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Noise in the signal will dictate the gain designed into the preamplifier and power ampli
fier. Good values of signal-to-noise ratio for use in design are: 100:1 for a power re
actor with flowing coolant and 1,000:1 for a reactor with no coolant flow measured at ion
chamber output. The torque or velocity developed by the noise in the signal should not be
more than 26 db less than the saturation torque or velocity of the drive motor for a
proportional-type system. In a discontinuous system, there is the inactive zone where nº

941
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

is less than the allowable power variation. The gain of the preamplifier should be low
enough to keep the noise at less than 0.1 of this inactive zone.

Additional Design Notes

The effect of contactor lag upon the stability of a discontinuous-type system has been
shown;” for a reactor, wide range of stability has been obtained with an h/A of 0.03.
In a discontinuous-type system, the stalled-motor torque and the inertia at the motor
shaft determine the motor time-constant. A time constant of 0.2 sec or less is satisfac
tory. The action of a brake to stop the rod adds greatly to stability by decreasing phase
lag. A stopping time of 0.02 sec or less from full speed is recommended.

AUTOMATIC SHIM AND REGULATING ROD OPERATION

The shim rods may be used to extend the ability of an automatic system. If a point or
range is designated as optimum in the regulating rod stroke, then the deviation of the rod
from this position under automatic control-system operation is a measure of shim rod
corrective 5k desired in as much as the normal duty of the regulating rod has been ex
ceeded. If the shim rods can change 5k at a rate equivalent to the temperature-coefficient
rate of change of 5k, the shim rods can be used to effectively extend the regulating-rod
range. Thus, the total regulating-rod 5k can be restricted to a more linear region, and
also a higher maximum velocity in Ök per second can be assigned to the regulating rod.
The optimum regulating-rod position for this condition is the center of its stroke.
Where the shims are too slow, the 5k positive available in the rod is made at least 0.001
ök greater than the negative 5k owing to power-range temperature change. For a water
cooled reactor, this may be as large as 0.006 so that a positive 5k of 0.007 is required. A
somewhat less negative value is required, making a total of about 0.01 5k for the rod. This
places the optimum position at 30 percent of full stroke. Since possible maloperation is
always anticipated for an automatic rod, the maximum rod speed should be limited to
about 0.0005 ök/sec for this case.
In general, the Ök/sec of the shims must be greater than the anticipated rate of 5k
change which must be offset by them. When the regulating rod deviates an amount equal to
the total 5k it is designed to offset, the shims are placed in motion. The physical distance
of regulating-rod excursion away from the selected optimum point is set, and limit
switches are used to start the shim rods running at a constant speed. This amounts to a
discontinuous-type control system which can be designed as shown for the discontinuous
regulating-rod systems. Proportional speed control is not used because of the additional
complication it introduces into the shim-rod control-system design. Generally, a pre
ferred method is to let the automatic system run the shim rods in a negative 5k direction,
reserving positive 5k motion for operator control. Permissive switches are used to pre
vent shim movement toward positive 5k unless the regulating rod has deviated from its
optimum point by a fixed amount. In this way, the shim position is made to improve the
usefulness of the regulating rod.
The factors given consideration here are amplified in reactor design reports given in
the reference list at the end of this chapter.

AUTOMATIC PROTECTIVE SYSTEM

A nuclear reactor is protected from damage by a system of electrical interlocks,

sensing elements, relays, and instruments, the complexity of which is a matter of engi
neering compromise based on the end purpose of the reactor, the fuel-element design, na
ture of the coolant, quality of the shield, and the like. Some important conditions con
sidered dangerous to the nuclear reactors are listed below for use as a guide, but each

942
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

nuclear-reactor design brings up its individual array of conditions for protective system
action.
In general, an effort should be made to design protective system elements to “fail safe;”
that is, if an element fails to operate, it either deactivates a protective circuit and sets off
an alarm or causes the control means to reduce k.

NUCLEAR REACTOR SHUTDOWN

Measurements which initiate fast rod motion are referred to as “scram signals.”
A false scram is undesirable and failure of the “scram” system is dangerous; combi
nation relaying methods are therefore used to improve “scram” system speed and relia
bility. For example, similar “scram” signals are read by sensing elements connected
directly to sensitive relays, either electronic or magnetic or a combination of both. With
at least three such assemblies provided, the relaying system may be designed so that if
two of the three measure a dangerous condition, “scram” is initiated. Parallel systems
are also used in which a fast-acting electronic relay is placed in parallel with a magnetic
relay and, if failure of the electronic relay occurs, the magnetic relay backs it up. This is
done to gain the advantage of high-speed electronic relay action in addition to the relia
bility of magnetic relays. To preclude the failure of one element or instrument in a meas
uring system, the readings of several elements are converted to voltages, and these volt
ages are compared by diode circuits arranged to send only the highest voltage to a scram
circuit. This type of action is sometimes called “auctioneering.” Particular “scram”
signals are discussed further in the following paragraphs.

NEUTRON DENSITY 150% OF NORMAL DENSITY

Measuring is done with different types of primary elements, such as neutron-sensitive

ion chambers, gamma chambers, pulse counters, scintillation counters, and neutron
thermopiles. The trip settings are made adjustable because they must be set experimen
tally after installation on the reactor. Approximate settings are initially calculated to ob
tain a starting point setting for the protective circuits.

FLUX PERIOD LESS THAN I SECOND

Neutron-sensitive ion chambers and pulse counters are used as sensing elements.
Positive and negative periods may be used to provide similar protective action. Basically,
the positive period is considered the dangerous one, but negative-period protection is pro
vided on the assumption that a short uncontrolled negative period may be followed by a
short positive period.

EXCESSIVE COOLANT TEMPERATURE

This is measured with thermocouples, resistance thermometers, and gas or mercury

bulbs in the coolant stream. Temperature indication is obtained with a 2- to 4-sec re
sponse period, depending upon the heat capacity of the element enclosure.

RAPID CHANGES IN COOLANT TEMPERATURE

These changes are indicated by attaching amplifiers and rate circuits to the coolant
temperature instruments.

LOSS OF INSTRUMENT ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY

Under-voltage relays both time-delayed and instantaneous are used. For increased
reliability, instruments are fed by battery-driven DC motors and AC generator sets. The
battery is, in turn, “floated” on an AC motor and DC generator combination driven from
the purchased power supply.

943
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

POWER REDUCTION

In some cases, signals similar to the shut-down signals are used to reduce reactor
power rather than “scram” the reactor. The action may consist of driving selected rods
toward the minimum reactor k position at a nominal speed, or in case automatic power
control by a regulating-rod control system is installed, the demand na may be run to a
minimum setting. Typical signals for this type of action are: neutron density = 120 per
cent design density; flux period less than 5 sec; coolant flow = 80 percent normal; tem
perature of coolant = 105 percent normal; and loss of purchased power supply.

OPERATING PROCEDURE INTERLOCKS

In addition to the preceding shut-down conditions, the operator’s procedure in starting a

reactor is supervised by a system of interlocks, annunciators, and signals. The following
paragraphs discuss conditions in this category.

PERMISSIVE LOCKS

The main power supply should be key-locked “open” with one or more locks to be used
for supervisory control or to enforce a routine area inspection before start-up.

SAFETY RODS READY

Ready-position limit switches are provided on the safety rods to indicate that they are
ready to “scram” the reactor. These limit switches are inserted into the control system
to prevent shim-rod removal when the safety rods are not ready. Where shim-safety rods
are used, magnet current is sometimes used as an indication that the rods are held in
position. Where latches are used, the latch position is sometimes detected directly by
limit switches or can be detected through the magnet current magnitude.

REGULATING ROD READY

Limit-switch interlocking is sometimes used on the regulating-rod drive-mechanism or

on an auxiliary program device to ensure that the rod is in an optimum or desired control
position before the shim-rods are moved away from the minimum k position. Optimum
rod position was discussed under “Automatic Shim and Regulating Rod Control.”

COMPLETE SYSTEM DESIGNS

To describe the design of a protective interlock system requires a comprehensive dis

cussion beyond the scope of this chapter. It is desirable to leave complex procedure inter
locking out of the system and depend upon the intelligence of the operator for proper
procedure in starting up a reactor or making a power change. A more involved system of -

interlocking is provided for MTR." Other experimental reactor systems have also been
described.*.*

TEMPERATURE-COEFFICIENT POWER REGULATION

The temperature coefficient of the reactor is important to control. Some aspects of the
effect on control system design have been discussed under “Ök Control Means” and
“Automatic Power Regulation.” This coefficient is referred to as negative if increasing
power produces negative 5k. Many reactors currently in operation have a net negative
temperature coefficient, but the likelihood of there being a positive coefficient is always
considered in proposed designs. From currently available information, it is very unlikely

944
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

that a water-moderated and water-cooled reactor could have a positive temperature

coefficient, because the effect is produced by a combination of dimensional changes and
moderator density change. These effects have been large enough to offset any nuclear
cross-section change which might oppose them, and the net effect found in the completed
reactor is a negative coefficient. The liquid-metal-cooled Experimental Breeder Reactor
(EBR) also has a negative temperature coefficient. The usefulness of this effect has been
demonstrated in the EBR system where, by simply changing the load or heat removal, the
reactor power will self-regulate to a new value equal to the demand on the system, no rod
position changes being necessary. When more heat is removed by the external power sys
tem, the lowered temperature of the coolant lowers the fuel-element temperature provid
ing a positive 5k for increasing the power. The increase in temperature drop in the cool
ant across the reactor which results from higher power returns the Ök to 0. Quantitative
data for EBR are not yet in published form. The temperature coefficient is about 10"?
total 5k for the temperature rise in the useful power range. For CP-3', the experimental
heavy-water-moderated reactor at ANL, the total 5k resulting from the power change in
the operating range between 3 kw and 275 kw is about 5 × 107°. The factor of 5 difference
is largely a result of moderator or density change.

APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS

The dynamic control effect of the negative temperature coefficient can be estimated for
the simple case where a suitable single dominant time constant can be established.
Let the effect of the temperature coefficient on reactor k be Ökr; then, the relation be
tween power and 6kr for a power increase is given in Eq. (9):

Ök
# = Z(1 — et/T1) (9)

where: P = fractional power change

Z = total 5k owing to temperature effect in the operating range from 1 to 100 per
cent of design power divided by 99
Ti = the dominant time constant (in seconds) of the heat exchange in the reactor
which produces the temperature effect

The description of Z given here limits consideration of temperature effect to that range
where a significant rise in coolant temperature across the reactor is obtained, that is,
above about 1 percent design power. Below this power, there still is a temperature effect
on the reactor k, but the changes in temperature are not produced entirely by power
changes in the reactor because heat must be added to the coolant system from another
source to maintain its temperature.
A k change 6ke from control means or changes in other k effects will then cause the re
actor power to rise or fall to a new power which is a function of Z and ke as given in
Eq. (10):

P = P, # (10)

where P and Po are in fractions of full power.

Whether reactor power will approach the new value, P, either by overshooting or by not
overshooting P, is a function of 1*/3, T1, and the magnitude of Z. When T1 is much larger

945
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

than 1*/3 and Z is large, an overshoot can be expected. When Z is decreased or when T.
gets near 1*/8, no overshoot is to be expected.
To estimate the condition existing for a particular reactor, assume that a step change
positive in k of a magnitude Öke has taken place. Calculate P from Eq. (10). Then using
Table 7.4.2, calculate the power ratio for Ökc positive with an w equal to 1/r1. If the power
indicated by the power ratio is less than P, there will be no overshoot. If it is greater
than P, there will be no overshoot.
This method of analysis is only for estimating the effects of temperature and is
presented here in lieu of more analyses, experimental work, and quantitative data.
The above considerations were based on the assumption that all heat supplied by the
reactor was removed by the external heat exchanger or power system. When a 5k dis
turbance takes place and it is assumed that no heat is removed from the coolant of a
water-moderated reactor, an oscillating condition is found. The heat is stored in sections
or slugs of the coolant, and when that slug returns to the reactor, the average temperature
of the coolant is higher, injecting a negative 5k which must again be stabilized by the tem
perature coefficient. On the next cycle, this process is reversed, and the resulting oscil
lations occur in periods corresponding to the period of coolant circulation. Heat losses in
a practical system should prevent a long continuation of the oscillation and certainly pre
vent any instability. Some exploratory work" was done on this effect. In a liquid-metal
cooled reactor, this effect would be minimized because the ratio of the fuel-element
temperature to the coolant temperature is higher than in a water-cooled reactor.

REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION

GASEOUS COUNTERS AND CURRENT CHAMBERS

B1* TYPE

An electrical potential difference is applied between two electrodes enclosing a nor

mally non-conducting gas. As ionizing agent enters the gas, positive and negative ions are
formed and are collected at the electrodes. An electrical current between the electrodes
results. The sensing element design is normally aimed at getting the current magnitude
directly proportional to the radiation to be measured. Short-range alpha particles give the
largest amount of specific ionization; gammas give the least amount of specific ionization
owing to their very high range. Neutrons are detected by absorption in B" which results
in an n, a reaction; the or particles, in turn, cause gas ionization. The electrodes may be
coated with B" or the chamber may be filled with B" Fs gas.
When the gas is ionized, the electrons may gather energy from the electric field and
cause further ionization. This effect, referred to as “gas multiplication,” is enhanced by
higher electric-field strength and is used in proportional counters. If a low nv is incident
on the chamber, intermittent current pulses will result. These pulses are counted in
scalers (combinations of electronic and mechanical counters) usually used in a range be
tween 10 and about 100,000 counts/sec. Counters of this type are commercially available.

COUNTERS

A sensory element that operates with a circuit which accepts and registers pulses is
called a “pulse chamber.” If the observed pulse is amplified linearly by gas multiplica
tion in the element, it is referred to as a “proportional counter.” Figure 7.4.8 shows a
typical pulse chamber used for general-purpose work at ANL with a maximum counting
rate of 10' counts/min. This type of chamber operates with a wide-band, high-gain ampli
fier having a rise time of about 10" sec and a noise level of 107* volts with a chamber

946
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

KOVAR 8 GLASS
Nº. SEAL

z-z-z-ESE Nº

%
º * º º º º º * !

Fig. 7.4.8—Cross Section of a Typical Pulse Counter. Submitted by Argonne

National Laboratory, Sept. 15, 1952. For dimensions, see Fig. 7.4.9.

947
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

capacity of 10 upf. The B" disintegration will produce pulses of 2 x 10" to 5 x 10" volts.
Electrode sizes are selected so that collection time will be 0.2 x 10" sec at 1 atm of BFs.
Dimensions and characteristics of three typical counters are shown in Fig. 7.4.9.
A shock-resistant version of B"Fs proportional counter is shown in Fig. 7.4.10, and a
B"-lined proportional counter is shown in Fig. 7.4.11. The characteristic curve was
taken with a combined amplifier and scaler with input sensitivity of 2 x 107* volt.

CURRENT CHAMBERS

When a continuous current is used for radiation measurement, the chamber is referred
to as a “current ion chamber.” Gas multiplication is not utilized for this type of neutron
detection; thus, in general, the potentials applied to ion chambers are less than those ap
plied to pulse chambers, and the electrodes have a relatively large area. The useful cur
rent range is from 107* to 107* amp from current ion chambers. A typical current ion
chamber for measuring reactor my is shown in Fig. 7.4.12. The plates are B"-coated, and
a spacing of % in. is used to obtain a relatively low effect from gamma ionization in the
gas between the plates. Electrolytic-iron electrodes are used.
A B"Fs-filled chamber is shown in Fig. 7.4.13, and its saturation curve is shown in
Fig. 7.4.14. The drawing does not show the grounded outside shell necessary to protect
and shield the chamber in use with a reactor.

FISSION CHAMBERS

Current ion chambers and pulse chambers can be built using U* coatings on one or
both electrodes. The neutrons are readily absorbed by uranium, and high ionization is
produced as a result of fission. Pulse counters operating on this principle are called
“fission counters.” An advantage of this type of instrument is the very high current pulses
produced by neutrons compared to the relatively small pulses produced by gammas. If
U* is used as the coating, the instrument can be used as a high-energy-neutron detector.

FISSION PULSE COUNTERS

A concentric cylinder type of construction is shown in Fig. 7.4.15; this is a compara

tively simple method of building such an element.
Another type, called “spiral-wound fission counter,” the object of which is to provide
a large, coated area in a small volume, is shown in Fig. 7.4.16.

FISSION-current ION CHAMBERs”

The fission counter of Fig. 7.4.15 was operated as a current ion chamber at 4 x 10"
amp output and gave a sensitivity of 4 × 107* amp/flux with 300 volts on the electrodes.
A typical natural-uranium current ion chamber is shown on Fig. 7.4.17. The use of
natural uranium precludes the danger of burn-up at high nv because the U* is converted
to plutonium. This chamber was designed for operation in 10° nv or more. The character
istic curves are shown in Figs. 7.4.18 and 7.4.19.

GAMMA ION CHAMBERS

For wide-range reactor control, the quantity to be measured is the average neutron flux
in the reactor. The average value of this flux may vary from 10° to 10” The gamma radi
ation resulting directly from fission (called “prompt gamma”) is sometimes as good a
measure of neutron density as the neutrons themselves, both being proportional to the
neutron density.

948
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

-I
IO i I I I T. i -

|- -

- I
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w CHAMBER 3 -

*-
-

- -

CHAMBER I

- G -

CHAMBER 2

- LEGEND -

T CHAMBER | 2 3 -
I LENGTH OF CHAMBER SPACE, cm 2O 20 20 I
RADIUS OF OUTER ELECTRoDE,cm 2.14 I. IB 2.14
|- RADIUS OF INNER ELECTRoDE,cm oz35 ol 27 o.127 -

|- CAPACITANCE, pupi fa 8.9 6.3 5.2 -

VOLUME, cc 35O 90 3OO

*- PRESSURE OF BFs,cm Hg 7O 70 70 -

BoisotoPIC ABUNDANCE:/. 2O 2O 20

—l I I I l l
O 500 IOOO |500 2OOO 2500 3OOO

COLLECTING VOLTAGE

Fig. 7.4.9—Relative Counting-rate Response to a Standard Neutron Source

as a Function of Electrode Voltage for Typical Pulse Counters. Submitted by
Argonne National Laboratory, Sept. 12, 1952.

949
 i
-

LEGEND

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VOLTAGE

1952.
Sept.
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21
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VOLTAGE

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Laboratory,
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1952.
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2.
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3O
25
2O
15
units
orbitrary
HEIGHT,
PULSE

WAPD-RM-68
Instruments,
Detecting
Radiation
Leonard,
R.
from .
Redrawn
Curve.
Performance
and
Counter
Pulse
Fission
7.4.15—Conc
Fig.
:
entric-cylinder-type
 DIA.
'ſe"
conductor
coax|AL DIA.
/a"
TUBE
FILLING
GAS :
-
-º- ,º
-.
-**
yº
HOUSING
CONTAINER
ELEMENT
SENSING
SPIRAL
1%"LoNG
"DIA
*'s 2"LONG
%"D.A.

16",
LENGTH
Over-ALL
NOTE:
OPTIONAL
LENGTH

º in.
SPACER
14
O

H.
12O
VOLTAGE
C
v HAMBER
15O

SECTION
CROSS
TYPICAL

CHAMBER
FISSION
SPIRAL
H.
80

LEGEND
BACKGROUND
ALPHA optionAL
LENGTH
16",
1.Qvg|R-ALL
CAmin
IN SPIRAL
URANIUM
NATURAL
LONG
V2"
DIA.
K.2.1/2"
T
40 CHAMBER
FISSION
3.
psi
PRESSURE,12
ARGON
4. 0
upf
CAPACITY,105
CHAMBER
5.
152pp;
CAPacify,
6CABLE
32,000
GAIN,
Z.AMPLIFIER
usec
.25
OF
TIME
RISE
8.
||
L|O sec/4
,3TIME
DECAY
9.
580
515
46O
405 sHec
35
APPRox.
TIME,
DEAD
DISCRIMINATOR
10,
185
75
240
2O
130 350
295
107
nw
AT
TAKEN
|I.
DATA
microvolts
HEIGHT,
PULSE
INPUT

National
Argonne
by
Submitted
Chamber.
Fission
Laboratory, trode-type
–Spiral-elec
7.4.16
Fig.
1952.
Sept.
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

PLUG 2S AL CASE

CENTER NATURAL
ELECTRODE URANIUM
DIA. = .156 in..t.OOl COATING
I.D= .366 in...t.OOl
WALL = .020 in.

LEGEND

. CHAMBER FILLED WITH ATMOSPHERIC AIR.

2. POLARITY OF ELECTRODE AFFECTS
SENSITIVITY USE witH, CENTER Positive,
OUTER NEGATIVE, COMPARE FIGS 7.4.2 & 7.4.22
3. A CHANGE IN OUTPUT CURRENT TAKES
PLACE FOR SEVERAL MINUTES WHEN THIS
CHAMBER IS FIRST EXPOSED TO A HIGH
VALUE OF FLUX, CONTINUAL EXPOSURE
RESULTS IN A STEADY OUTPUT CURRENT
READING
4 THis CHAMBER was Exposed to io"nv. A
CHANGE IN SENSITIVITY OF IO*, WAS
OBSERVED DURING THE FIRST 8 HOURS.
NO CHANGE WAS OBSERVED AFTER THAT
TIME.
5. CHAMBER IS TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE.

Fig. 7.4.17 – Natural-uranium Fission-current Ion Chamber. Submitted by

Argonne National Laboratory, Sept. 1952.

957
 16”
90x
:
8O

i lo"nv
at
hr
227

II5.5hratIonv
10°nv
at
hr
3.85
Lº–t
io"nv
of
hr
1.18
40
P-
-

3OH

20

too
200
soo
400
500
700
800
600
900 1000
Iloo |200
VOLTAGE

Fig.
Curves
7.4.18—Characteristic
Fig.
of
Chamber
Ion
Fission
for
Potential
Positive
with
7.4.17
the
on
Submitted
Electrode.
Center
Laboratory,
National
Argonne
by
1952.
Sept.
 80

7ok—

60

50 |-
i hr
3.60
40

3O

2O

IOOO
|IOO
700
900
800
600
-400
500
300
200
IOO 1200
VOLTAGE

Poten
Negative
with
7.4.14
Fig.
of
Chamber
Ion
Fission
for
Curves
—Characteristic
7.4.19
Fig.
:
Sept.
1952.
Laboratory,
National
Argonne
by
Submitted
Electrode.
Center
the
on
tial
§
 Chap. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

GAS EXIT TO GAS MONITOR

VOLTAGE CABLES FROM HV
POWER SUPPLY N THROUGH RG-62/U CABLE

-600V REGULATED —
–3OOv ADJUSTABLE HouTPUT CURRENT LEAD
NITROGEN GAS INLET
MAGNESIUM ALLOY
THROUGH RG-62/U CABLE
NEUTRON ABSORBING
MATERIAL FOR PROTECTION THREADED SCREW FOR Y.
OF CABLES AND CONNECTORS VOLUME ADJUSTMENT BY
ALUMINUM SCREW DRIVER THROUGH
CAP
GAS-TIGHT SEAL
(O-RING GASKET) NEGATIVE VOLTAGE CONNECTION
8. GAS CHANNEL TO NEGATIVE
INSULATOR (BAKELITE)
VOLTAGE CONNECTOR

ELECTRICAL CONNECTION FROM

OUTPUT CURRENT CABLE SHIELD
TO GRAPHITE CORE
MAGNESIUM ALLOY

|-- -- QUARTZ TUBING INSULATION

N COVERING MAGNESIUM ROD

N
º
N
QUARTZ TUBING INSULATION
COVERING Pb WIRE
§
GRAPHITE CORE INSULATED N:
FROM MAGNESIUM CASING m

§~

QUARTZ INSULATOR SPACER i

s §º

g% º QUARTZ INSULATOR PINS

Y VOLUME ADJUSTMENT TO t w
º
t

EQUALIZE Y EFFECT ON THE w

Nº
ſº NEGATIVE VOLTAGE ELECTRODE
TWO VOLUMES w
w
º
º (GRAPHITE)
COMPENSATING Y VOLUME \eº, Á
Z N
OUTPUT CURRENT ELECTRODE

BORON-COATED SURFACES —
Pºz
Tºº
º (GRAPHITE)
OF NEUTRON-SENSITIVE POSITIVE VOLTAGE ELECTRODE
VOLUME (GRAPHITE)
PRINCIPLE SOURCE OF NEUTRONS

LEGEND
L FLUX RANGE, THROUGH 6 DECADES
2. CURRENT RANGE, MAx IO*; MIN IO" amps
3. SENSITIVITY = IO" amp per nv

Fig. 7.4.20–Compensated Current Ion Chamber. Redrawn from Fig. 4, MTR

Safety System and Its Components, ORNL 1193.

960
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

Gamma-current ion chambers are used to determine power in zero-power reactors and
are useful as back-up or safety-type chambers on many reactor installations. A typical
gamma-current ion chamber is similar in construction to neutron-sensitive chambers, but
the filling-gas pressure must be high to provide reasonable sensitivity. A typical value is
600 lb/sq in. of argon.

COMPENSATED ION CHAMBERS

Gamma radiation present near a reactor may result from the combination of activated
structural material, fission-product gammas, and prompt gammas, and the instrument
current is therefore not always proportional to neutron density alone. The sensitivity of a
sensory element to gamma radiation can be reduced by close spacing of the electrodes;
% in. to % in. spacings are frequently used; optimum electrode spacing is discussed in
reference (20). Gamma-compensated ion chambers are built with two nearly equal gas
volumes located next to one another. One volume is made sensitive to neutrons plus
gamma rays, the other to gamma rays only. By opposing the currents from these, the net
chamber current becomes a measure of neutrons alone. This assembly is referred to as
a “compensated ion chamber.”
A typical compensated chamber is shown in Fig. 7.4.20. Nitrogen gas is circulated
through the chamber along the leads. This serves to maintain known gas in the chamber
and keep the leads dry. Chamber materials are selected to have a minimum of residual
activity. Compensation is adjusted by changing the position of the inner electrode, which
effectively changes the compensation volume, and by changing the voltage of the negative
supply. Another compensated chamber is shown in Fig. 7.4.21. This chamber is compen
sated by changing the potential between the compensating electrodes. The center electrode
is shaped to produce a weak-field region so that the ratio of AI to AE along the plateau of
this section is larger than the same value for the neutron-sensitive section. Figure 7.4.22
shows the field in the compensating volume.

TEMPERATURE-TYPE ELEMENTS FOR NEUTRON DETECTION

Neutrons can be detected by absorption in boron-coated temperature-sensitive ele

ments. The absorption of neutrons causes the temperature of the element to rise. Ther
mocouples have been assembled with several closely spaced junctions in series. Alternate
junctions are coated with boron or uranium (a neutron absorber) and are connected elec
trically so that the potentials of the coated and uncoated junctions oppose. The net voltage
output of this assembly is a measure of the neutron density at the junctions.”
These assemblies are called “neutron thermopiles.” Their chief advantage is compact
ness and low impedance. They can be inserted into the reactor core where space is very
limited. A typical unit assembly is shown in Figs. 7.4.23 and 7.4.24. The sensitive ele
ment is chromel P-constantan wire, 0.003 in. in diameter, and alternate junctions are
coated with 15 mg of B10 powder applied with Sauereisen No. 1 cement or polystyrene
acetone dope. The active section is 0.04 in. thick. The thermocouple ends are soldered to
copper terminals which are insulated from the 2S aluminum case by mica.
Sensitivity is 107* volts per 10" nv. The response is linear up to 3 × 10° nv. The time
constant owing to heat capacity of the detecting element is about 4 sec. Such an element
was exposed for 5 months at 5 × 10" nv with no change in sensitivity or failure resulting
from deterioration. Figure 7.4.25 shows a watertight version of the neutron thermopile
sealed in a 2S aluminum can.
. An alternate temperature method has been investigated by WAPD in which small-di
ameter platinum wires have been coated with boron. Using an uncoated unit and a coated
unit together in a resistance bridge provides a rugged and accurate method of flux deter
mination. The assembly was called a “Bolometer Flux Meter.”
The disadvantage of both types of temperature elements is slow response to flux changes.

961
 :
—-*-

minimummimº

m H
Boro
ELECNTROD
V ING,
1coAT
+g/cm
" E
8OO
volts
NEUT
SENS RON
OF ITIV
VOLUME E

–H Y
COMPE
LEG
voluEND
NSATING
me

% 1.
CHAM
IS
CIRC
IN
CROS BER
ULAR
S-SE CTION
2.CO
VOLUMPEN
IS
SLIG ME SATING
LARG HTLY
ER
SIGNAL OUTE
THANR
NEUT
VOLURON-
ME SENSITIVE
ELECTRODE 3.
IS
NITR
CHAMBER -FILLED
AT OGEN
A
I TMOS
PRES PHERE
SURE
HV
ELEC TRODE 4.
TEST
IN
10°
rºhr
GAMM BER
CHAMED
FLUX A
NO
MEAS
WITH URAB
DAMA NTIAL
POTELE
GE
ABLE
vari ,
15
TO x45.se
1
per0^*o
flux
AT nsit
mpivity,
x25
1 0°nv 500
volts
TO
ADJUST
FOR
y 6.CHAM
SATU
ATA
BouT BER D
1x9
amp07* RATE
CON ENSA
COMPSTR
DETA TION
UCT ,
ION
ILS
FIG.
7.4.2
SEE 5 --

Fig.
7.4. 21–compensated
Current
Ion
Cham
Redr
from
R.
Leon
wapd ber.
awn
ard,
-RM-68,
Fig.
68-1 5.
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

OO75

D 4 O15
Ol SLOTTED

- … O3] ELECTRODE

TO625

.125
LEGEND

A 25 | . THE NON UNIFORM FIELD

5 y PRODUCES A SATURATION
Z Z LZ - k-º-º-º-º-º-º: CURVE FOR THE ºr
=2~TS= COMPENSATING VOLUME
WHICH RISES STEEPLY
THEN GRADUALLY AS
—T2 T- THE VOLTAGE APPLIED
IS CHANGED FROM 15
TO 5OO VOLTS.

2. OPTIMUM D s 2
4. W

IO
r—F-F- ~--→ F.

COLLECTING ELECTRODE

Fig. 7.4.22—Compensating Electrode Field for Chamber of Fig. 7.4.21. Sub

mitted by Argonne National Laboratory from unpublished WAPD data.

963
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

Fig. 7.4.23–Neutron Thermopile Unassembled. Submitted by Argonne Na

tional Laboratory, Sept. 1952.

964
 CHAP. 7.4

965
*Zg6I ºņdes ºÁron
-eloqu’T Iwuope.N ºuuoº IV &q peļņņuuqns *Alguessv ſſºņuequae alſdouraq：Luonna N-gzºy”, “?!）.
|
|
|||||||||||
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

ºzg6I ºndes ‘Auoqeuoqeri

TeuoņæN ºuuoº iv &q pºņņuqns “ÁI Quassv ºlidouraq：LuonnøN-șZºș”, “?!！!
º
• • •=~~~~ ~- - - -
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

SCINTILLATION COUNTERS

Solid-state counters have relatively high sensitivity and are therefore useful for low
power-reactor measurements. Radiation absorbed in the scintillating material gives off
light which will produce free electrons in a photomultiplier where the signal is amplified
through the medium of secondary electron multiplication. This overcomes the effect of
noise in conventional thermionic amplifiers. The availability of a scintillator having the
correct nuclear and physical properties determines the usefulness of this class of
COunters.
Table 7.4.3 lists the useful scintillators and some of their properties. Figure 7.4.26
shows the construction of a typical scintillation counter. The following are brief notes on
the usefulness of the Scintillators.

SODIUM IODIDE

This scintillator, with its light output and high atomic number, is most useful for gam
ma counting. A 1%-in. thickness is 40-percent efficient for gamma rays at 4.5 mev.

LITHIUM IODIDE

This scintillator is useful for neutron detection and neutron-energy discrimination. A

1-cm thickness is 65-percent efficient for thermal-energy neutrons, and the efficiency
decreases as the neutron energy increases in a one/v relationship. Pulse size increases
as 4.78 + En where En is the neutron energy in mev. The neutron energies must differ by
1 mev for good discrimination. The scintillator must be protected against moisture.

ZINC SUL FIDE

This scintillator is useful as an a detector. It must be covered with a light-tight bar

rier of aluminum. A 20-micron grain size powder of ZnS, mixed with lucite molding pow
der and molded into a pellet is a good detector of higher than 1-mev neutrons with an ef
ficiency of 0.2 percent. Small particle size makes this a detector which will discriminate
against gamma rays.

CAL CIUM TUNGSTATE

This scintillator is a good gamma-detector. It resists attack by corrosive solutions.

ANTHRA CENE

This scintillator has a high, light output and is used chiefly for beta-ray detection.
Hydrogen content makes this a good fast-neutron detector, but it does not discriminate
against gammas.

STIL BENE

This scintillator is sometimes used in place of anthracene, its advantage being a shorter
decay time.

PHOTOMULTIPLIERS

The most common is RCA type 5819, end-window construction, 1%-in. circular cathode.
Spectral response is a peak at 4600Å. It produces about 1 electron for every 10 photons.
The gain is about 10" at 100 volts per stage. For fast coincidence work, the maximum peak
current is about 60 × 107* amp. Collection efficiency is 70 percent with 200 volts between

966
 :
chemical
Excellent
brittle
Extremely number
t*The
a
in
pproduced
l5819
micro-amp
40
of
particle
the
by
expended
kilovolt
per
uhmoetnype
o-mseulnestcitpirlvoinetsry
form
powder
in
hygroscopic Available
only sensitive to
Very impurities
machinable
Misc. Hygroscopic
Extremely stability

Easily

Refractive
Highest
Z
index
1.50
6 6
1.58
53
1.7 2.4
30 74
1.9

53 6 6

Melting point,
"C atm)
(150 —53.6 Softens
651 446 1850 1525 216 124 75

7.4.3–Scintil ator
Table
Properties Density, gm/cm”
1.25 0.97 .87 1.05
3.7 4.1 4.1 6.1

Formula
NaI(Tl) LiI(Sn) ZnS(Ag) CuHio (C8H8)M
CaWO, Cshio
C14H11

time,
Decay
Particle
energy
Sec
pu

k0.25
1 .7 4.7
ev--00 670
keV mev
.7 10
mev
5
keV
670
6 kev--00
100
0.03
mev 1
5 mev .008
mev .002
1 mev
1 .008
mev
1

Ef iciency,”
Particle
used

p.e./kev
.27 .25
3.0 0.3 6.0 0.3 1.0 0.1 .5 .3 .3

gm/l
5
+
Xylene
Scintil ator iodide Lithium
Sodium iodide tetraphenyl crystal
the
in
sulfide
Zinc tungstate Anthracene terphenyl +
1Pol.5%
ystyrene butadiene

Calcium Stilbene

à
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

PHOSPHOR ASSEMBLY

RUBBER WASH5R */ COLLAR

BAKELITE WASHER LUCITE ADAPTER

MOLDED RUBBER

Mu METAL SHIELD

|-5819 PHOTOTUBE

-CYLINDER

MOLDED RUBBER

<- PHOTOTUBE SOCKET

PRE-AMPLIFIER HOUSING

•
Fig. 7.4.26—scintillation Counter Assembly. Submitted by Argonne National
Laboratory, Sept. 1952.

968
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

cathode and first dynode. For a dark current counting rate of 1 count/min or less, a dis
criminator level corresponding to 50 cathode electrons is used. An assembly of a typical
counter is shown in Fig. 7.4.26.

SCINTILLATION-COUNTER DESIGN

Scintillation-counter design is a rapidly developing field, and further information may

be obtained from references (22) through (37).

INSTRUMENT INSTALLATION
The following notes on good practice for reactor instrument installation are to be used
as a guide for selection and location of the sensory element and measuring instrument.

LOCATION AND RANGE

Ion chambers used for reactor control should be placed in a flux of 5 x 10" nv or (pref
erably) less. The response and characteristics of counters is usually affected by 10° nv or
a gamma of 10°r/hr. The counter should be protected with cadmium or removed if these
radiation values will be encountered at its location.
Figure 7.4.27 summarizes the normal useful range of coverage of sensing elements for
nuclear-reactor control instrumentation.

CABLES AND CHAMBER MOUNTINGS

The sensory element (especially an ion chamber) should be securely mounted and vibra
tion-free. Ion chambers tend to be microphonic. This should be considered if fast-response
circuits are to be attached to the chamber. If a slow-response instrument like a galva
nometer is used with the chamber, this effect is relatively unimportant. If possible, the
chamber position should be readily adjustable, as with a nut and a lead screw drive, for
range adjustment and power calibration.
The leads which run between high-impedance devices, such as the sensory element and
measuring circuit, should preferably be of anti-static and anti-microphonic construction.
Cables that provide for continuous electrical conduction between both surfaces of the
dielectric and the metallic members” are available for this purpose. The leads should be
mechanically protected.
Ion chambers are constructed with a protective shield which is to be grounded. For
small current measurements, this shield should be insulated from the reactor structure
and connected to the cable shield which connects to the amplifier chassis. This system
should be connected at only one point to a building ground to eliminate ground-current
pickup.
The instruments selected for indicating control readings should be panel-mounted so
that maintenance can be performed on one indicator without obstructing the operator’s
view of the other instruments.

CIRCUIT CONSIDERATIONS

To all chambers and counters, a range of voltage can be applied over which very little
change in current or counting rate, as the case may be, will occur. The range of voltage
is called the “plateau” region. This range is determined experimentally, and a voltage
value in this range is selected as the “operating voltage.” This plateau makes an ion
chamber appear electrically as a constant-current source for circuit considerations. The
dynamic resistance (AE/AI) along the plateau usually ranges from 10° ohms at 100 x 10"
amp to 2 x 10" ohms at 10° amp. It is highest at the upper plateau voltages.

969
# :
1)
(NOTE
LOCATION
INSTRUMENT
AT
nv
º s
lo'
pº'10°
º |

I
IT
}||TH
TTI
I-I
i
||I | iil|
|
| |
| | || |
| . . .
| iilCPs'o
|I|oºps
countERs
PROPORTIONAL
|| Bºr,
|
| | |
| | || |
| | |
|
| | | |
| | | |
| CPS
ilIOPCPS
| oº
COUNTERS
FISSION | |
|
|
|

|
| |
10°omp | IO"amp
|

CHAMBER
ION
CURRENT
COMPENSATED

lo'omp
He-
2)
(NOTE
CHAMBER
ION
CURRENT

NOTES
16"x
Average
Norwaux
is
Location
instrument
ar
nv
nw
REACTOR
ACOMPENSATED
USING
BY
OBTAINED
EXTENSION
RANGE
nv
USEFUL
2.
ENCOUNTERED
IS
RADIATION
GAMMA
HIGH
IF
CHAMBER

Labo
National
Argonne
by
Nuclear-reactor
Submitted
Elements.
Sensing
Fig.
of
7.4.27-Range
ratory,
1952.
Bept.
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

Chamber capacity is normally small compared to that of the leads between the chamber
and measuring instrument. For fast chamber response, locate preamplifiers as close to
the chamber as practical.
Ion collection time may effectively increase the time constant of the chamber and its
associated circuits. This effect can be eliminated by using electrode voltages which are
near the upper range of the plateau region. This collection time is affected by the type of
gas used to fill the chamber.””
For very low nw measurement, proportional counters are used, and associated circuits
are designed to discard pulses of low magnitude resulting from gamma radiation. In prin
ciple, this makes the assembly sensitive only to neutrons because pulses from single gam
mas are low valued. The neutron sensitivity in counts per second per nv is reduced when
counter assemblies are used in a gamma field near the limit value of 10°r/hr. Fission
counters have a very high current pulse owing to fissions and are useful for discrimination
against gamma up to 10" r/hr. -

INSTRUMENT CHANNELS

GAS-FILLED COUNTER CHANNELS

The type of indicating and recording instrument used with a radiation counter is depend
ent upon the nature of the counting problem involved. Figure 7.4.28 illustrates some of the
possible arrangements of electronic equipment used to indicate and record the output sig
nal from a radiation counter. The figure shows various counting “channels” which are
formed by combining elements represented by blocks. The following paragraphs discuss
each element or block in the order in which it appears, beginning with the simplest channel
shown at the top of Fig. 7.4.28.

AMPLIFIERS

The output signal of a radiation counter tube appears in the form of voltage pulses which
are variable in magnitude and random with respect to time. The pulses are not of suffici
ent magnitude to operate indicating and recording instruments directly, and amplification
is necessary. The characteristics of the amplifier are varied to suit the particular meas
urement problem involved. Pulse amplifiers, as applied to radiation counting problems,
are treated along with typical practical circuits in references (41), pp 124-170, and in
reference (42), pp 185-192. Figure 7.4.29 shows typical pre-amplifiers and Fig. 7.4.30, a
typical linear amplifier, both of which are used with counters for a reactor instrumentation
system. The linear amplifier is designed to amplify small pulses from an ionization cham
ber, proportional counter, or similar device to a level where the pulses can be seen on an
oscilloscope or counted with a scaler. The amplifier is provided with a bandwidth switch
to permit fast counting of large signals or somewhat slower counting of small signals. Up
to 160,000 counts/sec can be amplified with medium bandwidth operation. One-hundred
volt pulses are obtained at the amplifier output. Further information is obtained in refer
ence (43).

COUNTER CIRCUITS

Pulse heights within a certain range are identified with a particular type of radiation.
The counter channel is made selective by discriminating against pulse heights not associ
ated with a particular radiation. The pulse amplifier is modified to provide discrimination
either by allowing it to saturate or by adding a discriminator circuit to pass pulses within
a certain range of magnitude. Amplitude discriminators are discussed in reference (41),
pp 202-206.
A scaler is used to count and indicate the number of pulses. Mechanical registers are

971
 :
RADIATION SCALER
(
H ºs)
AMPLIFIER
cº

RADIATION SCALER
_|
D
H ISCRIMINATOR
AMPLIFIER
coºk
º-
(COUNTS)
-

METER
||AVERAGING
||MULTI- RADIATION
–|-
NTER
º-
coº
HTörðurr
HvºroR
AMPLIFIER
cºſ;

wºn
| OGARTHMICG
_|AVERAGIN
M||LULTI-_ RADIATION
M.
|-
ºic
DISCRIMINAT
AMPLIFIER
cºCIRCUIT OR
VIBRATOR
RATE)
COUNTING

le:
º
–
ºc
||º]
º
– rMETER—
lºſſ.
asameures
H
º -

ºTIATOR
Taº;
CIRCUIT
V IBRATOR
|INATOR
TUBE

1952.
Oct.
Laboratory,
National
Argonne
by
Submitted
Channels.
7.4.28—Coun ting
Fig.
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

! so. AVs 6AK5 V, 6AK5.

Izo
–T450

°8

AIA PREAMPLIFIER
FIG. A

Jo

Clo
2O MEG |T|2OMEG 220 +120
Rio Rioz Rio4 Tolos

- T - - ---------- pºor
Cloe - ---------------
---
Fo
-O- O

ool ITTF-FF jos

- outs

Al B PREAMPLIFIER
FIG. B

Fig. 7.4.29–Pulse Preamplifier. Redrawn from W. H. Jordan and P. R. Bell,

Instructions For Use of A-1 Amplifier and Preamplifier, Mon.-P.323, Jan. 1949.

973
# :
250-270w

°ial+

ux-a---

v
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Fig.
7.4.30—Lin
Amplifier.
Redrawn
from
W.
H.
Jordan
and
R.
P.
Bell,
Instructions
for
Use ear
A-1
of
Amplifier
and
Preamplifier
Mon.-P.
323,
Jan.
1949 ,
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

slow and are preceded by electronic scaling circuits. Some scaler circuits and a descrip
tion of operation are presented in reference (41), pp. 206-212.

COUNTING-RATE CIRCUITS

The desired measurement is the number of pulses occurring in a unit time. This is ob
tained either by counting the total number of pulses registered in a measured time interval
or by indicating a counting rate directly. In a counting-rate meter, the pulses from the
amplifier are used to trigger a multivibrator, the output of which consists of current pulses
of uniform duration and magnitude but still random with respect to time and initiated by
the trigger pulses. An R-C circuit is so arranged that each multivibrator pulse causes a
definite amount of charge to be placed on a capacitor in a time which is short compared
with the average spacing of pulses. The charge on the capacitor leaks off through a high
resistor, making the average potential across the capacitor proportional to the counting
rate. A basic circuit of a counting-rate meter is presented in reference (41), p 251. Com
mercial units registering 100,000 counts/sec or more are available either as scalers or
counting-rate meters.

LOG COUNTING RATE CIRCUITS

Pulse counters are used for reactor control to indicate three to four decades of opera
tion near source strength nv., especially when discriminating against high gamma-radiation.
By including a logarithmic amplifier in the counting channel, a single meter will show sev
eral decades of ny change. A typical logarithmic counting-rate meter-circuit is illustrated
in Fig. 7.4.31. The counting rate is obtained by allowing the charge of the counting-rate
capacitor to leak off through a diode producing an average current through the diode pro
portional to the number of pulses per second.* The voltage across the diode is proportion
al to the logarithm of the current through it and is measured by a means of vacuum tube
voltmeter. Diode characteristics are presented in reference (44), p 41. A more complete
description of Fig. 7.4.31 is contained in reference (44), p 62.

PERIOD CIRCUITS

Measurement of the reactor period is frequently desirable (for a definition see “Reactor
Time Dependent Behavior”). A resistor-capacitor differentiating circuit placed after a
logarithmic amplifier will provide an output signal proportional to the inverse period.
Period circuit time response is an important control consideration. A discussion is con
tained in reference (45).

GAS-FILLED IONIZATION CURRENT CHAMBER CHANNELS

BASIC CIRCUITS

The equipment used with an ionization current champer is designed to measure a con
tinuous current instead of counting discrete pulses as in counters. Figure 7.4.32 illus
trates some of the possible circuit arrangements or “channels” that are used with current
ionization chambers.
Beginning at the top of Fig. 7.4.32, the simplest circuit arrangement is a chamber oper
ating a sensitive relay. This channel is used in protective-circuit operation. At reactor
power levels, a sensitive galvanometer is used to give an indication of chamber current.
The addition of a shunt in this channel allows the galvanometer to be operated over a
greater range of current. A galvanometer has about a 3-sec period, which is slow com
pared to the response obtainable with an electronic amplifier circuit. A typical feedback

975
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Fig.
Counting-rat
Meter.
Redrawn
7.4.31—Logaerithmic
from
Jordan,
W.
Kelley,
G.
H.
and
B.
Frey,
Logarithmic
Counting-rat
Meter,
Physics
Divisſon
Quarterly
Report,
CNL-35,
Mar.
1948. e
 :

RECORDER (PERIOD)
METER
OR

7.a4b.o32r—aCtuorreyn,t
LFig.
National
Argonne
by
Submitted
Channels.
1952.
Oct.

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Submitted
by
Argonne
National
Laboratory,
Oct.
1952.
NUCLEAR REACTOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CHAP. 7.4

amplifier circuit is illustrated in Fig. 7.4.33. For an amplifier of gain A and negative
feedback, the amplifier input time constant is reduced by a factor of 1 + A. For example,
if the chamber plus cable capacitance is as low as 100 pupif, the input time constant for an
amplifier with a 10"-ohm input resistor would be 0.1 sec, but by using a feedback amplifier
with a gain of 100, the time constant is reduced to 0.00099 sec. Although the amplifier
gain may be 100, the over-all circuit gain from amplifier input to amplifier output is very
nearly unity. Another method of feedback can be employed to obtain capacitance neutrali
zation and thus reduce the time constant of the circuit. The chamber cannot be grounded
for this method, and it is necessary to provide an underground power supply for the cham
ber. For this reason, this method presents somewhat more complex problems than those
encountered with the circuit of Fig. 7.4.32 when considered for reactor instrument appli
cations. A general discussion of feedback amplifiers is contained in reference (41), p 187.
The measurement of direct currents of 107* amp or less by using circuits employing
ordinary vacuum tubes is not practicable. A number of special electrometer-tube manu
facturing techniques have been developed to circumvent this difficulty. With special manu
facture, the grid current of an electrometer tube can be reduced to 10" amp, which per
mits detection of currents of the order of 60 electrons/sec. A discussion of electrometer
tubes is contained in reference (41), pp 180-190.
A vibrating-reed electrometer is used to detect small ibnization chamber current. This
type of instrument assembly is commercially available, a principal advantage being the
use of AC amplifiers which are more stable than the DC type.
Operation of the chamber with an alternating voltage applied to the plates is practicable."
Development of a method similar to the referenced method" may circumvent many design
problems now encountered in the use of DC amplifiers in the nuclear-reactor control cir
cuits.

LOGARITHMIC AMPLIFIER

Several decades of reactor power-level readings can be compressed into the same meter
by using a logarithmic diode in the amplifier input circuit. A discussion of diode charac
teristics is covered under “Log Counting Rate Circuits.” Figure 7.4.34 shows a logarithmic
amplifier for use with a current ion chamber.

PERIOD AMPLIFIER

Reactor period (discussed under “Reactor Time Dependent Behavior”) is obtained by

differentiating the output of the logarithmic amplifier with a resistance capacitor network.
A typical period meter circuit is shown in Fig. 7.4.35.

RECORDERS

The output signal of the various counter and current channels shown in Figs. 7.4.27 and
7.4.31 is available as a voltage proportional to the quantity being measured. A variety of
commercial instruments which have the proper sensitivity, input impedance, and time re
sponse for use with nuclear reactor instrument assemblies can be obtained to record this
signal.

POWER SUPPLY

An essential auxiliary device of a radiation-detecting chamber is a source of regulated

voltage of proper magnitude. Chamber voltage may be supplied by the use of batteries, vi
brator supplies, conventional 60-cycle power supplies, or radio-frequency oscillator sup
plies. High-voltage fluctuation is avoided by using voltage regulator tubes or a supply of
the degenerative type. A discussion of power supplies is contained in reference (41), pp
363-396.

979
 :
INPUT

+150
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L
Tºº
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Fig.
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Circuit.
Submitted
Argonne
by
National
Laboratory,
Oct.
1952.
 TROL
SIMPLY 20-0-2010 RIGHT
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1952.
Oct.

Power
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3.
CHAP. 7.4 HANDLING AND CONTROL

REFERENCES

1. J. C. Simons, Jr., WAPD-RM-82, July 5, 1951 (classified).

Walter Pagels, WAPD-RM-75, Jan. 1952 (classified).
Soodak and Campbell, Elementary Pile Theory, AECD-2201, Aug. 4, 1948.
R. G. Durnal, WAPD-RM-62, Aug. 1951 (classified).
J. M. Harrer, R. E. Boyar, and D. Krucoff, Transfer Function of Argonne CP-2 Reactor, Nucleonics 10, N8, Aug. 1952.
WAPD-40 (classified).
J. H. Buck and C. F. Leyse, ORNL-963 (classified).
R. S. Kelley and Roy L. Roberts, M-4428 Engineering Report 41 MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory, Aug. 1948 (classified).
D. Krucoff, An Electromagnetic Rod-position Indicator, ANL-4818, June 1952.
H. A. Straus, ORNL-2, Dec. 1948 (classified).
F. A. Hadden, M-4430 Engineering Report No. 57, Servomechanism Laboratory Mass. Inst. Tech., Feb. 1949 (classified).
LeRoy A. McColl, Fundamental Theory of Servomechanisms, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., Nov. 1945.
Ralph J. Kochenburger, A Frequency Response Method for Analyzing and Synthesizing Contacter Servomechanisms, AIEE Trans
actions 69, 1950.
J. A. DeShong. Performance of Servo Motors for Reactor Regulating Rods, ANL-4614, Feb. 1951.
Vol. II, Chapt. V, HKF-12, M-4416 (classified).
Section B, Chapt. 6 and 7 HW-10475 (classified).
17. ANL-4641, Mar. 1, 1951 to May 31, 1951, p 87 (classified).
Bruno B. Rossi and Hans H. Staub, Ionization Chambers and Counters, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1949, pp. 210 through
218.
19. A. C. Lapsley, Saturation Properties of Uranium Fission Chambers, ANL-4806, Mar. 31, 1952.
20 Clark Drouillard Goodman, The Science and Engineering of Nuclear Power, Addisen-Wesley Press. Inc., Cambridge, Mass.
1947, p 261.
21. G. Barbaras, J. Farr, J. Kuranz, et al. The Design and Construction of Boron Coated Thermopiles for use in Neutron Fields, AECD
2485, Feb. 28, 1949.
22 Robert Hofstadter, Alkali Halide Scintillation Counters, Phys. Rev. 74, 1948, p 100.
23. Robert Hofstadter, Detection of Gamma-rays with Thallium-activated Sodium lodide Crystals, Phys. Rev. 75, 1949, p. 796.
24 L. Reiffel, C. A. Stone, and F. G. Rest, Protective Containers for NaI(Tl), Vol. 22, 1951, p 1026.
R. K. Swank and J. S. Moenich, Packaging of NaI(Tl) Crystals for Scintillation Spectrometry, AECU-1905 (VAC-513).
26 R. Hofstadter, J. A. McIntyre, H. Roderick, and H. L. West, Detection of Slow Neutrons, Phys. Rev. 82, 1951, p 749.
27. W. Bernstein and A. W. Schardt, Activation of Lil Crystals Phosphors, Phys. Rev. 85, 1952, p 919.
28. Jamcs Schenck and R. L. Heath, Tin Activation of Lil. Phys. Rev. 85, 1952, p 923.
29 Fitz-Hugh Marshall, J. W. Coltman, and A. I. Bennett, Photo-multiplier Radiation Detector, Rev. Sci. Inst. 19, 1948, p. 744.
30. W. F. Hornyak, A Fast Neutron Detector, BNL-1029.
31. R. H. Gilletts, Calcium and Cadmium Tungstate As Scintillation Counter Crystals for Gamma-ray Detection. Rev. Sci. Inst. 21,
1950, p 294.
32. R. F. Leininger. On the Preparation of Stilbene Crystals, Rev. Sci. Inst. 23, 1952, p 127.
R. F. Post, Decay Time and Efficiency of a Liquid Scintillator, Phys. Rev. 79, 1950, p 735.
34. Hartmut Kallmann and Milton Furst, Fluorescence of Solutions Bombarded with High-energy Radiation (Energy Transport in
Liquids), Phys. Rev. Part I, 79, 1950, p857; Part II, 81, 1951, p 853; Part III, 85, 1952, p 816.
W. L. Buck and R. K. Swank, Plastic Phosphorus for Scintillation Counters, Bull. Amer. Phys. Soc. 27, May 1, 1952, p 15.
George A. Morton, Photo-multipliers for Scintillation Counting, R. C. A. Rev. 10, No. 4, 1949, p 526.
walter Heitler. The Quantum Theory of Radiation, Oxford University Press.
T. A. Perle, Electrical Noise From Instrument Cables Subject to Shock and Vibration, Jour. Applied Phys. 23, June 1952, p. 694.
Bruno B. Rossi and Hans H. Staub, op. cit., pp 10-19.
L. Colli and U. Facchini, Drift Velocity of Electronics in Argon, Rev. Sci. Inst. 23, Jan. 1952, p 39.
William C. Elmore and Matthew Sands, Electronics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1949.
Serge A. Kroft, Electron and Nuclear Counters, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1946.
W. H. Jordan and P. R. Bell, Instructions for Use of Al Amplifier and Preamplifier, MonP-323, Jan. 1949.
CNL-35, Mar. 1948 (classified).
W. W. Ramaze, WAPD-RM-69 (part of WAPD-34) Dec. 1951 (classified).
ANL-4683, Sept. 1951, p 86 (classified).

982
 Section 8

REACTOR DESIGNS

Prepared under the direction of

N. E. HUST ON

NORTH AMERICAN AVIATION, INC.

983
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE

During the past decade, reactor designs have grown from the few early
reactors to a considerable number of designs of varied component combinations
and diverse purposes. Not only are the data for different reactors to be found
only indifferent publications, but in some cases the gathering of information on
any one reactor requires A laborious search through many documents. This
situation demands an integrated reference in which the basic specification and
operating characteristics of reactors can be found. The treatment need not
and should not be exhaustive, since a requirement for detailed information can
best be satisfied by published reports on the individual reactors, and since the
voluminous compilation that would result from a complete survey of the field
would be awkward both in presentation and use.
It is in this spirit, then, that the reactor data compilation presented here
was made. The preparation was governed by three constraints: brevity, omis
sion of any material of an educational nature, and avoidance of the use of illus
trations. The last constraint is unfortunate in that it places an undue burden
upon the reader in trying to comprehend textual descriptions of complex appa
ratus. It is hoped that this condition will be remedied in forthcoming revisions
to the Handbook.

In general, the compilation of data in this section covers the Project

literature up to February 1953.

985
 CHAPTER 8.1

Introduction

In the following chapters, brief descriptions of a number of reactors are presented. The
basic criterion for the inclusion of a reactor was that it should be in Operation, under con
struction, or have reached an advanced stage of design. This criterion was necessarily
tempered by additional conditions. For example, it was necessary to omit certain foreign
reactors, which either have been or are being built, because detailed information regard
ing these reactors was lacking. In general, design-study reactors were considered quali
fied for this category if sufficient information were available to indicate most of the tabu
lated parameters and characteristics. Finally, reactors in a design-study stage that had
unique features (such as the helium-cooled, Daniels Power Pile, or the North American
homogeneous, graphite reactor) were favored for inclusion, whereas design-study reactors
which were quite similar to existing or designed reactors were usually omitted. A more
complete listing of reactor designs is presented in Table 8.1.1., a quick reference re
actor chart. The references listed do not necessarily contain the most recent information
on the reactors but are rather the most complete single references available—in most
cases a feasibility report.
For convenience in presentation of the design compilations, the reactors are separated
into two major groups, heterogeneous and homogeneous. The classification of Clementine
and the EBR as heterogeneous was rather arbitrary. In these two major groups, the re
actors are sub-divided according to moderator, each moderator group comprising one
chapter. The description of each reactor consists of a tabular presentation followed by a
descriptive text.
In general, the data for each reactor have been taken directly from reports of the re
sponsible organizations. Blank spaces in the tables imply that the omitted information
was not available. Some easily calculable items, such as fuel inventory and average pow
er parameters, have been calculated when explicit values were not given. The numerical
values for the parameters listed under physics are direct reproductions of the published
values without heed to possible variations in the manner in which the data were calculated
or measured. These data, for the most part, are to be found in the listed references, al
though an occasional item was taken from other reports.
The tabulation of “CAPITAL INVESTMENT’’ was done on the basis of a complete charge
for the reactor, reactor building, heat removal system, administration buildings, site
development, and all other charges common to reactors in general. No charge was in
cluded for fuel, heavy water, or facilities indirectly associated with the reactor, such as
hot laboratories, separations facilities, and power conversion equipment. The investments
Were all corrected to 1951 costs.
The descriptive texts were made as brief as possible while retaining sufficient detail to
afford a complete portrayal of the reactor systems. The details which are likely to be of
the most interest are stressed, and subjects such as corrosion, heat transfer, and control
are not discussed from a general viewpoint.

987
:
Initially
f
mock-up
MTR
an
Preliminary
economic Peconomic
reliminary

Preliminary
study Design
f
only
study
Remarks Tismanotled
df
be
Homogeneous
f

study study

f ff t tt

preparation
In
Reference N ES-IV-5a &
Sci
Reactor &
Sci
Reactor
AERE-N/R-

POC-A-1 3
2,
Tech 3
2,
Tech
AECD-3269 126 Monn-383 ORNL-701 ORNL-991 ORNL-963
BNL-18 BNL-111
CP-2459

Dismantled Abandoned
Operating Operating Operating Operating Operating Operating Operating Operating
Status
Design Design

Reactor
–
8.1.1
Table
Chart.”
fuel
Fluid
Thorium
Reflector
Coolant

Graph
None Graph
None
Graph
Air Graph
Air D.O
Graph Graph
Air Graph
Air
Graph
Na Graph
He BeO
He H2O HIO
Be H2O H2O
&
BeO graph
&
Be

Fuel Uzss
in
U
Enr
U Nat
Nat U Nat
U Nat U U
Enr U
Nat U Enr
Nat U U
Nat Bi U Enr
Enr U U
Enr

Purpose power power power power

&
Prod &
Prod &
Prod &
Prod Rees
Res Res Res Res Res Res Res Res Res

reactor
training
intensity
Low
experimental
British
reactor

moderator
oxide
Beryllium reactor
testing
Materials
reactor
graphite
ORNL experimental
reactor Bro khaven
fuel
liquid reactor
power
Daniels' reactor
shielding
Bulk
1 Chicago
No.
reactor,
Chicago 2
No.
reactor, graphite
Brookhaven research
power
Low energy
low
Graphite
reactor
research moderator
Beryllium
Reactor
moderator
Graphite
Ed-P.S.-It
Com.
Mon.-Un-PuPt
moderator
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reactor reactor

#
 --- **Z- ~f~-----e.
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Graph
Uomogeneous
Enr
None
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Re8
2,
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North
research
Carolina
Graph
U
Enr
Res
Constr
NCSC-46
fH2O
H omogeneous
reactor
Homogeneous
reactor
U
Enr
fuel
Fluid
Exp
Operating
fD.O
H omogeneous
ORNL-730
experiment
moderator
DiO
French
reactor
energy
zero
Graph
U
Nat
Res
None
NP-2038
Operating
Norwegion
reactor
water
heavy
Res
Graph
U
Nat
D.O
Y-F33-2
Operating
Graph
Zero
experimental
energy
U
Nat
Res
None
PD-207
Operating
reactor
Canadian
reactor
water
heavy
Res
Graph
H.OU
Nat
Operating
fE-JRH-94
& ANL-WHZ-250
3'
No.
reactor,
D.O
gChicago
raph
fRes
U
Enr
Operating
&Chicago
No.
reactor,
D.O
gD2O
Uraph
Enr
ANL-4779
Res
5tConstr
Com.
Ed-P.S.-II*
Prod
N
Uat
D.O
Sci
Reactor
D2O
&
economic
Preliminary
-
-
2,
Tech
s tudy
3power
PGE-BC-I*
&
Prod
Nat
U
H2O
H.O
Sci
Reactor
economic
Preliminary
-
-

2,
sTech
tudy
3power
moderator
No
fNat
b
U
Pulanket
Los
reactor
fast
Alamos
Res
Hg
Operating
LAMS-567
N
tU at
Experimental
Enr
b
reactor
breeder
Reslanket
NaK
ANL-4356
Operating
N
b
U
&
Naat
Prod
Elanket
nr
PGE-BC-II;
tReactor
Sci
-
-

2,
Tech
3power
Unconventional
moderator
Graph
U
Enr
moderated
oil
and
fH.O
Thermal
None
reactor
test
Operating
KAPL-436
Res

*All
heterogeneous
are
listed
reactors
noted
otherwise
unless
remarks
under
fIndicates
this
described
reactor
chapters
following
in
$Industrial
groups:
participation
Company
Chemical
Monsanto
Electric
Union
and
Commonwealth
Missouri;
of
Edison
Public
Northern
of
Company
Service
and
Gas
Pacific
Illinois;
Bechtel
Electric
Corporation

:
 CHAPTER 8.2

Graphite-moderated Heterogeneous Reactors

CHICAGO PILE NO. 1 (CP-1)

The graphite structure was made chiefly of 4%– by 4%-in. blocks (with some 4- by 4-in.)
of various lengths. These were stacked in a crisscross fashion with a wooden support
structure to approximate a sphere. The actual shape was approximately a flattened ellip
soid of revolution (24 ft across by 19 ft high) since criticality was reached with a smaller
structure than had been anticipated. The fuel elements were fabricated in five forms:
(1) Uranium metal in 2%-in.-diameter by 2%-in.-long cylinders.
(2) UO, in 3%-in.-diameter by 3%-in.-long cylinders with edges beveled at 45° to simu
late spheres.
(3) UO, in 3-in.-diameter by 3-in.-long cylinders.
(4) and (5) UsOs in the same forms as (2) and (3).
A total of 19,480 fuel elements, predominantly of form (2), were contained in recesses
bored in some of the graphite blocks on either 8%-in. or 8-in. center-to-center spacings.
In stacking, filler blocks containing no fuel were interspersed between fuel-bearing blocks
to effect a cubical lattice array. The types of graphite used from the center outward were
AGOT, Speer, and AGX.
One side of the reactor was supported on a graphite pier rather than on the wooden struc
ture to make sure that a stable structure would be available for inserting the control rods.
Ten slots were provided through the pier, three of which were for safety, shim, and regu
lator rods. In addition, a removable stringer traversed the reactor parallel to the slots.
The safety and shim rods were scrammed by a weight-and-pulley system which pulled them
through the reactor.
Uranium metal was cast in finished cylindrical form without cladding. Uranium oxide
elements were formed by compressing loose, dry uranium oxide powder in a die with a hy
draulic press at a pressure of 35,000 to 45,000 psi. The die was lubricated with a dilute
solution of stearic acid in acetone with a small amount of ethylene glycol as a wetting agent.

CHICAGO PILE NO. 2 (CP-2)

The graphite structure is a 22- by 20- by 19-ft rectangular stack constructed chiefly of
4%- by 4%-in. blocks (with some 4 by 4 in.) of various lengths laid horizontally in a criss
cross fashion. About 17,700 fuel elements are contained in recesses bored in some of the
blocks on either 8%- or 8-in. center-to-center spacings. The fuel elements are fabricated
in three forms:
(1) Uranium metal in 2%-in.-diameter by 2%-in.-long cylinders.
(2) UO, in 3%-in.-diameter by 3%-in.-long cylinders with edges beveled at 45° to simu
late a sphere.
(3) Usos in the same form as (2).

991
: |
About
.
lifetime
neutron
1Prompt
x
1
sec
0-3 c1.07
d
1.039 emperature) .
(t0.0001/*C
-k
. poisons)-6.4
(egligible
Nk (p0^*/mb
Ak
1.
x
res ure)
bout FEXAPCEIR/8
-
1
1.
4
x
stringer
removable
in. LIMTEINETSA.L Reaction,
hain
cold)*
c.
b m?296
and
(cleancm2330
c
.Diffusion
squared
length
342 31%
cn2cm2
d .
*
cold)
and
(clean
Age
40-9
.
cold)
and
(clean
1Buckling
x
cm−3
5°cm-2101.2
150-6
x
c 8.9cm-2
10-6
x
d
1.035.
(agºgº
.
cold)
and
(clean
koo 032 -

10
x
$2.7
...
*::
foil
-
7

ERxrEivergent
DP.
a
of
C poFedEruRicmEetNniCtoEanSl

3.c.
graphite
Speer
in
oxide
Uranium graphited.
AGOT
in
oxide
Uranium graphite
AGOT
in
metal
Uranium

DENSITY
FLUX
NEUTRON
1keff
.cold).
and
(clean
.0005* INVESTMENT*
CAPITAL
.

8.2CP-1)
(Table
1
No.
Pile
.1—Chicago .
Thermal
- Estimated
a.

.
Fast -
-

ULOCATION
.
ChicagoChicago,
of
niversityIllinois ULMDesign
ChicagoC
of
.
eantbiaovlreaurtsgoirctya,l of
Meoantbiasovltreaurtcsgotirctyoa,nl of
UL.
Chicago ULMOperation
Chicago
.
eantbiaovlreaurtsgoirctya,l PURPOSE NFuel
metal
as
tons
metric
5.6
uranium;
atural
. GModerator
.
tons
metric
266
raphite; 84 GStraphiteReactor
.
Graphite; material
tons
metric ructural .
Aatmir None- cubical
osphere Shield Pseudn.
.
TYPE
ICE
1LATT
iin
8
and
in.
arrays
/4
ospheres ft 1/2 . 4 296
Over-all
2
1
x
high
ft 9 UMaterial
.
kg
F235; NCoengsluimgpitbiloen .
is ionable . NBurn-up
egligible . O Innage
200 Useful
.
output
power IndefiniteHeat
. egligiblerise
NriscN
. egligible rod in.
hRoergiu/2
1
/.
1l
3
x
clad
steelzloa4ntianlgboron
/2 stripsteel
on hSafety
. uti.866
0Therrnal
.
cold)
and
(clean
b lization 0.
. . .
Reflector . . .
. . None .
None .
None .
watts rod cadmium
steel 1
.
rod
steel
on
orizontal co.
86.9d
871
Research
.
UO23.7
as
tons
metric
32.9 U3O8
as
tons
metric (efolar
PCore
i.
2
ft
10
radius;
n. torial Reflector
ective) radius;
iEquan.
9
ft
12 .
1
thick -
ift
º.
,
s.
flux horizontal
1
1.
3
x
1/8
cadmium
in. 13cm
.
spacing)
in.
1/4
(8
cm
.
radius
Cell 12.6
spacing
in.
(8
(av0-9
density
Power
1.
x
kw/1
0.7
eragekw/kg
6).Specific
1.
x
25.0−4
.8
(average)
power
o.
.
cold)
and
(clean
escape
Resonance
896
ISTATUS
.
1943
Feb.,
to
1942
Dec.,
from
operation
.n

temperature
moderator
Maximum
.

OREGSAPNOINZSAITBILOEN
. temperature
fuel
Maximum
.

CONDITIONS
OPERATING
MATERLAL
STRATEGIC FACILITIES
AUXILLARY
. -
.
time
cycle
Average
.
power.
heat
Total Reacti-vity
.
change-

.
SYSTEM
COOLING

MATERIALS DIMENSIONS
Controls
.
Shim - PHYSICs
-

§
 :
APrompt
1.
x
1
sec
.bout
0-3 koo
lifetime
neutron .
cold)
and
(clean
. b 1.07
1.0551.032
(average) d (t0e.m0per0a1tu/r*eC) .
-k
. (.
k egligiblx
Npoisons) (ep6**/mb
k
-8
1.r6.4
es ure) afterx
105 4ºise.5
. c)(wat )
maximum
Thermal: EXPERIM0
.
FACILITIES
3
2
x
in.
removable
long
ft 4ENTAL core ft in.
horizontal thermal
x
5
column -
19
4
x /4ft
stringers
removable5/8
2
-
1
1
x
in.
slot
vertical
long5 slots
monitoringChain
Various perimental ETF TRECD-325 7-4TF RFI T ysz
Exivergent
.
DREFERENCES
a
of
Production
Reaction 1944
20,
cm?
342.8
.296°
cold).
and
(clean
squared
length
Diffusion
em?330
cn2 Age
d .
cold)*
and
(clean
370
.
cm
x 0-6cm-2
45.9
cm-2
.
cold)
and
(clean10-6cm-2
x
°
58.9
1Buckling 101.24
x0-6
-
°
1.039 .
average
1/(cm4)0°
nx .5
(sec)(wat )* Besrief
DA
General
Uranium
Argonne
the
ofcription

etcalf,- pp.,
---
Dec.
Secret,

Speer
in
oxide
Uranium
b. graphite d.
graphitec.
AGOT
in
oxide
Uranium graphite
AGOT
in
metal
Uranium

DEnsity
FLux
NEUTRON
.
cold).
and
(clean
keff
1.004

Estimated
a.

.-
Fast

.Laboratory Chicago,
LOCATION
National
Argonne
- Illinois Meatbaolraurtgoircya,lUniversity
.
LDesign
ChicagoC
of
University Meoatnbasoltraurtcgotircyoa,nl.
L.
ChicagoOperation
of Argonne.
Laboratory
National PRURPOSE
esearch
.
Fuel
Natural
*
metal
as
tons
metric
9.1
uranium;
a
U3O8
as
tons Graphite;Reflector
.
tons
metric
314
metricModerator
3
l. . -. GraphiteReactor
Graphite; Structural
tons
metric
115 .
material aAtmoirsphere concrete,
. Ordinarycubical
.
Shield Pseudn.
.
1TYPE
iin
leadLATTICE
and
wood, 8
and
in.
arrays
/4
ospheres .7
20
1
x
high
ft8thick
Core .
fReflector
1 - ft lead
5
.
sides6
on
concrete
ordinary
of
t Shield
. in.ft
top
on
wood
in.
40
plus
-
.3
3
2
x
column)
thermal
(excluding
high 2
0
Over-all U280
.
a
kg
235;
Fis ionable .
.
material IBurn-up IAverage
ndefinite .
- .
time
cycle
ndefinite COOLING
.
SYSTEM
None -
aetnmtoislpahteirneg
VReactor
.
system 1Total
.
(nominal)
kw
power
heat0 Negligible
.
flux
Heat A.
,
riseAverage
25°F
tebout
fuel
Average
mperature15°
rA.
Ftebout
moderator
mperature
ise hourpizornteadl, strip
1
.
sShim
steel
strip
cadmium horizontal,steel
2
.
Regulating
stripsSafety
cadmium
supported, horizontal,
3
.
strips
cadmium
supported, 13cm
.
radius
Cell
spacing)12.6
in.
1/4
(8
cm spacing
in.
(8 C0.871
d
0.869
2.
1.
x
gm/day."
C0-3
o.7
nsumption
6kw/1
.
(average)
density
1Power
x .4kw/kg
0*
UO2*
as
tons
metric
29.5 1Specific
x
3.6
25
. 0-2
(average)
power
AInnage
.
0.1
pprox.
I943
1.
.,
Mar.
since
operation
n
STATUS

ut.866°
0Thermal
.
cold)
and
(clean
ilization
0Resonance
..
cold)
and
(clean
escape
.896

OREGSAPNOINZASTIBOLNES

Conditions
OPERATING
MATERIAL
STRATEGIC FACILITIES
AUXILLARY .
output
power
Useful
0 -

0Reactivity
.Change
.005

MATERIALS DIMENSIONS
CONTROLS
PHYSICS

§
CHAP. 8.2 REACTOR DESIGNS

The graphite was stacked in such manner that the blocks containing fuel were separated
by filler blocks containing no fuel, yielding a cubical lattice array. The types of graphite
used from the center of the reactor outward are AGOT, Speer, and AGX.
Three control (shim and regulator) rods enter the reactor horizontally, parallel to the
long dimension, spaced at 7 ft 11 in. in a horizontal line slightly above center. The re
movable core and stringers extend through the reactor in the same direction. Three safety
rods are inserted horizontally into the left side of the reactor (facing the side that the shim
and regulator rods enter), centrally spaced on a horizontal line. These are scrammed by
gravity through systems of weights and pulleys that pull the rods through the reactor. The
thermal column is built on top of the reactor and extends through the upper shield.

SHIELDING

The sides of the reactor are shielded by 5 ft of ordinary concrete. The top shield con
sists of 6 in. of lead plus 39% in. of wood. At higher power levels, the reactor room is not
occupied. The openings required in the shield are plugged with concrete blocks. A special
laboratory enclosure has been constructed around the thermal column.

REACTOR ATMOSPHERE

A low-capacity ventilating system has been installed for removing the radioactive gases.
This unit draws about 100 cfm of air into the reactor around safety-rod, control-rod, and
removable-stringer openings and exhausts it through a stack via a duct and filter bank near
the top of the upper shield.

FUEL PREPARATION

The uranium metal was cast in finished cylinders without cladding. The uranium oxide
elements were formed by compressing loose, dry uranium oxide powder in a die with a hy
draulic press at a pressure of 35,000 to 45,000 psi. The die was lubricated with a dilute
solution of stearic acid in acetone with a small amount of ethylene glycol as a wetting agent.

ORNL GRAPHITE REACTOR (X-10)

The 24- by 24- by 24%-ft graphite structure is constructed of layers of 4- by 4-in. blocks
of lengths up to 4 ft laid on a concrete foundation. The blocks are oriented with parallel
horizontal axes except for occasional transverse stringers, and the whole structure is keyed
for stability. The graphite used, in order of quality, is AGOT, AGNT, and AGX. In the 73
courses of blocks, 1%-in.-square fuel channels (formed by V cuts in adjoining blocks) are
provided in the even-numbered layers. There are 1247 standard fuel channels in 35 hori
zontal rows of 35 channels each, plus a centered 23-channel row at the top. One of the
central channels is oversize to accommodate uranium doughnuts. An axial core is com
pletely removable from the discharge face of the reactor. This contains eight standard fuel
channels, the oversized doughnut channel, four circular-cross-section experimental chan
nels, and an axial foil slot. Shim rods enter the right side of the reactor (looking at the
charging face) in a centered, 4-ft-square array. Regulator rods enter the same face on the
vertical center line, centrally spaced at 9 ft 6 in. Safety rods are suspended in the upper
shield in an 8-ft 4-in. by 4-ft 8-in. rectangular array and drop by gravity into the reactor.
The vertical boron-steel shot wells are approximately in the transverse central plane, 8 ft
8 in. apart. The experimental holes and foil slots extend transversely through the reactor
except for the central-plane foil slots, which are obstructed by the removable-core section.

994
 :
Sub-aumosphere 19.25
H2O7,
of
in. hp rods
lb/min 800
200 -
4
.
3Shim
11
x
hin.
bft
oroi/4 n-9ste lrods
nz-o9snteal rodsSafety.
-
2
.
3Regulator
1
1
x
bin.
horizontal
ft
oro/4 1oro/2
1
-
4
.
f
8
x
dia.
bin.
vertical 7 shot
n-tste lvertical
3n.
1
-
1
x
dia,
iin.
2
ft
tubes
/4 boron-ste l
in.
3/8
for slugs drop
of
through
push
straight
charging,
Hand SDislugs
.
canal
into
charging
1Cell
.
cm
.
radius
1.46 10-3
x
1
About
sec .0-6/mb
1.
x7.8
(pres ure)
k
8
. 3/(cm20°
.
maximum
1Thermal:
nx .2
)(sec)(watnx
1.
/)(cm”05
.4 FEXAPCEIRLI4METNITEASL ft
sec)(wat ) ft
)(average
. 2.
x
in.
core
axial
removable 2
-
37
2
x
in.
slots6
foil
/4
/8
4ft
2
3-
1
x
in.
slots4
foil
/4
/8
1holes1
1xp.684
2-
x
dia.
ein.
axial
ft
eri4mental ft
15/32
3
1-
22
x
in.
hole10
doughnut
axial
/84 holes2
ixpen.
4
2-
ex
ft /-42 holes
ri4mental in.
1l
x
shield.6
top
in
tunnels
animal oxbpserivmaetnitoanl into
e-
and ft ole
plenum thermal
air
discharge x
5
-
1
column draina therrnal
-
1
plug
core
filled
water ato tank Piles,
cd oimtiodnatle column
testing
material
bulk
or GRrEraphite
P.
Uranium
Technical
AECoFdEuRcEtNiCoEnSService.
NInEfSo-rImVa-t5iao,n
Borst,
E.
TL. ThAn
Eexpoer itmecnatla&
and
Study Sleuactor,
e Laboratory, J.
ritical Brookhaven
bcO National pp
109
BNL-60,
al.,
et
Cherrick,
2cm
.
*97cm
cold)
and
(clean
squared
length .398
.
2
Diffusion .cm
axial
cold);
and
(clean
Age 3radial
. 8692 io-5)c.
-plus
.
x(te2.86
k
.
fuel)
mperature)(graphite
10−6
x
cm
60−3
1.
x
(.5
k
.poisons)(typical) 1951
Secret,
pp,
457
1950
15,
June
Secret,

.
reactor
through
drop
pressure
Coolant cold)(experimental).
and
(clean
Buckling -

0.0389
.
loading)
1944
(late
change
Reactivity 0(clean
.ut.890
Thermal
.
cold).
and
ilization
0Resonance
..
cold)
and
(clean
escape
.886
x
20
poi.004
and
(hot
1keff
.
. soned)(typical)
1.
.co,021
and
(clean
keff
ld)(typical).
.
required
power
Pumping .
lifetime
neutron
Prompt
DENSITY
FLUX
neutron

1koo
..
cold)
and
(clean
.067
-

.
pressure
Coolant
rate
Pumping HANDLING
FUEL
(X-10)
Reactor
Graphite
8.2.3—ORNL
Table Estimated
a.
.
Charging
CONTROLS
PHYSICs .
Fast
-
-

Oaboak
L.
National
Ridge
ratory Oak
Tennessee
Ridge, DuPont DuPont ORNL production concrete ft
4587 U***,
3.
x
radioisotope
and
Research NaturalAluminum;
(typical)
tons
metric
47.63
uranium; cap
end
0.060
wall,
in.
0.035
.Graphite;
cladding
Fuel tons Air Varied .
metric
6.12.5 Graphite .
Air
barytes-haydite pitchl.
and
Ordinary
concrete, waterpro fing square
plus i1
8
in
rods
dia.
array
n. ft
1/3
24
2
x 4 upon
reflector)
(including Dependsof
. ft haydite
2
walls
retaining
concrete
ordinary
loading.
f(waterptro fed
5
pitch),
with
barytes
of About Indefinite .
(typical)4.5
kg
343 .
gms/day Indefinite Air: .
.
through
Once Filtered lb/min 3300 blowers
(stand-by)lb/min
275 driven
-
1
steam fan -
2 centrifugal 3800 O .
.
kw -
Indefinite 7300
0.9 . a3300
ft)(hr)
BTU/(sq a
ft)(hr)
BTU/(sq - 24.8
.
a
25
/kg
kw 473°F .
660°F .
. 29.2°F .
77°F F.
194
.
1 1.9
/
kw
4.4 1
/
kw
-
11.1
.
25*
/kg
kw
1943
Nov.,
since
operation
In -

- -

- -

- -

- -

- -

- -
-

.
- -

- -

- -

- -
temperature
moderator
Maximum
- -

- -
al) temperature
sheath
Maximum
OREGSAPNOINZASTIBOLNES -
(typic
CCNDITIONS
C.PERATING
- -
temperature
fuel
Maximum temperature
outlet
Coolant
- - maximum
density:
Power maximum temperature
inlet
Coolant
reflector)
(and
Moderator average average
- -

- -
Fis ionable
.
material
- tructural .
Smaterial
. atmosphere
Reactor - MATERIAL
stratégic .
time
cycle
Average .
output
power
Useful .
maximum
flux:
Heat
.
treatment
Coolant .
average
- -

-
.
material
Fertile -
.
power
heat
Total .
velocity
Coolant
- -
SYSTEM
COOLING power:
Specific
Construction
. - - Consumption
.
.
TYPE
LATTICE
.
Operation - -

.
Reflector
.
power
Rod
- DIMENSIONS - .
Over-all
-
-
MATERLALS .
Coolant
-
.
Burn-up
- .
Blowers
.
LOCATION .
Design .
Shield .
Shield .
Innage
PURPOSE .
Fuel .
Core .
Type
STATUS

É
CHAP. 8.2 REACTOR DESIGNS

The experimental holes are on 2-ft 8-in. spacings in two rows 5 ft 6 in. apart. The foil
slots are arrayed in a 6-ft-square array of three rows. A thermal column centered on the
top of the reactor extends through the shield, expanding upward stepwise from a 5-ft square.
to a 6-ft 7%-in. square.
SHIELDING

The vertical faces of the reactor are shielded by 5 ft of barytes-haydite concrete con
tained between two 1-ft ordinary-concrete retaining walls internally waterproofed with
pitch. The top shield, separated by 10 in. from the top of the reactor, is self-supporting
with 1% ft of ordinary reinforced concrete (waterproofed) plus 5 ft of barytes-haydite con
crete, covered with % ft of ordinary concrete. The side shields are separated from the
reactor surface by 1-in. asbestos-rope packings. The 10-in. space at the top of the reactor
is blocked by a lead- and neoprene-covered steel H beam. A 3-ft air plenum chamber is
provided between the shield and reactor at the charging face. This is bridged by slotted
1%-in. galvanized pipe for the fuel channels. The discharge face is provided with a 6-ft
plenum chamber. The concrete of the shield at the back of the discharge plenum chamber
is protected from the high-temperature air by a 2-in. insulating layer of cellamite, sepa
rated from the concrete by a 4-in. space through which cool air is circulated (comprising
about 1 percent of the total air flow). The access holes through the shield for the fuel
channels are shielded by two-step plugs of galvanized-iron pipe filled with lead shot and
paraffin, with a 1-ft maple rod at the inner end of the plug. A two-step concrete-filled
steel plug, stepped down to a smaller 1-ft maple extension at the inner end, offers access
to the removable central core from the charging face. The core is removed through a
drainable, water-filled, stepped tank plug at the discharge face. Experimental, observation,
ionization-chambér, and foil-slot openings are shielded by graphite plus masonite-steel
plugs. Three 4-in.-thick lead gates 6 ft 4% in. apart are provided in each of the animal
tunnels. There are 35 openings in the top shield above the discharge face for inserting an
air-sampling device. These holes are shielded by plugs similar to the fuel-channel plugs.
The control and safety rods cannot be completely removed from the shield, and the tips of
the rods act as shield plugs for the openings. The upper thermal column is shielded by a
cadmium sheet, 18 in. of concrete, and 4 in. of lead in that order upward. The discharge
cooling air is shielded by 2 ft of concrete, and both inlet and outlet air channels make sev
eral 90° bends.

FUEL HANDLING

The fuel elements are 1.1-in.-diameter by 4-in.-long cylinders bonded with Al-Si to
aluminum cans. Fuel slugs are inserted into the fuel channels and pushed manually into
position by means of a steel rod. Spent slugs are forced out of the channels at the discharge
face by the new slugs and drop to 45°-inclined planes (padded with neoprene rubber and
canvas) which lead to a discharge chute and a deep water pit (19 ft 9 in. of water). The
lower end of the discharge chute is movable, to facilitate sorting of the spent slugs into
stainless-steel buckets. A 10-ft-deep canal from the deep pit communicates with a hot
laboratory and the separations building.

COOLING SYSTEM

Cooling is effected by air drawn from the atmosphere through an inlet filter, the reactor,
a venturi constriction, and the exit filter; after passing through the blowers, the air is ex
hausted through a 200-ft stack. The inlet filter consists of American Air Filter Company
Air Mat Type PL-24 filter units loaded with '42-in. Type G Air Mat Filters giving a total
area of 1592 sq ft. After going through the venturi section, the air passes through the exit

996
GRAPHITE-MODERATED HETEROGENEOUS REACTORS CHAP. 8.2

filter [% in. of FG No. 50 filter mediums, backed up with % in. of FG No. 25 followed by a
bank of CWS No. 6 (AEC-1) paper filters].

BROOKHAVEN GRAPHITE RESEARCH REACTOR (BGRR)

The graphite form of the Brookhaven reactor is that of a 25-ft cube separated into halves
by a vertical gap, which may be varied from 2% to 3% in. Cooling air is introduced into
this gap and flows out in both directions through the fuel channels, which are perpendicular
to the gap. The graphite cube is made of 75 courses of 4- by 4-in. blocks of various lengths
up to 45 in. AGOT, AGHT, CSO, and CSN graphites were used. With the exception of the
blocks around control-rod and experimental openings, the block axes are parallel to the
fuel channels. For stability, all joints are staggered, and the structure is keyed. Stagger
ing of longitudinal joints was accomplished by making the outside blocks in the even-num
bered layers 6 in. wide. The gap surfaces are divided into eight triangular portions by di
viding the square faces into quadrants and then dividing these with the main diagonals.
Alternate triangular portions are offset 2% in., with the raised portions on opposite sides
of the gap alternating so that the two surfaces would interlock if brought together. To re
duce coolant-pressure drop, the gap edges and the fuel-channel openings are flared and
rounded. The reactor rests on the upper of two 3-in. steel bedplates, divided at the gap.
The upper plate is separated from the lower by runners, and the half of the reactor opposite
the charging face is arranged so that it can be moved to vary the gap width.
There are 1369 fuel channels in a 37- by 37-channel square, with the central one optional.
The channels are formed by cutting semicircular-cross-section grooves in adjacent blocks
and are 2.67 in. in diameter. The channels are on 8-in. ‘centers in a square array. Each
channel in each half of the reactor is provided with an annular groove to accommodate
anchoring projections on the fuel elements. The fuel elements consist of 1.1-in.-diameter
by 4-in. metal slugs encased in an 11-ft aluminum tubing provided with six longitudinal
cooling fins.
The control rods enter the two discharge-face corners of the cube. The axes are hori
zontal, on 4-ft spacing, and parallel to the diagonal planes of the cube. Eight rods are in
serted at each of the two corners in a 2- by 4-rod centered column. Two of the rods are
used for control and are powered by induction motors. Each of the 14 emergency rods is
powered by an electric-motor-driven hydraulic pump which in turn drives a hydraulic
motor geared to the rod rack-drive pinion through a speed reducer. The electric motors
also drive flywheels which store energy for emergency shutdown. The experimental holes
traverse the reactor perpendicular to the fuel channels. In general, the holes are in a rec
tangular array of five rows, six holes to a row. The spacing in the rows is about 3 ft, and
the spacing of rows is 4 ft. The array is centered horizontally but is slightly below center
vertically. The holes in the middle row are displaced away from the central gap to accom
modate an additional opening through the shield into the central gap. The middle row of
experimental holes may or may not be blocked by the 12- by 12-in. removable axial core.
The second hole from the charging face in the second row from the top is replaced by a
sample conveyor system which consists of an endless chain of sample holders contained in
two hollowed-out stringers separated by a 4-in. filler stringer. This endless chain is ac
cessible through openings in the shield and is driven by an electrical mechanism located in
the shield. Eleven pneumatic tubes parallel to the fuel channels are located in the half of
the reactor opposite the charging face, and the other half of the reactor contains 30 inter
cell fuel channels. Two tunnels, one for animals and one for instruments, extend under the
reactor perpendicular to the fuel channels to openings in the foundation for direct exposure.
Each half of the reactor is provided with a vertical shot well that may be used for experi
mental purposes or for an additional safety device using boron-steel shot.

997
 :
0.2lbs/min
24,000 5700
.
rate
Pumping in.5boron 3/4% 1/2
l
horizontal
rods
steel 3/4% in. 1/2ft
3
-
2
gap
in
wells
shot
diagonal
dia. Byhand
.
Charging
equipment
grappling
remote
and
hand BDischayrging
.
equipment
grappling
remote
and
|
perature (at
tem1°FCoolant
inlet
4Coolant
. peratureH2O
tem65°F
2outlet
.
plenum)
exit
reactor -n.
.
filter).
inlet
across
i.e.
(inlet,
pressure
iCoolant
7 1.in.
5H2O
.
reactor
through
drop
pressure
Coolant About
.
water)
and
(air
required
power
Pumping
kw -
2
.
2Regulator
x
ft,
1/2 1n.54boron
.
safety
and
iShim
2
2-
x
ft, 1
horizontal
rods
steel 1/2
3
-
2
2
x
dia.
in.
wells
shot
5 .
radius
Cell
cm
46
ll.
cold)34
and
(clean
squared
length
3Diffusion
.
cm .316cm3
(axial) cm
.
(radial). co.
and
(clean
Age
. 4ld)(07
axial)
385 sec
10-3 .
x
1
About
(radial).
crºn
-
-
1.074 .
1,032 -0.017 .
. 1.005 (ſmicam.59
2thermal
1.
Ax 2x)0%
(isemcu)(mwa)t.)holes
FExXApPCeEIrRn.
i.
4
-
2
ex
ft LiImM5
9TeEInNEtTSaA.lLft
-52 25
211
x
in.
core
axial
removable channel,1/2
2
-
1
system
conveyor
sample
ft 12ft
-
11
tubes
preumatic
ft -0 blocks
21
x
shield
removable
of
section reactor 12
of
top
on intercell into
-
30
channels
fuel
ft
1/2 openings
-
2
gap
central Report
.
REFERENCES
Reactor
Nuclear
Brookhaven
the
on
Reactor: Theory
Nuclear
Brookhaven
The an
Calculationa,National
Liºn
De
uclear LBarbo rkahtaovreyn,
-

3.
i.
x
cm-2
(o-6
2.4
Buckling
experimental).
-
Laboratory,
National
BFookhaven
BNL-T8,
INVE19
$CAPITAL
1.
x S0TMENT BNL-132
Chernick,
J.
and
Kaplan
I.
1952
January,
Secret,
pp,
80
10°37.3
×
-4 -
2ºº::
exposure
the
under
tunnels
1948
22,
June
Secret,
pp,
180

- - - - -

- - - - - - -

- - - - - - -

temperature
moderator
Maximum
. uti.89
0Thermal
.
cold)
and
(clean
lization
0.884
.
cold)
and
(clean
escape
Resonance
poisoned)(typical)
and
(hot
keff
cold)(typical)
and
(clean
keff
.

8.2.4-Bro khaven
Table
(BGRR)
Reactor
Research
Graphite .
lifetime
neutron
Prompt
(temperature)(to al)
k
. DENSITY
FLux
NEUTRON
8
(poisons)(typical)
k
.
.
cold)
and
(clean
koo
0Rea.505
.
change
ctivity

HANDLING
FUEL

CONTROLS
PHYSICS

Barbo rkahtovreyn Upton,

.
LLOCATION
National York
New H. K.
.
Company.
Ferguson
K. H. National
.
Company.
Ferguson Brookhaven pand
. rardoidouicsotiopne
LaboratoryResearch Naturalin.
(typical)
tons
metric
52.5
uranium; .6 0.232
0Aluminum;
-
6
wall,
0.030
fins; lbs/ft Graphite;
tons 382
metric
350 Graphite; Coolant
.
Reflector
tons
metric Varies Structural
Air Fertile
. .
material GraphiteReactor
.
material Aatmoir
. sphere and
Steel square
.
Shield
concrete
limonite ln.
.
TYPE
LATTICE
il
8
in
rods
dia.
array
. dia.
f
7
.
Coretft
(typical)
ft
22
by About2t limonite
.
fReflector
/9
l
sides,
ends
on 9
. t concrete
Shield
f
4
isteel;
3 n. aggregate1/2
iron
with Over-all3527 370
/.
35l
x
high
ft . is iona'ginjday
U235;
Fkg
material2ble 2.'s
.
(ºverage,
Consumption Indefinite through
.
time
cycle
Average OnceCoolant
.
Type AtmosphereCoolant
.
source Inlet Outlet
.
treatment
filter filter Pre-olower1en,500
-
5
c.
driven
motor
hp
fans1
trifugalhp
coolingBlowers 15gpm,
-
blowerPumps
emergency
driven
gasoline 4,500 water
-
3
. pumps
drivenc
motor entrifugal helium
Positivecanning
.
detection
Ruptured
can
slug
inside
pressure Slug kw
.
services
Reactor
facility 26,000
.
point)
design
(28,000 .38730
.
(average)
power
Rod
kw 20,
.
(average)
flux
Heat
ft)(hr)
BTU/(sq
1.07kw/kg
.
(average)
density
Power
kw/1 70.
. te00°F"
fuel
6Maximum
(average)
power
Specific
25 mperature
Up
.
Burn-up
20%
to
1950
Aug.,
since
operation
In

(typical)
CONDITICNS
OPERATING
OREGSAPNOINZASTIBOLNES tem****
sheath
*Maximum
. perature

MATERIAL
STRATEGIC FACILITIES
AUXILLARY .
output
power
Useful
0 -

.
power
heat
Total
Construction
. .
cladding
Fuel SYSTEM
COOLING

.
Cperation .
Moderator
MATERIALS DuMENSIONS
.
Design
.
PURPOSE .
Fuel
0.9
.
Innage
.
STATUS

É
GRAPHITE-MODERATED HETEROGENEOUS REACTORS CHAP. 8.2

SHIELDING

The shielding consists of 4% ft of limonite, heavy-aggregate-concrete poured into forms

made of 3-in. steel plate, with fuel-channel rifle barrels and sleeves for experimental
holes welded in place. A 14-ft exhaust plenum is provided at the charging face, and a 6-ft
exhaust plenum is provided at the opposite face. These are enclosed with large steel bel
lows for air seals. The shields on these faces are honeycombed with rifle barrels for fuel
handling at the charging face and for push rods on the opposite face. An additional 3 in. of
steel plate is used around the graphite to effect a total thermal shield of 6 in. This is sup
plemented with a 12- by 20-in. steel band encircling the reactor at the central gap. The
4%-in. insulating layer of
concrete is shielded from the hot exhaust air in the plenum by a
corrugated aluminum sheets, separated from the shield by a 2%-in. gap through which
secondary cooling air is circulated. A similar insulation is provided in the exhaust ducts,
which are shielded with heavy concrete as far as the outlet filters. A space of 12 to 15 in.
is provided on the sides, top, and bottom of the reactor between the graphite and the shield
for air flow from the inlet chambers near the ends of the pile to the central gap. The
graphite is sealed by a %-in. steel or %-in. aluminum casing with metal bellows for the
experimental openings. On the top face of the reactor, a 20- by 20-ft portion of the shield
is made of interlocking stepped plugs which can be removed for experimental purposes.
The top shield also has three rows of openings, two over the large plenum and one over the
small plenum, which are used for scanning and for remote-grappling equipment during
charging operations. All the reactor openings have stepped shield plugs of steel, graphite,
and heavy-concrete combinations. The discharged slugs are dropped into a 4- by 13-ft
cross-section chute which leads down from the large plenum to a 13- by 13– by 20-ft-deep
well. This has a 52-ft-long, 5-ft-deep canal for storage purposes which will be extended
to the hot laboratory. The concrete walls of the canal are 18 in. thick and provided with
three gate dams for isolation of contamination.

FUEL HANDLING

Fuel elements are removed from the reactor by placing a trough across the large plenum
at the appropriate position. After removing the orificing and tube-retaining device from the
opening, the helium tube is pinched off, and the element is withdrawn into the trough. From
this position, it is picked up by two pneumatically operated grappling hooks lowered through
the scanning openings in the top shield on cables. By means of push rods and hooks manip
ulated through openings at the sides, the element is positioned over the discharge chute and
lowered into the deep well.
Fuel is placed into the reactor by bridging the large plenum gap with a trough as in dis
charging. An electrician's fishline is then inserted into the helium-tube conduit, which
guides it into the fuel channel. The fishline is pushed through and connected to the helium
tube on the element, and then the whole assembly is pulled and pushed into position.

COOLING SYSTEM

The cooling air is drawn through inlet filters to chambers encircling the ends of the re
actors; past the lateral faces of the reactor to the control gap; into the gap and back to the
ends of the reactor through the fuel channels; into the air plenums and down into discharge
ducts that exit from the plenum floors; and through the exit filters, heat exchangers, and
venturi constrictions. The two discharge ducts are then joined into a single manifold from
which the fans in parallel exhaust the air through a silencer and a 320-ft (above grade)
stack.

999
CHAP. 8.2 REACTOR DESIGNS

The air velocity in the gap averages about 200 ft/sec with a peak of about 250 ft/sec. The
velocity in the fuel channels ranges from 160 to 275 ft/sec. Individual channels are orificed
by slabs of various thicknesses which are clamped into the tapered outlet end of the chan
nels. The fuel elements are also locked in position by these devices. Unloaded channels
are blocked with graphite plugs to prevent unnecessary loading of the cooling system.
The inlet filter is a 53- by 8-ft bank of V filters, using a low-pressure-drop, bonded
glass filter medium. The outlet filters are banks of glass-tex cloth filters in the 13- by
19-ft outlet ducts. The air is cooled by passing it over helically finned copper tubes in a
19-ft by 11-ft by 20-in.-deep bank using 5300 gal of water per minute discharged at about
120°F. This water is circulated in a closed system and cooled to about 85°F in an induced
draft cooling tower.

1000
 CHAPTER 8.3

Beryllium-oxide-moderated Heterogeneous Reactors

DANIELS POWER PILE, NO. III (DPP)

This reactor represents a design study only, and no further development is anticipated.
It consists of beryllium oxide bricks assembled as a right circular cylinder (72 in. di
ameter by 76 in. high). The bricks are fabricated as right hexagonal cylinders with 2-in.
axial holes by hot pressing or by cold pressing followed by ceramic firing. The bricks are
stacked with their axes vertical to form 517 continuous vertical channels. The horizontal
joints between bricks of any one channel are staggered vertically by 2 in. relative to those
of the adjacent channels. The vertical channels may be charged with fuel elements, re
flector slugs, or fertile material.
Steel blocks are shaped to fit the irregular brick contour and form a cylinder. They con
sist of circular segments 1 ft long with an average width of 5 in. A 1-in.-thick steel re
taining shell surrounds these forming blocks. Clearances of A in. at the bottom and A in.
at the top are provided to allow for thermal expansion. The reactor is encased in a steel
vessel, 8 ft OD, 1% in. thick, 22% ft in over-all length, and provided with elliptical heads.
A 6-in. steel plate serves as a base for the moderator-reflector bricks. This plate, in
turn, is supported on pads mounted on the pressure shell. Holes are located in the plate
to correspond to those in the brick assembly. These holes taper outward from a 2-in. di
ameter at the interface and are surrounded by an annular groove to engage the latch mech
anism used to support the column of removable elements placed in the vertical channel.
Weight is added to the top of the bricks (1) to resist the pressure drop across the reactor
which tends to lift the bricks and (2) to retain the removable elements in the channels.
The weight consists of cast-steel blocks 10 in. thick, each of which covers 7 vertical chan
nels.
Each column of elements is held against the top weight by means of a replaceable spring
element charged into the channel along with the fuel, reflector, or fertile elements. The
retainer shell allows for a 34-in. space above the top weights to serve as the coolant out
let plenum. The support plate serves as the bottom of the retaining shell, and a space is
left between this and the bottom of the pressure shell to accommodate the loading machine.
The gas inlet plenum consists of a space between the top of the retaining shell and the pres
sure shell.
The control rods are supported above the core in a vertical position, the most reactive
position being with the rods at the top of their travel. The regulating rod enters the cen
tral channel of the core; the shim rods are installed in a 21-in.-diameter concentric cir
cle; and the safety rods are installed in a 57-in.-diameter concentric circle. The control
rods are powered by electric motors, and the safety rods scram by gravity. The rods are
cooled by helium.

1001
:
1535°F
. 500-F 1
. 400°F -
132 psi
.
psig 0.95 lb/sec
.
- 12.3 kw
. 620
. 1n.
i1
l
OD,
in.
steel
boron
1%
ID,
/2 vertical,
rods bor
hollow 0.394% vertical
-
1
1.
,
dia.
in.
steel
on rod ID, 1n.
-
i6
1
OD,
in,
boron
1%/2 steel,
rods.
hollow
vertical, 0-608
. charging tube
pivot
double
operated,
Remotely plenurn Remotely
gas
lower
in charging tube
pivot
double
operated, plenum
gas
lower
in 2.83
.
cm -
0.98
. 2.58
. 4fte6”
1.
ax .9
mºtse ) .
Indefinite ;DTevmepl#
H.
nd
of eorpamteunrte POWEF T E-CTInſonTCTR.
MLaCbet
oUraItToSriUegsh.,
al.,
Desi
on
Report
Summary

1947
15,
September
Secret,
pp,
422
MonN-383,

reactor
through
drop
pressure
Coolant 1.21
.
cºld)'
and Parlecluilmaitniaornys
ca.
F
Appendix
in
-

utilization
Thermal
.
cold)
and
(clean
temperature
moderator
Maximum
. .
cold)
and
(clean
escape
Resonance
-

-
(clean
squared
length
Diffusion
temperature
sheath
Maximum
6
temperature
outlet
Coolant
temperature
inlet
Coolant FExAPCEIRLIMETNITEASL
.
required
power
Pumping cold)
and
(clean
Buckling DENSiTIES
FLUX
NEUTRON
.
pressure
inlet
Coolant
poisoned)
and
(hot
keff
.
MENT
INVEST
CAPITAL
.
cold)
and
(clean
Age koo keff
.
cold)
and
(clean .
cold)
and
(clean
Reactivity
.
change .
(average)
Thermal
.
velocity
Coolant (temperature
k
. Conversion
.
ratio
8.3.1—Daniel
Table
(DPP)
III
No.
Pile,
Power
.
rate
Pumping HANDLING
FUEL
Discharging
. .
radius
Cell (poisons)
k
.
.
Regulator .
Charging REFERENCES
.
CONTROLS Monn-383
of
.
Safety a
PHYSICS
.
Shim .
Fast

Experimental study
. Design
.
deferred
only; dispersedin
UO2
as
kg
10.7
U33°);
(30% None oxide;
Beryllium oxide;
.
tons.
metric
2.74 45 in.
x
dia.
49
high
in. .172 f2t
28
x
dia.
high
ft kg.
U23%,
.
5.8 29
.
days
Calinton
L.boratories oxide.
beryllium .
None . Beryllium .
.
tons
metric
7.96 Helium Thorium;
.
Tho2
as
tons
metric
5.38
Bmaterial
.
oxide
Seryllium
.tructural . elium Shield
HReactor
.
atmosphere Indefinite triangular
. iLATTICE
3
in
Rods
array
.
TYPE
n.- 3/4 10
5
.
sides
on
thick bottom in.
and
top
on
thick
in.
1/2 1Converter
5
.
sides
on
thick
.
blanket
/2 thickin. .
5
bottorn
and
top
on Indefinite
Shield gm/day
15 ecirculated p.
Rhelium
. Cuontinual 5340 blowers
rification cfrn,
-
4
driven,
motor
electrical centrifugal .
Indefinite 1ur,800
-
1
t.
kwbo-generator kw
3urbo00
-
t1 -generator 2,000 kw
1kw1,800
. 78.8 kw
.
kw. 52.5
.
7.5%
. 16.5 kw/1
.
kw/1.8.7 3800
.
-
25.* 2000
kwſkg 25
/kg
kw
-

UFuel
.ranium
CONDITIONS
OPERATING
(Typical) -

only)
shell
(pressure
Over-all
OREGSAPNOINZASTIBOLNES
. -

- - tMearxnipre ahturne
fuel
.
maximurn
power:
Specific
- - .
maximum.
density:
Power .
average
- -
average
-

Fis ionable
.
material - .
maximum
power:
Rod -

MATERIAL
STRATEGIC .
output
power
Useful .
average
.
time
cycle
Average FACILITIE
AUXILLARY - -

(Typical)
DIMENSIONS .
treatment
Coolant .
conversion
Power - -
.
material
Fertile .
power.
heat
Total - -

. Coolant
Cladding
Fuel .
tubes -

Construction
. Consumption
. System
COOLING -

.
Moderator
- -
.
Operation .
Reflector .
Reflector
-

MATERIALS .
Coolant
- .
Burn-up
-
.
flux
Heat
-

.
LOCATION .
Design .
Pumps .
Innage
.
PURPOSE .
Safety
.
Core .
Type
STATUS
-
-

#
BERYLLIUM-OXIDE-MODERATED HETEROGENEOUS REACTORS CHAP. 8.3

FUEL HANDLING

The fuel elements are fabricated in the form of honeycomb structures 5 in. long. These
are charged into the reactor by means of a double-pivoted tube, the end of which may be
positioned remotely at any fuel channel. A ram pushes the column of slugs from the
charging tube into the fuel channel where a latch mechanism in the base plate supports
the column. The slugs are introduced into the charging tube by means of a gas lock.
The elements are removed from the reactor by pushing the latch mechanism base about
1 in. into the taper of the matrix support plate against the compression of the support
spring. This depresses and retains the latch, allowing the column of elements to be low
ered into the charging tube by the ram.

COOLING SYSTEM

Helium enters the pressure shell through two 18-in.-diameter ducts located at the top
of the shell. Most of the gas is directed by a baffle plate to the central portion of the top
plate assembly. It then flows outward and down the annular passage between the retaining
and pressure shells and into the space around the loading machine. From this lower ple
num it flows upward through the reactor channels to the discharge plenum where it enters
the two outgoing ducts. The two high-temperature ducts connect to duplicate boilers, the
discharges from which connect to a common header. The four blowers in parallel draw
the helium from this duct and discharge to another common header from which the two
low-temperature ducts return it to the reactor. The high-temperature ducts are double
walled and cooled by helium circulated in the annulus.

POWER CONVERSION

Steam is conducted from the boilers at the rate of 20,500 lb/hr to a common header at
450 psig and 725°F. From this common header, steam is fed to the 1800-kw turbine
generator, the 300-kw turbine-generator, and two emergency steam condensers which
will dispose of the total output of the boilers. The exhaust steam from the main turbine
generator is condensed in a 3800-sq.-ft surface condenser. The cooling water system is a
closed system containing a 14,000-gpm forced-draft cooling tower.

1003
 CHAPTER 8.4

Light-water-moderated Heterogeneous Reactors

MATERIALS TESTING REACTOR (MTR)

The active part of the reactor consists of closely packed vertical-plate assemblies, the
individual plates being made of aluminum-clad uranium-aluminum alloy. The plates are
spaced to allow water flow between them, the water thus serving as both coolant and mod
erator. Immediately surrounding the lattice is a reflector of water-cooled beryllium. This
whole assembly of active lattice and beryllium reflector is mounted in a tank system
through which the water flows and which contains the control rods and their bearings. Out
side the tank system are a secondary reflector of graphite, a thermal shield, and a biologi
cal shield.
The fuel elements are made up of 18 plates supported in a stack, with 0.117-in. spacing
between plates, by two grooved, aluminum side-plates. The fuel plates consist of cores of
10- to 20-percent-uranium (~90 percent U*)-aluminum alloys, 23%-by 2.50- by 0.021-in,
clad with aluminum; final fuel-plate dimensions are 24%- by 2.845- by 0.060-in. (the ex
ternal plates are lengthened to28% in. by aluminum extensions). The plates are curved
across their width to a 5%-in. radius and brazed into the aluminum side-plates. Tube-box
adapters which mate with the upper and lower support grids are plug-welded to each end to
complete the fuel element.
The tank system, approximately 30 ft tall, is made up of five sections. The tanks provide
the means of funneling water through the active lattice and beryllium reflector and provide
supports for the reactor assembly and the control rod bearings. They are bolted together
and, by the use of aluminum gaskets, made into a watertight system. The sections from the
top down are called the A, B, C, D, and E tanks. Sections A and E are made of stainless
steel and are permanently imbedded in the concrete of the biological shield with a struc
tural-steel framework support. Section E is 54% in. ID by 6 ft 5 in. with 2-in. walls. This
section supports sections C and D and has two 24-in. water outlets. Section A is 70 in. ID
by 11 ft 5 in. with %-in. walls. It serves as a container for the water shielding above the
lattice and is provided with two 24-in. water inlets (and overflow pipes). The diameter of
this tank is large enough so that sections B, C, and D are removable through it.
Section C (4 ft 4%, in. long) and section D (6 ft long) are made of 1-in. aluminum with a
54%-in. ID. Section D contains the active lattice and is bolted by external flanges to section
E. Sections C and D are joined by internal flanges. Section D is pierced by several holes
with aluminum thimbles welded in for experimental facilities. The resulting loss of strength
in the tank wall is compensated by a 1-ft band of increased wall thickness (1% in.) at the
center. Section B is a bellows-type expansion joint of stainless steel, joined by an external
flange to an internal flange at the bottom of section A and by internal flanges to section C.
A lower support casting, bolted to the bottom of section D, supports a lower assembly
grid and a lower shim-rod-bearing grid. An upper support casting, which rests on an ex
tension of the upper flanges of section D, supports a removable assembly of the upper as
sermbly grid, the grid spacer, and the upper shim-rod-bearing grid.

1005
:
2Power
..
(average)
density
/l
kw 9.1 3 psi4Coolant
..
reactor
through
drop
pressure
0 rods tubing
1lumin/2
1
-
2
.
aRegulator
dia.
in. um-cadmium by .
Charging
tank
of
top
from
devices
grappling scharginglowered
Remote grappling
RDiemote
.
Spentfuel
tank.
of
top
from
devices canal beneath
to
chute
discharge
through sec
10-4
2.63
.
lifetime
neutron
Prompt
x MREaterials
.
ProjectPſandbook,
Reactor
Testing
FERENCES Oak
National ORNL-963,
Ridge
2Heat
.
ft)(hr)
BTU/(sq
(average)
flux
94,000 2.
.t40°F
sheath
Maximum tempe5rature .
emperature °F
2.
1
.moderator
Maximum tem00°F
inlet
1Coolant
perature.
1.emperature ft/sec
t15°F
outlet
Coolant 3Coolant
..
velocity
0 psia7Coolant
.pressure
inlet 20,000
.
rate
Pumping
gpm cloumibniumn-actdimounm fuel
-
4
.
aShinn
and
box rods box
element cloumibniumn-actdimounm and
-
a4 beryllium ESafety
.
rods
all
.
ffected reactor (tC
K
8
. 0e.017/*
- mperature)
-
Nratio
.Coone
nversion
-
ctmh3e)(rsmenThermal
)(secn(maximum)
i/(c0!“
.
(maximum)
1Fast
x
n2 mé. 1E)/p(i0!?
x
6
. 1ac/l)(cm0"
x
2
.
(maximum)°itsec) tex
SEXPEee
.
CILITIES
FA RIMENTAL Laboratory,584
Leyse,
F.
C.
and
JTFITBuck Secret,
pp,
.64.
3.5
cm2
cold).
and
(cleancm.”
2
squared
length
Diffusion .
cold)
and
(clean
Age -
1Specific
.
25
kw/kg
(average)
power
0,000 0.01
.
cm−3
.
cold)
and
(clean
Buckling
AReactivity
.
change
0.40
bout
$1.8
.
MENT
INVEST
CAPITAL
1
x 0

1951
7,
May

0(clean
.uti.76
Thermal
.
cold)
andlization
-

1.0
.
cold)
and
(clean
escape
Resonance

temperature
fuel
Maximum
. -

a
DENSITIES
FLUX
NEUTRON
.
required
power
Pumping
. -
Parlecluilmaitniaornys
ca.
.
poisoned)
and
(hot
keff
6koo1 keff
.
cold)
and
(clean .
cold).
and
(clean

8.4.1—Materials
Table
(MTR)
Reactor
Testing
HANDLING
FUEL
(poisons)
k
8
. -

CONTROLS
a
PHYSICS

National Idaho
.
LOCATION
Station
Testing
Reactor AOREGSrco,
. APNOINZASTIBOLNES Argonne Construction C.
Laboratory,Company
Blaw-Knox
and Fo.
Crluor
npsotruaction Petroleum
Phillips .
.
Operation.
Company RPURPOSE
esearch
. AFuel
.
Cladding
uranium-aluminum 0.020
in
alloy thick
in.
luminum; filmn.2.61
HModerator
i.
7
l
0.2O: eryl ium; 68.7
BReflector
.. - tons film
metric
tonsGraphite;
metric iCoolant
7
l
0.
H2O;
n. concrete iron,
and
steel,
stainless
Aluminurn, HShield
.
concrete
barytes
and
. 2C, type
SLAT
..lab
TYPE
TICE -
-
5/8
U
2.
15
to
2
x
in.
.7
4 BRerfyle4lcituomr;. high
pin./.
l
54
to
core
from
extends
cylinderGraphite;
dia. 1/3t ft
7
to
out
zone
fpebble
9
x
sq
ft 1.4
12
to
out
blocks
/
l
9
x
high
4 barytest or plug2/3
top
plus
H2O
of
ft
1/2
17 3.
4l/2
x
high
ft
. 042 2.98
Over-all U***,
.kg
.
material Consu6mption .
Fis ionable g/dayBurn-up
3(at
.power)
full Indefinite .
InAverage
.
time
cycle
definite RecirculatedCoolant
.
Type
H2O Wells
.
source (0,0001 pumps.
3
.
1Pumps
-
standby)
hph
700
psi),
(97.5
gpm celoenrctirziofncutaglal,y lb/min,
driven, (le000
13
-
estandby)
hp,
250 displacement pumps
ctr1ical y blowersSafety
positive
driven, 8lenct50
-
2
e.
cgpm,
driven,
rifcuaglaly pump1
trifugaldriven,
1en000
-
c1
driven,
gasoline
gpm, 4lect00
e-
lb/rnin,
blower
rical y lb/min,
400 gal,
-
1
blower1
driven,
gasoline 150,000 gal,
-
reservoir
working
head,
ft
170 150,000gal
-
1
tank
storage
head
ft
150 360,000
-
2
.
basin
Retention
ponds
storage 7iese50
.
equipment
DStandby
kva
generator
l-electric 30,000 o
,
.
power
at
he
Total
kw -
ratory, National
OaDesign
L.
National
Ridge
boak
.
- . . .
Core iShield
8
f
9
iron;
concrete;
. n.

Uranium
.
U235)
(~90%
.
Fuel
ISTATUS
.
1952
April,
since
operation
.n

CONDITIONS
OPERATING
material
Structural MATERIAL
STRATEGIC FACILITIES
LIARY
Auxi .
output
power
Useful
.
treatment
Coolant
.
material
Fertile

SYSTEM
COOLING

MATERIALS ENSIONS
DIM.
.
Innage

ă
LIGHT-WATER-MODERATED HETEROGENEOUS REACTORS CHAP. 8.4

The tube-box end-adapters of the fuel elements fit into the upper and lower assembly
grids. A spring section of the upper end box allows each assembly to be held firmly and
still allows for expansion and tolerance limitations. The assembly grids provide for a 5 by
9 array of fuel elements except that 8 centralized spaces (space numbers 2, 4, 6, and 8 of
rows 2 and 4) are allotted as shim-rod spaces. The shim rods are lifted by electromagnetic
clutches on drive shafts which extend through the top plug to the drive motors. The regulat
ing rods enter the beryllium reflector portion of the reactor and are coupled to their drive
shafts by quick-release mechanisms. The rods are guided by the upper and lower shim
rod-bearing grids. A further set of control-rod guide bearings, mounted in a spider, is
fastened to the top plug by four long support tubes. When the top plug is lowered into place,
the four corners of the spider fit over pins on the spider support ring which is bolted to the
top flange of tank section B. The support, grid, and bearing castings are all made of alu
minum.
The normal loading of the lattice is with fuel in a 3 by 9 array with four alternate spaces
in the central row having combination fuel and poison shim-rods. The other lattice positions
are filled with beryllium elements, and the other four shim positions use the combination
poison and beryllium shim-rods.
The beryllium section of the reflector is all contained in tank section D, occupying the
space between the active lattice and the tank wall. It is made of large blocks of hot-pressed
beryllium powder, machined to fit together and around the beam holes and lattice. A dis
charge chute for unloading reactor components extends from the reactor (adjacent to the
lattice region) to a canal system below the reactor. Access to this discharge chute is ob
tained by lifting out a section of the beryllium reflector. Adjacent to the tank wall and ex
tending out a minimum of 40 cm to form a 7-ft 3-in. square is a 9-ft-high graphite pebble
zone containing about 700,000 one-in. balls of graphite. The pebbles rest on a base plate
mounted on the lower thermal shield. Two discharge chutes in the pebble support plate can
be opened into a discharge bin, allowing for removal of the pebbles. Around the pebble-zone,
a graphite reflector, made up of 4- by 4-in. graphite blocks, is built out to a 12- by 14- by
9%-ft-high structure, keyed together, and with a 6- by 6-ft thermal column extending out
through the shield to one side.

SHIELDING

The thermal shield is formed by two 4-in. steel plates separated by a gap through which
cooling air is circulated. The outer plate is in contact with the concrete biological shield
and cools this by direct thermal contact. Over-all dimensions of the thermal shield are 14
by 16 by 12% ft high. Around this is the biological shield in the form of barytes concrete
installed by the “prepack” method. The many experimental openings through the shield are
shielded by stepped plugs of material which in general matches the surrounding shielding
materials. These plugs are shielded by large lead coffins when they are withdrawn to pro
vide access for the experimental facilities. A 6-ft by 6-ft by %-in. sheet of boral is used
as a shielding curtain for the thermal column. This can be raised or lowered between the
graphite reflector and the thermal column. A fixed 3-in.-thick sheet of lead in place of the
thermal shield between the graphite reflector and the thermal column serves to attenuate
the gamma radiation.
The process water is conveyed to and from the reactor tank through pipes imbedded in
the biological shield and is carried in a pipe tunnel between the reactor building and the
process-water building. The water in the reactor tank system along with the top and bot
tom tank plugs serves as a shield above and below the lattice.
The circulated air coolant is shielded by being conveyed in underground ducts. Handling
of irradiated fuel elements is performed under about 17 ft of water in the canal below the
Teactor.

1007
CHAP. 8.4 REACTOR DESIGNS

EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES

Seventeen large experimental holes lead from the side shield faces to either the reactor
tank wall or the active lattice as follows:
(1) Six horizontal beam holes extend to the active lattice. Two of these are 8 in. in diam
eter to the tank wall and 6 in. in diameter from there to the active lattice. The other four
holes are 6 in. in diameter all the way.
(2) Six inclined holes of 6-in. diameter extend to the reactor tank wall. Inside the tank
wall they are extended to the active lattice by 2-in.-ID, sealed, empty, aluminum cylinders.
(3) Two horizontal, 6-in.-diameter holes extend to the reactor tank.
(4) Two horizontal, 4-in.-diameter rabbit holes extend to the reactor tank.
(5) One horizontal, 4% - by 4%g-in. hole extends through the reactor adjacent to the
active lattice
In addition, there are six horizontal through-holes, two 4 in. in diameter, two 8 in. in
diameter, and two 10% in. in diameter, extending through the graphite block reflector.
There are 71 experimental and instrument holes accessible from the top of the reactor.
These extend various distances into the graphite zones, pebble and block, and the biological
shield.
The thermal column is made of GBF graphite and is covered by a thick lead door. The
column is encased with a combination of lead, steel, and cadmium or boral shells. The
column is penetrated by nine horizontal and two vertical experimental holes.

FUEL HANDLING

Fuel elements (or other reactor components) are loaded into the reactor by removing the
top plug and maneuvering the components with long-handled grappling tools. Elements are
discharged by lifting out the beryllium plugs over the discharge chute and lowering the ele
ments into a canal system below the reactor. A hydraulically operated unloading mecha
nism effects the transfer between the two water systems and rotates the discharged com
ponents from a vertical to a horizontal position where the component is ejected onto a re
ceiving table. From this point, the component is handled with long tongs or hooks and
placed in storage racks in the canal.

COOLING-WATER SYSTEM

Water from the 150,000-gal working reservoir flows, under a normal head of 170 ft,
directly to the reactor tank through a 30-in. stainless-steel pipe outside of the reactor
building and a 36-in., stainless-steel pipe beneath the reactor building. The 36-in. pipe
splits into two 24-in. stainless-steel pipes which convey the water up through diagonally
opposite corners of the biological shield to the top of the reactor tank system. The water
descends through the reactor tank sections, the active lattice, and the beryllium reflector
and emerges from the bottom of the reactor tank into two 24-in. stainless-steel lines which
join into a 36-in. line by which the water is conveyed to a 17,000-gal seal tank in the proc
ess-water building. Water from the seal tank is drawn into flash evaporators and, in being
flashed at a pressure that yields 100°F effluent, falls from the flash evaporators into the
100,000-gal sump tank from which it is pumped to the working reservoir to complete the
cooling cycle. The reactor heat, liberated in the flash evaporators, is carried away by
cooling-tower water circulated in the condenser tubes of the evaporators. A demineraliza
tion system supplies the required make-up water.

COOLING-AIR SYSTEM

Air is drawn into the reactor building through coarse fiber-glass or wire-mesh prefilters.
The air then goes through an electrostatic filter. The reactor building is pressurized to
about % in. of water so that leakage in through windows, doors, and the like is kept to a

1008
LIGHT-WATER-MODERATED HETEROGENEOUS REACTORS CHAP. 8.4

minimum. The reactor building air is then drawn into the reactor through four airmat-type
PL-24 glass-wool filters (except for the small amount leaking in around experimental open
ings). The air is channeled down between the two thermal shield plates from four 2- by 2
by 12-ft plenum chambers (on each side) by a series of 8-in. ducts leading to manifolds
above the thermal shield. The air passes into plenum chambers beneath the graphite, rises
up through the graphite reflector, and exits into a plenum chamber. The exit ducts consist
of two 30- by 30-in. pipes which carry the air downward in diagonally opposed corners of
the biological shield and join into a 48-in.-diameter duct leading to a plenum chamber be
neath the blower and fan house. The blowers exhaust the air from this plenum to another
plenum where it is mixed with contaminated air from the laboratory and discharged through
a 250-ft stack.

MODIFICATIONS

The excess reactivity of the MTR has turned out to be less than anticipated. To compen
sate for this, the uranium content of the fuel core alloy is being raised to about 16.5 per
cent (168 gm of uranium per fuel element).

LOW-INTENSITY TRAINING REACTOR (LITR)

This reactor consists of an assembly of sandwich-plate fuel elements positioned in a

slab-type lattice by upper and lower grids. Provision is made for enclosing this with beryl
lium blocks for reflection, and the whole assembly is contained in one section of a long,
cylindrical tank structure having a vertical axis. The design represents a modified, full
scale mock-up of the MTR design current at the time of construction.
The fuel elements are made of 18 fuel plates supported in a stack, with 0.117-in. spacing
between plates, by two grooved aluminum side-plates. The fuel plates consist of cores of
10 to 20 percent-uranium (~90 percent U*)-aluminum alloy, 23% by 2.50 by 0.021 in., clad
with aluminum; final fuel-plate dimensions are 24% by 2.845 by 0.060 in. (the external
plates are lengthened to 28% in. by aluminum extensions). The plates are curved across
their width to a 5%-in. radius and brazed into the aluminum side-plates. Tube-box adapters
which mate with the upper and lower support grids are plug-welded to each end to complete
the fuel element.
The support grids provide for a 5 by 9 close-packed array of fuel elements except that
three alternate spaces in the second row are allotted to coarse control rods. The spaces
not used for fuel or control rods are filled with temporary beryllium reflector elements.
The tank structure is made up of six cylindrical sections which are designated, from the
top down, the A, B, C, D, E, and F sections. All except C and D sections are made of mild
steel and are Amercoated for corrosion protection. The tank support structure and housing
is a steel girder framework with four main support columns. A sub-reactor room (15 by
15 ft) extends 12 ft below grade.
Section A is 70 in. ID by 11 ft 6% in. with a *-in. wall. It has two 36-in. flanged openings
for water inlets and is fitted with external flanges, at the top and bottom, by which it is sup
ported. Section B is 55 in. ID by 5 ft 3% in. with a 4-in. wall. It is lowered through section
A, from which it is supported by a lower internal flange mating with an upper external
flange on section B.
Section D is made of 3/4-in. aluminum and is 54% in. ID by 6 ft. It encases the active lat
tice and forms the outer boundary of water flow through the reflector. This tank provides
bearing surface and alignment for the upper and lower grid-support castings which are
made of aluminum. Four offset and two central 6-in.-diameter horizontal aluminum thim
bles are welded to the tank wall and terminate at the surface of the active-lattice region in
the mid-plane. Lugs welded to the tank wall immediately above the reflector support the
peripheral reflector-piece alignment ring.

1009
 (LITR)
8.4.2—Low-intensity
Reactor
Training
Table
:
Oak
Laboratory
National
Ridge
.LOCATION CONTROLS
see
Ridge,
.O
Tennes
ak
ORGANIZATIONS
RESPONSIBLE .tuel
rods
ox
cadmium
and
.3ombination
Shin
-c
.Oak
Laboratory
National
Ridge
Design 20
with
rod
aluminum
.1-1/2
.in.vertical
Regulator
Construction
Ridge
O
Laboratory
. ak
.National insert
tube
cadmium
Oak
Laboratory
Ridge
.National
Operation Safety
. ffected
by
E
rods
shim
.
Experimental
research
and
PURPOSE a.
l8
.O.
change
Reactivity
-
-
-
-
-
-
1950
.ISTATUS
Feb.,
since
operation
.n HANDLING
FUEL
MATERIALS .Remote
devices
grappling
Charging
-
-
-
20%
to
10
as
U235);
(~90%
Uranium
.
Fuel Depleted
devices.
.grappling
Remote
Discharging
-
-
-
alloy
uranium-aluminum tank
top
in
stored
elements
thickness
in.
0.020
.Aluminum;
Cladding
Fuel b
PHYSICs
.
film
Moderator
H2O,
in.
0.117 .0
cold)
and
(clean
escape
Resonance
-
-
-
tons
.B Reflector
metric
. erylliurn;
.1.5 0
. .76
cold)
and
(clean
utilization
Thermal
.
Coolant
film
in.
0.117
H2O, .3
cm3
.65
cold)
and
(clean
squared
length
Diffusion
-
-
-
material
Fertile
.None 2c
64.m3
cold)
and
(clean
Age
-
-
- -
-
-
-
material
Structural
..Aluminum cm-2
10-2
cold)
and
(clean
Buckling
-

blocks,
plastic
borated
and
sand
.Concrete
Shield 1
x
sec .63
. 0-4
lifetime
.2Prompt
neutron
.
TYPE
ICE
LATT
Slab
geometry ..61
cold)
and
koo
(clean
-
-
-
-
DIMENSIONS .1 .05
cold)
and
(clean
keff
.Core
15
to
2
x
long
in.
5/8
up7
4 (
.8
k- 0.017/*C
.temperature)
(minimum)
thick
.8in.
Reflector (..8
k.Ipoisons)
ndefinite
-
-
-
-

Shield
(minimurn)
thick
ft
.2
.1 1
..0
(typical)
poisoned)
and
.(hot
keff
high
2
3
x
1/2
ft-a8
4ll
..Over DENSITIES
FLUX
NEUTRON
MATERIAL
stratford x
9.5 1012
n/(cm2)(sec)
(maximum)
.Fast
-
1 -
-
-
0!?
n/(cm2)(sec)
.x
U235;
material
.Fissionable
2.8
kg . .8
(rnaximum)
4Epithermal
g/day
.1.5
Consumption 1.6
x n/(cm°)(sec)
1013
Thermal:
.
lattice)
(in
maximum
Burn-up
.Indelinite x
2 1013
n/(cm2)(sec)
.
reflector)
(in
maximum
-
-
-
-
time
cycle
Average
..Indefinite in.
systems
rabbit
prleumatic
ID
.2-3/4
FACILITIES.
EXPERIMENTAL
-
-
-
SYSTEM
COOLING dia.
i
6
holes
test
horizontal
- n.
.Type
.Recirculated
water in.
-3
holes
test
vertical
dia.
4
(batchwise)
deaeration
and
.Demineralization
treatment
Coolant tank)
of
(outside
electrically
psi)
78
(at
gpm
-1000
.2
Pumps 100
ax .1
MENT
.$CAPITAL
INVEST
standby)
as
(1
pumps
centrifugal
driven Lºš Report,
.M
Design
. ock-up
REFERENCES
Nitionai
Riás.
oil,
convection
.N atural
Safety
-spray
water
Gravity-fed
system Mallon,
Secret
pp,
138
ORNL-701,
J.
D.
CONDITIONS
OPERATING 1949
27,
..October
power
kw
.heat
Total
1500 Handbook
Project
Reactor
Testing
Materials
-
-
.0
output
power
Useful Buck
H.
J.
Laboratory,
Oak
National
Ridge
.0
Innage
. .93 ORNL-963,
Leyse,
F.
C.
and
ft)(hr)
x
BTU/(sq
0*
. .31
(average)
1Heat
flux 1951
7,
May
Secret,
pp,
584
kw/1
.15.7
(average)
density
Power
25
kwſkg
.530
(average)
power
Specific Estimated
a.
.
temperature
fuel
Maximum

.
temperature
moderator
Maximum
.122°F

1
temperature
sheath
Maximum

. 03.5°F
temperature
inlet
Coolant
.112°F
temperature
outlet
Coolant
calculations
Preliminary
b. :
.
velocity
Coolant
.
pressure
inlet
Coolant
i.:2reactor
/2
through
drop
pressure
Coolant
psi"
-
-
rate
Purnping
.gpm
.1200
required
power
Purnping
.kw
.*5
LIGHT-WATER-MODERATED HETEROGENEOUS REACTORS CHAP. 8.4

Section E is a cylindrical steel shell, 55% in. ID by 47%s in. with %-in. walls, having two
diametrically-opposed 16-in. flanged openings for water outlets and a 30-in. flanged open
ing for a manhole. These openings have been blocked off. There is an external flange at
the top for connection to tank section D and an internal flange at the bottom for bolting to
section F. Section F is the bottom of the tank and both closes the tank and supports the
shim-rod shock absorbers and sections D and E of the tank. It consists of two flat plates,
separated by a ring at the periphery and radial reinforcing ribs. The top plate is 2 in. thick
and the bottom one is 1% in.
The two main portions of the tank structure, sections A and B supported from above, and
sections D, E, and F supported from below are joined (by internal flanges) by section C, a
stainless-steel bellows expansion section. The tank joints, except for the top plate, use
aluminum wire gaskets. The top plate uses a neoprene gasket since it is frequently re
moved.
The inner assembly consists of upper and lower assembly grids and upper and lower
control-rod guide grids. These are provided with support and spacer castings of aluminum.
The lower grid support bears on a ring bolted to the lower tank flange, while the upper as
sembly support is born by lugs welded to the tank wall. The beryllium reflector is supported
on a skirt-plate casting enveloping the lower grids.
The beryllium reflector is made up of bricks doweled and riveted together in the form of
vertical columns. The reflector is 8 in. thick on the sides of the lattice but extends all the
way to the tank wall at the ends. The beryllium on the 8-in.-thick sides is retained by alu
minum side-plates. Unused lattice positions are also filled with beryllium elements to aid
in reflection.
The regulator rod travels in the reflector immediately adjacent to the lattice. This, along
with the three shim rods, extends up into tank section B to the electromagnetic suspensions.
Shafts from the electromagnets extend upward through a positioning and bearing spider and
through packing glands on the top plate to the rod drive mechanisms.

SHIELDING

Shielding directly above the tank is effected by the 17%-ft column of water above the ac
tive lattice. Around the B, C, and D sections of the tank, a 12-ft-thick shield is built. This
consists of a wrapping of borated plastic, packed with sand, and concrete blocks with the un
even inner block surface filled in with sand. The six horizontal thimbles are stepped to 8
in. and provided with shield plugs. The outlet water lines are shielded with 3 in. of lead,
the storage tank by about 1% ft of concrete, and the inlet water line by 1 in. of lead.

FUEL HANDLING

Fuel elements, reflector pieces, and internal reactor units are handled by long-shafted
grappling devices from the top of the tank. Access to the lattice and reflector pieces is af
forded by removing the top plate along with the control-rod shafts and positioning spider;
the upper assembly and guide grids and supports are then raised and placed on a storage
support on the control-rod-spider guide ring. Support is also provided in B section for
storing irradiated fuel elements until they can be removed in a cask.

COOLING SYSTEM

Water is brought into the top tank section through an 8-in. aluminum header. After pass
ing down through the tank structure, it is conveyed up past the active lattice and reflector
through four 2-in. pipes. Above this section, these pipes are joined in two 6-in. pipes
which pass up to the top section where the water is removed in a single 8-in. header. This
conveys the outlet water to a 7000-gal seal tank and then to the pump. After leaving the

1011
CHAP. 8.4 REACTOR DESIGNS

pump, the water passes through a Trane horizontal-bed forced-draft-cooled radiator using
two 2-speed blower fans (40 or 10 hp). The radiator is a 4-pass bank of aluminum-finned
aluminum tubes. After it is cooled, the water circulates back to the reactor tank. The
water is treated by demineralization and deaeration of the make-up.

BULK SHIELDING REACTOR (BSR)

This thermal reactor is water cooled, water moderated, and partially beryllium-oxide
reflected. It is suspended in a 40- by 20- by 20-ft pool of water. The fuel element is a box
like stack of 18 curved (5%-in. radius across width) plates, each 3- by 24- by 0.060 in.,
spaced 0.117 in. apart, and braced into grooved aluminum side-plates. These plates are
0.060-in. sandwich structures of 14.1-percent-U-Al alloy between 0.020-in. aluminum
cladding. Each fuel element is provided with an adapter tube at one end by means of which
the fuel element is set into a hole'in an aluminum support grid with the long axis of the
element vertical. This grid is 28 by 19 by 5 in. deep. An aluminum can containing BeO
blocks occupies 4 in. of the 19-in. dimension, leaving a free space of 27 by 15 in. which
allows an array of 9 by 5 fuel elements (3- by 3-in. cross section).
For varying the loading pattern, aluminum cans with the same outline as the fuel ele
ments and filled with beryllium oxide blocks are provided. The three control rods are ver
tical (scramming by gravity) and travel inside special fuel elements which have half of the
fuel plates removed.
The aluminum support grid is suspended at a 16-ft depth by an aluminum framework from
a bridge which spans the pool. This bridge also carries the controls and control panel, al
though the operator is located on a movable platform beside the pool. When in operation,
the reactor bridge is locked to the rails with heavy clamps. The reactor travels along the
long dimension of the pool without provision for vertical or lateral displacement.
The pool has a 14-ft by 14-ft by 5%-ft-deep well, centered 15 ft from one end of the pool.
Adjoining this is a 7%-ft by 8-ft by 3-ft-deep extension well. These wells are normally
filled with barytes-limonite concrete blocks. In addition to giving an adjustable floor level
in the bottom of the pool, these blocks are used to piece out shielding samples. A 12- by
21-ft aluminum gate 10 ft from the opposite end of the pool can be lowered, blocking off
this end of the pool and permitting the rest of the pool to be pumped dry.

SHIELDING

The standard shielding of the reactor is effected by at least 16 ft of water or by an

equivalent shield with less water plus the concrete pool walls and the earth. For experi
ments with the reactor behind the aluminum barrier, the concrete blocks from the pool
well may be stacked to supplement the shielding.

FUEL HANDLING

Fuel elements are inserted in and removed from the support grid by means of a long
handled grappling tool manipulated from the reactor bridge. Irradiated elements are
stored on a rack in the pool under 8 ft of water.

COOLING SYSTEM

The pool contains about 100,000 gal of laboratory process water. It is filled by gravity
flow and emptied by pumping. The outlet system has a “vacuum breaker” to ensure that the
pool will not empty by syphoning action. Reactor heat is removed from the fuel elements
by natural convection currents only. This cooling is estimated to be adequate for 1000-kw
operation.

1012
 :
1
1-
2
cx
vertical,
in.
rods
admi/2
/4
um-lead rod ASafety
. pool
in
stored
elements
depleted
-
11
2
cx
vertical,
in.
admi/2
/4
um-lead rods
ll LCharging
device
grappling
handled
. ong handled
LDisong
.
device;
grappling
charging
cm2
3.564.
.
cold).
and
(clean
squared
length
Diffusion
cm.”
2 .
cold)
and
(clean
Age
n10.1
!
/(cm2)(sec)n/(cm
1)
x
3. sec)n2
0!!
(average)1/(012
x
(Epithermal cThermal:
.m3)(secn.
maximurn 1)/(0**
x
1 )(sec) ft
cm2average
.
EXPERIME0NTAL $217,
4
.
CILITIE
FA
2
x
pool 000 New
-
The at
.
Facilit
Shielding
Bulk Laboratory,Ridge
National
Ridge
Oak LOaboak
National
ratory, W.
pp,
55
ORNL-991,
Breazeale,
M.
cm-2
0.01
.
cold)
and
(clean
Buckling

1951
8,
May
Secret,

x
1
.
(average).
Fast

uti.76
0Thermal
.
cold)
and
(clean
lization
.
cold)
and
(clean
escape
Resonance
1.0 -

a
DENSITIES
FLUX
NEUTRON
-

.
lifetime
neutron
Prompt
-
Parlecluilmaitniaornys
ca.
1kefſ
..
poisoned)
and
(hot
.003
.
MENT
INVEST
CAPITAL
1 keff
6koo
..
cold)
and
(clean
-
.
cold)
and
(clean
1.003
.
0Reactivity
..
change
.08-
(temperature)
k
. -

LING
HAND
FUEL
8.4.3—Bulk
Table
(BSR)
Reactor
Shielding Sk
.
(poisons)
-

.
Regulator REFERENCES
.
CONTROLS
a
PHYSICs
.
Shin

LaboratoryR.
.
LOCATION
National
Ridge
Oak - ORRidge,
OEGSAPNOINak
Tennessee ZASTIBOLNES Design
.
Oak .
LaboratoryC
National
Ridge oRidgeuction Operation
Onstrak
.
Laboratory
National .Oak .
LaboratoryPURPOSE
National
Ridge Research
- ranium-aluminum 0.020
ualloy Aluminum; Reflector
.
Cladding
Fuel
wall
in.
H2O,
i.
.7
l
0. n. .
film
Moderator
-
Beryllium Coolant
.
H2O
and/or
oxide -.
film
in.
0.117 None material
H2O,Fertile
.
material
- SAtluminurn
. ructural Shield
H2O LA
.
. .
TYPE
TTICE
Slab
.
geometry .
Core Depends ft
u47p Reflector
15
2to
x
high
in. .
.
loading
upon -
1quiva6lent ft
.
eShield
.or
H2O,
of 40 U235;
.
.
(pcol)
2Over-all
x 4
to
2.4
Fis ionable .
.
material
kg CIndefinite
onsumption Burn-up
. .
time.
cycle
Average
Indefinite Indefinite
- - - Water; Coolant
.
Type
convection
natural Process chromate
.
water
sourc Sodiurn
.
treatment
Coolant
inhibitor
corrosion
as 1Total
.
kw
.
power.
heat
00 IInnage
..
ndefinite Heat
.
(maximum)
flux
1800
ft)(hr)
BTU/(sq
.
(average)
density
kPower
1
l.
/lw-

30
.
(average)
power
Specific
25
/kg
kw
Uranium
.
kFuel
4
2.4
U33°);
(~90%
20%
to
10
asg,
In
1950
Dec.,
since
operation
.
STATUS

temperature
moderator
Maximum
.

temperature
sheath
Maximum
.
temperature
fuel
Maximum
.
.
required
power
Pumping
0
. -

CONDITIONS
OPERATING
MATÉRIAL
STRATEGIC .
output
power
Useful
0
. -

SYSTEM
COOLING

MATERIALS DIMENSIONS

ă
CHAP. 8.4 REACTOR DESIGNS

SHIELD TEST FACILITIES

An instrument bridge also spans the pool. A cart travels on a pair of rails on one side
of the bridge, and a stainless-steel framework, suspended from the cart, reaches nearly to
the bottom of the pool. A carriage which slides on the framework and is raised or lowered
by a winch carries the various chambers associated with the measurements. It is also pos
sible to rotate the framework about a vertical axis. The bridge and cart can be clamped to
their rails, and the carriage can be clamped to the framework. In addition, by means of two
telescoping tubes, the framework can be clamped to the bottom of the pool. A thin aluminum
window in the pool barrier permits shielding studies in air by placing the reactor behind
and close to the barrier and draining the remainder of the pool. Additional flexibility is ob
tained through the use of the well in the pool. In addition to affording an adjustable floor
level, the blocks may be used to piece out and supplement shielding samples.

1014
 CHAPTER 8.5

Heavy-water-moderated Heterogeneous Reactors

ARGONNE HEAVY WATER REACTOR (CP-3')

This reactor consists of 122 fuel rods suspended vertically in an aluminum tank (6-ft OD
with %s-in. walls, 8-ft 10-in. tall) through which Dio coolant-moderator is circulated (the
D2O depth is 7 ft). The 1%-in.-thick stainless-steel support plate rests on a shoulder of
the reactor tank, and the reflector graphite is stacked below the shoulder. A 12-in.-thick
shield of lead blocks is also carried by the support plate. The fuel rods have flanges at the
upper ends that bear on aluminum sleeves, which are threaded into holes in the support
plate and extend upward through the lead-block shield. The lower ends of the fuel rods
pass through a bottom grid-plate of aluminum that positions the rods without constraining
their longitudinal freedom. Of the 136 lattice positions, 117 are loaded with standard fuel
elements (one provided with a thermocouple). Three positions contain “poison rods” having
2% in. of cadmium at the lower end; two positions contain “spiked” elements containing a
12-in. length of 6-percent uranium-aluminum alloy in the center of the fuel section. The
remaining lattice positions are occupied by 4 experimental thimbles, 2 burn-up thimbles,
3 control-rod thimbles, 1 aluminum thermocouple rod, and 4 blanking-off aluminum-pipe
plugs. The portion of a fuel rod assembly which extends through the lead tank-plug is made
up of a cadmium-lead shielding combination. The active portion of the rod is 66 in. long.
The reactor tank rests upon and is enclosed by a 2-ft-thick layer of 4- by 4-in. cross
section graphite blocks stacked with staggered joints.
Two shim rods and two safety rods are pivoted from stainless-steel supports on the fuel
rod support plate near the periphery of the reactor tank and swing in four parallel, verti
cal planes between the fuel rods. The safety-rod planes of travel are 5% in. off the vertical
axis of the reactor tank, whereas the shim-rod planes are 10% in. off the axis. These
control rods are made of two concentric aluminum shells with a 0.015-in. cadmium layer
between them. The cross section changes from a circular shape (3%-in. OD) near the pºº
ot end of the rod to approximately an ellipsoidal shape near the free end of the rod (major
axis is the direction of motion). The shim-rod absorber sections are 5-ft 1-in. long, and
the safety-rod absorber sections are 5-ft, 4%-in. long. These rods are driven by pivot
shafts which extend out through the shielding to external drive-mechanisms. The shim
rods are motor-driven, whereas the safety rods are pneumatically operated (fail-safe) and
Scram by gravity. In addition, there are three vertical control rods (one regulator and two
Safety) which operate in fuel-element positions. The safety rods are approximately dia
metrically opposed, with seven lattice spaces between them, and the regulator rod is ap
proximately symmetrically placed with respect to the safety rods at a distance of five
lattice spaces from the line joining their centers. The latter is composed of two aluminum
tubes with a 0.015-in.-thick by 45-in.-long cadmium layer between them and is brought
through the upper shield to the drive motor by an aluminum-steel extension. The safety
rod absorber sections are also made of concentric 36-in.-long aluminum shells with a
0.030-in.-layer of cadmium between them. The outside diameter is about 1% in. A 4-in.-

1015
 (CP-3')
Reactor
Water
Heavy
8.5.1
A
— rgonne
Table :
Illinois
Chicago,
National
Laboratory
.Argonne
LOCATION .
temperature
fuel
Maximum 120°F
.About
-

ORGANIZATIONS
RESPONSIBLE .
temperature
sheath
Maximum 110°F
.About
-

-
Design Laboratory
National
.Argonne temperature
moderator
Maximum -
.105°F
.
Construction Laboratory
National
.Argonne .
temperature
inlet
Coolant °F
. 91
-

--
Operation Laboratory
National
.Argonne temperature
.Coolant
outlet .104°F
-

.
Coolant
velocity .Indefinite
.Research
PURPOSE
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
touranium
natural
with
Jan.,
1944
June,
from
.I1950
operation
n
STATUS* .
pressure
inlet
Coolant Negligible
-

CP-3'
1950
July,
in
fuel
enriched
with
operation
Began
CP-3.
as reactor
through
drop
pressure
Coolant -
.Negligible
MATERIALS .rate
Pumping -
gpm
150
About
alloy
uranium-aluminum
U23%),
2%
as
kg
4.2
(~90%
.Uranium
Fuel required
.power
Pumping -
•-Negligible
wall
in.
Aluminurn,
.0.059
Cladding
Fuel ControLs
. .N
. one
tubes
-

Coolant
x
61
2 /2
.-41/8
Shinn a, luminum-jacketed
in.
rods
signal-arm-type
cadmium,
tons
metric
4.78
.D
. 2O;
Moderator
graphite cadmium,
in.,
aluminum-jacketed
4
x
OD
in. 5
.1-7/8
Regulator
bottom;
and
Sides
D2O
Top;
.
Reflector.
- rod
vertical
.D
. 2O
Coolant aluminum-jacketed
1
6
x
in.
3/4
2
.-4/2 4
/8
Safety
tons
metric
5
.
72.
requirement
D2O
Total rods
signal-arm-type
cadmium,
.None
material
Fertile aluminum-jacketed
in.
3
x
OD
-116
2 /4
material
Structural
..Aluminum rods
vertical
cadmium,
.H elium
atmosphere
Reactor .0 .102
change
Reactivity
concrete
:and
ordinary
. ead
.LShield
-
-
array
in.
3
5
in
square
rods
dia.
.850
.0/8
TYPE
LATTICE HANDLING
FUEL
DIMENSIONS ..
Charging charged
initially
.Manually
dia.
1
5
x
ft
.6t/2
fCore rods
.Spent
Discharging coffin
lead
a
into
withdrawn
top
on
bottom;
1fthick
and
sides
.2t
Reflector PHYsics
of
and
lead
sides;
on
concrete
1f8 .
radius
Cell 4.
cm.
35
itn.
.4
Shield
top
on .
cold)
and
(clean
escape
Resonance .1.0
masonite
and
steel
laminated
of
ft
4
cold)
and
(clean
utilization
Thermal •.0.
prism)
octagonal
right
(modified
high
14
by
flats
across cold).
and
(clean
squared
length
Diffusion .465
26
Over-all
.ft #3
sºcm
MATERLAL
STRATEGIC ..
cold).
and
Age
(clean -
-

kg
***;
U.~3.8 cold)
(clean
.and
Buckling 1
cm-2
x
820−6
material
Fissionable
…
;-0.29
g/day
Consumption .
lifetime
neutron
Prompt 1
sec
x0-3
2.3
Purn-up
.Indefinite .
cold)
and
(clean
koo .1.6
-

.Indefinite .
cold).
and
(clean
keff 1.016
About
time
cycle
Average -
1
.-50-4/*C
x
SYSTEM
COOLING
.8
(temperature)
k
recirculated
.D 2O, xenon)
(poisons)(equilibrium
k
8 -0.005
.About
Type 1.006
About
..Filtering
treatment
Coolant poisoned)
.keff
and
(hot -

.
ratio
Conversion .None
Recombination
DENsities
Flux
neutron
purification
exchange
Ion 1x011
3.5
n/(cm2)(sec)
Distillation .
Fast - - - -

driven,
gpm
200 maximum.
.
Thermarl: x10!?
n/(cm2)(sec)
3.4
rotor,
electrically
sealed,
.1-canned
Pumps 1012
n/(cm2)(sec)
.
average x
.1.7
pump
centrifugal - .
FAtilities'
ExPERIMENTAL 4'-'off-axi 13/8
vertical
ID
in.
s,
l pump
centrifugal
ssealed,
- tandby,
FACILITIES
AUXILLARY tank
reactor
in
thimbles
.
atmosphere
Reactor recirculated
Helium, tank
reactor
in
thimble
avertical
3xial,
ID /4
1-in.

..
Innage
heat
.
CONDITIONS
OPERATING
power
.Total
output
power
Useful

(average)
power
Rod
kw
.2
-

.0
-
75

.Indefinite
.2.25
kw ..
INVESTMENT
CAPITAL
| holes
in.
test
square
13/16
10
to
in.
2
x
h29
/8
37-horizontal,
1/16
1orizontal,
1-7/8
thimbles
10
graphite,
with
filled
hole,
hole
beam
with
column
thermal
x
5
f1-htorizontal

flux:
maximurn
Heat BTU/(sq
ft)(hr)
*::::: Commission
Energy
Atomic
the
A
to eport
R.REFERENCES
.
average
BTU/(sq
ft)(hr)
,600 *############ eactor,
rgonne
the
on
ropose -

density:
maximum
Power kw/1
.0 .12 -WHZ-250,
kw/1
.0.05 15,
1950
Secret,
June
pp,
96
average
-
rn-winnurr.
power:
5p-cific /kg
kw
.68 1953
late
in
CP-5
by
- replaced
be
to
-v-r-g-
.- .71g
-
-
-
-
/k
kw
HEAVY-WATER-MODERATED HETEROGENEOUS REACTORS CHAP. 8.5

diameter chromium-plated steel rod extension supports the absorber section from an elec
tromagnetic suspension device located in the upper shield. This suspension device is
mounted on a vertical endless-chain drive to effect the required travel for the safety rods.
The vertical rods travel in aluminum thimbles and scram by gravity.
The horizontal experimental openings penetrate to or into the graphite reflector. There
are no experimental openings on the side of the reactor toward the pump room, which is
immediately adjacent to the reactor. In addition to the horizontal experimental openings,
there are six vertical thimbles in fuel-rod positions. Two of these have cadmium burn-up
elements which are used for long-time shim control. There is also an axial thimble
(inter-cell).

SHIELDING

The reactor tank and reflector are encased by a 4-in.-thick layer of lead (poisoned with
1 percent cadmium). The inside of the lower 2 ft of this shell is covered by a water-tight
lead sheet that serves as a drip-pan to reclaim leakage or spillage of D.O. Two lead lines
(2-in. and 1%-in. diameters) drain this pan to the D.O drain tanks. The remainder of the
principle shielding consists of concrete in the form of an octagonal prism enclosing the
reactor-reflector assembly. The shield thickness is 7-ft 8-in. or more. On one side this
thickness is partly provided by the pump room shielding-wall.
The shield above the reactor tank and lead plug is composed of 4 ft of laminated steel
and masonite in the form of removable blocks, supported on a row of 15 removable 7-in.
I-beams that rest on two 12-in. I-beams at their extremities. The pump and heat exchanger
room is shielded by 2-ft-thick concrete walls. These walls also serve to shield the open
ings in the reactor shield through which the D2O and helium pipe lines are carried.
The experimental openings which penetrate the shielding are stepped and provided with
appropriate plugs. The thermal column and goat hole (filled with graphite) have lead and
iron-masonite shielding; the exposure thimbles are curved and have fitted plugs.

COOLING SYSTEM

The Dio enters the bottom of the reactor tank by way of a 2%-in. stainless-steel header
and leaves the tank via a 4-in. stainless-steel line through the tank-plug which extends
down to the top of the lattice. This line leads to a sealed, stainless-steel pump which cir
culates the D2O through a tube-and-shell heat exchanger (cooled by a process-water and
cooling-tower system). A 3-in.-diameter pipe branching from the return line to the reac
tor contains a quick-acting valve which permits dumping the D2O from the reactor into the
storage tank. The coolant system is provided with by-pass facilities for resin ion-exchange
columns, filtering, distilling, and pL) adjustment.

AUXILLARY SYSTEMS

A positive helium atmosphere is maintained above the D2O in the reactor tank and the
storage tanks. This is done to prevent contamination by the moisture (light water) con
tained in the atmosphere. This helium is circulated through a recombination system to
reclaim D.O which has been dissociated in the reactor.

ARGONNE RESEARCH REACTOR (CP-5)

This reactor is in the construction phase with essentially all components assembled or
being ordered; future modifications are anticipated to be minor.
The fuel for this reactor is contained in sandwich plates (3- by 24%- by 0.060 in.) com
posed of a 0.020-in.-thick core of uranium-aluminum alloy clad with 0.020-in.-sheaths of

1017
CHAP. 8.5 REACTOR DESIGNS

aluminum. These plates are curved to a 5%-in. radius across their width and maintained
in a ten-plate stack, with 0.154-in. spaces between plates, by means of 0.112-in.-thick
aluminum side-plates. Two 0.051-in.-thick aluminum end-plates are added as outside
plates to complete the assembly of the grid-box with a cross section of about 2.4- by 3-in.
There are 17 locations on 6-in. centers for mounting the grid boxes vertically; these
are spaced so that a full array of the boxes presents a cylindrical arrangement about 2 ft
in diameter at the center of a 6-ft-diameter aluminum tank containing D2O. A 10-in. heli
um plenum over the D2O surface is formed by a tank plug fitting inside the upper 2% ft of
the aluminum tank; the seal for this helium atmosphere is at the flange engagement at the
top of the tank. The tank plug is partially supported on the %-in. tank wall and partially by
springs mounted in the 10%-ft-diameter top shield. This top shield in turn rests on an
offset of a 10-ft-diameter steel tank which bears on steel base beams 2 ft below aluminum
tank. A graphite zone 2 ft thick rests on these beams and supports the aluminum tank. The
2-ft-thick graphite reflector between the two tanks supports an annular shield at the same
level as the tank plug.
Individual access to each fuel box is achieved by aligned holes in the tank plug and an
inner plug of the top shield. Separate small weighing-plugs in the tank-plug holes hold the
fuel boxes down against the coolant flow. The seals for the helium atmosphere are O-rings
on the weighing plugs. The D2O seal at the bottoms of fuel boxes is maintained by modified
pipe-union-type of surfaces.
Four shim-safety rods, 1- by 5-in. rectangular cross section, swing in the spaces formed
by five rows of fuel boxes. The rods are attached at bearings supported on a grid structure
of the 6-ft-diameter aluminum tank. These rods are driven through a spline engagement by
shafts which extend horizontally to seals and drive mechanisms outside the shielding.
Safety movement of the rods is by combination gravity and spring action. A vertically ac
tuated regulating rod can be positioned in any of eight thimble locations just external to
the 17 fuel-box locations comprising the reactor core.
Aluminum thimbles for the experimental facilities are welded to the aluminum tank wall
and extend inward to the core or through the tank. The thermal columns are horizontal and
diametrically opposed.

SHIELDING

To minimize heating and gamma ray sources, the steel tank is lined with a boral-layer
and enclosed by a 3- to 3%-in. layer of lead. Water circulated through copper coils buried
in the lead removes the heat generated in the graphite and thermal shield. Around the
thermal shield is the biological shield, consisting of limonite and heavy-aggregate con
crete, in the form of a modified octagonal prism. An exception is the top shield external
to its inner plug; this annular shell, 2% ft high, is filled with bags of borax and iron
punchings. A layer of lead, 3 in. thick and 6 ft in diameter, covers the top shield to absorb
radiation during transit of a spent fuel box being drawn into the 8-ton lead coffin.
Miscellaneous shielding includes a concrete mass for storing spent fuel and a 2-ft ceil
ing over D2O system (main floor). Basement walls to isolate the recirculating D2O will be
erected after it is determined how completely the N* decays in the reactor tank.

FUEL HANDLING

In loading, a fuel box, attached to its weighing plug and a safety loading washer, is
lowered into position through an individual hole in the top shield. The final positioning of
the fuel box is accomplished by disengaging the safety loading washer to permit the lower
end of the box to engage its seat safely. A top plug is placed over the weighing plug.
On discharging, the top plug is removed and set aside. The safety washer is engaged,
and the fuel box and weighing plug are raised approximately 1 in. The coffin is then posi

1018
 :
1Pumping
.
gal/min
000 Pumping level0.20
core
to
D2O
of
drain
Quick ARebout
.
rods)
safety
(by
change
a activity izationcmé
87.5
.
cold).
and
(clean
squared
length
Diffusion
a 0temperat.ure)(tota.
(l)poi083
k
8 0sons)(.typical) keff n. test iorizontal
6
-
h2
,
dia.
tangent
holes
n. to
rate .
required
power
10 30
primary
hp secondary
hp in.
1Shim
.5
1
-
64
ax m-j0acketed, cadnium,
luminu/2
-
rods vertical
type
signal-arm
1Regulator
-
a1
OD,
in.
cadmium,
lumin/2
. um-Jacketed
rod Safety
.
Effected
rods
shim
by - iLnowered
.through
accessholes
dividual in
Charging plugD.
tank Disrawn
charging
coffin
shielded
into
up ua
Thermal
.
cold)
and
(clean
0til.9 1Prompt
x
1
About
sec
.
lifetime
neutron
0-3 .
cold)
and
(clean
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125 (015
k-
a - -
a .
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.
a CNonone
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-
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. 2l/(Thermal:
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maximum 1n/(013
x 3)(sec) thin
cmaverage
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1EXertical
.
CILITIES
vFA
-
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in
bles
PERIM0ENTAL
6
i1
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-
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graphite
inflector: dia.
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al
i,
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-
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nd
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-
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,
dia.
in.
holes
beam2 bearn
iorizontal
4
-
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,
dia.
holes core in.,
12 graphite
x
8
-
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bottorn
in
holes
test
horizontal reflector pneumatic
iorin.
-
h1
dia.
lattice
below
tube
zontal dia. fta
in. therrnal
2
-
1
lattice
below
tube
penurnatic
horizontal x
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-
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holes
test
axial
sq
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16
with 1CAPITAL
x
$1.8
columns 06 .
.
MENT
INVEST RReport
FEeFaEsRiEbNiClEiSty
.
the
for - NAT SRaTLâEGFRTOFWTJ MTWest and
Argonne Secret
pp,
23
ANL-4779,
Weills,
T.
J.
l.
.
cold)
and
(clean
escape
Resonance
0 1Age
.
cm2
.28
groups)
(two
cold)
and
(clean -
in.
1
-
6
tank:
,
dia.
10-3
x
3
.
cold)
and
(clean
Buckling
*
cm-2

Argonne
eactor
sea
e
rc - - 1951
7,
May

a
ES
DENsiti
FLUX
NEUTRON

.
cold)
and
(clean
koo
85
. -

LING
HAND
EL
FU

-
r
--------
-
-

Estimated
a.
CONTROLS text
See
b.
PHYSICS

.over-all
0.051
-
i2
3
x
2.4
about
plates,
side
in.
n. Moderator None material
quirement Fertile
.
material StrAluminum
uctur-al
steel
and nite-iron-ag regasquare
Bimooral,
l.
and
lead,
concrete Gte rid
i.
6
in
elements
box
b
array
n. f.t
2
x
dia. kg g/day
1.15
U235; mechanicaldriven,
gpm,
1000
standby),
(1
paralleled
.
Design
Argonne.
.
Laboratory
National ConNational
Asatrgonne
L. bruocrtiaotnoryNational
AOperation
.
Laboratory
rgonne. PURPOSE
Research
. thick 122
uranium-aluminum Aluminum;
alloy in.
0.020 Aluminum;
•
0
-
2
type,
box
and
plates
side
in. D2Oprimary
. -
-
Reft
. tfle/2
ctoor: .
1D2O;
2 Graphite;Coolant
tons
metric
29.5
thicksecondary D2O.
-
*
re6.8
D2O
Total
. tons
metric -
-. . Helium Shield
atmosphere
Reactor
. .
-
ftin.
2
graphiten.
of
o ides
1t/2
2
D2O
of
ft .
bottorn)
and
-
f/2tin.
4
and
1lead
8
concrete
heavy
of 2/20
l.
6
13
by
flats
across
ft
l/3 0.84
. - months
8
. - rD2O,-
inuous) Recombination pumps
ecirculatedexchange
Iconton
(.
columns elenctrifcuaglaly
cseals, recirculated
Helium, 1000 .
.
kw 0.0.7 80
About BTU/(sq
.
kw -
34,000
.
ft)(hr) -
148 °F
.
°F 146 .
. 5.4 5
124°F ft/sec
17°F .
1 . About
p.si
kw/1 kw
6
. 870
.
25
/kg
20%
About -

--
---
...
*
a
,
*
~
J
-
~~~~~~~
.1953
in
late
CP-3'
replace
to
Scheduled
STATUS
- 20%
to
10
in
U***);
Uranium
.
Fuel
(~90%

lºading)
(Uniform
CONDITIONs
operating

- OREGSAPNOINZASTIBOLNES temperature
sheath
Maximum
.
-
- temperature
fuel
Maximum
. temperature
outlet
Coolant
.
-
temperature
inlet
Coolant
.
-
(s i
secondary 1/2
3
.
Shield
(average)Specific
density
Power .
(average)
power
-
is ionable (average)
Fmaterial Consumption pressure
inlet
Coolant
CILITIES .
FA
AUXILIARY atmosphere
Reactor .
output
power
Useful
-
Reflector:
.
primary MATERIAL
STRATEGIC .
time
cycle
Average .
(average)
power
Rod
- .
treatment
Coolant .
(average)
flux
Heat
- (equivalent)
Core
. .
power
heat
Total
.
velocity
Coolant
-
. Coolant
Cladding
Fuel .
tubes SYSTEM
COOLING
-
.
TYPE
ICE
LATT
-

DIMENSIONS .
Over-all
-
LS
MATERIA .
Burn-up
-
-
2
.
Pumps .
Innage
-

-
.
Type
-

#
CHAP. 8.5 REACTOR DESIGNS

tioned over the hole, and the fuel box and its weighing plug are drawn into the coffin. The
flange of the washer stops the travel of the fuel box about 1 in. above its seat in the event
the box is accidentally dropped.

COOLING SYSTEM

D2O is fed into the reactor through an inlet header into a plenum chamber at the bottom
of the reactor tank. Openings in the plenum chamber allow the D2O to flow into the fuel
boxes. The connecting adapter on the fuel box contains an orifice that distributes the flow.
After passing upward through the active section, the D2O is discharged into the moderator
space through exit ports in the upper part of the fuel box. The D2O level is maintained by
an overflow line which drains into the D2O storage tank. The D2O is discharged from the
tank by a vertical header at the bottom of the reactor tank and passes through a pump, two
tube-and-shell heat exchangers, and then back into the reactor. Light water picks up the
heat on the shell side of the heat exchangers and delivers it to a forced-draft cooling tower.
Other features in the heavy-water system include a 500-gal dump tank to lower the D2O
moderator level just to the top of the reactor core and a 1400-gal storage tank for com
plete removal of D2O from the reactor tank. Columns for continuous ion-exchange purifi
cation of the D2O are provided.

AUXILLARY SYSTEMS

The 10-in. space above the D2O in the reactor tank and all free space above the D2O in
the D2O system is occupied by blower-recirculated helium. The helium carries decompo
sition gases over a catalyst for recombination of D.O.
The graphite zone has a helium atmosphere to permit more heat to pass by conductivity
from experimental plugs into the moderator near the reactor core. This atmosphere also
assists in distributing graphite heat for removal in the coils of the thermal shield. A gas
holder comprises the external part of this system.
The copper coils buried in the thermal shield lead are duplicated as an insurance fea
ture. Distilled water is recirculated through the shell-and-tube heat exchanger, the heat
being picked up by make-up water for the cooling-tower loop.

1020
 CHAPTER 8.6

Miscellaneous Heterogeneous Reactors

THERMAL TEST REACTOR (TTR)

his reactor was designed for the primary purpose of carrying out accurate, danger
fficient experiments. An annular cylindrical can, constructed of aluminum, with an ID
2 in. and an OD of 18 in. contains the 20 aluminum tubes (2 in. in diameter) that hold
fuel rods for the active section of the reactor. The interstices between these tubes
the can walls contain light water, whereas the tubes themselves are filled with a light
affin-base oil. These two liquids (static) act as moderators. The central space in the
ular cylinder is filled with graphite to form an internal thermal column which is con
1cted with a central slot for experimental samples. The neutron flux in the sample
ition is 2.3 times the average flux in the active lattice, and the cadmium ratio of
um activation is 5.9. A neutron cross section of 107° cm can be measured by normal
ger-coefficient methods.
ny six of eight "4-in.-diameter, vertical, aluminum tubes, which extend above and be
the reactor, can be used as thimbles for the control and safety rods. The safety rods
suspended electromagnetically and scram into the reactor by gravity.
ach of the 20 fuel rods contain approximately 50 fuel discs. These washer-like discs
e an outside diameter of 1.96 in. and an inside diameter of 0.194 in. The discs are
10 in. thick and contain about 2.7 gm of U” as a 35-percent-uranium : aluminum alloy
0 percent U*). These discs are placed on an 18-in. aluminum rod and spaced at 0.2 in.
Jolyethylene washers. The planes of the discs are canted 6° off the perpendicular to
rod axis to allow bubbles to escape freely.
graphite reflector about 2% ft thick covers the sides and bottom of the core. This is
2nded out one side to form a horizontal thermal column.

ELDING

he reactor is placed in a 10-ft by 15-ft by 13-ft-high room. The three external walls
he room are made of 6 ft of ordinary concrete, and the ceiling is 1 ft of reinforced
crete. The fourth 6-ft-thick wall is built up of blocks of high-density concrete with an
2ss opening and a thermal column opening provided.

1021
:
MScanually
.
Charging
York
New
tongs
operated
henectady, operated
MORE.
. Danually
GSiAPNsOIcNZAShTIaBOrLNgESing
tongs 1MATERIALS
x
5
sec
0-4
.
lifetime
neutron
Prompt (tebout
AK
1.
x
8
°/°C
Amluminum
. per0ature)Nbase
tubes
Fuel P.
.
Moderator
discs
fuel
between
oil
(egligible
karaffin
Poisons) GReflector
N.
.raphite
one
ratio
Conversion ylinderized Dhorizontal
MENTAL slab
OXrdinary
EShield
concrete
density
high
and Cthermal
.
TYPE
ICE
LATT
column eIxternal,
-
1
thermal
MENSIONS in.
.
Core
1
x
dia.
column8 6
.FReEaFsEtiRbEiNlCiEtSyft
fReport
.
KAPL
the
for
Shield
thick 2Over-all
12.
x
high
.742H.
Knolls
Reactor,
Test
ermal L.aSTRATEGIC
Power
BAtomic
Tb.oSrtaetwoaryt,
-
3/Structural
.
column)
(central
maximum
1Thermal:
nx
A(cluminum
. m0°
.6
2)(secn)109
material /(6Ncm2one
)(.sec) in.
lReactor
.
section).
active
(in
average
xatmosphere 1
-
1
.
FACILITIES
vertical,
internal,
dia.
PERI2 MATERIAL Feasibilit
1,
No.
lement
Su
- -

ºrºž
ſe,
Reper
Negligible
.
Burn-up
LFuel
.
cold).
and
(clean
keff
002
12
about
to
Nimited
.
Cladding
one LH2O
.
poisoned)
and
(hot
keff
1.002
about
toimited
semblies
as
fuel
between
None
.
CILITIES
FA
AUXILIARY
1951
3,
April
Secret,
2.6
than
more
U233;
1950
9,
Nov.
Secret,
pp,
32
KAPL-436,
al.,
et
kg
Fis ionable
material
-
-

RDiffusion
.
cold).
and
(clean
squared
length
.
PURPOSE
esearch
Hºº.
**i.
**
.
§§tries
K(clean
.
Operation
Laboratory
Power
Atomic
utnolls
Thermal
cold)
and
ilization
.KResonance
.cold)
and
(clean
escape
1Atomic
Laboratory
Power
Conolls
n.0
struction

Uranium
.
Fuel
~35%
as
U235);
(~90%
.
cold)
and
(clean
Buckling NNEUTRON
.
Coolant
ENSITIES
D
FLUX
one

.IAge
.
cold).
and
(clean
STATUS
.
1951
Jan.,
since
operation
n AReflector
1.
2
thick
ft
.bout
/3
INVESTMENT
CAPITAL
-
-
urkoo
alloy
anium-aluminum
.
cold)
and
(clean

KFUEL
.
LOCATION
Laboratory
Power
Atomic
HANDLING
nolls
(TTR)
Reactor
Test
—Thermal
8.6.1
Table

LKDesign
Power
Atomic
aPHYSICS
. nolls
boratory NFast
.
material
Fertile
.one

N.
Ceognlsuimgpitbiloen IAverage
.
time
cycle
ndefinite 1Total
..
power
heat
watts
00 wpower
5.
(average)
IndefiniteRod
.
Innage atts- 2.4
.
(average).
density
Power
watts temgpleriagtiurbel"e. .
fuel
NMaximum
. teegligible
moderator
NMaximum
mperature Providedain.
.
Shim
variationRegulator
loading
by 1lertical,
-
2
v.
,
dia.
umi/2
num-clad cadmium
rods ain.
1lertical,
-
4
.
vSafety
,
dia.
umi/2 rods in.
num-clad cadrºnium i32
4
-
/6
1
wide,
iron-clad
thick,
n. sheets
urn
1
cadrºn

0.04
.
(average)
power
Specific
25
kw/kg
.
change
vity
******
0.08
About

CONDITIONS
OPERATING
.
output
power
Useful
9
.

.-
flux
Heat
CONTROLS

§
 CHAPTER 8.7

Unmoderated Heterogeneous Reactors

LOS ALAMOS FAST REACTOR (CLEMENTINE) -

The fuel rods are held vertically in a close-packed array in a steel cage. Holes in the
bottom and top plates of the cage allow mercury to flow from the bottom up around each
slug and out the top plate. The over-all dimensions of the cage are 5% in. OD by 6%s in.
long. The fuel elements are located by recesses in the bottom plate and holes in the top
plate. The cage is located at the bottom of a steel casing about 45 in. long. This casing,
or pot, is closed by a top-tamper-plug 39 in. long made of uranium, steel, and shielding
materials, which are enclosed in a steel shell welded close at both ends. Mercury enters
the pot at the bottom from two tubes located on the outside of the pot, leading from above,
and exits through an axial tube in the tamper plug.
Two steel plates, totalling 11 in., supported on a reinforced concrete pier serve as a
base for the reactor. The tamper (reflector) volume, a 30-in. cube, contains the cage and
pot in a column of uranium 8 in. by 8 in. by 17% in. high. On the four sides of the column
are blocks of uranium (most of them silver plated) which are 5 in. thick. This, together
with the pot tamper-plug, completes the 17%-in., cubical, uranium tamper, around which
is a %-in-thick, water-cooled aluminum jacket. Surrounding the jacket are 6-in.-thick
blocks of steel that complete the tamper to 30 in. Outside the tamper on the four sides and
the top is a 4-in.-thick layer of lead and a %2-in., welded, aluminum jacket, encasing the
entire tamper and lead shielding in a gas-tight envelope.
On one side of the reactor, a 4- by 4-in. block of bismuth extends through the tamper
from the central uranium column to the gas-tight envelope. This serves as a window for
the graphite thermal column, which steps up from about 30- by 30-in. to 6- by 6-ft over a
6-ft length. The thermal column has eight removable stringers and three transverse test
holes. On the opposite face of the reactor a 6-in.-diameter by 11-in. thorium cylinder
containing a "4-in.-diameter removable core extends from the central uranium column to
the lead shield. One of the other faces has an 8- by 8-in. block of uranium containing a
%-in.-diameter removable core extending from the central uranium column to the lead
shielding. The remaining face has a removable steel plug for a hole which extends in to
the central uranium column. Four holes go completely through the tamper tangential to
the central core and paraller to the uranium and steel windows. Ten vertical holes pene
trate into various regions of the tamper.
Vertical control rods are located in the uranium tamper. These rods are driven by
mechanisms located on the top shield and are scrammed through the reactor by gravity.
The lower portions of the rods are made of uranium; the upper ends (of the control length)
are made of sintered boron-10. This combination gives a maximum of control. Originally,
as a safety feature, a portion of the uranium tamper below the core was designed to drop
away from the assembly, but this system is no longer in use.

1023
:
pCoolant
.
reactor
through
drop
pressure Remotegrappling
.
Charging
equipmentD
grapplingR.
.
equipment
emote
ischarging 0haon.80
'-
,
dia.
tin.
holes,
core1
to rgieznotnital to
0aonr.70
h-
,
dia.
tin.
hole,
core
gieznotial holes orizo0ntal, stringers
.90 graphite
-
1
3
hx
in.
columnwith
thermal removable transverse
8 zontal, through
column
thermal
1/2boronid izontal enclosed
26.6°F
.temperature
fuel
Maximum
. 8.
. mperature.
te6°F
inlet
Coolant te212°F
outlet
.Coolant
mperature bout .
ACoolant
.
psia
70
pressure
inlet 7 si . 9Pumping
.
rate
1/min .kPumping
5.
required
power
w NShim
..one in.
1/2 in.
1
-
2
.
Regulator
reflector
in
rods
vertical
dia. sintered
and
uranium
half 0FEXAorizontal
-
1
h.
,
dia.
in.
core
to
hole
PC.55
EIRLIMTEINETSA.L hole
0or.65
-
h1
,
dia.
in.
core,
to reflector hole
through
cylinder
thorium
by .90 by
0orizontal
-
h1
,
dia.
in.
enclosed
core,
to reflector3
through
cylinder
uranium 0ertical
-
v4
,
dia.
in.
reflector
in iorin.
x
2
-
h3
holes PRElutonium
.
Alarnos,Los
Los
at
Reactor
Fast
FERENCES Alamos
Laboratory,Jane
Scientific
- 1
-
2
.
Safety
reflector
in
rods
vertical
dia. (Revised),
LAMS-567
Hall,
6 boron
sintered
and
uranium
half -

012 Thermal
1Fast
x
5. 10%
x
5
.
(maximum)
(maximum
About
.
change
Reactivity
0.034
1947
7,
May
Secret,
pp,
45

temperature
sheath
Maximum
.

a
DENSITIES
FLUX
NEUTRON
.
(average
power
Specific
-

.
MENT
INVEST
CAPITAL
(Clementine)
Reactor
Fast
Alamos
8.7.1—Los
Table
.
velocity
Coolant -

HANDLING
FUEL

Estimated
a.
CONTROLS

Sacbioernatiofriyc Los
Alamos
LLos Mexico
New
Alamos, LacDesign
S.
LAlamos
bioeos
rnatiofriyc LAlamos
L.
S. trnuatciofnriyc LAlamos
Cacobinsoeos LacOperation
S. bioeos
rnatiofriyc .
RPURPOSE
esearch PFuel
. NiékelMild
.
Čiadding
Fuel
thick
in
605
0.
coating
lutonium
wall .
in.
0.020
steel; None None (natural);
.
Reflector
tons
metric
36
l. - Mercury None .
Uranium Steel . Steel .
None iron,
Lead,
.
Shield
concrete
barytes
and
plastic
boron
masonite, 75
6
x/8 in.
OD
in.
/16 Uranium;
3.
5 in. thick
/4 Steel;
6 ft
4
. About
.
i
9
x
is
it
high
t 10-3
x
3gm/day .
Indefinite .
Indefinite mercury None pump
Recirculated .
. electronagnetic 20 0 0.
.
kw 5. 0kw
.47 800
20,
ft)(hr)
BTU/(sq
kw/1
7.2

1946
Nov.,
since
operation
In
.
STATUS
-

Ad

i
.
-

.
OREGSAPNOINZASTIBOLNES --

. . .
(average)
density
Power
Fis ionable
material CONDITIONS
OPERATING
Structural Reactor
.
material atmosphere MATERIAL
strateCIC .
time
cycle
Average
FACILITIES
AUXILIARY .
output
power
Useful .
(average)
power
Rod
.
treatment
Coolant .
(average)
flux
Heat
.
material
Fertile .
power
heat
Total
.
tubes
Coolant SYSTEM
COOLING
Consumption
.
.
Moderator
DiMENSIONS .
Reflector
-
.
Over-all
-
MATERIALS .
Coolant .
Burn-up
.
LOCATION
- .
Pumps .
Innage
.
Shield
.
Core .
Type

§
UNMODERATED HETEROGENEOUS REACTORS CHAP. 8.7

SHIELDING

Outside the gas-tight aluminum casing are the laminated side shields comprised, from
the center outward, of 3 in. of iron, 3 in. of masonite, 24 in. of iron and boron-plastic
sheets alternated in 3-in. thicknesses, and 18 in. of poured barytes concrete. The top of
the reactor is shielded by boron-plastic, iron, and removable concrete blocks.
The thermal column is shielded by 2% in. of boron-plastic, 0.040 in. of cadmium, and
8 in. of lead. The mercury coolant system is contained in a vault (in the main shield
structure) provided with heavy lead doors supplemented by 12 in. of concrete blocks.

FUEL HANDLING

Fuel elements are removed from or placed in the core cage by removing sections of the -

top shield and the pot tamper-plug and handling the slugs with remotely operated grappling
devices. After the core is partly unloaded, the entire pot may be removed and further
dismantling done in a hot cell.

COOLING SYSTEM

Mercury is drawn from the heat exchanger by an AC electromagnetic pump which de

livers the mercury to a reservoir tank at the top of the shielding. From the reservoir, the
coolant flows through the reactor and then into the heat exchanger. The heat exchanger is
made of helical coils cast in a copper cylinder. One coil is made of mild steel and carries
the mercury; two are made of stainless steel and carry the water. To facilitate heat
transfer, 1 ppm of titanium and 10 ppm of magnesium are added to the mercury.
*

EXPERIMENTAL BREEDER REACTOR (EBR)

The reactor structure is comprised of a bottom grid-plate (which positions the lower
ends of the rods) hung by tie rods from a 4-in.-thick support and grid plate. Above this
are the coolant inlet chamber, a separation plate, and the coolant outlet chamber. These
components all fit inside a stainless-steel tank of double-wall construction. The bottom
24% in. of this tank fits closely around the uranium rod blanket to accommodate the
external uranium blanket, which is made of stainless-steel-clad, uranium (natural) bricks
stacked in the form of a cup 30% in. in diameter. Above this, the tank expands out to
23% in. ID over an 85-in. length with insulation bricks within the double wall structure.
The external uranium cup is supported from below and is removed by lowering it into a
sub-reactor room.

Twelve uranium rods, eight for safety and four for control, enter the external uranium
cup from below; these are driven by mechanisms mounted on the cup elevator and are
scrammed out of the reactor by compressed springs and cushioned pneumatically. Shim
control is provided by height adjustment of the external uranium cup. An 8-in.-diameter
plug of natural uranium at the bottom of the external blanket serves as a safety by dropping
out of the blanket.
Around the reactor tank, a 19-in.-thick layer of graphite is built up as a reflector. This
is extended out to effect the horizontal thermal column. Various experimental test and
beam holes extend into and through the graphite.

SHIELDING

A steel thermal shield surrounds the graphite reflector. Around this is about 8% ft of
concrete. The upper tank section is shielded by 2-in.-thick steel plates (drilled and
broached to pass the fuel-elements) alternated with 8%-in. NaK-flooded spaces formed by

1025
i
.f
.
º
7
ii. " 5ertical,
v.
,
dia.
in.
steel
stainless
84 clad, nsertedin
aW.
gas
inert
tithdrawn
imsocshpahregrineginto 2FEXAertical
v.
-
graphite
into
thirmbles
PCEIRLI2METNITEASL reflector horizontal graphite
column through
-
2
graphite2
in
holes horizontal, bearn
-
columns
thermal in. bearn
horin.
-
i2
9
holes
zontal, 10
| FReport
.
REFERENCES
a
for
Pile
Neutron
Fast
easibilitNationalſ
yLArgonne
IInnage
..
ndefinite 4.6
-
. 000
(average)
power
Rod
kw
-
- 0
1
2
ft)(hr)
BTU/(sq
.
(average)
flux
Heat, . mperature .
7Maximum
te35°F
fuel perature °F
tern82
4inlet
.
tem35°FCoolant
sheath
6Maximum perature. mperature 7
6Coolant
te62°F
outlet -
6Coolant
f.
velocity
t/sec
. - 0.86 300
.
reactor
through
drop
pressure
Coolant
psi gpm
.
rate
Pumping
-
reflector
external reflector stainless
in
rods
uraniurn 1Safety
-
v8
,
dia.
in.
steel
.
ertical,
.584
in.
8
-
1
uranium
of
section
novable
dia.
core
beneath
reflector ImanuallyD
.
Charging coffin
lead (0m*anx/(icm”u)(ms)ec.)
1Fast
x
2
. thermal
and 8
with
holes horizontal, test
-
1
hole
bearn
in. horin.
-
i5
4
holes
zontal, Caobnovreartsiorny,
of
Test PhysicsH.
Huston,
E.
N.
to
Letter
EBR,
of LabArgonne
National
Hummel,
oratory,
uranium,
natural
clad,
steel
Stainless
.
Shim
$2.7
.
INVESTMENT
1CAPITAL
x 0°
pANL-.,
1
1952
7,
October
cret,
Sc MH-67,
84
,
1949
14,
October
Secret,
pp,-

l
-

.
required
power
Pumping ENSITIES
D
FLUX
NEUTRON
. Specific.
(average)
power -
(average)
density
Power
.
pressure
inlet
Coolant
-
-

Experimental
8.7.2–
Table
(EBR)
Reactor
Breeder 0.062
.
change
Reactivity

HANDLING
FUEL

.
Regulator .
Thermal-

CONTROLS

Station
Testing
Reactor
National
. Arco,
LOCATION
- Idaho rgonneAustin
ADesign
.
Laboratory
National
. Ohio C.
Cleveland,
of
Company Bo.
echtel - ..
rnpsotrruacttiioonn Argonne
Laboratory
National
-Operation EPURPOSE
xperimental operation
-
ISTATUSn
. - 0.020
N
. a Stainless
Cladding
(Fuel
7K
-
thick
in.
7.5%);
22.5 wall .
in.
0.022
steel; one .
NCoolant
tubes NModerator
- ain
Uranium GraphiteCoolant
one (natural)
.
Reflector
tons
metric
4.6
blanket; N7.5%);
(.
7K
- U238
.
blanket
annulus
in.
0.046
22.5 . steel
material
Fertile Sttainless
.
material
ructural Argon
..
atmosphere
Reactor CShield
oncrete
- - UReflector
i.
9
about
thick
.ranium;
n. Graphite;
thick ft
in.
19 /2 ft
AShield
1.
8
concrete
ofbout Modified
.
1Over-all
7
octagon;
high
14
by
flats
across
/2 mA.
g
1Co/day
bout
nsumption AAverage
.
days
50
time
cycle
bout NaK
. Batchwise pump
.
filtering DlectromC
-
1
e. agnetic type
tstank
-
1
(.
pump
and-by)
Convection
coolant
secondary
of
cooling
air turbo-generator
kw
125
and
generator
Steam 400 kw
1Total
.
kw
.
power
heat 200
.
output
power
Useful
Uranium
.
Fuel
U.4%)
(~90%

GRAENSIPZOANTSIOBNLSE
OR

Fis ionable
.
material CONDITIONS
OPERATING
MATERIAL
STRATEGIC FACILITIES
LiARY
AUXI
.
treatment
Coolant
.
production
Power

SYSTEM
LING
COO

LS
MATERIA DIMENSIONS .
Burn-up
.
Purnps
.
Safety
.
Core
- .
Type -

§
UNMODERATED HETEROGENEOUS REACTORS CHAP. 8.7

spacer collars. The thermal columns are shielded by lead and laminated iron-masonite
combinations. The experimental openings are shielded with appropriate plugs. The pri
mary NaK circuit is shielded by 3% ft of concrete.

FUEL HANDLING

The internal rods are removed by withdrawing them upward into a lead coffin in an
atmosphere of dry helium or nitrogen. The uranium cup is lowered into a sub-reactor
room; it may then be removed to an adjacent shielded cell, provided with a remotely con
trolled crane, to disassemble the cup and place the bricks in suitable casks.

COOLING SYSTEMS

PRIMARY SYSTEM

NaK alloy (22.5 percent sodium, 77.5 percent potassium) for the reactor is contained in
an upper storage tank with a capacity of approximately 3,000 gal. The coolant flows from
this tank by gravity to the entrance chamber above the reactor core. From here it flows
downward past the uranium blanket rods and then back up through the core. It leaves the
reactor from an outlet chamber directly above the inlet chamber, although the surface of
the NaK is near the top of the tank shield plug where an overflow line is provided. After
leaving the reactor, the alloy drops into an expansion tank from which it flows through the
heat exchanger to a receiver tank. A DC electromagnetic pump delivers the NaK from the
receiver tank back to the storage tank to complete the circuit.

SECONDARY SYSTEM

The secondary NaK system is not shielded. The alloy flows from the heat exchanger
either to a finned-tube air cooler or to a super-heater and steam generator when power
production is desired.

1027 º
 CHAPTER 8.8

Graphite-moderated Homogeneous Reactors

LOW-POWER RESEARCH REACTOR (LPRR)

his reactor was designed specifically for private use, and accordingly the principle
gn emphasis was on safety. The reactor consists of a uranium-impregnated graphite
2 with a graphite reflector. Each fuel-element block measures 4.187— by 4.187 - by
n. and is impregnated with uranium (~90 percent U*). The blocks have 1.25-in.-
meter axial holes so that they may be slipped over vertical, bayonnet-type cooling
s, 1.25 in. in diameter and having '4-in. walls and '4-in. diametrical webs which di
the tubes into two chambers so that coolant may flow up one chamber and down the
r. The 70 coolant tubes form an approximately circular pattern and are spaced on
|8-in.-centers in a square array. This allows 0.060-in. clearance for expansion be
en the graphite blocks which slip over the tubes. Each coolant tube passes through two
-bearing blocks and two 24-in.-long plain-graphite blocks, one plain block above and
below the 42-in. active section to serve as top and bottom reflector, respectively. Ad
onal Odd-shaped blocks fill out the core assembly to form a 46-in.-diameter cylinder
losed in a vacuum-tight 0.204-in. -wall aluminum tank. The bottom of the tank is made
hree parallel 0.375-in. aluminum plates, 1% in. apart, forming inlet and outlet plenum
mbers to which the double-chambered coolant tubes are appropriately welded. The
lant tubes are also welded to and support the top aluminum plate of the tank. Aluminum
les welded on the outside of the tank wall serve as stiffeners to prevent collapse of the
when evacuated. At start-up, the tank is evacuated and then sealed under a helium
osphere of 1 cm of Hg. The aluminum angles also support the transition reflector
sks which carry the circular cross section of the tank into the octagonal cross section
he reflector and Shield.

in axial sleeve, occupying the space provided by the omission of two adjacent fuel ele
nts, contains an unimpregnated graphite element flanked by two safety rods. The graph
element may be replaced with a standard fuel element to compensate for burn-up. On a
tered 15-in.-radius circle are sleeves for four shim rods. These, like the central
mble, are welded to the top and bottom of the tank. All sleeves are cooled by D2O cir
ated in '4-in. aluminum tubing welded to the corners of the sleeves. The regulator rod
mble is welded to the outside of the core tank.

steel support plate at the top of the tank is provided with lifting lugs so that the whole
K unit can be raised. A thin perforated-aluminum jacket around the unit keeps the
nsition reflector blocks in place on their supports.
round the core unit, graphite blocks are stacked permanently in the form of an octago
ring. These complete the 28-in. reflector. The reflector and the core tank rest on a
21 bed-plate which is accurately leveled. Through this bed-plate pass the D2O coolant
is to disconnect joints in the sub-reactor room.

1029
:
in. filled
2
-
4
.
Shinn
carbide
boron
of
rod
vertical
dia. moderator section dia.
a
plus
tubing
steel
stainless n. filled
iRegulator
-
1
.
carbide
boron
of
rod
vertical tubing vertical
steel
stainless in. filled
4
x
-
2
.
Safety
carbide
on
bor
of
rods cans
steel
stainless
- Core .
Charging
\
.
handled
fuel
all
with
tank Dias
uscnit
a harging i0-3
.
lifetirne
neutron
Prompt
lsec
x
1.5 . -.
1.
x
(0-4/*C
ktempe4
rature) None
.
ratio
Conversion 2)(sec) holes
iaonrgin.
h3
tdia. eznotial to
tank dia.
core in. to
6
-
1
extending
hole
horizontal tank in.
core 1/2 to
3
-
6
extending
holes
horizontal
dia. tank dia.
core in.to
-
2
tubest
pneumatic
horizontal tank
core
angentialdia. ir adiations ft
in. multiple
3
-
6
for
reflector
in
tubes
vertical specimen -
11
4
x
therrnal
horizontal
/2 colurnn Engine ringAVIATIOT CT EFepar tion
Low Design
A
Reactor
Research
Power NorthAmerican
Report,
.cm?
cm2
129
cold)
and
(clean
squared
length 3Age
.
Diffusion .83
cold).
and
(clean
3/(Fast:
1.
nx.0!?
c.5
m2)(sec)n1.2
maximum
- m2)(secnx
1/(c0!?
x .
average 1.
)/(cm0%
.2 -

l.
.
cold).
and
(clean
keff
095 $0°6
1.
x

epithermal
in
capture
from
Escape
b.
region

u0ti.8903
Thermal
.
cold)
and
(clean
lization
.
*
cold)
and
(clean
escape
0Resonance
. .8666

FEXAPCEIRLIMTEINETSA.L
2
..
.
cold)
and
(clean
Buckling DENSITIES
FLUX
NEUTRON Parlecluilmaitniaornys
ca.
poisoned)
and
(hot
keff
035
1. -

INVESTMENT
CAPITAL
1.9
.
cold)
and
(clean
koo .
(average)
Thermal
(LPRR)
Reactor
Research
Power
8.8.1—Low
Table .
change
Reactivity
0.275

LING
HAND
FUEL
(Poisons)
-k
.
0.0175
.
REFERENCES
CONTROLS
a
PHYSICS

Inc.
Aviation,
American
North Research study
. Design
. None178
graphite .
in
UO2
as
(~90%);
Uranium Aluminum, 1/3
.
waii
in. .
tons
metric tons D2O 270
Graphite; Graphite;
metric
20 NoneAand
kg . iuminum
graphite Helium
pressure) Homogeneous
(low
e-colemanite
concrete 42 24
x
dia.
46
high
in. bottom Steel;
and
top
on
in. in. 1/3
in. Concrete;
l 72 14 4
x
flats
across
2/3
20
prism;
Octagonal
high
ft U235;
.kggm/day
i6o-2
x.3 hrs
32,000 ecirculated dermineralization Not
RD2O
. specified None kw
150 0.3
. .4160 kw
ſhr)
ft)
BTu/(sq 0.18
.
/l
158°F 657
465°F 140°F . 0. 5
.
sec.
ſt/ pAbout
sigNegligible prºn hp
g
50 3/4
4
5%
25
kw/kg
37.5

exchange
.
ión .
or
iron-
and
Steel

28
.
Reflector.
sides;
on
in.

reactor.
through
drop
pressure
Coolant

temperature
fuel-block
Maximum
.
.
(total)
required
power
Purnping
OREGSAPNOINZASTIBOLNES
ternperature
outlet
Coolant