Architectural Programming

and Predesign Manager

Robert Hershberger, Ph.D., FAIA

Boston, Massachusetts Burr Ridge, Illinois Dubuque, Iowa

Madison, Wisconsin New York, New York San Francisco,
California St. Louis, Missouri
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hershberger, Robert G.
Architectural programming and predesign manager I Robert G.
Hershberger.
p. cm. Dedication
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-07-134749-6 This book is dedicated to my wife, Deanna, and our children, Vernon
1. Architectural design-Data processing. 2. Computer-aided and Andrew, who have given me both the love and encouragement
design. I. Title.
NA2728.H47 1999 that I needed to persevere for the twenty-three years that this book
720-dc21 99-14447 has been in process.
CIP

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 Contents

Forevvord ix
Preface xiii
Acknovvledgments xvii

Chapter 1: Architectural Programming 1

1.1 The Nature of Architectural Programming 1
1.2 Definitions of Architectural Programming 4
1.3 Approaches to Architectural Programming 6
1.4 Design-Based Architectural Programming 7
1.5 Knovvledge-Based Architectural Programming 14
1. 6 Agreement-Based Architectural Programming 17
1. 7 Value-Based Architectural Programming 25
1. 8 Exercises 35
1. 9 References 36

Chapter 2: Values and Architecture 41

2 .1 Importance of Values 41
2.2 Enduring Values of Architecture 42
2.3 Contemporary Values of Architecture 53
2.4 HECTTEAS (TEST EACH) 56
2.5 Case Study: Alleluia Lutheran Church 57
2. 6 Case Study: Hershberger Residence 60
2. 7 Exercises 70
2. 8 References 71

Chapter 3: Values Become Issues 73

3 .1 Human Issues 75
3.2 Environmental Issues 89
VI Contents
Contents VI I

372
3. 3 Cultural Issues 108 7.4 Executive Summary
3 .4 Technological Issues 123 7.5 Values and Goals 375
3. 5 Temporal Issues 132 7. 6 Design Considerations 376
3. 6 Economic Issues 140 7. 7 Project Requirements 382
3. 7 Aesthetic Issues 145 7. 8 Space Identification and Allocation 7. 9 390
3. 8 Safety Issues Relationship Matrices and Diagrams 395
161
3. 9 Exercises 7 .10 Space Program Sheets
167 404
3 .10 References 7 .11 Budget and Cost Analysis 7
168 406
.12 Project Schedule 415
Chapter 4: Preparing to Program 4 171 7 .13 Design Analysis 418
171 7 .14 Appendix 430
.1 Pre-Design Services
180 7 .15 Exercises 431
4.2 Architectural Programming 7 .16 References
181 432
4.3 Discovering Critical Issues 4.
182
4 Program Planning 435
4. 5 Exercises 190 Chapter 8: Methods of Evaluation 8.1
4. 6 References 191 Program Evaluation 436
8.2 Design Evaluation 446
Chapter 5: Information Gathering 193 8.3 Building Evaluation 448
5 .1 Literature Search and Review 5. 195 8. 4 Body of Knowledge 451
2 Diagnostic Interviewing 219 8. 5 The Next Commission 452
5.3 Diagnostic Observation 246 8. 6 Exercises 453
5 .4 Questionnaires and Surveys 273 8. 7 References
454
5.5 Site and Climate Analysis 306
5. 6 Exercises 313 457
Appendix: Sample Architectural Programs
5. 7 References
317 A.1 The Planning Department,
457
The University of Arizona
Chapter 6: Work Sessions 321 A.2 Mikvah for an Orthodox Jewish Congregation 470
6.1 Client/User Work Sessions 323
6.2 Executive Work Sessions 6.3 331 Index 487
Work Session Setting 334
6. 4 Matrix Development 335
6.5 Presentation Methods
346
6.6 Requirement Sheets
6. 7 Exercises 359
6. 8 References 364
365

Chapter 7: Program Preparation 7

36
7
.1 Program Form 368
7.2 Program Content 369
7.3 Preliminaries
370
 Foreword

T hroughout a long and distinguished career as an educator, a

significant piece of which was at Arizona State University in
the College of Architecture and Environmental Design (of which I
am currently the Dean), and then most recently at the University of
Arizona (where he has only recently stepped down as Dean), Bob
Hershberger has sustained in parallel an active architectural practice.
This volume draws richly from this joint background. Donald Schoen
has written vividly of the need for reflective practice. Perhaps no one
should feel more powerfully that challenge than the
educator/practitioner. In this book we all benefit from Dr.
Hershberger's reflections on a career that has included the rigorous
research required for his Ph.D., the careful structuring required to
transform students into professionals, and his own work as a
practicing architect.
I should declare immediately that I am the direct beneficiary of
Bob Hershberger's efforts. For a brief period he was my Associate
Dean before the University of Arizona called. The new addition to
our College of Architecture and Environmental Design celebrates
through the work of Alan Chimacoff of the Hillier Group an ex-
traordinarily thoughtful program for which Bob Hershberger and
Tim McGinty provided the major effort and guidance. And every day
of my working life is spent in the context of Bob Hershberger' s two
efforts on Mill Avenue in Tempe, both of which are described in this
book. I am referring to his influence that caused the city fathers to
rethink their plan to bulldoze Mill Avenue, which was then replaced
with a much more responsible plan to honor the historic heritage and
create a richer and far more hu-
x Foreword Foreword

mane urban center. I also enjoy my daily salute to the Alleluia Given a certain climate, the availability of certain materials, and
Lutheran Church on Mill Avenue where the existing modest house the constraints and capabilities of a given level of technology, what
became the springboard for his design of the sanctuary. finally decides the form of a dwelling, and moulds the spaces and
This book is a contribution to the literature on programming and their relationships, is the vision that people have of the ideal life.
acknowledges its debt to its predecessors, most notably the work of Amos Rapoport was writing primarily about buildings that were
William Pena whose series of volumes, all of which have the phrase the product of what he calls the "preindustrial vernacular." That is to
"Problem Seeking" in their title, began in 1969. Other names say, buildings that may have been built by craftsmen but were not the
familiar from the literature, such as Henry Sanoff, Wolfgang Freiser, conceptual products of professional architects. I see this book as an
and Mickey Palmer are invoked, as are institutions such as the AIA effort to bring to the self-conscious work of the architect a similar
and GSA who have helped define the current practice. priority of cultural value.
This book differs, however, in several respects. First, it is clearly One of the questions that is always raised when programming is
intended primarily as a text to be used in an educational setting. discussed is whether programming and design are necessarily sep-
Second, it is much more discursive and inclusive, drawing heavily arate and sequential activities, and the corollary question of whether
on the author's academic and professional experiences. Third, and the programmer and the designer can or should be the same
most significantly, it emphasizes the qualitative, or value, issues as individual. This book does not firmly answer those questions, while
having priority while accepting as a competent professional that it does discuss the pros and cons behind them. As an architect who
there remain quantitative, and particularly economic, realities that often has designed the buildings he has programmed, and who is
must be addressed. intimately familiar with the dialogue that can be so fertile between
As a text I suspect the book will be easy to use. The eight chap- program and design, Bob Hershberger clearly does not fit in the
ters relate nicely to a sixteen-week semester. The exercises at the end camp of those who would hold them firmly separate. Indeed, as a
of each chapter are valuable pedagogical tools. And the instructor student, he studied under Louis Kahn, whose building designs are as
will be able to develop an interesting dialogue with the voice and much an interrogation of the program of an institution as they are a
ideas of the author. The voice, and those ideas, lend a personality to consequence of that program.
the text. The reader gets to know and admire the author as a In closing, I have a suggestion as to how to read this book. I
reflective practitioner and a natural teacher, whose own values of would start at the end, with the two sample programs. In particular I
respect and caring for his clients and his students are transparent. would start with the program for a Mikvah for an Orthodox Jewish
Ever since Amos Rapoport wrote House Form and Culture, ed- Congregation. Dr. Hershberger is not an Orthodox Jew, indeed a
ucators have been appropriately loath to refer to climate, site, significant part of his 'practice has been churches for the Christian
technology, and use, as "determinants" of architectural form. Let me faith that informs his life and values, but in this program there is
quote: evidence of the profound respect for the values of the institution
My basic hypothesis, then, is that house form is not simply the which is being served. That is the very center of what this book is
result of physical forces or any single causal factor, but is the con- about. Having come to terms with it, one can turn with profit back to
sequence of a whole range of socio-cultural factors seen in their the beginning to follow the logic of the text in the comfortable
broadest terms. Form is in turn modified by climatic conditions (the company of its estimable author.
physical environment which makes some things impossible and John Meunier
encourages others) and by methods of construction, materials July 1997
available, and the technology (the tools for achieving the desired
environment). I will call the socio-cultural factors primary, and the
others secondary or modifying.
 Preface

T his book is intended to be a teaching/learning tool-a text/

workbook that can be used in the college classroom to help
students in architecture and other environmental design disciplines
learn a sound basis for architectural programming. It will also be
useful in the architectural office for practitioners who have not had
sufficient educational background in architectural programming.
Each reader can learn from the text about the theoretical and
methodological aspects of programming and employ the suggested
exercises to develop needed programming skills.
The intent of the book is to provide a strong philosophical basis
and the appropriate methodology for programming that begins the
process leading to architecture-buildings that accomplish the goals,
meet the needs, and express the highest and most appropriate values
of the clients, users, and architect to become works of art.
Because of its emphasis, the book should appeal to architects,
architectural designers, architectural educators, and architectural
students. Interior designers, landscape architects, and urban de-
signers should also find this programming approach to be useful as
they endeavor to create works of art in their own areas.
The book will also prove of interest and use to behavioral and
social scientists engaged in architectural programming because the
philosophical basis is not alien to their objectives, and the
methodologies are decidedly biased toward those used by behav-
ioral and social scientists. They will find themselves on familiar
ground during discussions of literature search and review, obser-
vation, interviewing, questionnaire preparation, sampling, and

x
 Preface X
XIV Preface

the like. They will also find the emphasis on values to be of current 7. Demonstrating how such an approach can help architects
interest in their own fields. evaluate, and hence improve, their design solutions.
The point of view offered is that effective architectural pro- 7. Providing two excellent examples of program documents in
gramming can enhance the quality of design, and conversely that the appendix to show the reader how a final program docu-
some programming approaches actually inhibit quality design. ment should be presented.
Those methods of programming that focus only on the collection of
Finally, the organization of the text and abundance of illustra-
facts and figures about the presumed needs of the client or user
tions should make reading both easy and enjoyable for those in or
group are likely to miss the most important information for design:
aspiring to be in a visually oriented design profession. They should
values and goals. Without an initial understanding of these areas,
find this book of use in their endeavor to create architec-
there is a very high probability that many of the collected facts and
figures will be irrelevant and misleading. The important values and ture.
goals must be identified for the programmer to know what facts and
figures need to be articulated in the program. The designer, on the
other hand, needs values and goals to know on which areas to focus
the design effort. The designer can also use the expressed values and
goals to evaluate the appropriateness of various design decisions.
The behavioral scientist needs to understand the values and goals for
meaningful post-occupancy evaluation.
The intent, therefore, is to provide the reader with a text/
workbook that articulates a sound and general basis for architectural
programming and sets forth the fundamental methods, techniques,
and tools to be utilized. It differentiates itself from other texts and
publications currently available in this area by:
1. Providing an extended theoretical discussion of the reasons
for preparing an architectural program.
3. Stressing the importance of value identification prior to es-
tablishing specific program goals and requirements.
1. Covering in some depth the most essential and general pro-
cedures for developing programming information
1. Showing how work sessions can be used effectively at the
conclusion of information gathering and the beginning of
program preparation.
1. Showing what program documents should contain and how to
assemble them.
6. Introducing specific exercises by which the reader can de-
velop the skills necessary to do quality architectural pro-
gramming.
 Acknowledgments

A s an architectural student I did not take a course in architectural

programming. I was given the program, usually a
brief one, by the studio instructor and was expected to begin to
design. However, like other students in the typical five-year ar-
chitectural program, I was required to do research and write a
program for my bachelor's thesis. I selected a two-year medical
school for my project, and in the process of literature review dis-
covered Louis I. Kahn and his seminal work on the Richards
Building at the University of Pennsylvania. I was amazed at the
depth of his thinking about architecture, not just design but also
questions about the nature of form and its relation to human in-
stitutions. I decided that I should study under this master architect
and teacher. I must acknowledge the seed that he planted as he
considered with his students the essential nature of various design
projects-a house in Chestnut Hill, a consulate for Angola, a river boat
on the River Th~mes and finally the Salk Center. It started me
thinking about the nature of architecture. My sincere
thanks to Louis I. Kahn.
In my first teaching job at Idaho State University, I regularly
ate lunch in the Faculty Club where, to my constant amazement, I
listened to other faculty talk about their research, statistics and the
like. I found their conversations stimulating and baffling, because
my education had practically nothing in these areas. The University
of Pennsylvania had just begun a Ph.D. program in architecture, so I
decided to go back and learn about research, especially as it might
apply to architecture. This time I discovered Russell Ackoff,
professor and head of Operations Research. He
XVIII Acknowledgments Acknowledgments XI

had graduated in architecture, but had found research more to his how they showed me that "values become issues," whether we want
liking. He applied the problem solving mentality of the architect to them to or not. They taught me how to program.
this new field. His work and teaching were fascinating because, like I began working on this book in the summer and fall of 1976.
Kahn, he looked beyond the obvious for the profound-for The book took second place to an active programming and design
understanding, not just description. I gratefully acknowledge his practice for about ten years, but was nearly complete when I left
influence on my way of thinking. Dean G. Holmes Perkins reinforced Arizona State University in 1988 to become Dean of the College of
this type of thinking as he guided me through my dissertation study Architecture at The University of Arizona. I team-taught pro-
on Architecture and Meaning. His incisive directions and insistence gramming that spring with Susan Moody, who then taught the course
that I manage the scope of the research also greatly contributed to for the next seven years using my nearly complete document. I very
how I think. I acknowledge and thank him. He is my model of a fine much appreciate the insights that she and her students gave me from
human being and an outstanding educator and administrator. that time period.
I presented my dissertation research at one of the first meetings of I thank Chuck Hutchinson for his encouragement and good ad-
the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA) in vice over the years. I also thank Donna Duerk, Kent Spreckelmeyer,
Blacksburg, Virginia. Here I met other architects and social scientists Wolf Freiser, and Walter Moleski for being thoughtful reviewers of
interested in research questions in architecture. A few, like Gerald the manuscript in its various stages. I deeply appreciate the
Davis and Jay Farbstein, were practicing as architectural thoughtful foreword by Dean John Meunier of Arizona State
programmers. I have been greatly influenced by a number of these University. I thank Carl Okasaki for the many excellent sketch
people including Walter Moleski, Robert Bechtel, John Zeisel, Kent illustrations, Nancy Cole for her computer graphic images, and
Spreckelmeyer, and Wolf Freiser, to name a few. Returning to the Claudette Barry for initial editing of the manuscript. I especially
annual EDRA conference every year for ten or more years influenced thank Audrey Brichetto Morris of the Herberger Center for Design
my thinking a great deal. Excellence at Arizona State University for her exceptionally
After receiving my Ph.D. at the University of Pennsylvania, I took thoughtful copyediting of the final manuscript. I stand in awe of her
a position as Associate Professor at Arizona State University where I special abilities in this area. I am equally impressed with the
began teaching research methods and architectural programming. I expertise of Kelly Ricci, Lisa M. Mellott, Nadine McFarland, and
also began teaching design with Calvin C. Straub, who became a Toya Warner of Barry E. Brown, Broker, in designing, formatting,
personal mentor. His devotion to site analysis and, especially, layout, and graphic design of this book. Finally, I want to express
client/user analysis greatly influence how I think, how I teach design, appreciation to Mary Kihl, Director of the Herberger Center, and
and especially how I have come to think about and teach architectural Wendy Lochner, Architectural Editor for McGraw-Hill, for their
programming. I especially acknowledge his contribution to this timely and incisive answers to my many questions about how to get
book. the book published. Thank you all!
And, of course, a professor's best teachers are students. I greatly
appreciate the education that they have given to me. I especially
acknowledge how their insights and concerns have gradually shaped
the text on programming to its present state. I have been able to
include some of their work in the text, but there has been so much
more that could not be included. Thank you everyone. Your
contributions are most appreciated. Similarly, the practicing
professional's best teachers are clients! They often selected my firm
because it offered programming services. I have had many
outstanding clients and acknowledge their contribution, especially
 Architectural
Programming

About the Author

Robert Hershberger is a professor and dean emeritus of the College 1.1 The Nature of Architectural Programming
of Architecture at the University of Arizona in Tucson and a 1.2 Definitions of Architectural Programming
practicing architect who has won numerous design awards. He is a 1.3 Approaches to Architectural Programming
fellow of the American Institute of Architects. 1.4 Design-Based Architectural Programming
1. 5 Knowledge- Based Architectural Programming
1. 6 Agreement-Based Architectural Programming
1. 7 Value-Based Architectural Programming
1. 8 Exercises
1. 9 References

1.1 The Nature of Architectural Programming

Programming is the first, and perhaps the most important, stage in
the architecture delivery process. Whether provided as an integral
part of professional architectural services, as an additional service, or
not consciously provided by anyone, programming takes place at
one level or another in the interaction of the client, users, and the
architect.

Programming is the definitional stage of design-the time to discover

the nature of the design problem, rather than the nature of the design
solution.

The programming stage is a crucial time in which serious mis-

takes can happen or insightful, formative decisions can be made. The
implications for the design solution are as enormous as the
differences between the Taj Mahal (Fig. 1-1) and a car wash,(Fig.
1-2). Both are appropriate architecture for very different problems.
2 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 3

It is the nature of the problem as expressed in the architectural

program that has the most profound effect on the design solution in
architecture. As one outstanding architect and educator, Calvin C.
Straub, FAIA, stated (1980):

" The program is the design!"

He was not implying that the talents of the design architect are
of little consequence, but that many of the most important "form-
ative"decisions are made before the architect begins to design.
For instance, the decision may have been reached to have only
one building instead of two; or an auditorium within the fabric of
a larger building rather than freestanding on its own site; or offices
in a building separate from the classrooms, or vice versa.
The budget could be set so low as to preclude any number of design
opportunities, or the time span for completion of the design and
construction could be so short that only the simplest of forms
could be utilized in order to finish on schedule.
Figure 1-1 Taj Mahal. If the client and programmer are primarily interested in functional
Photo Credit Calvin C. Straub efficiency, organizational and activity decisions may be made that
could significantly affect the form of the building. If the client and
programmer are more concerned with the social and psychological
needs of the users, prescriptions for form may be inherent in the listed
spaces, sizes, characteristics, and relationships. If they are concerned
with economics, it is possible that numerous material and system
opportunities, as well as potentially unique spaces and places, will be
eliminated from design consideration. Conversely, for any of the
above illustrations, the lack of concern for and information on
important design issues may restrict the designer's options. The point
is that the values and concerns of the client and the programmer will
have a sigilificant impact on the form of the building, because they
choose the information presented to the designer. -Some architects
have expressed concern that poorly conceived programs limit their
design decision-making freedom, and they have taken steps to be
certain that architectural programs address their concerns as well as
those of the client and programmer. William Peria of the architecture
and engineering firm Caudill Rowlett Scott (CRS) developed and
articulated a very systematic and successful approach to architectural
programming, which attempts to define the "whole problem" by
making certain that every program produced by the firm provides
Figure 1-2 Weiss Guys Car Wash. essential information' in four distinct areas: functibn, form,
 Architectural Programming 5
4 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

of both programming and design should be to achieve architecture:

economy, and time (Pefia et al. 1969, 1977, 1987). It is apparent buildings that respond effectively to the program, but in synthesis
from the many design awards received by the firm that this become works of art.
approach to developing information about the whole problem has The objective, then, is to program for architecture, for environ-
had a significant positive impact on the quality of the firm's design ments that transcend the "problem" to create something of wonder
efforts. that captures the essence of the institution; relates marvelously to
Other architects, such as Louis I. Kahn, upset by the poor quality the site, climate, and time; goes beyond immediate needs to enhance
of architectural programs received from clients, insisted on going the potential of the users; expresses the highest aspirations of the
back to "original beginnings," rethinking with the client about the client, architect, and society; and "moves" all users in some special
nature of the design problem (Kahn 1961). Numerous other way.
practicing architects and programming specialists have dealt The terminology proposed here is the most generally used: "ar-
similarly with these issues and tried to bring understanding to this chitectural programming." A carefully conceived and executed
first stage of the architectural design process (Becker 1959; Demoll program should promote architecture. It should not focus exclu-
1965; Horowitz 1966; Evans and Wheeler 1969; Davis 1969; White sively on "defining the problem." It should serve as a vehicle to
1972; Farbstein 1976; Sanoff 1977, 1992; Preiser 1978, 1985, 1993; "question the problem," to discover the nature of the "institution," to
Davis and Szigeti 1979; Zeisel 1981; Palmer 1981; Marti 1981; explore and discover the values of society, client, user, and architect;
Hershberger 1985; Spreckelmeyer 1986; Lang 1987; Duerk 1993; to uncover constraints and opportunities, so that in the hands of a
Kumlin 1995). talented designer, the program becomes a guidepost for achieving
This book is deeply influenced by many of these efforts. It uti- architecture.
lizes insights obtained from these sources and the author's experi- What then is the appropriate definition for architectural pro-
ences in practice and teaching to set forth a general programming gramming?
approach applicable to a wide range of architectural design prob-
lems, and provides both theoretical and practical frameworks for
learning how to do effective architectural programming. Architectural Programming is the first stage of the architectural
design process in which the relevant val-
ues of the client, user, architect, and society
1.2 Definitions of Architectural Programming are identified; important project goals are
Definitions of programming in the design professions are as diverse articulated; facts about the project are
as the people involved in its practice. These people have even had uncovered; and facility needs are made
difficulty arriving at an appropriate modifier to distinguish the ac- explicit.
tivity from the more pervasive "computer programming."
Combinations such as building programming (Davis 1969), It follows then that:
environmental programming (Farbstein 1976), facility
The architectural program is the document
programming (Freiser 1978), functional programming (Davis and in which the identified values, goals, facts,
Szigeti 1979), and design programming (GSA 1983) have been used and needs are presented.
to describe the activity.
The above-stated modifiers to programming and the resulting Programming is an essential part of the
definitions do not set high enough standards. It is not enough to overall architecture delivery process, which
"facilitate" a client's operations. "Function," while important in can roughly be defined as having four
most projects, is not the only reason for building. "Environment" stages: programming, design, construction,
simply implies that which surrounds, neither good nor bad. Even and occupancy. Between each stage is an
"design programming," with its process rather than product ori- appropriate time for evaluating the effec- Figure 1-3 Architecture:Delivery Process.
entation, misses the essential reason why architects should be in- tiveness of the previous stage (Fig. 1-3). Credit: Nancy Cole
terested and involved in programming. For architects, the purpose
 Architectural Programming 7
6 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

\
The article was of great interest to a 1. Objective of the master plan.
1.3 Approaches to Architectural Programming number of architectural practitioners 2. Special restrictions and limitations on design.
Various programming methods have been developed and used over the and social scientists. Indeed, it was 3. Characteristics of the site.
4. Site development requirements.
years as clients, architects, and programmers have tried to arrive at highly influential and continues to de- 5. Functional requirements for the facility.
appropriate definitions for particular architectural problems. These fine the essential elements of architec- 6. Characteristics of the occupants.
methods range from informal discussions between client and architect tural programming today (Fig. 1-4). 7. Specific facility requirements.
to carefully articulated research studies covering similar facilities and 8. Relative location and inter-relationship of the spaces.
9. Budget.
users leading to a comprehensive and detailed program. Most
10. Flexibility for future growth and changes in function.
programming approaches fall between the two extremes. 1.4 Design-Based 11. Priority of need among the various requirements.
Historically, programming appears to have fallen outside of normal
architectural services. In fact, in the current AIA Standard Form of Architectural Programming
Agreement between Owner and Architect (AIA Document B141), today's most frequently used pro- Figure 1-4 Horowitz Programming Areas.
grammmg me o occurs simultane-
programming is identified as an additional service. The expectation is ously with the design process. In this
that the owner will provide the architect with the needed program method, a minimum amount of programmatic information is gen-
information. In England, this document is referred to as the "client's erated prior to initiation of the design process. Usually, the archi-
brief." Aptly named, these documents are typically very short lists of tect and client meet to discuss the client's design problem and the
the required rooms and their square footages, with very little architect takes notes as the discussion proceeds. Sometimes the
explanation of the values of client, users, or society; purposes to be client has already prepared a short program statement or client's
served by the building; relationships between the spaces; requirements brief, which may list the spaces required, square footage for each,
of the spaces; and so on. This type of program was adequate at a time maximum construction budget, and occasionally some particular
when most institutions were relatively simple and slow to change, material or system requirements, or desired special effects.
allowing architects to intuitively understand what was needed. In most cases, a minimum amount of time and effort are ex-
This client-based approach to architectural programming became pended in generating the program, and the design proceeds forth-
less effective toward the middle of this century, as buildings became with-sometimes at the first meeting. This happens both when the
more complicated and difficult to understand. In these cases, when client has already generated a plan for the architect "to draw up,"
insufficient or inaccurate information was provided to the designer by and when the architect brings pencil and paper to the meeting and
the client, it proved costly during design, construction, and after begins to sketch design ideas based on the client's brief and/or the
occupancy because of the necessity for expensive changes to make the discussion with the client. The programming process then continues
building work. As a result, architects such as Herbert Swinbome over a number of meetings as the client reacts to the designs genera
(1958), Nathanial Becker (1959), and Louis Demoll (1965) began to -ted by the architect.
offer architectural programming services to their clients in order to If something was left out of the brief and not covered in the
achieve more reliable and valid programs. discussion, it becomes evident in the drawings. The new information is
In 1966, Harold Horowitz, an architect working at a federal research then taken into account and a new drawing is produced. This process is
agency in the United States, wrote a seminal article on the nature of repeated until the client and architect are satisfied that all problems
architectural programming and its relationship with research in the have been uncovered and resolved in the design. This approach
behavioral sciences: "The Architect's Programme and the Behavioral sometimes works, depending on:
Sciences" (Horowitz 1966). In this article, Horowitz discussed 11 areas
of information that should be included in an architectural program as
well as how the work of behavioral scientists could contribute to the 1. The thoroughness and accuracy of the client's brief.
development of information in each area. 2. The effectiveness of the architect as an interviewer.
3. The scope of the project.
8 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 9

If the project is very simple, such as an artist's studio or a time new information is gener-
small house for an individual or couple, the hopes, dreams, and ated, but it will be at considerable
requirements of the client may be completely articulated in one or personal cost.
two meetings, and a satisfactory solution achieved with minimal The author knows of one ar-
formal programming or cost to the client or architect. However, if chitect who prepared four com-
the client has prepared an inadequate brief and/ or the architect is not plete schematic designs for a large
an effective interviewer, problems may arise. house using design-based pro-
If the client has already prepared a plan, as is often the case for gramming procedures. At that
residences, the architect may try it and sketch some elevations to see point, the client completely lost
how they look. What if they do not look good? This is quite likely, confidence in the architect's abil-
since the plan would have been prepared by a non-designer. What is ity to solve the problem. The ar-
the architect to do next? Tell the client that the plan is bad because
chitect had spent nearly four times
the elevations do not look good? An adversarial relationship is
the normal budget for schematic
likely to develop if this takes place. Or should the architect simply
design before the contract was
accept the plan even if the elevations do not look good? The
terminated. What a terrible and
architect, if interested at all in creating architecture,
foolish loss! All four of the
' will probably be extremely uncomfortable doing this.
designs had artistic merit, but
Conversely, if the client does not offer a plan, then the architect
none solved the client's inad
may come up with plan and elevation studies, and the process will
equately defined problem. The Figure 1-5 Are We Really Communicating? client
be reversed. The client may find something missing from the plan
ended up thinking the ar- Credit: Carl Okazaki
that had not been previously discussed. Or, the elevations may not
be considered satisfactory by the client, because the plan does not chitect was incompetent, and the
seem to work. A negative situation may develop in which the client architect ended up thinking even worse of the client (Fig. 1-5).
always has the last word. The key problems here are that: Louis I. Kahn is known to have completely redesigned buildings
after he discovered something new about the essential character of
1. The process might become reactionary, rather than creative, the facility. He had the integrity to take substantial financial loss to
in nature. produce a design of great significance. Perhaps, however, it would
have been possible to understand the essential nature or "existence
2. The interaction between client and architect may erode any
will" (as-he might have called it) of the building before going
initial confidence or rapport between them.
through the great expense of preparing the designs he rejected. It
It may also shift the authority to make aesthetic decisions from the would have saved a great deal of time and money for both the client
architect to the client. This is almost inevitably disastrous to the and the architect. Fortunately, Kahn was interested in seeking out
creation of architecture. The proverbial camel is created the very essence of a problem and the discoveries and insights were
as the committee of client and architect react to each successive his own, not the result of client critiques of his designs. Clients were
design. awed by how profound his discoveries were, rather than chagrined
Another problem with the design-based approach is that it can be by the fact that something had been missed earlier. For lesser
expensive and time consuming. It is much simpler and less expensive to architects, however, such changes are often the result of inadequate
generate program requirements (words, numbers, diagrams) than to programming-and the discovery by the client that needs are not
generate designs. An architect in a reactionary relationship with a client being met. This circumstance can create serious problems for the
may be tempted to accept less than an excellent and artistic solution in architect.
order to cut financial losses. Or, an architect with artistic integrity may Another exception to the often unsatisfactory approach of
start a new design each programming by design has been used and articulated by Joseph
10 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 11

Esherick, architect and professor of architecture at the University of

California at Berkeley (Esherick 1987). Working primarily on single
family residences, Esherick meets with the client several timesat
their home, at the site, in the architect's office. At each meeting, he
produces very simple analytic sketches and diagrams in response to
the client's input. He leaves these sketches with the client and does
very little, if any, work on the project until the next meeting, at
which time the process repeats itself as the client provides new
information and the architect generates new sketches. This goes on
until the client is satisfied that the architect knows and appreciates
the client's expectations for the house. Esherick then proceeds to
develop the actual design for the house (Figs. 1-6 and 1-7).
Esherick avoids an adversary relationship because the conceptual
diagrams and sketches are simply representations of what the client
is discussing-manifestations of the client's own thoughts. The
tendency of the client to become sole judge of design is avoided,
because the sketches are not designs but reflections of the
discussion. The high cost in terms of time, money, and especially Figure 1-7 House: Plan.
lost rapport between client and architect is completely avoided, since Credit and Permission: Esherick Homsey Dodge and Davis
the architect makes no investment in design between meetings (Fig.
1-8).

Figure 1-6 House: Sketch. Figure 1-8 House: Interior.

Credit and Permission: Esherick Homsey Dodge and Davis Credit and Permission: Esherick Homsey Dodge and Davis
 Architectural Programming 13
12 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Similarly, an architect who sees his or her role as facilitator and completed" (Robinson and
resource to the client may be more comfortable with designs resulting Weeks 1984). The entire de-
from a highly interactive process in which the problem and its sign process is seen as a process
solution are not known until the design is complete (Sanoff 1977). of problem definition.
Segregated approach to design (after Palmer)
Designers who delight in complex, contradictory, and even Robinson and Weeks further
discordant final design statements may enjoy programming by argue that the distinction is not
design, because whatever turns up at the end of the process can be between analysis and synthesis,
developed into an aesthetic statement satisfactory to the architect. nor rational and intuitive, but
The fact that the process is essentially reactionary and inefficient may between verbal/ numerical and
be of little importance if the client and architect are happy with the formal/ spatial exploration.
results. Words and pictures are more Interactive approach to design (after Palmer)

A fine example of this interactive process with outstanding results powerful programming tools in
is the programming and design of St. Matthew's Episcopal Church concert than alone, and, thus, a
(Fig. 1-9) in Pacific Palisades, California, by Moore Ruble Yudell program is not complete without
Architects and members of the congregation, who worked together to them .(Fig. 1-10).
assemble a three-dimensional model of the overall scheme (Knight The author agrees with
some of the above assertions Integrated-interactive approach to design (Robinson/Weeks)
1984). and feels that design expl0-
A cogent argument for "programming as design" has been ad- ration is appropriate during
vocated by Julia Robinson and J. Stephen Weeks of the University of programming, especially in an academic setting where a real client,
1

Minnesota College of Architecture. Their premise is that "an user, and/or site cannot be identified. However, in a professional
architectural problem cannot be fully understood prior to design; thus setting, the earlier cautions about "programming by design'' still
any definition of the problem is premature until the design is apply. It is true that no problem definition is ever complete-even after
I design is complete! Our understanding of the problem becomes
• clearer as time progresses.Similarly, organizations, environments,
and economic situations are constantly changing. They do not stop
changing when the program is complete, the design is complete, the
building is complete, or any time thereafter. This should not mean
that an adequate problem definition cannot be generated from which
to begin design.
Beginning design with a carefully developed program does not
preclude some overlap of programming (verbal/numerical) and
design (formal/spatial) activities late in programming and early in
design, especially if the design architect is involved in programming,
such as is the case with many fine architects. This overlap takes place
in two ways: 1) when design ideas are articulated (verbally and
visually) during the programming process by the client, users, and
designer; and 2) as the programmer initiates design analysis by
seeking clarification as to whether certain combinations of activities,
spaces, and relationships will be viable.

Figure 1-9 St. Matthew's Episcopal Church.

14 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 15

This kind of design exploration or analysis These interdisciplinary groups generally chose to utilize research
PROS
(rather than synthesis) is almost always helpful methods, techniques, and tools developed by social and behavioral sci-
1. A minimum amount of time is spent on
generating programmatic information. to both the architect and the client in entists to study human attitudes and behavior-literature search and
2. Design can begin at the very first meeting of understanding the architectural problem more review, systematic observation, controlled interviewing, ques-
client and architect. completely. It may lead to changes to the tionnaires and surveys, sampling, and statistical analysis. This ushered
3. There is intensive and often positive previously accepted program. This is to be in a time of extensive research oriented to developing knowledge
interaction between client and architect. expected. If done systematically at the end of about the environmental needs of various user groups.
4. The review of various design schemes may
programming or at the beginning of design, Seminal studies of personal space and territoriality by Edward Hall
help the client recognize new ways to
accomplish their objectives. such changes can be included in the final (1966) and Robert Sommer (1969) were introduced to the architectural
5. Both client and architect can claim the program statement or a suitable addendum. profession and influenced many architects, who gave consideration to
design solution as their own. In any case, the desirability of design ex- their findings in both programming and design. Other behavioral
ploration does not mitigate against developing scientists such as Irwin Altman (1975), Powell Lawton (1982), Bechtel
CONS
the best possible architectural program as a et al. (1987), and Clare Cooper Marcus (1975) followed with more
1. If the client's brief is flawed, it may be
difficult to overcome with design. beginning point for design. Also, there is no directed studies on privacy, special needs of the elderly, survey
2. It the client already has a plan, the reason to confine programming activities to research, and special building types. A number of architects including
architect may have difficulty adjusting to verbal/numeric data. There are good reasons to Henry Sanoff (1977, 1992), Gary Moore (Moore and Gooledge 1976),
the limited aesthetic possibilities. use visual information throughout the Paul Windley (Lawton et al. 1982), Kent Spreckelmeyer (Marans and
3. The client may assume authority to make all Spreckelmeyer 1981), and the author (Hershberger 1969) adopted
programming process to show site conditions,
decisions, including aesthetic and technical
ones.
existing facilities both on and off the site, some of the same methods, techniques, and tools to study problems of
4. The process may become reactionary and required furnishings or equipment, desired interest to them. Still other architects, such as Gerald Davis (1969), Jay
adversarial rather than creative. relationships, design ideas, and the like. Farbstein (1976), Wolfgang F. E. Preiser (1978, 1985, 1993), Walter
5. In these cases, the process can be time Programming is not solely a verbal/numeric Moleski (1974), and Michael Brill (1984) began to utilize research in
consuming and costly tor the architect. activity (Fig. 1-11). actual programming practice. All have been successful in their own
ways and
Figure 1-11 Design-Based Programming.
have accounted for a large
number of the programs pro-
Snapshot Diagrams: Queuing

1.5 Knowledge-Based duced for major clients in re-

cent years (Fig. 1-12).
Architectural Programming Typically, these program-
In the late 1960s, a new group of people began to have an impact on ming efforts have been of great
architectural programming. These were social and behavioral benefit when considering
scientists who began to direct some of their attention to the built facility needs for large,
environment. A new social science specialization alternatively re- complex building types such
ferred to as environmental psychology, environmental sociology, or as prisons, hospitals, airports,
human ecology began to emerge (Conway 1973). Many of these social research facilities,
scientists became affiliated with the Environmental Design Research governmental office buildings,
Association (EDRA), an organization in which architects, interior and the like, where the
architect or even the key ad- Figure 1-12 O.ueuing Study.
designers, and other design professionals began to interact with social
ministrators may not have a very
scientists in the common concern that many buildings and other good conception of the Credit: Jay Farbstein and Associates and Min Kantrowitz and Associates for Einhorn Yafl
designed environments did not work particularly well for the people Prescott, 1996. Albuquerque Test Market Post Occupancy Evaluatwns: Summary. Unil
States Postal Service. Permission: Jay Farbstein and Associates
they were meant to serve.
16 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 17

values, goals, and needs of persons in various divisions of the or-

ganization. In order to make these determinations, it is necessary to the knowledge-based approach to programming.knowledge-based
interview key personnel in the various divisions about their values programming tends to consume great quantities of time in planning,
and goals and to observe how people use their current enVironments. making arrangements for the actual studies, doing the
It may also be possible to review the research literature on special studies, and analyzing the large amounts of data generated.This
user needs, to visit other facilities to see how they respond to similar is not a problem unless it leaves insufficient time or money to ad-
problems, and to devise questionnaires to sample typical users about equately consider the remaining environmental, technological, legal,
their attitudes and ideas about specific facility, furnishing, and temporal, economic, aesthetic, and safety issues in architecture. If
equipment requirements. something crucial to the eventual architectural solution is not studied
The information gained from the various research approaches is sufficiently or covered adequately in the program, the resulting
assembled, statistically analyzed, and summarized in a program building could fail in one manner or another.
document that attempts to cover all of the human requirements of the In a situation of unlimited time and resources, it would be ideal to
organization. Indeed, program sheets are developed for every space devote an extensive systematic research effort to developing
in the proposed facility. Such a systematic approach to programming knowledge on every relevant design issue, so that no area of
provides highly reliable information that is of considerable value to potential importance would be left unstudied. However, few
the designer in preparing plans to meet the needs of programming projects are done in conditions where time and money
the client and the various are of little concern. Indeed, most programming endeavors are
user groups of the building conducted under conditions where time and money are limited, and
(Fig. 1-13). there is not enough of either to do the kind of job the programmer
Given the generally sys- would prefer. If knowledge-based programming is to be utilized, it is
tematic approach to knowl- important that the programming team isolate the crucial variables, in
Commons
edge-based programming, whatever issue areas they are found, and be sure to devote research
there tend to be few problems efforts to these variables. The high costs of research, then, can be
with resulting programs. In focused where the
some cases, the interest in cost of error is high, and less expensive
being systematic in develop- programming approaches can be used to PROS
1. Brings to bear all currently available
ing knowledge about users obtain other kinds of information (Fig.
knowledge on the design problem.
may tend to obscure issues of 1-14). 1. Develops new knowledge using the
importance to the design systematic methods of the sciences.
architect. Similarly, the fact 1.6 Agreement-Bae;ed 2. Provides all of the information needed to
Augsburg Fonress that oftentimes the design design each space.
Book Store
architect has yet to be hired Architectural Programming 3. Especially useful on large, complex, or
innovative projects, when no one has a clear
prevents the designer's exper- The agreement-based approach to pro- grasp of the project requirements.
tise and values from influenc- gramming has a number of advantages,
ing the program. Utilization especially when time and money are at a CONS
of high-powered research premium. This approach to programming 1. Can be time consuming and costly for typical
methods on comparatively building projects.
Floor levelsct Learning Center to align relies on the knowledge of several key in- 2. If a social scientist is the programmer, there may
withlibrary floor levels.
easy problems can also re- dividuals in the client's organization to be a tendency to under emphasize non-
quire excessive amounts of generate the required programming infor- behavioral science areas such as site/climate
Figure 1-13 Lutheran Theological time and money. Indeed, this mation. Often the key participants are of- economics, time, and technology.
Seminary. is the primary problem with
Credit: Walter Moleski, ERG/The Environmental Research Group, 1996. Programming Study far ficers of the organization and departmental '
Lutheran Thea/agica/ Seminary. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Permission: ERG/The Environmental
heads who are appointed to a planning or Figure 1-14 Knowledge-Based
Research Group
Programming.
18 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 19

The most notable example of this approach to programming is the

work of CRS of Houston, Texas (Pena et al. 1969, 1977, 1987). Their
approach developed over a number of years under the able guidance of
William Pena has been one of the hallmarks of the programming
profession. In this approach, referred to by Pefia as "problem seeking,"
the intent is to discover the nature of the whole design problem. In order
to accomplish this, they proposed the completion of a predetermined
information matrix, which the firm believed to be capable of providing a
complete definition of the design problem. The completion of such a
matrix and agreement on its content is the fundamental task in each
programming situation.
The problem seeking matrix has four value, or issue, categories
along one side: function, form, economy, and time. Pefia argues that any
relevant information in a design project can be placed in one of these
categories. For example, site, context, climate, materials, technology,
Figure 1-15 Work Session.
landscape, and aesthetics can be included under form. Similarly,
Photo Credit: Richard Brittain
building purpose, special users, way finding, task performance, safety,
and security all fall under the function category.
building committee to generate the needed programmatic information,
Along the top of the matrix are five information areas: goals, facts,
to hire the architect, and possibly to monitor construction.
concepts, needs, and problem statement. If the resulting twenty cells of
The programmer works with this planning or building committee to
arrive at a mutually acceptable set of design requirements. It is assumed the program matrix, including the four problem statement cells, are
that key individuals appointed to the committee will have sufficient filled with acceptable information about the project, then the problem is
knowledge of the organization to arrive at a satisfactory program, or considered to be defined (Fig. 1-16).
they can access other information as needed (Fig. 1-15).
In this approach, the programmer serves as a knowledgeable
Goals Facts Concepts Needs Problem
catalyst to guide the committee in assembling the program. First,
the programmer collects readily available information from the or-
ganization`s records, local site and climate data, applicable govern- Function
mental regulations, and the like, and sets forth areas where more
information is needed from the client and users. In a working session
with the programmer, the committee either responds directly with Form
additional needed information, or the members return to their respective
divisions to obtain needed information from others. The programmer
points out potential areas of conflict or inconsistency in the information
Economy
and leads the committee in working out differences to arrive at an
agreeable program statement. The keys to the success of this approach
are the understanding of the programmer relative to the information that
will be needed by the designer, and the capability of the committee to Time
provide reliable and accurate information in a timely way.
Figure 1-16 CRS Programming Matrix.
Adapted from Peiia et al. (1969, 1977, 1987). Permission: American Institute of Architects and HOK
20 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Architectural Programming 21

The approach to filling the twenty cells of the matrix is as fol-

lows: the programmers from the architecture firm independently
search out readily available facts about any of the four informa
tion areas (function, form, economy, time). They then gather in
"squatter" work sessions, usually at the client's existing facility, to
interact with a representative group of the client/users, with an open
invitation for anyone in the client's organization to participate.
During these work sessions, specific project goals are identified,
additional facts are generated, conceptual ways of dealing with the
problem (programmatic concepts) are identified, and specific need
statements are generated for each value category. A representative
of the architect's design team joins the work session to fashion the
problem statements in the fifth column of the matrix. This final
column is included as a feedback mechanism to ensure the client and
users that the designer really does understand the nature of the
design problem.
The matrix is placed on a large plain wall in one of the client's
meeting rooms-it often fills the entire wall. Cards indicating the
value categories are placed along the left wall and cards indicating
the other information areas are placed along the ceiling before the Figure 1-17 Completed Card Matrix.
session begins. Strings are stretched between the category cards to
indicate the twenty "cells" of the matrix. Five-by-eight-inch cards
are prepared by the architect's programming team members and
placed within the cells to visually and verbally display the in-
formation obtained (Fig. 1-17).
Cards are added throughout the programming work session,
changed as necessary, and even moved from one cell to another until
everyone agrees that the appropriate and complete problem
definition is being presented on the wall (Fig. 1-18).
After the matrix is complete, the programming team continues to
work with the client's programming group to develop specific lists
of required spaces, square footages, and appropriate relationship
diagrams. They do these on brown sheets of butcher paper (or on
white grid paper), which, like the programming matrix, are attached
to a wall in the work session room where they can easily be seen by
all of the work session participants.
The brown sheets are developed using chalk on the butcher paper
so they can be continuously modified until all work session
participants agree that the information contained on them is correct.
The participants also work together on these sheets to develop
realistic budgets and schedules. They continue to work in Figure 1-18 Placing Cards on a Matrix. Photo
Credit: Richard Brittain
 Architectural Programming 23
22 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

client and architect agree on the nature and scope of the design
problem before design commences. Fourth, time is conserved in the
initial programming process by avoiding development of in-
formation not required to commence schematic design.
Because of the above listed advantages, this programming ap-
proach avoids both the misunderstandings and reactionary nature of
the design-based programming process and the higher costs and
time requirements of the knowledge-based process. And, the design
results are generally very positive as evidenced by most projects by
CRS including the Indiana Bell (Fig. 1-20) and Irwin Union Bank
buildings (Fig. 1-21) in Columbus, Indiana.
There are, however, some disadvantages to the agreementbased
programming approach as advocated by CRS. One disadvantage is
the pre-fixing of the value categories. If the four categories chosen to
define the whole problem appear to exclude certain value areas,
there is a chance that the design problem will be inadequately
defined. When trying to use the CRS system, this author always
found it necessary to introduce a context category to accommodate
issues such as site, climate, and urban setting, because it seemed
Figure 1-19 Completed Brown Sheet.
unnatural to include them under the form category. Another firm that
utilizes the problem seeking method, Anderson DeBartolo Pan
this manner until all elements of the program are agreed to by the (ADP), added an energy category, because
members of the work session team, including the client, the pro-
grammers, and the designer (Fig. 1-19).
It should be noted that in the programming approach advocated
by CRS, completing brown sheets containing information on space
allocation, relationships, estimated costs, and schedule completes
the active information gathering stage of programming. CRS
consciously avoids the development of design development
information, such as space program sheets, in order to maintain an
exclusive focus on schematic design. Design development pro-
gramming is conducted after the schematic design has commenced
or even been completed. (See section 4.1 for full descriptions of
schematic design and design development.)
There are several advantages to the above architectural pro-
gramming process. First, it is a way to ensure that information is
obtained for every area in which the architect has design concerns.
Second, it is an economical method of generating the information
needed to begin design. Very little effort is spent on
time-consuming research on user needs. The firm relies, instead, on
a representative group of users to communicate these needs during
Figure 1-20 Indiana Bell.
work sessions. Third, and perhaps most importantly, both
24 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 25

primarily responsible for advancing the con- PROS

cepts, this may not be a problem, but if design 1. Ensures that information is obtained for
concepts are advanced and accepted by others, every area in which the architect has
they may be overly restrictive or in- design concerns-the "whole problem."
appropriate. 2. Having a representative group develop tt
program information during work session is
The purposeful separation of schematic
efficient and economical.
design programming from design develop- 3. Visually displaying the programming
ment programming in the CRS system elim- information during the work sessions belt
inates detailed information that may be the participants to understand and influence
important to the design of individual spaces. the program.
~etailed information may be important to 4. The client, users, and architect agree on the
nature and scope of the problem befc
obtain and place in the program if a room must
design commences.
be of a particular shape to function 5. The costs of programming changes durir
appropriately, or if it must have access to design are generally avoided.
natural daylight, or have a particular view or 6. The design results are typically positive a
orientation. Even specific needed types or evidenced in projects by users such as CRS
arrangements of furniture should be known by and ADP.

Figure 1-21 Irwin Union Bank. the designer so they can be accommodated CONS
appropriately. 1. The pre-fixed value categories in the cm
this issue was not easily absorbed within the four predetermined Finally, it is not appropriate to fill in the matrix may be too limiting for some projects.
value categories (Pan 1985). I understand that CRS originally problem statements for each value area if the 2. Important information may be missed by
designer is not a part of the programming using on-site work sessions as the primar
placed form first in the matrix until a number of clients indicated information gathering method.
that function was their first concern. All of these changes indicate team. This may not be possible if the
3. Limiting clients and users to proqrarnrna]
that limiting the matrix to four value categories may not be an- programmer is hired before the architect (Fig. concepts is frustrating when they have
propriate in every case. There will be other influences as well! 1-22). design ideas that they want to express au
Another disadvantage of the CRS approach relates to how the include in the program.
4. Not including detailed information on
information is obtained. If the client's selected programming group individual spaces may result in
is not representative of the entire organization, or is unable to 1.7 Value-Based inappropriate schematic design decision
understand or communicate important user concerns and needs 5. The problem statement requires the
accurately during the on-site programming sessions, the resulting Architectural Programming designer to be actively involved in the
program data may be flawed. This would be most likely for Legend has it that Frank Lloyd Wright moved programming process.
unfamiliar building types. in with some of his clients for several days or
Similarly, the information area identified as concepts in the CRS weeks prior to designing them a new
matrix appears to be appropriate only for certain types of projects, Figure 1-22 Agreement-Based Programming.
and perhaps only for firms that design numerous projects of the house.during this time he would have nu-
same building type. It has proven difficult for most student merous conversations with the clients, see
programmers and especially clients/users to separate "programmatic and experience how they lived, and have time to visit and analyze
concepts" from "design concepts," hence there is a confusion of the site for the new house. By the end of this period, he had de-
roles as clients and programmers begin to tie down "design'' veloped an excellent understanding of the family's values and goals
approaches, perhaps prematurely (Marans and Spreckelmeyer for the new house. He also had developed an understanding of the
1981). If the designer is on the programming team and constraints and opportunities of site, climate, budget, and
the like. ,
 Architectural Programming 2"i
26 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

The above legend also indicates that Wright returned to his of- was a need for an efficient
fice after the intensive time period with the client and site to "draw up" and effective way to bring
the design that he had already completely realized in his mind. There in clean materials and to
was no need to erase or redraw any element of the design. The truth of dispose of waste materials.
the story is not clear, but the result, inevitably, was architecture (Fig. His design for the Richards
1-23). Building (Fig. 1-24) took
Louis I. Kahn was similarly intense exploring the problem with into account this important
his clients. In so doing, he came to an understanding of the most design issue, and in so
important issues to be doing allowed him to
confronted during the de- create an entirely new form
sign process. For example, of academic research
in programming for the building: a design
Richards Building, a expressing the importance
medical research facility of the "served" spaces for
on the campus of the the scientists (the offices
University of Pennsylva- and the laboratories) and of
nia, Kahn discovered that the "servant" spaces (the
the laboratory needs of the high towers for the
scientists were constantly mechanical, plumbing, and
changing and, thus, they electrical systems and for
required a large, high, open egress in case of emer-
laboratory space to allow gency).
for different types of Calvin C. Straub, F
experiments. In order to AIA, of the Southern
make the laboratory spaces California architectural
effective, Kahn also real- firm of Buff, Straub and
ized that there was a need Bensman, was similarly
for flexibility of service to intense in his architec-
and strict environmental tural programming activ-
Figure 1-24 Richards Building.
control in these research ities, e was especially
laboratories. Indeed, he sensitive to the lifestyle
found that a very values and needs of the client/user in relationship to the opportunities
substantial portion of the offered by site and climate. The 1,400-square-foot Thomson residence
construction budget would is a particularly good example of his work (Figs. 1-2 5 to 1-2 7). In spite
have to be expended on of its small size and modest budget, it is a spacious and beautifully
bringing mechanical, articulated wood frame house that fully meets the needs of the family
plumbing, and electrical and relates well to the sloping wooded site and mild climate of Southern
service systems into and California.
out of each laboratory.
There

Figure 1-23 Kaufman Residence (Falling Water).

28 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 29

Will Bruder, architect, of

New River, Arizona, is so thor-
ough when interviewing his
clients, so careful in discovering
their values and goals and ana-
lyzing budget, site, climate, and
other external influences, that he
is able to develop initial designs
that are usually accepted without
change by the client. Bruder
indicates that "by celebrating the
client's poetic and pragmatic
program aspirations as
opportunities for unique so- I
lutions, the client takes owner-
I
ship of the architecture from the
/ I
•.•....•... .
beginning, as they see them- ~ ..
Figure 1-25 Thomson Residence: Exterior. ....•...... ., .. ..,.
selves reflected in the first draw-
Photo Credit: Julius Shulman
ings, models, and ideas" (Bruder
1997). The quality of Bruder's \
\

work, and his success in having

original designs accepted and
built, attests to his diligence and
perception in the interviewing
and analysis processes, as well as
to his design ability (Figs. 1-28
and 1-29).
In their thoroughness of pre-
design analysis, Wright, Kahn;:
Straub, and Bruder avoid the
pitfalls of design-based pro-
gramming and accomplish
something more akin to, but less
formal than, the valuebased
approach to programming being
advocated in this text.

Value-based programming
tries to incorporate the best
aspects and avoid the worst
problems of all of the pro- Figure 1-27 Thomson Residence: Plans.
Figure 1-26 Thomson Residence: Interior. gramming approaches dis- credit: Calvin c. Straub, FAIA

Photo Credit: Julius Shulman cussed above.

30 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 31

First, value-based proramming introduces an examination of the

fundamental nature of the design problem into the earliest stages of
architectural programming. Thus, it incorporates an intensive search for
the essential purposes for which human institutions exist and are
perpetuated. In order to do this, it relies heavily on the type of
interviewing and discussion sessions between architect and client used by
leading designers such as those discussed above to uncover the strongly
held values and goals of the client. In addition, it employs this approach
with other users and representatives of the community to discover their
understanding of the nature of the organization. By conducting this search
for values early in the programming process, rather than waiting until
design, the value-based programming approach allows the entire balance
Figure 1-28 Platt Residence: Exterior Evening. Photo
of programming activities to be influenced by the important values
Credit: Hans Leitner. Permission: William P. Bruder
uncovered. This is the crucial difference between this approach and other
approaches to architectural programming. The reason for this difference
is to make the program itself the first step in the quest for architecture, to
program for architecture. An understanding of strongly held values is
essential in this pursuit.

Value-based programming makes certain that the most impo~tant

design issues are addressed in the programming document.

Second, the value-based programming_J2rocess adopts the systematic

procedures used in knowledge-based programming whenever they are
needed to ensure that the information obtained during programming is
reliable and valid. Literature search and review, interviewing,
observation, questionnaire development and administration, and various
sampling and statistical methods are used in the value-based
programming process to establish values and goals; to collect, organize,
and analyze facts; and to establish needs. Value-based programming,
however, differs from a purely research-oriented approach in that it
acknowledges the typically limited budgets and short time schedules
allowed for programming activities. By determining the important values
relating to the design problem early in the programming process, it
becomes possible to identify those crucial areas in which more systematic
research procedures should be used. This is done because of the
potentially high cost of error if these areas are not carefully examined. In
less crucial areas, the less structured Information gathering systems
employed in design- and agreementbased programming are utilized.

Figure 1-29 Platt Residence: Entry Evening. Photo

Credit: Hans Leitner. Permission: William P. Bruder
32 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Architectural Programming 33

Value-based programming uses systematic information gathering

procedures to ensure that important information is not overlooked In one case, it might include symbolic, institutional, functional,
in the programming process. technical, environmental, temporal, and financial values. In
another case, the list might include image, function, special
users, safety, economics, and urban context as more
Third, the value-based agproach to programming is heavily in- appropriate values. The point is that it should be possible for
fluenced in structure and approach by the agreement-based method of the value areas to change for every project, client, and architect.
programming developed by CRS. It incorporates the objective of The intent in value-based programming is to let the most important
being comprehensive (of defining the complete architectural values or issues set the tone of the programming ef fort, while
problem) and relies on a similar matrix format to ensure that all of the making certain that recurring value areas are not inadvertently
necessary information is collected, presented, and agreed to by the omitted.
client's programming team. Important values are listed down the left
2. The CRS system develops a listing of appropriate goals, facts,
side of the matrix, and categories for goals, facts, needs, and ideas are
concepts, and needs for each value area, followed by a problem
listed across the top of the matrix. Additional needs information is
summary statement. The value-based programming approach
recorded on brown sheets or grid sheets. It utilizes the very efficient
is similar, but avoids the difficult task of developing
and effective work session method advocated by Pena to obtain much programmatic concepts prior to finalizing the need statements.
of the needed programming information and, especially, to obtain Rather, it allows for programmatic or design concepts to be
agreement. introduced into the program simply as undifferentiated ideas to
be considered by the designer. The kinds of ideas presented in
Value-based programming recognizes the importance of obtaining the program are not really important, as long as the designer is
agreement with the client, users, and community in open not required to follow them. In value-based programming, they
work session environments. are presented simply as ideas which the programming group
hopes will be explored by the designer. Some will be
There are, however, four distinct differences from the agree- programmatic ideas. Others will be design ideas. Many will
ment-based programming approach to obtaining agreement: prove to be preconceptions that will be considered, but then
1. The CRS system maintains that the four value categories will be discarded by the designer because, during careful
(Function, Form, Economy, Time) listed to the left of the ma- design analysis, they prove to be inappropriate.
trix are complete, constant, and apply to all building types, user Value-based programming encourages the clients and users to set
groups, and presumably architectural firms. The valuebased forth both their programmatic and design ideas for the project so
approach, on the other hand, uses an eight-value starting point, that the designer will have benefit of their unique perspectives.
but seeks to discover the unique set of values applicable to
3. The CRS system assumes that the designer is part of the pro-
each design project. In value-based programming, the most
gramming team, hence, is available to provide a summary
important value areas are typically listed near the top of the
problem statement as part of the program. The value-based
matrix and decrease in importance as the list descends. In this
system attempts to state the design problem in such a way as to
way, a sense of priority is made known to the designer. Thus,
allow the designer to develop an understanding of the
the value-based programming approach avoids a commitment
important design issues whether or not the designer is part of
to a restricted list of values and asks: What about the reason for
the programming team. Thus, it does not advocate including a
being of an organization, its institutional purpose? Does
cursory problem statement by the designer in the matrix. The
function alone define an organization? What about the natural ordering of the values in the matrix helps the designer to
environment and the urban context? What about history, recognize what the client, user, and programmer consider to be
tradition, and meaning? Some important value areas, at least the most important values and goals. The rest
for some architects, clients, and users, are hard to fit into the
CRS programming matrix. The left column of the value-based
programming ma trix, thus, might vary from project to project.
 Architectural Programming 35
34 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

of the matrix, along with the accompanying brown or grid 1.8 Exercises
sheets, display the agreed upon nature of the design problem. 1. Write down a definition of architectural programming with-
The programmer is expected to summarize the nature of the
out looking back over the chapter.
problem in the executive summary of the program document
and the designer is expected to confirm the program with the Compare your definition with the one in Section 1.2. What are
client before commencing schematic design. the differences? Are they important? Would programming
based on your definition be different from or similar to the
The value-based architectural program is prepared in such a way definitions described in Sections 1.4 through 1. 7?
as to completely define the architectural problem wb.ether or not
the designer is a participant in the programming process. 2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of design-, knowl-
edge-, agreement-, and value-based programming with some
4.The value-based programming approach does not seek to of your colleagues.
differentiate between schematic design and design development a. Is value-based programming an improvement over the
programming. In interviews and work sessions as well as in the
other programming approaches?
literature search and observational studies, considerable
b. Is flexibility in establishing value areas an improvement
information is forthcoming that relates more to design
development than to schematic design. There is no reason to over the CRS fixed matrix?
avoid collecting this information during the programming c. Would one fixed value list be better for you? Would it be
process-if it is known, why not collect it? This information the CRS list, another list, or one of your own? Would it be
typically relates to specific requirements for individual spaces, appropriate for every commission? Is there a better way
areas, or systems in the new facility. As such, it can be developed than any discussed so far?
and presented on space program sheets in the overall architectural 3. Set aside a couple of hours to begin the design of a house for a
program. These sheets are like mini-programs for each of the friend. Select a site (or make one up), bring drawing paper and
rooms, public spaces, service spaces, and exterior spaces of the a soft pencil, and sit down with your friend. Begin to design as
new facilities. Rather than get in the way of effective schematic you discuss your friend's desires and needs for the house. Be
design, these space program sheets provide the designers with sure to get beyond the plan view to at least one elevation and a
detailed knowledge about each space so they can place them perspective sketch in the two-hour period.
appropriately in the new facility. Some rooms may need to be on
Consider what you accomplished and the nature of the in-
outside walls for fenestration, others on the interior to avoid
teractive process. Was it positive? Fun? Were there any
outside light or temperature fluctuations, others isolated from
problems? Do you personally like the result? Does your
public spaces to minimize noise disturbances, etc. This
information is also helpful to the designer to decide on room friend?
configuration. Should a room be long and narrow, or nearly 4. Pick another friend for whom to design a house on the same
square, or odd shaped for one reason or another? Without space site. Spend approximately an hour discussing this friend's
program sheets or a lot of prior knowledge about a particular aspirations and needs and write them down on a sheet of
room type, the designer has little basis to decide such questions. paper. Have the friend review the information you have
Having this information will allow the designer to make recorded and confirm that it is correct. Spend another hour by
appropriate schematic design decisions. yourself coming up with a preliminary design including a plan
Complete value-based programs include design development and at least one elevation and a sketch perspective.
information presented on space TJ_rogram sheets in order to help Consider what you accomplished and the nature of the in-
the designer make informed schematic design decision~. teractive process. Was it positive? Fun? Were there, any
 Architectural Programming 37
36 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

problems? Do you personally like the result? Does your Davis, Gerald. 1969. The Independent Building Program Consultant.
Building Research. 18(2) 16-21.
friend?
Davis, Gerald, and Francoise Szigeti. 1979. "Functional and
5. Compare the two processes. What were the advantages and Technical Programming: When the Owner/Sponsor is a Large or
disadvantages of each? Which process produced the best re- Complex Organization." Paper presented at the Fourth In-
sults? Which process worked best from your friends' point of ternational Architectural Psychology Conference, 10-14 July
view? 1979 at Louvain-la-Neuve.
Were there differences in the types of information discussed? Demoll, Louis. 1965. Operations Programming and Planning. In
Were there differences in the nature of the designs related Comprehensive Architectural Services: General Principles and
more to the processes use.cl than to the differences in the Practice, edited by William D. Hunt Jr. New York: McGraw-Hill.
friends' ideas? Keep these differences in mind as you proceed Duerk, Donna P. 1993. Architectural Programming: Information
through the text and the exercises at the end of each chapter. Management for Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Remember to have fun as you read the text, consider what it says, Esherick, Joseph. 1987. Lecture on the work of Esherick Homsey
and do the exercises at the end of each chapter. Programming and Dodge and Davis, Arizona State University, Tempe, Ariz.
design are interactive processes which can be accomplished in a Evans, Benjamin H., and C. Herbert Wheeler, Jr. 1969. Architectural
number of ways. You should try to discover the approach or Programming: Emerging Techniques of Architectural Practice-A
approaches that work best for you. Continuing Study by the Committee on Research of Architects.
Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Architects.
Farbstein, Jay D. 1976. Assumptions in Environmental Program-
ming. In The Behavioral Basis of Design: Proceedings of the Seventh
International Conference of the Environmental Design Research
1.9 References Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, edited by P.
Alexander, Christopher. 1965. "The Theory and Invention of Form. Suedfeld and J. Russell. Vol. 1. Stroudsburg, Pa.:
Architectural Record. 137(4): 177-186. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross.
Altman, Irwin. 1975. The Environment and Social Behavior: Privacy, GSA. 1983. Design Programming. PBS 3430.2. Washington, D.C.:
Personal Space, Territory, Crowding. Monterey, Calif.: General Services Administration.
Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Hall, Edward T. 1966. The Hidden Dimension. Garden City, N.Y.:
Bechtel, Robert, Robert Marans, and William Michelson, eds. 19 8 7. Doubleday.
Methods in Environmental and Behavioral Research. New York: Van Haviland, David, ed. 1994. The Architect's Handbook of Professional
Nostrand Reinhold. Practice. Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Architects
Becker, Nathaniel. 1959. Space Analysis in Architecture. American Press.
Institute of Architects journal. 31 ( 4): 40-4 7. Hershberger, Robert. 1969. A Study of Meaning and Architecture.
Brill, Michael, Stephen T. Margulis, Ellen Konar, and BOST!. 1984. Ph.D. diss., The University of Pennsylvania.
Using Office Design to Increase Productivity. Buffalo, N.Y.: . 1985. Values: A Theoretical Foundation for Architec-
----
Workplace Design and Productivity, Inc. tural Programming. In Programming the Built Environment,
Bruder, William. 1997. Letter to the author. 10 August. edited by Wolfgang F. E. Freiser. New York: Van Nostrand
Conway, Donald, ed. 1973. Social Science and Design: A Process Reinhold.
Model for Architect and Social Scientist Collaboration and Report of a Horowitz, Harold. 1966. The Architect's Programme and the Be-
Conference, October 1973, Coolfont Conference Center, Berkeley havioural Sciences. Architectural Science Review. 9(3): 71-79.
Springs, W. Va. Washington D.C.: American Institute of Kahn, Louis I. 1961. Design studio discussion at the University of
Architects. Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
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Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
38
Knight, Carleton. 1984. Built on Religious, Regional Traditions: Pena, William, William Caudill, and John Focke. 1977. Problem
St. Matthew's Episcopal Church, Pacific Palisades, Calif. Ar- Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. Boston, Mass.:
chitecture. 73(5): 178-185. Cahners Books International.
Kumlin, Robert R. 1995. Architectural Programming: Creative Pena, William, Steven Parshall, and Kevin Kelly. 1987. Problem
Techniques for Design Professionals. New York: McGraw-Hill. Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. 3rd ed. Wash-
Lang, Jon. 1987. Creating Architectural Theory: The Role of the Be- ington, D.C.: AIA Press.
havioral Sciences in Environmental Design. New York: Van Freiser, Wolfgang F. E., ed. 1978. Facility Programming: Methods and
Nostrand Reinhold. Applications. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
Lang, Jon, Charles Burnette, Walter Moleski, and Steven Vachon, eds. ____ . 1985. Programming the Built Environment. New York:
1974. Designing for Human Behavior: Architecture and the Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Behavioral Sciences. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson and ____ . 1993. Professional Practice in Facility Programming.
Ross. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Lawton, Powell, Paul Windley, and Thomas Byerts, eds. 1982. Robinson, Julia, and J. Stephen Weeks. 1984. Programming as Design.
Aging and the Environment: Theoretical Approaches. New York: Minneapolis, Minn.: Department of Architecture, University of
Springer. Minnesota.
Marans, Robert, and Kent Spreckelmeyer. 1981. Evaluating Built Sanoff, Henry. 1977. Methods of Architectural Programming.
Environments: A Behavioral Approach. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Survey Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
Research Center, University of Michigan. ____ . 1992. Integrating Programming, Evaluation and Participation in
Marcus, Clare Cooper. 1975. Easter Hill Village: Some Social In- Design: A Theory Z Approach. Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury.
dications of Design. New York: The Free Press. Sommer, Robert. 1969. Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of Design.
Marti, Manuel. 1981. Space Operational Analysis: A Systematic Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Approach to Spatial Analysis and Programming. West Lafayette, Spreckelmeyer, Kent. 1986. Environmental Programming. Chapter 8
Ind.: PDA Publications Corp. in Methods in Environmental and Behavioral Research, edited by
Michelson, William, ed. 1975. Behavioral Research Methods in Robert Bechtel, Robert Marans, and William Michelson. New
Environmental Design. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Ross. Straub, Calvin C. 1980. Lecture on architectural programming at
Moleski, Walter. 197 4. "Behavioral Analysis in Environmental Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona.
Programming for Offices." In Designing for Human Behavior: Studer, Raymond. 1966. On Environmental Programming. Arena.
Architecture and the Behavioral Sciences, edited by Jon Lang, 81(902): 290-296.
Charles Burnette, Walter Moleski, and Steven Vachon. Swinborne, Herbert. 1967. Change is the Challenge. American Institute
Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. of Architects journal. 47(5): 83-90.
Moore, Gary, and Reginald Golledge, eds. 1976. Environmental White, Edward T. III. 1972. Introduction to Architectural Programming.
Knowing: Theories, Research and Methods. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Tucson, Ariz.: Architectural Media.
Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. Zeisel, John. 1981. Inquiry by Design: Tools for EnvironmentBehavior
Palmer, Mickey, ed. 1981. The Architect's Guide to Facility Pro- Research. Monterey, Calif.: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
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Pan, Solomon. 1985. Programming Seminar at ADP offices in
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Caudill Rowlett Scott.
 Values and Architecture

2.1 Importance of Values

2.2 Enduring Values of Architecture
2.3 Contemporary Values of Architecture
2.4 HECTTEAS (Test Each)
2.5 Case Study: Alleluia Lutheran Church 2.
6 Case Study: Hershberger Residence 2. 7
Exercises
2. 8 References

2.1 Importance of Values

The first responsibility in architectural programming is to articulate
the values to which the architect should respond in design. Values in
this context mean those beliefs, philosophies, ideologies,
understandings, purposes, or other deeply held ideas or feelings that
are the reason for building and should influence how the building is
designed. It is these underlying values and purposes that serve as the
framework for an architectural program. The identification of these
values in the program is crucial if the program is to help the designer
achieve architecture.
Every program will involve somewhat different values, de-
pending on the nature of the client, users, site, climate, and even the
programmer and designer. The client's reasons for building vary
widely. User groups have different views of the world and especially
of the types of environments suitable for their diverse activities. Site
and climate change from project to project. Programmers and
designers vary considerably in the values they bring to
 42 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Values and Architecture 43

The enduring values of archi-

tecture were first discussed by
the Roman Vitruvius in the first SELF ACTUALIZATION MEANING/
century BC as firmitas, utilitas,
SELF ESTEEM
and venustas (Vitruvius 1960).
These values were modified BELONGING GOOD
somewhat by Sir Henry Wotton
in the seventeenth century as SAFETY
"firmness, commodity, and
delight" (Wotton 1970), and PHYSIOLOGICAL SURVI
NEEDS
reassessed by several authors
Figure 2-2 Maslow s Pyramid & Enduring Values.
in the twentieth century in-
cluding Talbot Hamlin (l952 ) Adapted by Nancy Cole from Maslow 1973
and Christian Norberg-Schulz
( 1963). These values are now sometimes addressed in terms of their effect
on people, rather than as qualities of a building, and as such can be seen to
parallel the categories of the value pyramid (Fig. 2-2) originated by the
Figure 2-1 Hershberger Residence. psychologist Abraham Maslow (1973). In this same sense, and enlarging
Photo Credit: Andrew Hershberger the meaning of each category to
encompass contemporary ar-
chitectural issues, these values
the programming process. It should be expected that the values identified
cover Survival (to protect), Good
for each project will be different. The following discussion covers a
1, Life (to nurture), Art (to
number of values that often have a significant impact on architectural
transform) (Fig. 2-2).
form.
The values discussed are not a definitive set applicable to all
architectural problems. The author contends that there is no such
definitive set, only sets that apply to certain architectural problems. For Survival (To Protect) Certainly
example, the Tucson, Arizona, house that the author designed for his the primordial value of
family in 1988 is a reflection of the client/user, site, climate, designer, and architecture was to promote
other values identified during the programming stage of design. For human survival by protecting its
example, the exterior of the house with its second- and third-story roof occupants. Shelter from the
decks reflect the value of views-the family's desire to see the surrounding elements allowed the occupants
mountains and sky even from a flat, mid-town location (Fig. 2-1). an opportunity to take care of
human needs such as sleep, food
preparation, socialization,
procreation, and child rearing. It
2.2 Enduring Values of Architecture is important that a building be
---- - ------ -
• Survival (to protect) programmed, designed, and
constructed so that it will not
• Good Life (to nurture) collapse and harm the occupants
(Fig. 2-3). Figure 2-3 Leaning Tower of Pisa.
• Art (to transform)
Credit: Carl Okazaki
44 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 45

The structure of the building must be firm. This can be en-

sured only if the architect and engineer are apprised of the kinds
and locations of loads that are likely to be imposed. The program
must specify unusual loads so that the designers can make certain
that the loads will not result in building failure.
The same is true for mechanical and electrical loads. If unusual
requirements are not specified in the program, then the building is
likely to fail in some respect, possibly resulting in a threat to human
survival, such as fire or inadequate ventilation. Thus, human
survival and protection are much broader categories than structural
strength alone as implied by the term fir- mitas, or firmness.
The program must also set forth guidelines for human safety
and security as available in the work on "defensible space" by
Oscar Newman (1972), on crowd behavior in fires and other
emergency situations (Stahl 1976; Canter 1980), on crucial re-
quirements of special user groups such as the handicapped and the
frail elderly (Steinfeld 1979; Lawton et al. 1982). There is a
growing body of knowledge about how buildings can be designed Figure 2-4 Martin Luther King Square.
to limit threats to occupants from other human beings as well as
from physical hazards that are often built into the environment
(Greenberg 1982). The architectural program must provide
information to help the designer avoid problems in these areas. And United States has created a keen interest in the survival value.
these are not trivial or unusual problems. They are survival These attacks are frequently directed at government, military, or
problems! diplomatic compounds in which the buildings and surrounding
If a person cannot get out of a building during a fire, this is se- landscaping serve as the first line of defense. In these cases, safety
rious business. If a handicapped person must use stairs or an ex- and security become dominating concerns in the design of such
cessively steep ramp, an accident might result in their injury or buildings and their grounds (Fig. 2-5). Unfortunately, it
even death. Similarly, many of our nation's streets, parks, and is requiring architects to
housing areas have become such a threat to those who use them surround these buildings
that specific strategies of accessibility, visibility, lighting, land- with fences, walls,
scaping, and the like have been developed to overcome the severe bollards, and the like to
consequences of inadequate design. For example, locating bal- prevent vehicles loaded
conies and windows overlooking exterior pedestrian areas helps with explosives from
coming near them.
to make them safe to use.
Programmers are in a
An excellent example of this can be found in the Martin Luther
unique position, as they
King Square public housing project by Kaplan McLaughlin in San
spend time with clients
Francisco (Fig. 2-4). It provides for surveillance of and ready ac
and users, to discover
cess to children's courtyard play areas near walk-up apartments
still other survival issues
with views from balconies and kitchen windows.
that could
The increase in terrorist attacks directed at American citizens
affect the user's health Figure 2-5 Fortified Government
and officials in foreign countries and, more recently, within the
Building. or safety. They may be Credit: Carl Okazaki
46 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 47

survival good. Buildings should enable users to accomplish their

purposes and tasks without great effort, and they should promote the
comfort of the users in all of their sensory modalities: visual, aural,
olfactory, tactile, and kinesthetic. Architecture has the obligation
and opportunity to nurture its occupants and the programmer must
discover how this can be ensured.
The underlying value or purpose of the early modern movement
in architecture was to bring the "good life" to all people. The
architects of this movement were not content with providing the
good life only to the wealthy elite. They wanted to make the benefits
of well-designed buildings available to the people as a whole:
housing, schools, hospitals, and other institutions. The Tuberculosis
Sanitarium by Alvar Aalto exemplifies this approach
to architecture (Fig. 2-7).
Some early modern
architects developed ela-
borate theories as to how
Figure 2-6 Hill Hall Women's Dormitory.
architecture could pro-
mote the good life. Large
able to discover waste products that could be hazardous-if not buildings set in green
directly to the user, then to society at large. If so, the program should parks with plenty of
specify that care must be taken in the disposal and treatment of the light, air, and special
hazardous material. The concern need not be just for the immediate playground facilities for
survival of the client/user, but for the long-term survival of the children were advocated
community or society. Ian McHarg has written very convincingly in for housing (Le
this regard in his book Design with Nature (McHarg 1969). A whole Corbusier 1946).
body of literature on ideas of sustainability has developed in recent Standards for minimum
years (Crosbie 1994). room sizes, lighting, and
If some of these survival issues are seen as more than just routine ventilation were
by the designer, they may become the stimulus for a unique and developed. New ma-
perhaps wonderfully creative design idea-an opportunity for terials, systems, equip-
architecture. Eero Saarinen's castle-like women's dormitory at the ment and furnishings
University of Pennsylvania, complete with what appears to be a promoted the efficiency
drawbridge and other features typical of a fortification, is a won- and comfort of occupants
derful and even humorous example of how a security problem of buildings. The whole
identified in the program can lead to a particular aesthetic ex- mood was to go well be-
pression in the architecture (Fig. 2-6). yond survival issues to
those that would make
Good Life (To Nurture) life more enjoyable for
A concern for the good life should also be present in design. Ar- everyone. This concern
for quality of life has Figure 2-7 Tuberculosis Sanitarium.
chitecture should not merely promote survival, it should make
not been lost on most Credit: Carl Okazaki
48 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architectur 49

contemporary architects and walls met the ground, roof, and sky that
continues to be a major went beyond mere building or
concern in programming. functional accommodation. By the
Interestingly, some ideas time of classical Greece and Rome, this
advanced to create the good urge to art had developed to the point
life led to problems of where every part of a building had
survival. The Pruitt Igoe specific requirements for both form
public housing development and meaning.
in Saint Louis, which Similarly, a concern of the Gothic
purported to follow some of and Renaissance periods was to create
these ideas, was completely works of art that would transform the
demolished after several viewer by their formal power and
years of occupancy due to the beauty. Gothic buildings, such as
Figure 2-8 Demolition of Pruitt Igoe. health and safety problems Chartre Cathedral (Fig. 2-9) in France,
Credit: Carl Okazaki created by its design (Fig. with their elaborately decorated
2-8). openings, windows, and towers, went
Fortunately for programmers, designers, and especially the users of far beyond shelter and accommodation
the buildings and cities they create, the failures of early modern in trying to express the highest
architecture led social and behavioral scientists to explore how religious aspirations of the people of
architecture creates problems of survival and difficulties in achieving their time.
the good life. The involvement of a large number of these scientists in The architecture of the Renais-
research and programming in the past 15 to 20 years has ensured that sance, Revival, and Eclectic periods
the survival and good life values will continue to be considered in that followed became increasingly
architectural programming. Functional, personal, social, and security concerned with the importance of art in
values are generally well articulated in programs influenced by social architecture. Many history books have
and behavioral scientists. been written about the architecture of
these arid other periods of architectural
Art (To Transform) history.
Such books should be studied by students
Finally, as an art, architecture has the opportunity to transform users,
to help them see beyond their immediate needs for protection and interested in architectural programming, Figure 2-9 Chartre Cathedral.

nurturing. The architect has the responsibility to please the users in for much of what they discuss has to do with the aesthetic qualities of
some manner or another: to excite and stimulate or to calm and assure. the buildings of those times (Hamlin 1952; Roth 1979; Trachtenberg
Architecture should enrich the meaning of the users' lives and move and Hyman 1986). Some more recent books on architectural history
them in some special way. The program should identify the aesthetic are more likely to address social and cultural concerns of the
values of society, client, and user to encourage the designer to express architecture of these periods and should also be studied (Kostof and
them in the architecture. Castillo 1995).
This urge to create objects of beauty and meaning has been present The early modern architects reacted strongly against the extreme
since humans first began to build. Cave dwellers placed figures on cave emphasis on aesthetics of the Revival and Eclectic architecture. Some
walls, perhaps for magical purposes. Even so, they were often even objected to the words meaning and .art in reference to
proportioned and stylized to become beautiful and meaningful objects. architecture. Hannes Meyer advocated that primary
Early builders similarly developed architectural details where
 Values and Architecture 51
50 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

attention be directed representative of this approach to art and meaning in modem ar-
toward functional and chitecture.
constructional issues A number of contemporary architects and their clients have re-
(Schnaidt 1965). His acted against what they perceive to be the limitations of modem
German Trade Union architecture relative to meaning and art and have adopted a post-
Federation Building modern attitude about architecture. Some of these architects are
(Fig. 2-10) is an exam- once again looking at historical architecture for suitable expressive
ple of this approach to forms and relationships. Others are rejecting previously accepted
architecture. tenets such as simplicity and clarity for complexity and
Most modem arch- contradiction in architecture (Venturi 1977). This later tendency is
itects consider meaning certainly the case in Robert Venturi's design for his mother's house
and art to be essential in Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania (Figs. 2-12 through 2-14). The house
to architecture and de- is small, but appears large in scale. Its apparent simplicity in the
velop their designs ac- frontal view is belied by views from the side and rear. The inside has
cordingly. Many reject numerous similar contradictions.
Figure 2-10 German Trade Union Federation School. specific references to Whatever approach architects take, they are generally concerned
Credit Carl Okazaki previous styles of ar- with aesthetic issues: with meaning and art, with transformation.
Here again, as with survival and good life issues, the programmer is
chitecture in trying to fashion an architecture uniquely appropriate
in a unique position to uncover what is particularly meaningful to
to their own time. In so doing, they show a preference for abstract or
clients and users, to discover what architectural objects are most
presentational form, as opposed to referential meaning in
likely to move these people. What do they appreciate? What are
architecture (Langer 1942). The IIT Architecture Building (Fig.
2-11) in Chicago by Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe is their traditions? What art do they value? This

Figure 2-12 Vanna Venturi House: Front.

Figure 2-11 llT Architecture Building.
52 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 53

Figure 2-13 Vanna Venturi House: Side/Rear.

Photo Credit George Pohl. Permission: Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates

Figure 2-15 Alleluia Lutheran Church.

Finally, as programmers seek out the important values of the

client, user, and community relative to an architectural project, they
must continue to remember that the enduring values of architecture
remain as a primary basis for design.

2.3 Contemporary Values of Architecture

The three enduring values elaborated above are certainly important
in architecture. However, it is difficult to use them to describe the
whole range of values that are important in contemporary
architecture. For example, Wotton's conversion of the original
terms used by Vitruvius, substituting "commodity" for utilitas,
de-emphasized Vitruvius' concern for the functional and economic
Figure 2-14 Vanna Venturi House: Interior. values of architecture and increased the importance of comfort. But
Photo Credit Rollin La France. Permission: Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates all are contemporary concerns! Similarly, it is hard to see how other
important issues for contemporary architects, such as
information can be uncovered and articulated in the architectural responsiveness to site and climate, energy costs, urban context,
program for the designer's benefit in their endeavor to create ar- building costs, growth, and change, can be adequately covered by
chitecture. For example, the design by the author for the Alleluia the three traditional categories. Hence, it is important to rethink and
Lutheran Church (Fig. 2-15) in Tempe, Arizona, incorporated a enlarge the value categories during programming so all potential
handsome old house that the client wanted to see preserved and architectural values can be anticipated.
restored as part of the project. He used the old house as the basis for Various programmers have attempted to develop comprehensive
the aesthetic expression of the much larger addition. lists of values and issues. As noted in Chapter 1, CRS uses
 Values and Architecture 55
54 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

funchon, form, economy, and time in their George Hoover (1996) of Hoover Berg Desmond Architects of
programming process. Mickey Palmer, in The Denver, Colorado, indicated in a recent lecture at The University of
Architect's Guide to Facility Programming Arizona that his firm looks metaphorically at issues of
(1981), advocates coverage of Human Factors, transformation ("the curving path"), permanence and change ("rocks
Physical Factors, and External Factors with and clouds"), embedding ("Russian dolls"), and coupling of the
numerous subcategories covering practically human with the environment ("I and Thou") in their mostly
every imaginable value area. He also uses an institutional commissions. These issues are evident in the design of
expanded list of issues, which provide an the new Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering Building at The
interesting view of how designers and clients University of Arizona (Fig. 2-18). The building's material
differ in what they value in architecture (Figs. relationship to the rest of the campus suggests embedding. Its
2-16). response to the local climate, with a central courtyard and shaded
Barton Myers, a well known and respected windows, couples the human and natural environment. Its permanent
contemporary architect, has articulated what he horizontal and vertical circulation suggests growth to the east and the
considers to be important values for his work open, flexible research and teaching spaces speak to permanence and
(Fig. 2-17): change. Transformation of ordinary to extraordinary can be seen
throughout the building complex.
1. Context Other architects and programmers have similar lists of values or
2. Space/ environment concerns that they think are important. These can be considered the
3. Climate philosophic base or set from which these professionals approach
both architectural programming and design.
4. Technology

Figure 2-16 Client versus Designer Interests.

5. Social implication
Adapted by Nancy Cole from: Palmer 1981, 17. Permission: 6. Tradition
McGraw-Hill

Figure 2-17 Seagram Building Design Model. Figure 2-18 Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering.
Pilato Credit: Ian Samson. Permission: Barton Myers
56 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 57

2.4 HECTTEAS (TEST EACH) for the programmer to establish the scope of the project, appropriate
goals and objectives, specific space/place needs, and mandatory
The following eight value areas, with subsets of issues to be dis- spatial relationships. The potential impact on design decision
cussed later in the text, cover the values advanced by most pro- making of the identified value areas is so great that they can be
grammers and architects as well as the enduring values discussed in considered as the primary design issues in architecture (Duerk
the previous section. This comprehensive easy-to-remember list, 1993).
with the acronym "HECTTEAS," or "TEST EACH," will be used in
this text to represent important contemporary values in architecture. 2.5 Case Study: Alleluia Lutheran Church
It should be understood, however, that there are as many ways to
classify value areas as there are persons to do the classification, and A recent award-winning programming and design commission by
that for a particular architectural program the important values may the author for a campus-related church facility demonstrates how a
or may not conform to the HECTTEAS categories either in name or variety of values and issues come into play during programming and
number. design. Cultural, aesthetic, environmental, human, economic, and
technological values combined as major issues in the design of the
• Human: Functional, social, physical, physiological, and psy- facility.
chological. The existing building on the site was highly valued by the clients
• Environmental: Site, climate, context, resources, and waste. because it had once been a home. They felt that this homelike
• Cultural: Historical, institutional, political, and legal. character had a positive impact on the use and enjoyment by
students because it provided them with a place that had the feeling of
• Technological: Materials, systems, and processes.
a home away from home. Therefore, the clients wanted to keep and
• Temporal: Growth, change, and permanence. use the house as an integral part of the total church facilities.
• Economic: Finance, construction, operations, maintenance, However, they also wanted to expand the facilities to create new
and energy. worship, fellowship, and education spaces so that the center could
• Aesthetic: Form, space, color, and meaning. become a full-service church. These were the important cul
tural, institutional, and
•Safety: Structural, fire, chemical, personal, and criminal. human issues for design
Exploration of the HECTTEAS list should allow the program- that were stated in the
mer to develop a comprehensive understanding of the important program and responded
design issues for any building project. What are the basic purposes to in the design.
of the institution? What activities must be accommodated? Are The architect also val-
there special users with unique physical or emotional needs? Is the ued the home because of
site of great importance? Are there views that the client particularly its aesthetic and historic
treasures? Is the climate so severe that special considerations of qualities. It was a fine old
form are warranted? Me there special processes or procedures that bungalow-type house
must be precisely followed to prevent the organization's failure? Is with red brick walls, hip
safety an important issue? Are only certain materials and systems roofs, porches, eaves,
available? Acceptable? Will future growth be a major factor? Is white wood trim, high
there a limit on building cost? Is tradition valued over novelty, or ceilings, and abundant
vice versa? These are typical issues that architects must deal with as window areas, all of
they program and design buildings. which provided a sense
These values should be identified and prioritized with respect to of quality and history
their importance for each project. It then becomes relatively easy (Fig. 2-19). Figure 2-19 Alleluia: Axial View. :
58 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 59

The building com- fact, in order to stay within

mittee and the architect the limited budget, the
decided that the new clients had to accept a
development should re- smaller facility than de-
flect the character of the sired that combined the
old house. As a result, worship and fellowship
the historic, aesthetic, spaces and provided a
and technological quali- single rather than double
ties of the house became classroom. So, while still
important design issues very important, the func-
for the entire complex tional requirements gave
(Fig. 2-20). way to budgetary limita- Figure 2-21 Alleluia: Section through Sanctuary.
The location of the tions and desired quality of
1 existing house and a materials and systems in
- beautiful large Aleppo order to obtain a satisfac-
pine tree on the small tory overall development (Fig. 2-21).
site also had an impor- There were other lesser influences on
tant impact on design. the design, such as the city's requirements
The site planning was for storm water retention, automobile and
essentially determined bicycle parking spaces, handicap
by the location of the accessibility, and landscaping. All of the
Figure 2-20 Alleluia: Site/Floor Plan.
existing house at the existing windows leaked air badly, so they
street frontage and the tree near the side and rear property lines. The were tightly sealed, while new windows
additions had to be placed to the rear of the site, behind but slightly were double glazed to help reduce energy
offset from the house in order to save the tree. The parking was costs. Provisions were also made to ac-
located on the other side of the site, extending from street to alley to commodate sound partitions within the
obtain the required spaces and needed access. The offset of the new worship/fellowship space to allow for fu-
building from the old house allowed the architect to create a quiet ture subdivision into two additional class-
courtyard at the base of the tree as well as an entrance walkway rooms and a high central 'chapel (Figs.
along the side of the old house on axis with the centerline of the new 2-22 and 2-23).
building. The walkway was realized by filling the center of an old Survival concerns were dealt with in
strip concrete driveway with new brick paving. A line of fruit trees several ways, including provision of fire
along the walkway creates a ceremonial approach to the entrance of separations between the new and old fa-
the church. cilities, the addition of a required fire exit
Human and economic issues also came into play. As mentioned from the second floor of the house,
above, the client desired new worship, fellowship, and educational complete rewiring of the house, and
spaces in addition to the office, library, study, and lounge spaces that meeting code requirements for all sys-
could be accommodated in the existing house. The budget, however, tems. Improved air conditioning and
was limited by a fixed maximum construction cost. This required lighting as well as complete renovation of
careful consideration of what spaces and sizes were absolutely the interior surfaces of the existing house
required, as well as of the associated construction costs for new helped to provide for the comforts
facilities versus renovation of the existing house. In of the good life and returned the interior Figure 2-22 Alleluia: Interior of Church.
60 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 61

to the high quality of the original house. nize the views to the often brilliant sunset and starlit skies. Views
All of these issues were accounted for in were an extremely important issue.
the program and in the design, but had a
lesser impact on the architectural Resources
character of the complex than the first- The house had to respond appropriately to the hot, arid climate, with
mentioned issues. Thus, they were not energy and water conservation being major values strongly held by
major architectural issues. husband and wife. Water needed to be conserved and harvested for
use only on plants that bore fruit or beautiful flowers. The house had
to tum away the hot summer sun and capture the needed winter sun,
2.6 Case Study: Hershberger and to use daylight throughout to conserve energy. Conservation and
Residence appropriate use of freely provided resources to help create a
sustainable environment were strongly held values.
Programming for the house that the author
designed for his family in Tucson, Lifestyle
Arizona, has both parallels to and dif-
The house would have to be a wonderful, peaceful yet stimulating
ferences from the process used for the
place in which to live and entertain visiting family and guests. It
Alleluia Church. For Alleluia, the pro-
would have to serve as an effective retreat for wife and husband, a
gramming process was condensed into a
place for them to live and work and garden, a place to gather the
two-week period, owing to time dead-
family members on holidays, and a place to entertain guests on the
lines. For the house, the author and his
many social occasions required of a dean and a development officer.
wife had years of living together with
their children in other Arizona houses to
consider when they decided what would Art
be appropriate in a house that they pro- The house had to be a work of art that masterfully accomplished all
grammed and designed for themselves. In of the goals and expressed the primary values of the clients. It had to
both cases, the expectations of the use forms, textures, colors, and light to create a place of peace and
client/users were deeply felt and de- happiness. Aesthetic quality was the bottom line.
Figure 2-23 Alleluia: View of Cupola.
manding of the talents of the designer.
Time
Location The house had to be constructed within a six month time period to
The house had to be within ten minutes of the university to the east of allow the client/users' oldest son to serve as the construction
campus. The clients do not enjoy long commutes to work or the superintendent while taking off a semester from his construction
pollution caused by driving long distances to work. They wanted to management program in college.
show that a very satisfactory and less costly and polluting lifestyle
could be maintained in town close to campus. They also felt that the Budget
very bright morning and afternoon sun was dangerous to face while The house also had to be designed within a budget that would result
driving. Location became an important consideration. in affordable mortgage payments.

Views The first job was to find a suitable site. The first selected site, in
The mountain and sky views in Tucson are truly spectacular. Al- very close proximity to the university and with excellent views to the
though location dictated an in-town residence, the clients were mountains over an adjoining city park, turned out not to be
unwilling to sacrifice views. The site had to have good ground level purchasable within time constraints because of liens on the property.
views to the mountains and the design would have to recog- The second site, which was purchased, met the ten minute
62 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 63

travel criterion by automobile and The plan of the house responds to the various value areas, par-
had an equally nice view to the ticularly to lifestyle. There are two primary areas on the first floor:
mountains. It was preferred by the the entertainment/guest area to the west with entry, living, dining,
wife, because of concerns for guest bedroom, and guest bathroom; and the private area to the east
safety at a site fronting on a public with kitchen, breakfast room, garage, and master bedroom, bath,
park. dressing, and shower. The living and dining rooms face north
The selected site was in an ex- toward the moun-
isting residential area on a vacant tains and the landscaped west
quarter of a large property sur- yard of the neighbor's house.
rounded by a low stuccoed adobe The guest bedroom and bath
wall. The owner agreed to sell this face south with views under the
unused portion of the property deciduous fruit trees placed in
with the understanding that no front of the windows. The entry
walls would be put up to separate is protected by a large covered
the houses within the walled porch for protection from the
precinct, so that all properties weather. The kitchen is located
would seem more spacious. It also next to the dining room and a
meant that the owner would be small breakfast room facing a
maintaining the backyard view covered patio to the south. The
from the new house, an added master bedroom faces north and
ELM'WOQ[)

benefit in purchasing this prop- is situated for optimum control

Figure 2-24 Hershberger: First Floor Plan. erty, but without the safety issues of exterior light and sound for
of a public park. The owner also sleeping. The dressing room
agreed to a "first right of refusal" and walk-in closet are
clause in the purchase agreement skylighted and adjoin the
to allow the author and his wife to bathroom that faces east into a
acquire the adjoining vacant prop- completely private outside
erty should the owner decide to shower area. The garage faces
sell it at some future time. This a
east, avoiding direct view
allowed the new house to sit on from the street (Figs. 2-26 and
Figure 2-26 Hershberger: Second Floor Plan.
the cor-ner of the property with a 2-27).
large expanse of open space on The study is located
either of its street sides. on the second floor with
The desire for safe ingress and a spectacular view of the
egress dictated that entry be off Catalina Mountains to
the quiet street to the south. This the north and to a
allowed for a unique, sun-filled trellised rooftop planting
front yard to show off the existing area to the south. It is
native vegetation and to grow reached by a straight-run SECTION a ICJl::lll o
stair up from the living ·
vegetables and fruit trees (Figs.
2-24 and 2-25). area, which allows for a Figure 2-27 Hershberger: Section through House.
Figure 2-25 Hershberger: Zoning Diagram.
64 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 65

future wheelchair lift to

access the second floor,
should it be needed. The
room has access to a
rooftop patio and to a
third-story outdoor fam-
ily room, with magnifi-
cent views of the sky
and mountains to the
north and east (Figs.
2-28 and 2-29).
Figure 2-28 View to Catalina Mountains. The house responds
to the clients' wishes to
capture the magical
views. It also relates to
the desire to promote a Figure 2-30 Hershberger: from Northwest.
sustainable lifestyle by Photo Credit: Andrew Hershberger
carefully protecting
southfacing windows
from the hot summer
sun, minimizing Aesthetically, the house is conceived of as a "desert mountain" or
windows to the west, "sky island," offering views to the luminous sky and surrounding
and protecting windows desert areas. It is also considered to be representative of the Sonoran
facing east with Desert as a whole. The south is Mexico, with the "ripple gates" in the
adjustable shading masonry archway reminiscent of the Gulf of California and the
screens. It uses a sepa- Mexican tradition of walled and gated properties. The property then
rate high-efficiency heat echoes the desert and agricultural areas of Arizona ending at the
pump for each of the house as "mountain." The hanging gardens over the masonry lintels
three zones to reduce and columns provide a sense of permanence. The two-by-eight-foot
non-renewable energy spacing of columns and expression of the masonry bond beams
consumption. It captures create a rhythm and tectonic theme appropriate to the nature of
roof and patio water and concrete block (Fig. 2-31).
channels it to fruit- The porch provides a shaded summer place to eat with a view of
bearing landscaping sur- the surrounding landscape and garden areas. The low winter sun
rounding the house. The warms the same porch, allowing year-round enjoyment of these
landscaping features low beautiful site amenities (Fig. 2-32).
water use native vegeta- The interior of the house also represents the Sonoran Desert with
tion outside the wall and the traditional red concrete floor symbolic of the hot desert floor, the
drip-irrigated vegetables varied texture of the masonry and green gallery walls, the
and fruit trees within
Figure 2-29 Hershberger: Roof Plan.
(Fig. 2-30).
66 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 67

. ' ........... ,,, , ..... .

••••. lill ,,,.,,,,,,,,

.......... ~ .... .
·····················
zz
··· ZZ:;.;;.....::
,,,,,,,,,,,_.,,.,,.,.f"_,_ - ,_ ,
.............. _._._. ............... .

Figure 2-32 Hershberger: Covered Entrance/Patio.

Photo Credit Andrew Hershberger

Figure 2-31 Hershberger: Gate, Porches, Trellises.

Photo Credit Andrew Hershberger
68 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values and Architecture 69

interior plantscape, and the blue ceiling

reminding us of the changing flora
ascending up the desert mountains to
the cool blue sky above (Figs. 2-33
through 2-36).
The trellised roof deck provides a
wonderful outdoor living place and
transition zone from the land to the sky
(Fig. 2-37). It captures the panoramic
and sky views as well as the cooling
breezes that often cannot be felt on the
desert floor below.
The final value area was only par-
tially resolved to the satisfaction of the Figure 2-35 Hershberger: Dining Room/Gallery.
client. The short time frame for Photo Credit: Andrew Hershberger
construction was realized through the
diligent efforts of the construction
foreman. The costs of the project,
however, stretched beyond the budget,
rising from an estimated $ 8 5 per
square foot to $ 9 5 per square foot for
the building. Landscaping and
irrigation took the cost up to over $100
per square foot, much more than the
client wanted to spend.
Figure 2-33 Hershberger: Living Room.
Photo Credit: Andrew Hershberger

Figure 2-34 Hershberger: Dining/Living Room. Figure 2-36 Hershberger: Stairs to Upper Levels.
Photo Credit: Andrew Hershberger Photo Credit: Andrew Hershberger
 Values and Architecture 71
70 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

cations for design. This information can be listed for all to see. A
discussion should follow about the issues that seem to be crucial to
successful design. The discussion might also highlight the need for
clear and complete communication.

2.8 References
Canter, David, ed. 1980. Fires and Human Behaviour. Chichester,
England: John Wiley & Sons.
Crosbie, Mike. 1994. Green Architecture: A Guide to Sustainable
Design. Rockport, Mass.: Rockport Publishers.
Duerk, Donna P. 1993. Architectural Programming: Information
Management for Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Greenberg, Stephanie W., William M. Rohe, and Jay R. Williams.
1982. Safe and Secure Neighborhoods. Washington, D.C.: National
Institute of Justice.
Hamlin, Talbot. 19 5 2. Forms and Functions of Twentieth-Century
Figure 2-37 Roof Deck and View to Mountains. Photo Architecture. New York: Columbia University Press.
Credit: Andrew Hershberger
Hoover, George. 1996. Personal correspondence, April 3. Kostof,
Spiro, and Greg Castillo. 1995. A History of Architecture:
2.7 Exercises Settings and Rituals. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
Langer, Susanne. 1942. Philosophy in a New Key: Study in the
1. Ask another person to join you and take 15 to 20 minutes to Symbolism of Reason, Rite and Art. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard
each write down the important issues and requirements for a University Press.
personal space: a study space at home, a studio space at Lawton, Powell, Paul Windley, and Thomas Byerts, eds. 1982.
school, or some similar space. Aging and the Environment: Theoretical Approaches. New York:
1. Trade your issues and requirements and spend 20 to 30 Springer.
minutes making a preliminary design for their space. Le Corbusier. 1946. Towards a New Architecture. London: Archi-
tectural Press.
1. After the design session, trade again and evaluate the design Maslow, Abraham. 1973. Dominance, Self-Esteem, Self-Actual-
prepared for your space. ization: Germinal Papers of A. H. Maslow. Monterey, Calif.:
1. Discuss which issues and requirements were most clearly Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
stated and how the designs either fulfilled or missed the intent McHarg, Ian. 1969. Design with Nature. Garden City, N.Y.: Natural
of the user. History Press.
This exercise should help you understand the importance of the Myers, Barton. 1991. Personal correspondence, October 10.
architectural program. The discussion should reveal what kind of Newman, Oscar. 1972. Defensible Space: Crime Prevention through
information allows flexibility in de~n and what kind of information Urban Design. New York: The MacMillan Co.
restricts design. Norberg-Schulz, Christian. 1963. Intentions in Architecture. London:
If an entire class is involved with the exercise, each member Allen and Unwin.
should state what information seemed to have the greatest impli-
72 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Palmer, Mickey A., ed. 1981 The Architect's Guide to Facility Pro-
gramming. New York: Architectural Record Books.
Pena, William, William Caudill, and John Focke. 1977. Problem
Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. Boston, Mass.:
Cahners Books International.
Values Become Issues
Roth, Leland M. 1979. A Concise History of American Architec-
ture. New York: Harper & Row.
Schnaidt, Claude. 1965. Hannes Meyer: Buildings, Projects and
Writings. Teufen, AR/Schweiz: Negli Ltd.
Stahl, Fred. 1976. Some Prospects for Simulating Human Behavior in
Fires. In The Behavioral Basis of Design: Proceedings of the Seventh
International Conference of the Environmental Design Research
Association, edited by P. Suedfeld and James A. Russell. Vol. 1.
Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. 3 .1 Human Issues
Steinfeld, Edward. 1979. Access to the Built Environment: A Review of 3.2 Environmental Issues 3.
Literature. Washington, D.C.: Department of Housing 3 Cultural Issues
and Urban Development. 3. 4 Technological Issues 3.
Trachtenberg, Marvin, and Isabelle Hyman. 1986. Architecture, 5 Temporal Issues
from Prehistory to Post-Modernism: The Western Tradition. En- 3. 6 Economic Issues
glewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. 3. 7 Aesthetic Issues
Venturi, Robert. 1977. Complexity and Contradiction in Architec- 3. 8 Safety Issues
ture. New York: Museum of Modern Art. 3. 9 Exercises
Vitruvius Pollio. 1960. Vitruvius: The Ten Books on Architecture. 3 .10 References
Translated by Morris Morgan. New York: Dover Publications.
Wotton, Sir Henry. 1970. The Elements of Architecture. New York: In Chapter 2, the argument was made that architecture most often results
Da Capo Press. when the architect responds to and expresses important

I
human values. Three enduring values of architecture-Survival, Good Life,
and Art-were discussed, and while obviously important, were found not
adequate to describe all of the important issues that contemporary
architects must address. An expanded list of eight important value
areas-Human, Environmental, Cultural, Technological, Temporal,
Economic, Aesthetic, and Safety (HECTTEAS or TEST EACH)-were
shown to encompass the three traditional and other important values that
might have a significant impact on architectural decisions. It was noted
that design decisions for all buildings are influenced to some degree by
each of the values, but that really good buildings respond to and express
the most important values in such a way as to produce true works
of art: architecture.
7 4 Architectural Programming and Pre design Manager Values Become Issues 75

\
Who, then, decides what values are important enough to be- elevations are particularly responsive to site and climate while
come design issues, and what values are important enough to express providing excellent daylighting into the interior.
for any particular architectural commission? Initially, it is the Each of the sections of this chapter will concentrate on one focusing
architectural programmer who must identify what is highly valued by issue of architecture to show its importance. Be aware that other issues
the client, users, and designer, and make certain that specific project came into play during the design of each of these buildings.
goals, facts, and needs relating to these values are developed and set
forth in the architectural program. The designer for the project then
selects the values upon which to focus. Finally, the client's values come
into play when approving or rejecting the designer's decisions. Values 3.1 Human Issues
become issues when one of the participants in the design process
• Functional
decides that they are important.
In this chapter, the value sets covered under the HECTTEAS • Social
headings will be considered as the focusing issues of architecture that • Physical
should influence the form, character, and/or quality of buildings (Feerer
• Physiological
1977; Duerk 1993). These issues cover various aspects of the human
enterprises to be accommodated; the available technology; the physical, • Psychological
cultural, and economic environments; the philosophies and preferences Architecture is a social art. There would be no reason to build, no
of those who build; and concerns for the public health, safety, and reason to seek out and analyze a site, to consider any other issue, were it
welfare. not for some human activity or enterprise needing to be housed in some
All of these issues are not of equal importance for every project. It is manner or another. Architects respond to most human needs, including
essential that the programmer uncover, and the designer carefully accommodation, social contact, and comfort. They do not simply paint
consider and decide, which values should be the focusing issues for or sculpt something. Architects are commissioned to design something
each project or part of a project. Ultimately, the val- that someone needs. Human purposes and activities are the basis, the
ues to which the designer raw material for their art.
responds are what make The human issues of architecture include:
some buildings very good
1. The functional activities to be housed.
(architecture) and other
buildings either mediocre 2. The social relationships to be maintained
or possibly very bad, fail- 3. The physical characteristics and needs of the users.
ures in some manner or
another. 4. The physiological characteristics and needs of the users.
The Phoenix Central 5.The psychological characteristics and needs of the users. All are
Library (Fig. 3-1) by
important and should be carefully considered and ar-
Bruder DWL Architects,
ticulated in the architectural program.
also shown on the cover, is
an outstanding con- Functional
temporary building that
responds to important If a building is to be successful, it must allow for the intended activities
issues to create a marvelous to be accommodated. Sometimes the activities are. very simple. For
work of architecture. The example, the Lincoln Memorial (Fig. 3-2) by Henry
south and north
Figure 3-1 Phoenix Central Library.
76 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 77

Bacon, as far as the Most buildings are somewhere between

public is concerned, the extremes. Houses, schools, churches, of-
needs only to allow the fice buildings, and museums all have major
public to enter and view functional requirements that must be satisfied
the statue of the seated to allow the occupants to accomplish their
image of President tasks. Function may be a focusing issue for
Lincoln, to circulate the design of such buildings; but there are
freely in order to read other considerations as well. All of these
several important buildings must relate to their natural and/or
speeches recorded on urban contexts, conform to cultural norms or
the stone walls, and then legal requirements, be built within the client's
to leave. Accom- budget, and so on. These considerations may
modation of these ac- also be important enough to influence the
tivities, while simple, is form of the building design. No single issue
very important. determines building form.
Note that function - Alvar Aalto's Baker House dormitory at
was not the most im- the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is
portant issue addressed a wonderful example of function playing a
Figure 3-2 Lincoln Memorial. by the architecture of primary role, influencing all aspects of the
Photo Credit: Howard Olson building form. Aalto considered the lives of
this public monument.
Issues of time, meaning, and aesthetics were far more important. It the students carefully as well as their
was essential that the memorial be built to last virtually forever. It relationships to each other, to the campus,
was essential that it express the achievements and importance of this and to the community. This resulted in a
president of the United States. It was essential that the monument be building with unique form, but suitable only
of the highest possible aesthetic quality. to its site along the Charles River and beside Figure 3-4 Baker House: River Side.

An industrial plant, on the other hand, may have such a spe- a major cam- Credit: Carl Okazaki

cific production sequence or such unique functional requirements pus open space (Figs. 3-4 and
that they seem literally 3-5).
to "determine" the form In order to provide unique
of the resulting building rooms and views for the students,
(Fig. 3-3). All other Aalto placed all of the student
potential issues pale in rooms along an undulating
comparison to function. facade with views over a park to
However, even here, the the Charles River and to the City
author would argue that of Boston beyond. He thor-
the architect has the oughly understood the need for
obligation and, personal expression of the stu-
generally, the discretion dents and the value of such a
to propose a variety of magnificent view.
formal solutions to the On the campus side of the Figure 3-5 Baker House: Campus
problem. Side. dormitory, Aalto placed all of Credit: Carl Okazaki
Figure 3-3 Hop Factory in Northern California.
 Values Become Issues 79
78 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

the common and service

rooms, along with a set of
stairs that collected students
from every floor (Fig. 3-6).
This resulted in the
dominant angular exterior
form on the campus side of
the building. The stairs
deliver the students to a
handsome skylighted
Figure 3-8 Dulles Airport: Exterior.
commons/ dining room on
Photo Credit: Howard Olson
the second floor, also with a
view over the Charles
River. From here, the stu-
dents can descend just one
floor to the main entrance
of the dormitory, located on
the campus side of the
structure. The exterior form
Figure 3-6 Baker House: Typical Floor Plans.
of the building related to its
Credit Carl Okazaki
function, but also to its site.
A similar example is the Dulles Airport by
Eero Saarinen. In this case, a very thorough
review of major airport design during Figure 3-9 Dulles Airport: Exterior Loading.
programming revealed that the long walks Photo Credit: Howard Olson
between boarding areas result in considerable
human discomfort and angst, as people scurry
to their next flight with hands full of luggage
and children (Fig. 3-7).
As an alternative to this hassle, Saarinen
proposed a completely new system, one
where the planes remained out on the runway
areas and giant lounge cars gathered up the
people in a very compact area of the terminal,
so that no one would have to carry luggage or
children very far (Figs. 3-8 to 3-10).
Even kitchen and bathroom facilities re-
quire thoughtful design taking into account
functional needs. For example, male archi-
tects may lack an understanding of the basic Figure 3-10 Dulles Airport: Interior.
Figure 3-7 People in a Typical Airport. Photo Credit Howard Olson
 Values Become Issues 81
80 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

functional requirements for the participants of similar stature, cooperating to accomplish some
women's toilet facilities (Fig. purpose? How the group is structured has important implications
3-11), and provide far less for design, so this information must be articulated carefully.
counter and hanging space The designer also needs to know the preferred way that people
than is typically required in a group communicate.Do they need to communicate face-toface?
(Brown 1967). Or can they be remote from one another and use the telephone,
While function is only one interoffice memos, or e-mail? What do various people need in the
of the issues that must be way of personal space, territory, and privacy in order to accomplish
acknowledged in design, it their tasks (Sommer 1969)? Who needs private offices, semiprivate
typically is very important offices, conference rooms? For example, the executive officer, with
and is given special consider- little paperwork, typically has the largest desk on the top floor and
ation by both the programmer the clerical staff, with much paperwork, have the smallest desks on
and the designer. This often the lowest floor (Fig. 3-13).
means more than simply ar- Who can accomplish their tasks in an open office environment
ticulating the minimum or or even in a completely open workroom? If people are crowded
even optimum spatial layout tightly together, can they
to accommodate some activ- still accomplish their
ity. It also includes providing goals effectively? Should
information on the hierarchy the teacher stand behind
or relative importance of a lectern in front of the
various activities, essential class, or should the class
relationships, adjacencies or be organized in a circle
Figure 3-11 Women's Powder Room. proximities of activities, spe- with the teacher as just
Credit: Carl Okazaki cific space sizes and equip- one participant on the
ment needs, furnishings, and perimeter (Sommer
other materials necessary to support the functional ac- 1969)? The designer
tivity. This is an area where a lot of information must be needs to know the social
collected and analyzed. A number of the specific infor- relationships that will
mation gathering and presentation techniques described help the participants ac-
in Chapters 5, 6, and 7 are directed toward improving complish their objectives
programming skills in this area (Fig. 3-12). most effectively. If this
can be established
Social
during the programming
Very few functional activities in a building are accom- process, it will greatly
plished by only one individual. In most cases a group or aid the designer in de-
interacting groups of people combine efforts to accom- veloping creative design
plish a task. In consequence, the :e!;ogrammer must learn solutions (Deasy 1974).
Figure 3-12 Functional Relationship
Diagram. how such groups work together. If they work in teams, The social aspects of
Credit: Fourth. Year Design Studio, Professor are they horizontally or vertically structured? Is one design can lead to pri-
Poster, 1990. Salvation Army Homeless Facility: person the leader, with a couple of captains, and the mary expression in form. Figure 3-13 The Executive Office Syndrome.
Program and Site Analysis. College of Architecture,
The University of Arizona
remainder workers of one type or another? Or are all of This is particularly true Credit: Carl Okazaki
 Values Become Issues 83
82 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

at the Kresge Resi-

dential College at
the University of
California at Santa
Cruz, designed by
Moore, Lyndon,
Turnbull and
Whitiker (MLTW),
for which they an-
ticipated social
events in the interior
courtyard and
surrounding bal-
conies (Fig. 3-14).
Another example
of response to social
issues is the Lake
Figure 3-14 Kresge College: Courtyard. Anne Village Center
in the new Figure 3-16 Reston, Virginia: Separated Wall<.

town of Reston,
Physical
Virginia, which was designed by William Conklin to ensure ample
exterior recreation, socialization, meeting, and pedestrian circulation The physical characteristics of the occupants can have a profound
areas that are completely separated from the automobile circulation of influence on the form of a building. {§Pecial user needs of all kinds
the community (Fig. 3-15 and 3-16). are encountered in architectural problems. Facilities for children, such
as in preschools and day care centers, need to acknowledge
the size of the principal
occupants in terms of the
heights and dimensions of
windows, counters, and
various furnishing_~ The
size of rooms needs to
acknowledge the child's
natural tendency to learn
through movement and
various space-consuming
activities (Figs. 3-1 7
through 3-19).
Buildings that accom-
modate the elderly and
physically handicapped
must provide suitable Figure 3-17 Baby by Stairs.
Figure 3-15 Reston, Virginia: Public Area. door openings, room Credit Carl Okazaki
 Values Become Issues 85
84 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

turning radii for various vehicles, and sizes of various appli-

sizes, furnishings, equipment, surfaces,
ances. Much of this information is available in such documents
lighting, and mechanical systems. Re-
as Architectural Graphic Standards (1994), Humanscale
quirements for accommodating persons
(1974), and other standard references that cover both er-
with various disabilities, especially
gonomics and anthropometrics. However, many facilities have
those confined to wheelchairs, are very
special appliance and/ or equipment needs that are not con-
specific and are outlined in mandatory
tained in these standards and must be discovered during pro-
standards and codes (ANSI 1996).
gramming. This is extremely important in helping the designer
They set forth the minimum width of
~ avoid making assumptions which may result in costly errors.
halls; the size, location, and swing of
,
doors; the height and loca-
Physiological
-
-~ --=--=- _:_-~~~
------
-·---:--~~
~ ---
tion of various bathroom fixtures; and
--- numerous other requirements de- Information about human physiology may seem a very un-
Figure 3c18 Baby by Toilet.
pending on the needs of the people to likely concern for programming or architectural design, but in
Credit: Carl Okazaki
be accommodated. The designer some cases it is not. The elderly, for example, may have very
working without this information, or special needs resulting from sensory losses. Letters on signs
with inaccurate or inappropriate information, may need to be bolder and largerly.Glare can be a major
is likely to design non-accessible facilities- problem, making it very uncomfortable for the elderly to find
requiring redesign upon rejection by local their way. Acoustics may need to be carefully studied to be
building officials. This can be especially certain that messages can be heard by the hard-of-hearing.
embarrassing and costly when the errors are Oftentimes, the elderly experience a decrease in blood supply
found during or after construction of the to their extremities, causing them to be more sensitive to
facility.
The designer must understand how people
with various disabilities actually use toilet
facilities in order to design them
appropriately. For instance, the frail elderly
require stalls that are just three feet wide, with
a higher than normal toilet seat, and with grab
bars on both sides to help them get up from
the toilet. Wheelchair confined persons, on
the other hand, must have ample room in the
toilet stall to allow them to make a lateral
mount and dismount as shown below (Fig. 3-
20). Figure 3-20 Handicapped Toilet
These are not trivial problems. They can Usage.
pose difficulties for the disabled that can Credit: Carl Okazaki
prevent them from leading normal lives and,
in some cases, can cause serious injury or
even be life threatening (Fig. 3-21).
Even information on typical users can be
important when it comes to such things as Figure 3-21 Wheelchair by a Curb. Credit:
Figure 3-19 Young Child by Door. accessible heights for shelves, work surfaces, Carl Okazaki
Credit: Carl Okazaki
 Values Become Issues 87
86 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Figure 3-23 Church of the Palms: Courtyard.

Photo Credit: Koppes Photography

Young children of pre-

Figure 3-22 Church of the Palms: Interior. school or elementary school
age are quite the opposite
of the elderly relative to ...
cold drafts on their feet or on the back of their necks than persons
from other age groups. The designer of facilities for the elderly must circulation to the extremi-
be aware of these physiological changes, so that appropriate design ties. They are little heat
decisions can be made. For example, in the Church of the Palms machines who can be com-
(Fig. 3-22) in Sun City, Arizona, Robert Hershberger and Ernest fortable in a considerably
Nickels of Par 3 Studio designed the air conditioning system to cooler room with plentiful
bring in low-velocity air through long linear diffusers located high ventilation. This can be a
in the ceiling (dark strips on the photo) and to return it high at the problem when a middle-
_,

rear of the sanctuary (behind a spaced wood screen), to ensure that aged teacher turns up the
there would be no drafts at the floor level or on the backs of the thermostat to keep his or
elderly members of the congregation and, also importantly, to her feet warm. The children
provide an attractive ceiling and back wall. are likely to become too
Similar considerations were made on the exterior of the church, warm, disruptive, or sleepy,
where a wide, covered arcade extends to a drop-off and pick-up area and make the teacher won-
near the parking area. This walkway is flanked by a fountain court- der why they are not paying
more attention to the
yard surrounded by ample seating, covered walks, and landscaping
lesson! Sensitivity to this
to provide protected, shaded, and sunlit areas for the users. This is
kind of information by the
extremely important for the elderly, who often cannot tolerate the
programmer can be a great
extreme heat from direct sun in the summer, or standing while wait- Figure 3-24 Teacher's Ideas versus Child's Ideas.
help to the designer (Fig. 3-
ing to be picked up. It also creates a quiet and pleasant environment Credit: Thomas Dieterle, 1993. Computer Graphics Assignment. College of Architecture, The Uni-
24).
in which anyone can choose to sit and meditate (Fig. 3-23). versity of Arizona. '
88 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 89

Psychological
There is an increasing body of information on the psychological needs
of people in buildings and urban areas. In the past 25 years,
environmental psychologists and sociologists have been actively
studying just how people perceive, behave in, and feel about their
physical environments. Some of this information has become well
known and might be considered as knowledge that all designers
should incorporate into their designs (EDRA 1969-96).
If there is psychological information peculiar to a particular type of
project or user group, include it in the architectural program. This
could include needs for apparent stability or security in environments
for the elderly, for reducing environmental stimulation for people with
certain mental disabilities, or for privacy or territoriality for
hospitalized or institutionalized individuals. Books such as The Hidden
Dimension by Edward Hall (1966), Personal Space by Robert Sommer
(1969), and A Graphic Survey of Perception and Behavior for the Figure 3-25 Open Office Setting.
Design Professions by Forrest Wilson (1984), provide good
generalized coverage of many of these psychological interactions with
architecture. 3.2 Environmental Issues
There are also quite a number of articles and books on various • Site (including views)
facility types or user groups that would be extremely valuable for
• Climate
particular projects. Current research is reported in journals such as
Environment and Behavior and The journal of Architecture and Planning • Context
Research. Powell Lawton's book Planning and Managing Housing for
• Resources
the Elderly (Lawton 1975) contains many important insights on the
psychological needs of the institutionalized elderly; Oscar Newman's • Waste
book Defensible Space (1972) includes information on the safety and The environmental concerns that may become focusing issues in
security needs of both low-income families and the elderly; and Jean architecture include site, climate, urban and regional context, available
Wineman's book Behavioral Issues in Office Design (1986) takes an in- resources, and waste products. These are often very important issues
depth look at psychological needs of persons in office settings such as in architecture because their influence is very direct and crucial,
the one the following page (Fig. 3-25). impacting the survival of the building or its occupants. If the designer
It is the architectural programmer's responsibility to conduct a ignores these issues and designs an inappropriate building for the
suitable survey of the literature so as to be able to advise the client and particular site, climate, or other environmental concern, the building or
the designer of important psychological issues for design. The degree occupants will suffer some loss over time, if not immediately. The
to which the client and users value this type of information will help building may neglect some wonderful view or be oriented to receive
determine to what degree specific project goals and facility needs sun penetration in hot summer months or cold breezes during the
relating to human psychology are included in the program and coldest part of the winter. It may deteriorate as harsh weather takes a
subsequently in the design. A discussion of appropriate approaches to toll on inappropriate materials. It may sit in a floodplain or drainage
literature search and review is contained in Chapter 5. area, such that it will be destroyed or washed away in a major storm.
Its waste products may pollute' a nearby stream or lake. If the
programmer fails to inform the
 90 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 1

designer of such important design issues, how can the designer make
the appropriate response? Complete environmental information is
essential for a successful design solution.

Site (Including Views)

Frank Lloyd Wright repeatedly said, "The character of the site is the
beginning of the building that aspires to architecture" (House Beautiful
1955). A colleague once said, "The site is the most important design
consideration. It comes first. It was there before the architect and
client and will be there long after they are gone" (Straub 1970). Both
obviously valued the site very much, but does every client, user, and
architect? If so, how much? Is it the first consideration, or is it only
something to be dealt with after more important matters are
considered? For some architectural problems, the site is a very
important issue that can not be ignored during design.
The author, residing in the largest desert environment in the United
States, advised a client (during the master planning stage of
architectural services) not to build a retreat center on a cherished
desert site near Sedona, Arizona, because most of the site was within a Figure 3-27 Building in Floodplain.
one-hundred year floodplain. In that particular case, there was a Photo Credit: The Arizona Daily Star

hundred-year flood just two years after the client decided

not to build. The site was
Topography is often a
devastated. In two other major consideration in the
instances, because of site location of buildings. Les
locations that would be Wallach, principal of Line
backwater areas in a flood, and Space, an architect/
it was possible for the au- builder in Tucson, Arizona,
thor to propose the use of is very sensitive to site
earth fill to raise the sites analysis and design, often
above the floodplain. The saving significant
clients proceeded with the landscape elements to in-
design and construction of corporate their beauty as
the projects. The floods he designs and builds his
have come, but the build- projects. His own home,
ings have escaped any the Arroyo House, is an
damage. These are clearly excellent example (Figs. 3-
cases where the issue of site 28 through 3-30). He saved
could not be ignored, most of the vegetation,
because it related to the including several
;
survival of the buildings ancient saguaro cacti, Figure 3-28 Arroyo House: Exterior.
Figure 3-26 Sedona Retreat Center: Site Plan. (Figs. 3-26 and 3-27). and safely bridged an Photo Credit: Henry Tom. Permission: Line and Space
 92 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 93

arroyo that runs full

during heavy rain-
storms.
In designing the
Ventana Canyon Re-
sort (Fig. 3-31) in
Tucson, the firm of
Frizzell, Hill and
Figure 3-29 Arroyo House: Section at Wash. Moorehouse was very
Drawing Credit: Henry Tom. Permission: Line and Space sensitive in site analy-
sis and design, pre-
serving the pristine desert area and
selecting materials and colors that
blend with the existing landforms and
landscape.
The analysis for the Lawrence Hall
of Science (Fig. 3-32) in Berkeley in-
cluded a visibility analysis relating to Figure 3-31 Ventana Canyon Resort.
major highways and important views
in the Bay Area (Spencer 1962). The
site selected for the building is the
most visible of all sites considered, as
well it should be for such an important
public building.
In many cases, a careful site
analysis during programming will
reveal both significant external and
internal site views. It might also in-
dicate negative views or uncover
current or potential developments that
would destroy an apparently good
view. In Beirut, Lebanon one family
is reported to have built a "spite
house" on their property to destroy a
coveted view from an adjacent family
(Hall 1966). Similar things happen all
too frequently in subdivisions around
our country, where designers design
for views, only to have later buildings
interfere (Fig. 3-33).
Figure 3-30 Arroyo House: Saguaro Cactus. Figure 3-32 Lawrence Hall of Science: Visibility.
Photo Credit: Henry Tom. Permission: Line and Space Permission: William Busse of Spencer, Lee, Busse Architects
 Values Become Issues 95
94 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Figure 3-35 Thirsty Earth: House and View.

Figure 3-33 House in View of Another House.
Credit: Carl Okazaki
Geology and hydrology are also major site considerations. Will
the building sit on bedrock, sand, an historic site of archaeological
The author has designed a number of houses in the Sonoran significance, or perhaps on a large abandoned sanitary fill or dump
Desert of Arizona in which views have been a very important issue. site? This information has a tremendous impact on the type and
In one house, Thirsty Earth (Figs. 3-34 and 3-35), the client wanted form of a building that might be constructed, or it may show that it
to take advantage of spectacular views of the Superstition would be unwise to build at all. This is especially true for sanitary
Mountains, including a pinnacle called Weaver's Needle, to the east landfills, where subsiding and outgassing would be crucial problems
and the McDowell Mountains and city lights to the west. A careful for human safety.
site analysis located each far and near view precisely, so that the A building con-
design could respond to each. The final orientation provides for an structed on sand or in a
axial view of Weaver's Needle as one enters the living room of the marshy area likely will
house. The other views are similarly captured from various rooms. have a significantly dif-
ferent form than one
solidly anchored on
bedrock. It is also im-
portant to know if a
building is to be located
in an active seismic
zone, as anyone in
California or Mexico
will testify. Buildings
designed without suffi-
cient care in such areas
will fail in a major
earthquake (Fig. 3-36).
A number of build-
ing programs have been Figure 3-36 Failed Building after an Earthquake.
Credit: James Strata, Ted Canon, C. Martin Duke and Lawrence Selna (1976) Harvardian College East End,
delayed significantly Fig. 30. Permission: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
Figure 3-34 Thirsty Earth: View Analysis.
96 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 97

in recent years because they were found to be located over im- Adobe construction in warm desert ar-
portant archaeological sites that had to be explored and recorded eas is also a primary response to climate,
before building could proceed. Similarly, in crowded urban areas with its usually tiny windows and thick
with very high land costs, abandoned dumps and landfills are being walls, which keep the heat out in the day-
reclaimed for higher uses, which include major building projects. time but allow it to be transferred in
In these cases, a great deal of time and money can be expended through the walls to warm the interior dur-
before building on the site can even be considered. The impact on ing the course of the cool or even cold
the resulting architecture can also be substantial. It is vitally night hours (Fig. 3-39).
important that the client and architect be informed of such An example where climate was a major
conditions prior to beginning design. A programming study by the programmatic and design issue is at Sea
author on such a site in the Phoenix area resulted in the conclusion Ranch (Figs. 3-40 and 3-41) in northern
that the site could not be used for the intended purpose because of California, where Lawrence Halprin,
excessive foundation costs and potential outgassing. Charles Moore (MLTW), and other archi-
Climate tects responded to the prevailing cold
breezes off the Pacific Ocean with shed
Climate considerations are of great importance when program- roof forms to deflect the wind over the
ming for architecture. A [ery severe climate will have profound buildings. This creates quiet eddies on the
effects on what should be builU east sides of the buildings where people can
The igloo is a clear response to gather in comfort even on cold and windy
the cold environment of the arc- days.
tic, both in its use of available The wide-brimmed sombrero and the
material and in its hemispherical shade structures of the southwestern U.S. Figure 3-38 Stilt House and Boy with Hat.
form, which maximizes internal deserts are also examples of appropriate Credit: Carl Okazaki
space and minimizes surface area responses to hot and dry climates . . .
to avoid heat loss and reflects shade! Judith Chafee's Solomon House,
interior-generated heat and light with its prevalent shade structure, is a bold
back into the interior. Here the use of this response (Fig. 3-42).
architectural form is very much in Similar illustrations can be made for
response to climate. Environment environments with plentiful rain or snow.
and human survival are clearly Even very temperate climates, such as
values of great importance in this those found in Southern California and the
case (Fig. 3-3 7). San Francisco Bay Area, impact
Similarly, a house on stilts architecture by allowing the indoor/outdoor
with a thatch roof and open lat- living relationships that are characteristic of
tice floors and walls is an ap- buildings in this part of the world. The
propriate response to a warm, Thomson House and other houses by
humid climate where shade and Calvin C. Straub in Southern California are
ample ventilation are the princi- excellent examples of the development of
pal requirements for comfort these relationships (Fig. 3-43).
(Fig. 3-38).
Figure 3-37 Igloo and Boy in Parka. Figure 3-39 Adobe House and Boy with Sombrero.
Credit: Carl Okazaki Credit: Carl Okazaki
98 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 99

oseon

Figure 3-42 Solomon House.

Figure 3-40 Sea Ranch: Wind Diagram.

Figure 3-43 Thomson Residence.

Figure 3-41 Sea Ranch Lodge. Credit: Julius Shulman
100 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 101

. .
Context traffic. Was it the
quantity of the traf-
One of the most impoifanf; bi.rt often over1ooked, focusing issues fic? Was it a charac-
of architecture is environmental context. This includes all of the teristic of the traffic?
natural landforms and built features beyond the immediate site. The study revealed
Views are often to off-site objects. Natural features or adjacent that characteristics
buildings may cast shadows over the site daily or only at certain of the traffic were
the primary reason
times of the year, influencing where a new building should be lo-
catei( Flight patterns from a nearby airport may have a noise or for success and fail- 4:
safety impact on a site. In an urban situation the height, shape, and ure of the stations,
other physical characteristics of surrounding buildings might . and were even more
influence what the designer chooses to place between them. A for- important than the
mal pattern may have been established, which would be very in- amount of traffic
sensitive to ignore. Traffic on adjacent streets might similarly passing the station
affect a site. For example, high levels of traffic on adjacent streets (Fig. 3-44).
are essential to the economic survival of many projects. Gas sta- At first glance, it
tions, shopping centers, and many other commercial facilities are appeared that there
typically located at intersections of major traffic arteries to ensure were two major
their economic survival. streams of traffic, Figure 3-44 Traffic Options through an Intersection.
The operations research group of the Wharton School at the one along each Credit Chris Barta
University of Pennsylvania study on why some gas stations suc- artery. More careful
ceed and others fail illustrates the extreme importance of context in analysis revealed that there were two lines of traffic on each artery
programming and design (Ackoff 1966). A major petroleum and that there were turning movements from one artery to the
company was baffled as to why some of their gas stations were other, some right turns, some left turns, even the possibility of U-
successful while others failed. It seemed as if there was no plau- turns. In all, there were sixteen different ways that traffic could
sible explanation for the problem, because each station was located pass through an intersection. The research group decided to focus
at the intersection of heavily traveled arterial streets in accordance on these sixteen alternatives in terms of the number of vehicles
with established company policy. But even when the amount of entering stations for service. It was. discovered that about 90
traffic passing the sites was essentially identical, one station would percent of a station's customers came from three of the 16
be very successful while another would not. alternatives. Vehicles turning right around the station accounted for
The cause of failure apparently had nothing to do with the as much as 70 percent of the use. Vehicles continuing in the same
physical design of the station, because the company had several direction accounted for an additional 15 percent. Vehicles turning
standard designs for its stations and there was no correlation be- left around the station accounted for another five percent. The re-
tween successful stations and the particular design utilized. Careful maining 13 ways of passing through the intersection each ac-
research also indicated that the friendliness of the operator or counted for less than one percent of the use of the station.
employees, the speed or quality of service, the cleanliness of the The researchers discovered that it was most important for the
rest rooms, differential advertising, or even the comparative cost of station to be located at an intersection where there was a high count
gas had little impact on success or failure. of traffic turning right around the station. This characteristic alone
There being no readily apparent reason for success or failure, could account for the success or failure of a station. A station with a
the research group decided to focus all of its attention on the ve- large number of vehicles turning right around the station would,'
hicular traffic passing the station, because traffic is obviously of succeed. A station without a large number of vehicles turning right
major importance. No station could succeed without automobile
102 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 103

around the station would fail. The

benefit from the right turns, the con- Clearly, anyone desiring to locate a
tinuing straight movements, and the gas station must place great value on the
left turns were found to be tied characteristics of traffic passing the sta-
closely to the stop-and-go lights at tion. The impact of other values of the
the intersection. People drove their client or designer would be minimal
vehicles into the station when it relative to the ultimate financial success
appeared that they could avoid or failure of the station. Traffic in this
waiting for the light by entering the case is the most important issue-all
station to get gas . They could get others pale in comparison.
gas, then continue to the right, or
straight ahead, or left to avoid the
light (Figs. 3-45 and 3-46). Resources
The persons turning right and left Environmental resources-water, air,
could avoid the light entirely by dri- fuel, building materials-can have a
ving through the station. It is not as profound influence on built form. Whole
dangerous as it might first appear to civilizations have vanished when water
make the two left-turn movements became unavailable. In climates where a
because the red light was, in fact, continuous supply of water is uncertain,
Figure 3-45 Routes to Avoid Traffic Light.
stopping oncoming traffic. In the case buildings are sometimes designed as
Credit: Nancy Cole
of the persons continuing straight collectors of water, with cisterns be-
ahead, the effect was similar, but the neath them to store precipitation for use
person had the choice after being during periods of drought. The impact
serviced of entering the arterials ei- on architectural form can be significant.
ther by a right or a left turn, In western Pakistan, the prevailing
whichever would help the driver breezes are collected and channeled Figure 3-47 Wind Collectors on Buildings.
avoid waiting for the light. Indeed, down through chimney-like stacks to Credit: Carl Okazaki
the study team discovered that drivers ventilate interior rooms (Fig. 3A 7).
select service stations to save time! Middle-Eastern and Mediterranean
What can a designer do to take cities have also developed with a con-
advantage of this information? If the sciousness to the benefits of sun and
site is located on a corner, the de- shade to create natural ventilation. The
signer can plan the station to allow courtyard house and narrow streets of
the above movements to be accom- towns in Morocco are particularly effec-
plished with ease. Perhaps the de- tive in this regard (Fig. 3-48).
signer can make it evident to Before air-conditioning was invented,
motorists that these movements are buildings in every region of the United
easy to accomplish. However, if the States were designed appropriately for
station is located on a corner with the local climate. In southern Arizona
very little traffic making right turns, there were two proto-types-the thick-
there would be practically nothing the walled and flat-roofed adobe courtyard
Figure 3-46 Non-Competing Gas Stations. designer could do to make the station houses similar to those found in the Figure 3-48 Courtyard Houses Creating Shade.
Credit Nancy Cole successful. Mediterranean area, and high-ceiling Credit: Carl Okazaki
104 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 105

sloped-roof buildings with It became mandatory to conserve energy as costs skyrocketed and
broad shaded porches on the possible unavailability of petroleum products for energy use
all sides, adapted from Eu- loomed as a distinct possibility. Indeed, the energy crisis resulted in
ropean traditions. James a completely new aesthetic expression in architecture, where large
Creighton's Old Main, the areas of south-facing glass, attached greenhouses, dark-· colored
first building on The Uni- Trombe walls, and roof-mounted solar collectors became expressed
versity of Arizona campus, parts of the architecture. This is a contemporary case in which a
is a very effective example newly held value became an architectural issue, just as it had been
of the latter tradition (Figs. for nearly all primitive buildings where energy issues could not be
3-49 and 3-50). Its large ignored. Cases in point are the cool towers and insulating shade
surrounding porches shade structures of the Environmental Research Laboratory (ERL) of The
the walls and windows to University of Arizona (Fig. 3-51).
keep out the heat of the
sun. Its high ceilings and
vented attic remove the
heat from the areas in
Figure 3-49 Old Main: Exterior.
which people work. Its
sunken lower porches take
advantage of both the
shade and the cooling
effect of the surrounding
earth, which serves as a
heat sink to draw heat
away from the area. Even
before air-conditioning
made it possible to
maintain a constant indoor
temperature, it was a very
comfortable building in
which to work.
The energy crisis of the
Figure 3-50 Old Main: Surrounding Porch. 1970s alerted the world,
and especially the architectural profession, to the prospect of a
time when conventional petroleum-based heating and cooling
technologies might not be available. Suddenly a completely new
value, energy, began to have a significant impact on the practice of
architecture. Previously, architects could build buildings without
much concern for orientation, solar penetration, and the like, and
rely on air conditioning run on cheap petroleum-based energy to
overcome the resulting high heating and cooling loads.
Figure 3-51 ERL Cool Tower and Shade Structures.
 106 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 107

The under-window
4" AJA SPACE OVER
10" INSULATION Trombe wall and vented
roof structure of the
Mittal Residence in
Tucson, Arizona, also
exemplify this
contemporary concern
(Fig. 3-52).
The availability of
building materials also
may have a significant
effect on built form.
Since time began,
NORTH
builders (and later ar-
chitects) have used the
most readily available
Figure 3-52 Trombe Wall and Vented Roof.
building materials:
Credit: Robert Hershberger and Nader Chalfoun
timber and stone in
forested mountain ar-
eas; adobe and brick in
desert environments;
reeds, mud, and thatch in tropical regions; ice and animal hides in
arctic areas. Only with modem technology and the resulting
transportation capabilities have many materials become nearly
universally available. Nevertheless, materials still have an impact
on design, depending on their economic availability and appro- Figure 3-53 Entry and Trash Conflict.
priateness relative to conditions of climate, available labor, and
other local conditions. gates, the trash area is immediately adjacent to the covered main
Waste entrance to the restaurant. This exposes customers to the obnox-
ious odors of the decaying food products and to the flies that make
Waste products from buildings and their ultimate disposition is a trash areas their home. It also results in occasional noise and traffic
design problem that rarely receives attention during the program- obstruction by vehicles collecting the trash. This is a terrible way
ming process, but can be an important issue in architecture. In site to handle restaurant waste. The program must make such things
planning, for example, the type and location of dumpsters to clear to the designer.
receive trash can have a major impact on parking and circulation Where to dispose of the collected trash is also a major problem.
layout. Every municipality has its own system for waste pickup In many cities in the southwestern United States, the urban washes
and screening which must be discovered and accommodated. The have been the location of choice for wildcat dumps and even
designer needs to know the particular requirements for locating municipal landfills. These seemed like logical places because
dumpsters so that their placement will not interfere with other occasional flooding made them poor choices for building sites. So,
more important design considerations. A particularly onerous ex- there they were, open and available to receive trash. This has
ample of the misplacement of trash containers is at golf resort created problems with water pollution as the occasional storms and
restaurant (Fig. 3-53). While partially screened behind wooden

.
108 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 109

flooding disrupt the landfill areas and leach contaminants such as Cultural issues are sometimes difficult to distinguish from hu-
TCP into the aquifers. This is not an easy problem to solve. Waste man issues. However, the reader can make the distinction by
recycling programs are one of the obvious ways to reduce the thinking of human issues as those that are immediately involved
problem. Employing only recyclable materials in both building and With the client and users of the building, while cultural issues are
manufacturing processes can also help tremendously. the expectations of society-the community at large. These issues
Similar problems are occurring in rapidly developing suburban vary widely from project to project, but no project is totally immune
and rural areas with wildcat dumping, septic systems, and even to or divorced from cultural influences.
agricultural pesticides and fertilizers that overcome the capability of How people perceive and use space, the meanings they attribute
the surface materials to absorb them so that clear water streams are to various forms, and what they expect in terms of art all relate to
being contaminated by waste products. Here again, recycling com- culture. Virtually every human institution is in some sense a product
bined with carefully planned landfills away from watercourses and of the values of the culture in which it is located. In this section, we
self-contained or development-sized sewer treatment systems can look at several aspects of culture that often have an impact on what
greatly reduce the amount of pollutants reaching the aquifer. Use of is designed.
biodegradable nutrients and biological methods of pest control can
Historical
also help to reduce pollution. In some rapidly growing urban areas,
the existing communities do not have a sufficient tax base to pro-
vide sewage disposal systems. Developers must provide their own In every place in the world, there is a history of development that
systems as part of the overall project. The location of these facilities relates to the particular region and its uman, environmental, cultural,
and their costs have a serious impact on project design. technical, temporal, economic, aesthetic, and safety traditionJ All
Similarly, airborne waste, once unregulated, has become a se- new developments must fit within this cultural context. If the place
rious concern in most states and municipalities, such that special is characterized by a free market economy, the way that buildings
systems in buildings and automobiles are often necessary to reduce are planned, designed, and built will be different from similar
waste products (pollutants) to an acceptable level. Reduction of auto facilities in a centrally controlled economy. If there is a strong
emissions is beginning to have an effect on how we plan and design central gov-
our cities and buildings. Provisions for shorter trips, carpooling, ernment, concerns for
public transportation, and charging electric vehicles may become safety and security
the norm. from unfriendly neigh-
While waste management is rarely a primary issue in the design bors may be dealt with
of buildings, managing waste is nevertheless an important issue and by an armed police
should be valued by anyone not wishing to be unpleasantly force. If there is not a
surprised by its impact on architecture or the surrounding com- strong central govern-
munity. The programmer is responsible for advising clients and ment, it might be nec-
designers about special facility needs in this area. essary to deal with
protection in a more
immediate way, such as
the castles used in feu-
3.3 Cultural Issues
dal times (Fig. 3-54).
Historical If a country has an
Institutional official religion, virtu-
ally all of the institu-
Political tions may revolve
Legal around the precepts of Figure 3-54 Manzanares Real Castle, Spain.
11 O Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 111

that faith. If a country and its people are relatively rich, how It is a much more difficult problem when architects do work in
something is made will be very different from one in which great another country, region, or culture. Without careful environmental
numbers of the people are very poor. This historical background research and sensitivity, there is a good chance that such architects
will establish the cultural context into which any new development will create something appropriate for their own place, but not for
will be placed. It will have a strong impact on what is programmed the place in which the building is to be constructed. There may be
and designed, even if some of the issues are not clearly articulated times of the year when everyone will be on vacation, so no work
by anyone (Hall 1966). can be accomplished, or rainy seasons or other conditions that
There will also be a tradition of language and art that conditions might interfere with construction schedules. Introduction of some
how people actually think, use space, and interpret architectural equipment or systems might guarantee that with the first
forms. In the words of the noted anthropologist Edward Hall, there breakdown, the entire operation would come to a standstill because
will be both a "silent language" and a "hidden dimension" to deal people from the architect's place of residence would have to be
with as the programmer and designer work to achieve architecture brought in to make repairs. This is particularly true in some of the
(Hall 1959, 1966). This is typically no great problem for architects Central and South American countries. There may also be traditions
working in the region in which they live. These traditions will of community life that should be known to the designer, so that if a
likely be an inherent part of the architect's way of dealing with departure from the norm is selected, it will be with an un-
architecture. The same is true for regional building traditions based derstanding of its likely effect. For example, what would be the re-
on available materials and labor. There will be materials that are action to a supermarket in a community accustomed to using an
much less expensive to use than others, and craftsmen available to open market or small neighborhood stores? (Fig. 3-56)
work on one kind of system, but not on another. The Arizona Inn It is important that the architectural program clearly set forth the
by Merrit H. Starkweather in Tucson, Arizona, with its adobe walls, conditions that establish the context for a project to be situated
skylights, trellises, and oasislike courtyards, is a particularly outside of the architectural designer's immediate region. Otherwise,
sensitive example of design for the Sonoran Desert region (Fig. 3- the designer will need to do research on the culture or
55).

Figure 3-55 Arizona Inn. Figure 3-56 Market Place in Curitiba, Brazil.
112 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 113

to rely on intuition appropriate in one place, but possibly not in small stores, galleries, eater-
another. This can lead to problems in getting a design approved, ies, and entertainment to
built, and then properly used and maintained. bring students from the
A particularly interesting commission relating to historical tra- neighboring university and
ditions in our own country dealt with downtown Tempe, Arizona, residents of the community
referred to as "Old Town Mill Avenue." This part of the city was back downtown, especially at
destined, by vote of the city council, for complete demolition and night.
rebuilding at the time when the author had arrived in town as a new The strategy and specific plan
assistant professor, fresh from graduate school in Philadelphia. He were adopted by the city
felt that much of what was to be torn down was quite handsome council. Improvements by the
and capable of restoration, particularly since it had been built some private sector, led by archi-
200 years after many of the still functioning buildings in tects as developers, began al-
Philadelphia. Fortunately, another young architect, Ernest Nickels, most immediately and have
felt similarly and was writing letters to the editor of the local paper continued ever since. The dis-
criticizing the shortsightedness of the decision. trict has quadrupled in size
The author met with Nickels and together they developed a and is the strongest and most
strategy to preserve the area. They helped organize the older res- attractive entertainment dis-
idents and current business owners to resist the urban renewal trict in the metropolitan area.
approach in favor of an old town revitalization program, to bring Interestingly, it has converted
back the lost qualities and to reinvigorate the business climate of a town relying on regional
the district. This group of people ultimately prevailed, and the shopping centers into one that
council reversed their earlier decision and appointed a project area now loves its "open market"
committee to see how this revitalization could be achieved. in the old downtown (Figs. 3-
A year later, the city hired the two young architects, who had 57 and 3-58).
Figure 3-57 Old Town Tempe: Area Plan.
subsequently organized a firm together, to make a thorough study
Creditl Robert Hershbe:_~er and Ernest Nickels Par 3 Studio
of the area and to draft a specific revitalization plan. This was ac- Institutional
complished after a very careful analysis of the district, including
the condition of the old structures, and extensive interaction with If the client is involved with
the project area committee members and other residents and users an activity that has a conti-
of the area. nuity or history of develop-
The proposed plan included reducing traffic on Mill Avenue, ment in society the architect
increasing the sidewalk back to its original generous width, plant- will be designing for a hu-
ing street trees, and adding street furniture and other amenities. It man institution. This is the
also included adding considerable off-street parking and bringing area of value identification to
in new city buildings, a hotel, and some other major business which the architect Louis I.
anchors. The plan included preserving many of the old structures Kahn made such a great
through careful augmentation of seismic capabilities and refur- contribution (Kahn 1961).
bishing exterior materials and finishes, including the additions of What is the nature of the in
canopies and awnings. It also specified signage appropriate to the stitution? What is its reason for
time that the buildings were constructed. The intent was to make being? What is the pur
this an active, pedestrian-oriented shopping district filled with pose for building? These were Figure 3-58 Old Town Tempe: Street Fair.
 114 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 115

important questions that values was consid- Bad Air

Professor Kahn asked ered primary for each Out
for all of his commis- design. For example,
sions, from bathhouses Stanford Hospital
to churches to great re- was conceived by
search institutions. For Edward D. Stone as a
these great research in- place for patients to
stitutions, he realized heal (Fig. 3-62). This
the importance of attitude resulted in a
differentiating between hospital only a few
served and servant stories high, with pa-
spaces, and he made an tient access to patios
architecture that on the ground floor
recognized both types of and views of trees
spaces. This is clearly from upper levels. Its
Figure 3-61 Salk Center: Systems Diagram.
Figure 3-59 Salk Center: Courtyard. the case in the Salk long halls made ac-
Credit: Nancy Cole
Center in La Jolla, cess to patient rooms
California, where he de- inconvenient for the
signed mechanical/ elec- doctors, who gener-
trical floors above and ally prefer high-rise
below laboratory spaces buildings, with eleva-
to allow supply and re- tors for quick access
moval of air, gas, water, to patient areas.
electricity, exhaust, and An even more in-
sewage at any location teresting case is that
in the laboratories (Figs. of the prison or pen-
3-59 through 3-61). itentiary. Are they
If the institution is a institutions whose
hospital, what important primary purpose is
human values are being custody-to keep the
served? Is it a place prisoner away from
where doctors operate?" society? Or are they Figure 3-62 Stanford Hospital: Model.
A place where nurses for therapy-to pre- Photo Credit Office of Communications, Stanford University Medical Center. Permission: From the coll! tion
care? Where patients pare the prisoner to of Lane Medical Library, Stanford University Medical Center
heal? Where patients return to society as
die? Where investors a better person? Or are they for punishment-to make the prisoner
Figure 3-60 Salk Center: Exterior. make a good return on pay a high price for their crime? The prison official's perception of
investment? Or some or all of the above? The institution's essential the role and function of a prison can greatly affect prison design.
place in society should be considered and ar- Robert Sommer ( 197 4) has serious concerns that society in
ticulated so that the designer can express this value in the form, general, and prison institutions in particular, do not have clearly
space, and meaning of the design. Imagine the different hospital defined.values relative to housing social misfits; hence, they
designs that would result if only one of the above institutional cannot decide upon appropriate goals for accommodating these
people (Fig. 3-63).
116 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 117

If the building is to be a city hall, it will have considerable im-

portance within the community, both functionally and symbolically.
What is the nature of a city hall in our culture? Is there a
fundamental difference between a city hall in our country and one
in Mexico, Poland, or Turkey? Is it a place of great power and cen-
tral authority or an easily accessible place to service the people of
the community? This needs to be determined so that the architect
can find an appropriate solution.
In a master planning study for the Miami/Dade County Center,
.. Robert Geddes, Architect, proposed a long, low building rather
than the typical high-rise, feeling that a government center in our
country should be close to the people. He believed that citizens
Figure 3-63 Hard and Soft Prison Spaces. should be able to get to the public service areas without having to
Credit: Goldman and Peatross (1993), 376. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser enter an elevator. Is this a correct understanding of this institution?
Apparently, few big-city governments have come to this
A mental hospital is a similar case relative to the values it realization. Indeed, the programmer for the government center in
should serve in society. If the purpose of the mental hospital is to Miami assumed it would be a high-rise, and developed all of the
prepare people to better cope in society, it seems inherently wrong floor-byfloor spatial relationships typical of high-rises found in
to remove the patients from society and confine them with other Manhattan, where the programming firm was located. And years
persons with similar or worse problems! Our society needs to later when Miami/Dade County actually built the center, it was
define more clearly the purposes of such institutions, or to change comprised of several high-rise buildings, each one for a different
them or the types of patients they house. These are cases where governmental unit. So, how should a governmental center be
established institutions of society may be products of conflicting or organized?
outmoded values. The Boston City Hall
A case for carefully articulated institutional values could be by Kallman, McKinnell
made for practically any human institution: educational, religious, and Knowles was a very
commercial, or residential. What is the true value or purpose of the bold scheme set in a great
airport, the school, the retirement community? What are the urban square (Fig. 3-64).
implications of these values relative to specific goals, objectives, The smaller Tempe City
needs? It is important that the designer know the building's reason Hall by Michael and
for being. Will it be a very important facility for the neighborhood, Kemper Goodwin was
the en_tire community, the state, or even the nation? Or is it only equally strong
intended to serve the purposes of some individual or private conceptually (Fig. 3-65).
organization? What, then, is its appropriate image in the commu- Are they appropriate
nity? Should it be a foreground or background building? Or some- designs?
where in between? What should it communicate to those who pass A very interesting ar-
by, to those who enter, to those who occupy and use the building? chitectural problem that
The programmer has an obligation to make these things clear. The the author dealt with, as
values that an institution embraces should have a strong influence both the programmer and
on its form. If made clear in the program, the designer should be designer, was a training
able to express these values in the resulting architecture. and workshop facility for
handicapped adults. The
organization had always Figure 3-64 Boston City Hall.
118 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 119

The extremely
limited financial
resources of the
organization had to be
directed to expressing
the high quality of the
operation, not just to
providing space to meet
functional requirements.
The design solution was
a simple rectangular
building with flexible
and expandable interior
spaces, but constructed
of high-quality exterior
materials, including an
Figure 3-65 Tempe City Hall.
exterior shade canopy
for breaks and lunches,
that would convey to Figure 3-66 Tempe Center for the Handicapped.
been housed in leased space in existing industrial or warehouse the public the high stan- Credit: Robert Hershberger and l<yun Kim, Hershberger-Kim Architects
facilities. These facilities lacked appropriate spaces for training dards and expectations
activities and flexibility for rapidly changing needs. They were un- of the organization (Fig. 3-66).
satisfactory in terms of convenience and safety for the handicapped The new building's impact on the community was enormous.
workers and projected an inappropriate image. Fortunately, the Tempe Center for the Handicapped became a symbol of a pro-
staff and directors of the facility were able to articulate the true gressive city, recognized for its quality design and used as a prime
nature of the institution. example in the city's successful application for All-American City
The center was not merely a place where handicapped adults . status. More importantly, it was recognized as an institution ca-
could learn to be gainfully employed. The fundamental reason for pable of delivering quality services, and its annual contract work
the facility was the belief that "the handicapped are individuals and community financial support· increased threefold. Applica-
with the potential for growth and development" and that "handi- tions for placement of the handicapped and additional services also
capped individuals have the right to self respect and deserve the increased substantially, such that in just three years the client
opportunity to be contributing members of society." This under- returned to the architect for a major renovation and expansion with
girding value system required that the facility be much more than a cash in hand to pay for it. Virtually every function had outgrown
workshop in a leased industrial space. It had to be a place where its original space allocation. Was this a problem with the original
the handicapped could reach their full potential as contributing program or design? Of course not! In the ten years of existence
members of society. It had to communicate to the occupants and to prior to the building program, the center had a very slight upward
the public at large that individuals with disabilities can be growth curve. Its rapid growth after occupying the new building
contributing and valued members of the community. And, it had to was the result of excellent programming and design.
do this within very severe economic constraints. This was a Although institutional is properly located in the cultural section
considerably different design problem than would have been the
of the HEC'I'TEAS list, the author believes that it is the most
case had the architect only received information on specific
important value area in architectural programming. Indeed, the
functional requirements for the facility.
identification of institutional purpose at the beginning of the
architectural programming activity and within the
120 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 121

program document is important to establish the direction of the rest of Legal

the programming and design activities. If a clear understanding of the Most political decisions
nature and purpose of an organization can be established early in of a community, county,
programming, it is an important step on the way to producing or state become a matter
architecture. To help ensure its place when programming, the author of law. Most states now
thinks of the overall list as "I HECTTEAS" or "I TEST EACH" with require that architects
the letter "I" standing for institutional. have an accredited
professional degree and
Political practical experience, and
that they pass a lengthy
Most communities determine the kind of place they want to be exam to demonstrate their
through political processes. Some seek to be full-service cities, others ability to design buildings
seek to be limited service places, perhaps bedroom communities. Most that will protect the public
eventually evolve general plans that include the infrastructure of the health, safety, and
community: streets, utilities, storm drains, water, sewage treatment, and welfare. This, of course,
the like Location, disposition, and costs to tie in to these services often has had an effect on both
have a strong impact on private building development. Zoning who can practice
regulations spell out the kinds of buildings that can be located in parts arc itecture and the overall
of the community, at what density, to what height, etc. In short, the quality of the built Figure 3-68 City of Tempe: Zoning Requirement
general plans and zoning regulations adopted by communities have a environment (Figs. Credit: City of Tempe, 1996. City Ordinance No. 808, Section 7, Zoning Requirements
significant impact on what can be designed. 3-68 and 3-69).
Most communities also have citizen boards to interpret the general
plans and ordinances and hear citizen and/ or developer appeals for National standards
deviations. The architectural program must identify the various and codes are also
community ordinances and procedures that will affect the design of a adopted by communities
facility. Unusual requirements such as extra large lots or setbacks, as a further means of
height restrictions, or complete storm water retention must be included. protecting the public
If the community has particular re- health, safety, and wel-
quirements for signs or fare. Building, plumbing,
landscaping, these too electrical, and mechanical
should be made known. codes are usually adopted
Communities, through by cities and other
their elected officials, governing authorities.
decide what they want Life safety and
their city to look like, and handicapped standards Figure 3-69 Old Town Tempe: Design Standards.
each building within the are also frequently Credit: Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels, Par 3 Studio, 1973. Old Town Tempe-Mill Avenue Reha-
bilitation Feasibility Study, Tempe Arizona
community must con- adopted that specify how
tribute to that image, or buildings can be
the architect must con- designed and constructed. The architectural programmer must diligently
vince the leaders that a seek out and identify those that apply to the particular pro-. ject under
Figure 3-67 City of Tempe: Sign Requirement.
deviation is appropriate consideration. Here again, if some code requirements are unusual, or a
Credit: City of Tempe, 1996. Sign Regulations. City Ordinance No. 808, Section 7, page 89. (Fig. 3-67). city interprets them differently, or has modified them
122 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 123

for its own purposes, these irregularities should be pointed out in 3.4 Technological Issues
the program.
• Materials
Some architects complain bitterly that codes and ordinances
design their buildings. We are convinced that the architects who • Systems
complain loudest are the ones who did not take time to learn about • Processes
the codes and ordinances during the programming phase and,
hence, were rudely introduced to them after design decisions had Available technology, at least historically, has been one of the
already been made. They were then forced to go back major influences on architecture. If a masonry unit was the only
and redesign to ac material available for construction, the arch was the only way to
commodate the law. span openings. If wood was readily available, timbers and trusses
This hurts! If the were used to span major spaces. The form of the building directly
designer is fully reflected the possibilities of the available materials.
aware of the rules Today, what the architect selects from the tremendous variety
and regulations be- of available building materials, systems, and processes is often a
fore commencing matter of personal preference, based on availability, cost, and aes-
design, the legal re- thetic potential. Whether any of the technological selections be-
quirements become come an important part of the architectural expression is usually at
just another design the designer's discretion.
issue. Generally,
regulations to pro- Materials
tect the public
Occasionally, a client will have a very strong preference for one
health and safety are
material or another and may insist that the preferred material be
neither arbitrary nor
used in a project. This is often the case in housing, where some
capricious. Nor are
people have a strong preference for masonry and others for wood
they there to give
construction. It also occurs in other building types, depending on
architects a hard
material and installation costs and the client's previous experience
time. Indeed, as one
with particular materials. There are also preferences that relate to
of my colleagues, a
the historic availability of materials and skilled craftsmen in the
structural engineer,
region where a building is to be constructed. The programmer,
has told his stu-
while not dictating the choice of materials for the building, should
dents, "They are
include client preferences or requirements in the program so the
there because some-
designer will be able to give these materials special consideration
body got killed!"
when developing the form of the building. This includes structural
(Sheydayi 1985).
materials such as wood, masonry, steel, and concrete, as well as
They provide
finish materials such as plaster, wall board, marble, brick, tile,
important
glass, and aluminum.
programmatic
For example, the author programmed and designed a medium-
information that can
sized landscape nursery for a client who had purchased hundreds of:
have a profound im-
Figure 3-70 Uniform Building Code. used 12" x 12" Douglas fir timbers from a Central Arizona Project
pact on design (Fig.
Reproduced from the Uniform Building Code™, copyright© 1994, with the permission of the publisher, the In· 3-70).
ternational Conference of Building Officials
124 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 125

trestle bridge. The client to meet other goals and requirements of the
wanted to use them in the pro8!am.
nursery facility. What an Mechanical and electrical systems can also be
opportunity! The limited identified during programming. One client may
project budget would not have a strong preference for fluorescent over in-
have allowed the purchase candescent lighting because of the economics of
of new timbers of this size operation. Another client may prefer incandescent
(Figs. 3-71 and 3-72). over fluorescent lighting because of the quality of
the light. One client may prefer to heat and cook
Systems
with gas, while another may prefer 'electricity.
Preferences and decisions Some clients may insist on dropped, easily
about systems should be maintained ceiling surfaces for quick cleaning and
handled in a manner similar easy access to mechanical and electrical systems
to that used for construction and equipment, while others may wish to have a
materials.Structural systems more formal plastered or paneled ceiling, and still
vary depending on the others may be willing to expose all systems and
nature of the materials used. have no ceiling at all.
Figure 3-71 Greenworld Nursery: Structure. For the American Pavilion
(Fig. 3-73) at the Montreal In the Richards Building (Fig. 3-75) and the Figure 3-73 American Pavilion: Interior.
World's Fair, R. Buckmin- Salk Center, Louis I. Kahn determined that there
ster Fuller and Shoji Sodao needed to be entire structures devoted to
chose to use lightweight handling the various mechanical,
steel members to construct plumbing, and electrical systems. In
their noted geodesic dome. the Richards Building, the systems
The Cambridge Seven used were housed in separated towers and
a contrasting structure of delivered to the spaces through ex-
concrete to differentiate the posed verandale trusses supporting
internal exhibit from the each floor. The fresh air intakes were
enclosing structure. at the lower level of the towers located
Norman Foster used ex- on the south side and the exhaust was
posed structural members to at the top of dissimilar towers located
construct the exquisitely on the other sides of the building. This
detailed Hong Kong and solved the problem of possible
Shanghai Bank (Fig. 3- 7 4). contamination of the air supply and
If a particular system is expressed the differences with the bold
required by the client, it forms used in the design.
must be noted in the pro- Aldo Giurgola of Mitchell/Giurgola
gram. Generally, however, Architects saw a similar potential for
structural systems tend to be the mechanical systems in high- rise
Figure 3-72 Greenworld Nursery: Entry. selected by the designer buildings, which are often hidden in
penthouses at the tops of these build- Figure 3-74 Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank.
ings or in basement service areas. For Credit Carl Okazaki
 126 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 127

the Two INA Plaza

building in Philadel-
phia, Giurgola chose to
locate these systems
near the center point of
the building and used
the location as a
primary aesthetic ex-
pression of the building
(Fig. 3-76).
Other architects,
such as Hardy, Holz-
man and Pfeiffer, ex-
pose brightly colored
mechanical systems as
Figure 3-75 Richards Building: Systems. significant elements of
Credit: Nancy Cole architectural expres-
sion, even in major Figure 3-77 Multi-Tenant Facility.
public buildings where Photo Credit: Simon Scott. Permission: Che-Cheung Poon
all systems have traditionally been
kept hidden. The Discovery Park
Multi-Tenant Facility by Russell
Vandiver Architects Partnership in
Vancouver, British Columbia, is a
good example of mechanical ducts
being used as elements of
architectural expression (Fig. 3- 77).
If the architect is not sensitive to
the aesthetic potential of systems,
they can destroy the building's ap-
pearance. Probably the most usual
situation is one in which interior
equipment requires large and possibly
unsightly elements on the roof. The
programmer should make the
designer aware of this fact. Other- Figure 3-78 Unsightly Rooftop Equipment.
wise, the result could be disastrous
from an aesthetic standpoint. A glar- The program needs to state if the client, users, or community
ing and ironic example of unsightly prefer or require a particular material or system. The designer, hav-
unscreened mechanical equipment is ing been apprised of these preferences or requirements, can evalu-
on the roof of the Arizona State Uni- ate their appropriateness and incorporate them into the design or try
Figure 3-76 Two INA Plaza. versity Art Annex (Fig. 3-78). to convince the client, user, or community why the preferred
 128 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 129

material or system would not be appropriate. While some may ar- If an architect uses free-
gue that no one but the architect should have any say as to mate- hand sketches during the de-
rials and systems selection, the reality of who is approving the sign process, his/her buildings
design, paying the bills for construction, and ultimately main- are likely to be less rectilinear
taining the building, dictates that it is appropriate to let the de- than buildings by architects
signer know the preferences of these people. · who rely on a straightedge
while designing. Erich
Processes Mendelsohn often used
freehand charcoal or soft
The effect of process on architecture is very significant but is pencil sketches during design,
rarely consciously planned. The architect who proceeds without a which allowed
program will program the building through design. This is an in- ·.him to develop very fluid, dy-
efficient process that generally re- namic, and organic-appearing Figure 3-81 Einstein Tower: Architect's Sketch.
sults in a substantially different buildings. This was certainly Permission: Staaliche Museen PreuBischer l<ulturbezitz, l<unstbibliothek, Berlin
building than one based on a writ- true of the Einstein Tower
ten program. Similarly, the meth- (Figs. 3-81 and 3-82) designed
ods, techniques, and tools employed by Mendelsohn in Potsdam
in the design process have a pro- (Hart 1995).
found influence on the resulting ar- The author, using freehand
chitecture. A designer who really pencil sketches in the early
understands the client's and user's stages of design, often devel-
values, and who has discovered the ops irregular forms, as can be
fundamental nature of the institu- seen in the sketch plan and el-
tion, is likely to produce a very dif- evation for the Thirsty Earth
ferent building than an architect Museum project (Figs. 3-83
who is concerned only with provid- and 3-84).
Figure 3-79 Unitarian Church: Exterior. ing the required spaces, in proper Designers who use chip-
Credit: Carl Okazaki relationships, within the client's board or clay models are likely.
budget. Similarly, if a designer uses to generate forms that are in
a parallel bar and a 30-60 degree some way a reflection of these
triangle as the . principal tools for media. Similarly, the ease of
design, he/she is likely to end up drawing and building radially
with a building characterized by defined curves with computer-
right and possibly 30-60 degree aided design (CAD) systems is
angles in its form. Frank Lloyd reflected in the designs by Figure 3-82 Einstein Tower: Exterior.
Wright was known for designing firms using these systems. Photo Credit: Vaughn Hart
with a 'I'-square and a 30-60-90 The firm of Eric Owen
degree triangle. The Unitarian Moss Architects combines
Church in Madison, Wisconsin, is free-
one example of his using this com- hand sketching and computer imaging in their design process. The
Figure 3-80 Unitarian Church: Plan. bination during design (Figs. 3-79 Exhibition Hall for Imagina published in Architectural Record
Credit: Carl Okazaki and 3-80).
(Novitski 1996) involved videoconferencing to cornmu-. nicate the
design to a collaborating architect and client based in Monaco.
These methods help the firm imagine and develop the
130 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 131

highly innovative de-

signs that characterize
their work (Figs. 3-85
and 3-86).

Construction proc-
esses also can have an
impact on the form of a
building. A case in point
is the Hilton Palacio Del
Rio Hotel by Cerna and
Garza, Architects, built
along the Riverwalk in
San Antonio prior to the
1968 world's fair. It Figure 3-85 Exhibition Hall: Sketches.
was not possible to Credit and Permission: Eric Owen Moss Architects
have the building ready
for the fair using con-
ventional design and
building processes. The
architect developed a
design that allowed
room units to be com-
pleted and furnished in
advance of completion
of the building structure,
so that when the
structure was in place
Figure 3-83 Thirsty Earth Museum: Plan.
these room systems,
including furnishings,
could be inserted within
the structural
framework,
and the hotel could be Figure 3-86 Exhibition Hall: Computer Image.
ready for immediate Architect: Eric Owen Moss. Design Team: Paul Groh, Scott Nakao and Gevik Hovsepian. Computer Image
and Photo Credit: Paul Groh. Permission: Eric Owen Moss Architects.
occupancy. This fast-
tracking of construc-
tion became a dominant theme in the design of the building (Fig. 3-8
7).
A similar need for fast-tracking resulting in a very different
~:!.1,~~--- modular solution can be found in the Habitat Housing project by
Moshe Safde for the Montreal World's Fair in 1967 (Fig. 3-88).
Figure 3-84 Thirsty Earth Museum: Sketch
132 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager !lalues Become Issues 133

second phase of design and construction, and so on, until the ca-
3.5 Temporal Issues 0
pacity of the site is reached. At such time, the church faces the
Growth prospect of limiting growth; finding a new, larger site and
beginning the process of growth again; or possibly spinning off
Change
smaller mission churches to absorb additional growth. In many
Permanence cases, initial worship facilities are en-
Time has an impact on architecture in a larged to achieve greater
variety of ways (Duffy 1990; Brand 1994). capacity. In other cases,
It can impact the design and construction old worship facilities are
processes, as discussed under process converted to new uses,
issues. It can also have a very strong such as education· or fel-
influence on the design of institutions that lowship, which often re-
are characterized by growth and change, as quire less space, and a
well as for buildings that are intended to last new worship facility is
a very long time-where permanence is built. It is important that
highly valued. the growth potential in
Figure 3-87 Hilton Hotel Under Construction. churches be recognized
Growth
Credit: Carl Okazaki as an issue in the initial
Most design commissions are for buildings planning and program-
[iliat will be expanded in the future to reflect ming, so that adequate
natural growth in the organizatioriJ In fact, provision can be made
most successful enterprises will expand nu- for future additions and
merous times during their existence. Some- new facilities. If this is
times this can be done on the original site. not done, it is likely Figure 3-89 Covenant Baptist Church: Model.
Often, an organization will have to move to that future work will be
a new location because their existing site is hampered by facilities
not large enough to accommodate additional located in inappropriate
building expansion. places.
Churches can be striking examples of The master plan for
this kind of growth. They often begin with a Covenant Baptist Church
small group of people in a home, grow into a by Hershberger Kim Ar-
rented facility, and then into a first small chitects includes a future
building of their own. If they have the finan- sanctuary, classrooms,
cial resources or denominational support, and expanded parking
they generally purchase a parcel of land of (Figs. 3-89 and 3-90).
sufficient size to accommodate the projected The architectural pro-
future growth, but begin with only one or grammer must discover
two buildings of sufficient size to accommo- if the facility being pro-
date their present congregation plus space grammed has a potential
for modest growth. Once the first phase is for growth, determine in
complete and the size of the congregation is what particular areas and
Figure 3-88 Habitat Housing. near capacity, the church typically begins a what manner the growth Figure 3-90 Covenant Baptist Church: Exterior.
134 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 135

is most likely to occur, and include strategies acceptable to the client

for accommodating the growth. This is probably one of the most
glaring omissions in many traditional programs. It results in added
future costs to clients when they discover that growth is difficult or
even impossible to accommodate, given the locations of existing
facilities on the site.

change
well-designed buildings are able to accommodate changes in oc-
cupants or occupant needs.A characteristic of university buildings is
the likelihood of internal change. It is a rare academic building that
serves the same purpose for long periods of time. A
building may begin as a multipurpose
liberal arts college for a number of de-
partments, be taken over by one de-
partment as others move out to new
facilities, then be given over to still
another department as the first outgrows
the facility and moves into another
larger facility. Between actual moves,
there may be constant internal change as
the departmental focus moves from
teaching to research or service, as
equipment and furnishings are
modernized, as new faculty are fitted
into already crowded offices, and so on. Figure 3-92 Citicorp Center: Plan of Tower ..
The programmer must discover if the Adapted from the preliminary design drawings of HSA. Permission: The Stubbins Associates
need for change is characteristic of the
building being programmed.
High-rise buildings have similar Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels of Par 3 Studio designed a
needs to accommodate change. The relocatable church in which change was a crucial issue. The
Citicorp Center in Manhattan, New denomination's board for new church development wanted a church
York, designed by The Stubbins As- building that could be placed on the permanent site at the time that a
sociates Inc. (TSA), has, like most high- minister was assigned. The client believed that quality facilities for
rise office buildings, an unobstructed exclusive use of the new congregation would enhance church growth
span from the central core to the and commitment. The intent was to have this relocatable church on the
exterior wall to allow the flexible site no longer than five years, when it would be moved to another site
partition system to accommodate in the region to begin another new church. This would give the
changing tenants and uses over time founding congregation three years to establish itself, to hire an
Figure 3-91 Citicorp Center: Exterior.
(Figs. 3-91 and 3-92). architect to design permanent
Photo Credit: Edward Jacoby. Permission: The Stubbins Associates
136 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager l!alues Become Issues 137

facilities, and to have

them built and ready to
occupy before the relo-
catable facility would be
moved (Fig. 3-93).
In order to accom-
modate this program for
change, the author's firm
proposed using four
completely finished and
transportable units built
off-site, which could be
moved down the high-
way on "low-boy" trailer
units and assembled on-
site to form a 50-foot-
CHURCH SCHOOL FELLOWSHIP
square facility.
The assembled unit
Figure 3-93 Relocatable Church: Concept. further responded to
change to meet the pro-
grammatic requirement
that the church accommodate all typical activities of a congrega-
tion of 100 persons. In order to accomplish this within a very re-
stricted budget, it was necessary to have a facility that could
quickly change to first accommodate church school, then worship,
and then fellowship-all in the same morning. The design included
moveable sound partitions and furnishings that are easily stacked,
moved, reassembled, or stored to meet this requirement.
All of this accommodation for change was done in the context
of other important issues such as the functional requirements for
education and fellowship being met in a facility that is aesthetically
satisfactory for worship. The relocatable building also needed to be
attractive enough to be welcome in newly developing upscale
neighborhoods.
Jon Jerde's design for Horton Plaza (Fig. 3-94), a major shop- Figure 3-94 Horton Plaza: Mall.
ping center in downtown San Diego, also responded to require-
ments for change, but in a slightly different way. Jerde speaks
about "scripting" places in the city for a variety of uses at different ticularly successful at designing for these changes, because he rec-
times of the day, week, and year, so that changing activities can be ognized change as a crucial urban design issue.
accommodated seamlessly (jerde 1992). He has been par- Most building types are affected by the need to change inter-
nally as technologies become obsolete and new equipment and
 138 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 139

systems are introduced. It is often hard to predict the nature of this Even buildings constructed
kind of change. In addition, the demands of new technology are for world's fairs are often
often so specific that modifications of facilities are difficult to intended to remain long
make, sometimes resulting in extremely high remodeling and ren- after the event is over as
ovation costs. Making spaces more general, with free spans from functional or symbolic
exterior wall to exterior wall will help to accommodate change. parts of the city in which
Oversizing of ducts, chases, and other service systems is another the fair was held. This was
strategy that helps to mitigate such problems. Providing for ease of certainly the case for the
expansion can also be helpful. Seattle World's Faircity
Some buildings change even more dramatically. World fair ex- officials and planners
hibition buildings are often designed to be dismantled at the end of decided that the fair was a
the fair, so other uses can be made of the fairground site. Other great opportunity to de-
structures, like those for circuses, are designed to be erected and velop needed permanent
dismantled repeatedly in different locations. The tent structure buildings for the commu-
designed by Richard Larry Medlin for a ten-day concert series in nity. So, they planned
Big Sky, Montana, was intended to be this kind of temporary quite a number of struc-
structure (Fig. 3-95). tures, including the Space
The character of this Needle and Monorail (Fig.
kind of temporary struc- 3-96), for use after the fair
ture varies considerably was over. The same has
from buildings intended occurred for buildings
to remain in one planned for most of the
location. They must be fairs and Olympic celebra-
easily assembled and tions that have been held
dismantled, lightweight, throughout the world.
and made of relatively There is also a need for
short members so that certain buildings that will
they can be shipped from last a long time and the
one site to another. client or society at large Figure 3-96 Space Needle and Monorail.
will value for their perma-
nence. Key governmental
Permanence buildings or monuments
The ftip side of growth to great leaders, such as those found in the capitols of countries
and change is the issue of around the world, are excellent examples. The people of each
permanence. Most country want these buildings to be permanent symbols of their
buildings are intended to national culture. Therefore, such buildings need to be constructed of
have a long life, even materials and systems of the highest quality and permanence, so
though there may be re- they will last as long as the country itself. Clearly, the United States
peated remodelings or Capitol (Fig. 3-97) is intended to last this long.
Figure 3-95 Tent Structure. additions to accommo- What about other buildings? Which buildings in society should
Credit Richard Larry Medlin Architect, Inc. date needed change. be the most permanent? For which should the image of permanence
140 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 141

chitects will be over money-something costing more than the client

expected. The bottom line, as far as most clients are concerned, is
what the project is going to cost.
Often, clients seem to be most concerned with the initial con-
struction cost, or even the amount of the architect's fees. They want
to keep both as low as possible. However, in the 1980s the very
high interest rates for construction and permanent financing,
steadily increasing energy costs, and realization that costs for op-
erations and maintenance go on for the life of the building made it
apparent to many clients that life cycle costs are really much more
important (Crosbie 1994). Financing costs go on for up to thirty
years, usually at a constant level. The costs of operations,
maintenance, and energy continue and usually increase over the life
of a building. Thus, a building constructed of cheap materials and
systems may soon lose the benefit of low initial cost because of
substantial operations, maintenance, and energy costs.
An unrealistically low architect's fee is likely to result in in-
creases in all of these costs because of the resulting lack of careful
planning and design. It takes time to solve the functional and tech-
Figure 3-97 United States Capitol.
nical problems of building. It takes even more time to compare the
Photo Credit: Howard Olson
life cycle costs of various materials and systems. The most effective
money that the client can spend to solve these problems will be for
be an important characteristic of the architecture? Which buildings architectural services, including architectural programming.
should be readily capable of change of one type or another? Which It is also a truism that clients very soon forget their willingness
buildings will continue to grow over long periods of time? to accept lower quality to obtain a building within a fixed budget.
Programmers should give some attention to these questions for Once built and occupied, clients always expect the building to
each new design problem. perform as if only the highest quality materials and systems were
installed. It is mandatory, therefore, to precisely spell out in the
program what the owner is willing to accept initially, so that sub-
3.6 Economic Issues sequent misunderstandings can be resolved without added cost to
• Finance the programmer or to the architect.
• Construction Finance
• Operations Project financial feasibility analysis is an important pre-design
• Maintenance service for most commercial, industrial, and housing facilities. It
involves both market assessment and financial planning for the
• Energy
project. If there is no market for a particular facility, it matters little
Concern for cost may be of little interest to the student, novice how well it is designed-it is likely to fail. This is not simply a
programmer, or designer. But anyone who has been professionally matter of whether a facility can be located in a particular area.
involved for some time in either programming or design will agree Market analysis must establish the appropriate size of the facility,
that the most frequent misunderstandings between clients and ar- the acceptable level of quality, and even the types of amenities
142 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 143

that can be absorbed within the current market. The financial analysis then the client can either raise the budget to ob-
must then establish an acceptable project cost, given current costs of tain what is needed, reduce space requirements,
construction, the cost of financing, comparable property costs/rental quality of materials or systems, or use other
rates, expected profitability, and the like. Such studies are not always strategies to allow the project to proceed. The
a direct part of programming, and if not, usually precede costs of making adjustments are less during pro-
programming to determine if the project is feasible and, if so, to help gramming stage than in any other stage of the
establish the size and quality of the project. design/construction process. A simple and direct
For example, a financial feasibility study for a speculative office statement of maximum construction cost such as
building would identify the current market conditions; the likely the one below can do much to keep both the
types and numbers of tenants; the lease rates that can be expected; client and the designer from attempting to obtain
availability of financing, including points and interest rates; the Figure 3-98 Construction Cost Card.
more than the budget will allow (Fig. 3-98).
square footage costs allowable for construction; typical square
footage requirements for prospective tenants; reasonable bay sizes to
accommodate typical tenants; and various amenity requirements such Operations
as exterior windows and landscaping.
It is advisable for the novice programmer to retain professionals Costs of operating a facility are not independent of either program-
capable of conducting market studies and developing financing ming or design. In programming, it is necessary to understand and set
packages in order to be certain that various assumptions made in the forth information that directly relates to operating costs. If a client
programming studies are credible. intends to retain one doorman to monitor all ingress and egress from
the building and parking, this must be clearly stated. A design
Construction requiring several doormen or sophisticated electronic equipment to
monitor a facility could seriously jeopardize the financial feasibility
A building whose cost exceeds budget can be devastating to both the of a project. Inefficient planning of office or industrial space,
client and the architect. if discovered during programming, excessive requiring additional personnel or causing extra time to be consumed
building costs can be eliminated by reducing either the size of the in developing a product, could also seriously impact operating costs.
project or the quality of materials and systems. On the other hand, this Ineffective programming relating to the client's plan for operating a
can involve the architect in a substantial amount of redesign if not facility can have a serious negative financial impact. This is
discovered early in the design process. If excess costs are discovered important information that must be included in the program!
during bidding, after many months have been spent in developing
detailed construction documents, it can cost the client considerably in
terms of lost time, temporary facilities costs, land holding costs, Maintenance
financing costs, or inflation of construction costs. It can cost the Maintenance, like operations, is often overlooked in programming
architect, too, if the agreement stipulates that redesign will be at the because of the client's desire to obtain a building at the least initial
architect's expense. If discovered during the course of construction cost. However,with many materials and nearly all systems, initial
because of inadequate programming or construction documents, costs are inversely related to maintenance costs. if inexpensive, low-
increased costs can be disastrous, sometimes resulting in bankruptcy quality materials or systems are used in design, they typically require
for the client and lawsuits against the programmer and the architect. greater maintenance and earlier replacement than higher quality
Careful delineation of the building budget and accurate assess- products. Roofing systems, for instance, vary greatly in initial cost
ment of probable construction costs in the architectural program are and in durability over time, but almost invariably those which cost the
the most beneficial and least costly ways to ensure that a project can least require the greatest maintenance and earliest replacement. On
proceed within the client's budgetary limitations. If, at this point, it is the other hand, elaborate landscaping or luxurious interior materials
clear that the desired facility cannot be built within the budget, and treatments may require care beyond the owner's maintenance
budget.
144 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 145

If a client absolutely must obtain a facility of a certain size for a the heat gain on the east-, south-, and west-facing walls, they de-
very limited construction cost, it may be necessary for the designer signed a number of sun control devices that also provide the pri-
to utilize some high maintenance systems to stay within the mary aesthetic expression for the building. The energy savings
construction budget. In this case, the responsibility in program- resulting from this design feature resulted in the elimination of a
ming is to clearly set forth that the value of the size of the facility 1,000-ton chiller and all of the accompanying annual energy costs
exceeds the value of potential maintenance costs, and that the (Larson 1997).
client is willing to assume the liability for the increased mainte- The cost of construction is a one-time event or, more typically, is
nance costs. Or, perhaps in so stating in the first draft of a program, spread over a number of years with a constant monthly mortgage
the client(s) will realize that they are unwilling to carry such high payment. The costs of operations, maintenance, and energy, . on the
maintenance costs, and they will either reduce the amount of space other hand, continue for the life of the building and, in an
required or increase the budget to a level where the needed space •inflationary economy, can increase to become major costs. It is
can be obtained at an acceptable level of maintenance cost. important that both client and designer know the relative impor-
tance and magnitude of each of these costs, so that no misunder-
Energy standing will be manifested in the design. The best time to make
In Section 3.2 we discussed energy as an environmental issue. In these determinations is during the programming process. It can be
the context of this section, however, energy costs are considered as very costly to make them later.
a subset of operating costs. A recent project in which the author
served as both programmer and designer brought home the
seriousness of energy costs. In an effort to reduce initial con- 3.7 Aesthetic Issues
struction cost, client, architect, and engineer decided to use pack-
age air conditioning equipment with electrical heat strips instead • Form
of heat pumps or gas-fired heat- • Space
ing. While the initial building
• Meaning
costs were somewhat lower, the
heating bills were so high that Although most clients consider economics to be the bottom
the owner decided to retrofit the line, many architects see aesthetics as the bottom line. This con-
original units with gas to reduce cern for aesthetics separates architects from most engineers and
the operating costs to an afford- other participants in the building. industry. The "art" of architec-
able level. Here, the operating ture is what motivates most designers. This comes from the archi-
costs were shown to be much tect's view of self as artist and relates to the architect's developed
more important than the initial preferences for form, space, and meaning when responding to the
project costs. The client should other issues affecting design. However, most architects also want
be made aware that lower oper- to understand and express the aesthetic preferences of clients,
ating costs are sometimes pur- users, and society in the design. And, nearly all clients and users
chased with higher initial costs! have legitimate goals and needs relative to the physical appearance
Langdon Wilson Architecture of the buildings they occupy. They may wish to express the nature
Planning Interiors, designers of of their enterprise to the rest of the community; prefer certain
the new Phoenix City Hall, were materials, shapes, and colors; have strong preferences as to
concerned with the operating how the building should relate to its context; and so on.
Figure 3-99 Phoenix City Hall.
costs of this high-rise building This does not mean that the architect must utilize all of the,
Photo Credit: Timothy Hursley, The Arkansas Studio. Permission: Langdon Wilson Archi-
tecture Planning Interiors
(Fig. 3-99). In order to control client's aesthetic preferences in the design. It means only that the
146 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 147

architect should know about these preferences and make an effort to

understand them, so they can be taken into account during design. The
responsibility of the programmer relative to aesthetic concerns of the
client, user, and community is to communicate the preferences to the
architect.

Form
Many communities have ordinances that are quite specific in terms of
the acceptable form of buildings, signs, parking, and landscape areas.
They define maximum heights, setbacks, land coverage, and the like,
all of which have important effects on building form. Some
municipalities even specify acceptable openings on facades relative to
neighboring land or buildings. Signs are often limited in terms of their
size, shape, color, and location. Parking is similarly restricted in terms
of location and requirements for lighting and screening. Landscape
areas are sometimes specified in terms of size, location, and
acceptable planting materials. Some planned communities go still Figure 3-100 Seaside: Street View.
Photo Credit: Xavier Iglesias. Permission: Duany/Plater-Zyberk & Company
further, in specifying acceptable materials and colors for buildings.
At least one planned community in Arizona permits only earth
tone colors for building materials, prohibits roof-mounted air con-
ditioning equipment including evaporative coolers, specifies how
solar collectors must be placed and screened, and dictates location,
height, and style of fences and freestanding walls within setback
areas. These restrictions on form are quite common and need to be
described in the program.
Building owners and clients also have preferences for form. If
there are existing buildings to which the new building will relate,
many owners will insist that the new building conform in terms of
color, materials, or configuration. This is often the case for university
campuses. The administration or regents determine if a consistent
design image for buildings is desirable. Indeed, clients responsible for
a large number of buildings in one geographic area will often have a
design review policy, which typically requires that individual
buildings conform in some respect to a larger design idea.
Seaside, a new community in Florida planned by Andres Duany
and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, is a case in point (Figs. 3-100 and 3-
101). They developed not only the planning and urban design scheme,
but also a set of design guidelines that they refer to as an "Urban
Code"-relating to yard setbacks, height requirements,
Figure 3-101 Seaside: Yard View. Photo
Credit: Duany/Plater-Zyberk & Company
 Values Become Issues 149
148 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

parking, and even specific

elements such as porches,
balconies, and roof slopes,
in order to ensure that the
community's desired char-
acter would be achieved
and maintained.
The clients may also
have preferences for spe-
cific forms. Some will in-
sist on pitched roofs
because of an earlier bad
experience with leaks from
flat roofs. Some will insist
upon certain materials and
appearances because they
want to appeal to a certain
market. Occasionally, a
client will insist on a
specific product because
Figure 3-102 Rollo Industrial Building: Plans.
they make it, own it, or
have special reason to use
it. Each desired product
will, of course, have im-
Figure 3-104 Rollo Industrial Building: Pipes.
portant formal implications
for design. The program
must clearly articulate all
formal preferences so that
the architect can consider
them in design.
The design for the I-3
Industrial Building by Her-
shberger Kim Architects
utilized giant concrete
pipes for the window
openings at the request of
the owner, an underground
contractor (Figs. 3-102
through 3-105). The
designers considered this
an opportunity to do Figure 3-105 Rollo Industrial Building: Court.
Figure 3-103 Rollo Industrial Building: Exterior.
 150 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 151

something more figural than normal in a speculative industrial

building. The large pipes became part of a facade stretching the
entire width of the property in order to provide more presence to
the building, following some of the thinking of Robert Venturi
(1977). The balance of the building is less than half of the site's
width, as can be seen on
the site plan diagram
(right side) and court
view.
Frank Gehry has
proven to be a contem-
porary master of form,
with many of his innov-
ative structures using
materials, systems, and
form in new and un- Figure 3-107 Guggenheim Museum: Exterior.
usual ways. The Norton
Residence at the beach
walk in Venice, Califor- rior as moving as the art being exhibited.
nia, is one of many of The exterior form as a reflection of the in-
his very fresh and excit- terior spatial organization gives a preview
ing designs (Fig. 3- of the form to be found in the interior.
106). Le Corbusier showed his mastery of
both space and form in a beautiful chapel
Space at the small nunnery in Ronchamp,
Space preferences can France. The dramatic form of the build-
be very important to ing's exterior, said to resemble a nun's cap,
some clients. That space created an implied exterior spate at the
is the essence of archi- crown of the hill for outside services.
tecture is argued eff ecti Inside is one of the most potent, moving,
vel y by Bruno Zevi spiritual spaces the author has ever expe-
(1957) and shown dra- rienced, with its floating roof form and the
matically by some of mysterious play of light created by the
the masters of modem splayed openings at the windows
architecture. Frank (Figs. 3-109 through 3-111).
Lloyd Wright is Architects like Mies van der Rohe
considered the master treated space in a very different way, cre-
of masters in this ating universal spaces (Hoag 1977) that .
regard. His can be used in a variety of ways and, with
Guggenheim Museum interior furnishings, adapted to the
Figure 3-106 Norton Residence. (Figs. 3-107 and 3-108) particular needs of the occupants. This is Figure 3-108 Guggenheim Museum: Interior.
is the extreme case-the
spatial experience on
the inte-
152 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 153

to adapt their spaces to fre-

quently changing educational
approaches. CRS's Fodera
School in Columbus, Indiana,
is an excellent example of the
freedom and architectural
interest of open space planning
(Fig. 3-112).
In both offices and resi-
dences, some clients prefer an
open plan, while others are
more comfortable in clearly
defined rooms. Some people
enjoy high, lofty spaces while
others prefer lower, more inti-
Figure 3-109 Ronchamp: Exterior. mate spaces for essentially
identical activities. It is appro-
priate to advise the designer as
to the type of person(s) who
Figure 3-111 Ronchamp: Plan.
will be occupying the build-
Credit: Carl Okazaki
ing. There is perhaps nothing
more troubling to a designer
than to return to a building
where the aesthetic qualities
have been destroyed by users
who violate the spatial order
of the original design.
One of the author's profes-
sors in graduate school, a
highly respected designer, told
the story of a house for which
the client had given him a free
hand in design, but who in oc-
Figure 3-110 Ronchamp: Interior. cupying the house had subdi-
vided the major rooms with
a very sensible approach in many office and institutional settings, partitions and painted the
where the only constant is change. In these cases, a very special- previously white sculptured
ized space will soon be outmoded and likely will be expensive to walls chartreuse and pink. He
alter to meet the changing needs of the organization. lamented that he could have
CRS, through their programming activities, took a leadership designed a very nice building
Figure 3-112 Fodera School.
position in the design of open classroom schools which allow with smaller spaces and even
teachers
 154 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Values Become Issues 155

using those colors, if the client had let him know what she preferred. Some companies have an
Once constructed and occupied, the architect has little or no control image that they try to main-
over changes to the design. The designer's best defense is to know tain wherever they locate
and respond to what the client values in such a way that the client new buildings. This is par-
will not want to alter the aesthetic statement. ticularly true of some hotel,
motel, and restaurant chains.
An architect agreeing to
Meaning
design one of these buildings
Some clients have a desire to communicate a spe- must accept and express
cific image to the community and perhaps to the these required symbols in the
building's users. Sometimes the image involves a design of the new · building.
level of quality or concern that needs to be con- Still other building types are
veyed to the users. At other times, the image re- characterized by more or less
. lates to specific referential meanings. Occasionally, traditional typologies which
the desired meaning is more emotional or affective come to have a particular
(Hershberger 1969). meaning. This is true for
certain religious Figure 3-115 Plazzetto Zuccari: Entry.
Many clients simply want a building that ap-
pears to have been designed and constructed with denominations, and was once Credit: Belinda Watt

care. This sort of meaning is easy to achieve and the case for banks, theaters,
gives the architect great freedom in determining and many other institutions.
which other values to express. Other clients want If there is some desired
to make a unique statement that conveys the spe- referential meaning, then the
cial qualities of their organization or product. The designer needs to be
Lever House by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill; the informed in the program. It is
Seagram Building by Mies van der Rohe; and the still within the architect's
General Motors Technical Center by Eero Saarinen power to decide how this
Figure 3-113 AT&T Headquarters. meaning will be interpreted
Credit: Carl Okazaki were all such buildings and
in the design.
have brought great public
The meaning of the entry
recognition to their companies.
at the Plazzetto Zuccari is
More recently, the American
one of the most direct and
Telephone and Telegraph
potent referential uses of the
Headquarters building by
human figure to convey an
Johnson and Burgee, with its
idea about what it would be
"Chippendale" top, has served
like to enter a building (Fig.
the same purpose (Fig. 3-113).
3-115).
The broken facades of the
Best Company buildings by Eero Saarinen' s TWA Figure 3-116 TWA Terminal: Exterior.
SITE Architects, even with
Terminal at LaGuardia Air-
great individual variety, have
port in New York City has been characterized as an eagle about to
also served to produce a na-
take off, as is evident in the exterior view. Its curving sinuous lines
tional image for this company
Figure 3-114 Best Company Building: Entry. and ample skylighting convey the image of loftiness and even flight
(Fig. 3-114).
Credit: Carl Okazaki on the interior (Fig. 3-116 and 3-11 7).
 Values Become Issues 157
156 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Affective meaning is
also highly prized by some
clients. Certain church
clients want worship spaces
that will move people to-
ward a more spiritual feel-
ing. Some governmental
monuments commemorat-
ing heroes of one kind or
another should instill some
sense of reverence or awe in
observers. The Vietnam
War Memorial by Maya
Ying Lin is a special exam-
ple of such a monument
Figure 3-117 TWA Terminal: Interior. (Fig. 3-118).
The Franklin Court Bi-
centennial Exhibit by Ven-
turi, Scott Brown and
Associates is a case where
the design project has been
reduced to a silhouette of
the original Franklin House.
This proved to be an effec-
tive and memorable way to
convey the shape and scale
of the original house while,
at the same time, allowing
thousands of viewers to Figure 3-119 Franklin Court.
pass through the courtyard
each day to see the archeo- turi 1977). This is evident in the complex and contradictory exterior
logical and other exhibits of Fire Station 4 in Columbus, Indiana, by Venturi, Scott Brown
situated around the court- and Associates (Fig. 3-120).
yard area (Fig. 3-119). A more subtle use of meaning in architecture was intended by
Unlike Mies van der Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels of Par 3 Studio in the de-
Rohe, with his philosophy sign of the chancel area of the Church of the Palms in Sun City,
that "less is more," Robert Arizona. In this case, the firm designed a high window with a cross
Venturi prefers "complexity in it to the east of the chancel in order to obtain a shadow of the
and contradiction'' in cross on the center of the chancel wall during Easter morning
architecture and believes services. The shadow works its way across the wall during the
Figure 3-118 Vietnam War Memorial.
that "less is a bore" (Ven- Lenten Season (Figs. 3-121 and 3-122) .
Photo Credit and Permission: Howard Olson
158 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 159

Figure 3-120 Fire Station 4.

Figure 3-123 Church of the Palms: Interior.

Credit Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels, Par 3 Studio

In addition, the window's brilliant white light on the chancel

contrasts with the very soft light of twelve candles mounted on the
chancel wall, to symbolize for the congregation the great light of
God and the halting and sometimes failing light of believers.
The architect also provided a subtle distinction in meaning for
F'rio those parishioners who wanted to gather around the communion
table setting as shown on the previous illustration, and those who
Figure.3-121 Church of the Palms: Section. wanted to sit in traditional straight-on style as shown below. They
Credit Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels, Par 3 Studio all sit under the soft, warm light of a stained glass clerestory, in
contrast to the white light on the chancel (Fig. 3-123).
Sometimes the designer will be more interested in the meaning
of pure form or geometry. For example, in the design for an
artist's studio, Hersh-
berger and Nickels
sought to express the
client's desire for natural
light, complexity, and
inexpensive con-
struction in abstract
form (Figs. 3-124
through 3-126).
The designer must
know in which area(s) Figure 3-124 Waddell Studio: East Elevation.
Figure 3-122 Church of the Palms: Chancel. Credit of meaning the client/ Credit Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels, Par 3 Studio
Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels, Par 3 Studio
160 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 161

sign, because the architect will be held accountable if the building

is unattractive or lacks appeal in some way. As William Pena
noted when lecturing about programming, "The person to be held
responsible for a decision must have authority to make it" (Pena
1980).
3.8 Safety Issues
• Structural
• Fire
• Chemical
• Personal
• Criminal
If the bottom line for clients is economics and for architects,
aesthetics, the bottom line for the government is the protection of
Figure 3-125 Waddell Studio: Exterior. the "public health, safety, and welfare." This is why architects are
licensed professionals. We must be qualified practitioners so that
we will not design buildings that threaten the health, safety, or
welfare of the public. Therefore, architects must be carefully edu-
cated and pass extensive licensing examinations to protect occu-
pants from harm, illness, injury, even death!

Structural
The first consideration is, of course, the strength of the structure. It
must not fall down under its own weight or the weights that might
be imposed upon it. These loads include the dead load (the load of
the building itself including all fixed materials, systems,
equipment, and other permanent parts of the building) and the live
loads (the estimated weight of unfixed materials, equipment,
furnishings, wind, snow, and seismic, as well as the weight of the
expected human occupants). The programmer is not responsible for
identifying typical dead and live loads. These are a matter of code
with which the architect must be familiar.
The programmer's responsibility is to identify any unusual
Figure 3-126 Waddell Studio: Interior. loads. These might include loads imposed by special equipment or
furnishings, unusually high occupant loads, or external loads
associated with wind, earthquake, snow, or other similar condi-
user is most interested, so that appropriate attention can be given to
tions. This must be done so that the architect will not underdesign
communicating these meanings effectively. It is important to
the structure and, thus, introduce the possibility of failure and
remember that it is the purview of the architect as designer to de-
consequent injury or death.
termine how such preferences will be incorporated into the de-
 162 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 163

Bridge structures are designed almost totally in response to the

structural and traffic loads which they must carry with primary building on the same cam-
attention to safety. Even so, they can be great works of art as is pus, by Scogin, Elam and
evident in this concrete bridge in Switzerland designed by Robert Bray with Leo E. Daly
Maillart. (Fig. 3-128).
Note: Structural issues for more complex buildings were cov- Once again, I would
ered in Section 3.4 Technological Issues. caution the reader that
while an issue like safety
may have a significant im-
Fire pact on the design of a fa-
cility, other issues will also
Buildings must also be safe in case of fire. The programmer should come into play. For the
discover and let the designer know if there are any especially law library, as an example, Figure 3-128 Law Library: North Side Fire Exit.
hazardous situations in the building(s) to be designed. The designer the architects were
should be aware of normal exiting requirements, but the
interested in creating a
programmer must reveal any unusual situation. For example, how can sensitive relationship with
suitable exits be provided in high-rise buildings for persons
nearby buildings. They
incapable of safely descending many flights of stairs? This is not
also responded to the cam-
easy to accomplish. However, one method that is required in some
pus context in the use of
codes is the design of safe zones, or places of refuge, on each floor
materials, to the climate of
of a building. These allow the elderly, infirm, or handicapped (and
Arizona with sun con-
all others) to go from one section of a floor to another through a
specified fire separation. Those unable to do so need not go down a trolling features, and, of
flight of stairs or seek the help of someone else-they can move course, to their own aes-
horizontally to reach a safe place. thetic preferences (Figs. 3-
129 and 3-130).
In places of public assembly such as major auditoriums and sta-
diums, the need for safe egress in unusual situations must be The architects also
Figure 3-129 Law Library: South and East Sides.
thoroughly explored, requirements documented, and potential so- showed a keen regard for
lutions outlined, so that the designer is made thoroughly aware of and understanding of the
the nature of the fire safety problem. It may even become an op- inner workings of a law li-
portunity for architectural expression. Frank Lloyd Wright used exit brary in the formal and
ramps to parking areas as an opportunity for formal expression in spatial development, as
Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium at Arizona State University well as in the daylighting
of the interior spaces (Fig.
in Tempe, Arizona
3-131).
(Fig. 3-127).
A similar use of
required fire exiting Chemical
as part of the aes- Other threats to the health
thetic expression of of building occupants can
a building can be be important for a pro-
found at the John C. grammer to recognize. Is
Ross-William C. the site downwind from a
Figure 3-127 Memorial Auditorium Ramp. Blakley Law major industrial polluter? Figure 3-130 Law Library: West and South Sides.
Library
164 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 165

the "closed building syndrome." The aforementioned and now

carefully regulated asbestos products are good examples. However,
other products still in use can pose problems in tightly sealed
spaces or in cases of fire where contaminants are created as a by-
product of burning. If it is known that such products must be used
in a project, then the programmer should point out the potential
hazards so that the designer can make proper allowances in design
to mitigate against the potential hazard.

Personal
Other threats to the safety of occupants are dangerous equipment
and situations within the building and on the site. If a building is
expected to house equipment with moving parts in which a person
could be caught and injured, the program should make a note about
Figure 3-131 Law Library: Interior. each such piece of equipment, along with acceptable safety
precautions and required spatial separations. Similarly, if
conditions of the site or surroundings could be a threat to user
Dairies have been relocated because of possible contamination of safety, these should be pointed out in the site analysis. Abandoned
milk by chemical pollutants. Some forms of air or water pollution mine shafts, wells, and cisterns can collapse under the weight of
could, of course, directly threaten the health of occupants, when vehicles or other heavy objects, and people can fall into
long-term exposure might result in diseases such as cancer and unprotected openings. If adjacent streets are heavily used or have
emphysema. blind spots due to configuration or topography, these conditions
The building being programmed could, itself, be a producer or should be noted so the designer can avoid introducing traffic at
user of products that might damage the health of the occupants or unsafe locations.
even of persons off-site. The now familiar problem of carcinogenic
If a site is directly in the path of low-flying aircraft, this must be
building products containing asbestos is such an instance. What if
mentioned because of the dangers of aircraft crashing into the site
an existing facility with such products must undergo a major ren-
and any tall structures on it. Indeed, in more than one major city,
ovation? The programmer should point out such products, so that
proposals for very tall buildings have been rejected by aviation
the architect can deal with the problem appropriately in designing
authorities because of alignment with existing flight paths. Another
the new facilities.
consideration is the danger of damage to hearing and nerves
If by-products of activities within the facility are hazardous, associated with low over-flights of jet aircraft. There are, in fact,
this should be documented so that suitable means can be designed numerous federal and municipal regulations about development in
for their containment, destruction, or removal and appropriate dis- high noise zones with which the programmer should become
posal. Here, a concern should be manifest not only for the building familiar, if a site is located in such a zone. For instance, housing
occupants, but also for people off-site. If pollutants are to be dis- developments may be prohibited in some higher noise zones. If not
posed of into the atmosphere, waterways, or aquifers, they must be prohibited, it may prove difficult to obtain financing.
within acceptable limits, generally as specified by governmental
authorities. The designer(s) needs to be advised of these limits.
Similarly, many commonly used building products and equip-
ment give off chemical or biological contaminants to such an ex- Criminal:
tent that they become a threat to the occupants of buildings in Even chetharacteristics of the building occupantiS_g of people in the
which they are used. This phenomenon has been referred to as immediate vicinity may create design problems. In a prison, both
 166 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 167

guards and inmates must be protected from injury by inmates. A to influence the aesthetic
more typical situation, however, is in ordinary living environments character. Similarly, it
where criminals prey on residents. Oscar Newman (1972) and a should also be understood
number of other architects and social scientists have studied ways that while specific build-
that architecture can help make living and working environments ings were used throughout
safe for users. the chapter to show how
Lighting of public walkways and courtyards, surveillance of one issue or another can
such places from surrounding windows, and direct access from be expressed in design,
housing units to pedestrian walkways increase the safety of public the architect(s) consider
areas-in effect making these places semipublic in nature by several issues at various
allowing residents to monitor the activities occurring within them. stages of the design
Physical and psychological barriers such as fences, grade changes, process. It is important for
surface texture changes, and the like can also be used to help the programmer to iden-
residents develop feelings of ownership and undertake territorial tify what issues the client,
behavior in the surveillance, maintenance, and defense of spaces. users, and community be-
lieve should influence de-
The architect must know if sign. It is important for
there are likely to be problems the architect to deal with
that threaten the physical these issues responsibly
safety of users so that strate- and creatively when de-
gies can be employed to mit- signing the building.
igate these problems. The
Richard Allan Homes Site
Safety and Security Analysis by
Walter Moleski of ERG/En-
vironmental Research Group 3.9 Exercises
with Roberts, Wallace and 23. Examine your fa-
Todd (architects) is a particu- vorite building to
larly good example of how re- see if you can de-
search can be used to develop termine the values
recommendations for improv- that became design
ing planning and design deci- Figure 3-133 Richard Allen Homes: Objectives.
issues and, there-
sions (Moleski 1990) (Figs. 3- fore, dominated the
Credit: Walter Moleski with Wallace Roberts and Todd, 1990. Richard Allen Hames Analysis and Objectives.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Permission: ERG/Environmental Research Group.
132 and 3-133). design decision
Each of the above issues is making.
important to consider for
SITE SURVEILLANCE & ~ Drives Too Narrow ::=> Angle of Vision r:Lm?J Areas Not in View inclusion in an architectural 24. Read about the theories and methods of your favorite de-
PATROLLING From Streets
program. Several of the archi- signers to see if you can discover the dominant values that
tects of the buildings shown in become issues and influence their designs.
Figure 3-132 Richard Allen Homes: Analysis.
this section considered safety 25. Examine the building you are in at the moment to see what
Credit: Walter Moleski with Wallace Roberts and Todd, 1990. Richard Allen Hames Analysis and
Objectives. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Permission: ERG/Environmental Research Group. issues to be important enough values are expressed in its design. Compare the outside
168 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Values Become Issues 169

with the inside. What values would you like to see more Duerk, Donna P. 1993. Architectural Programming: Information
vividly expressed? Which ones should have lower priority? Management for Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Which values should become design issues? Duffy, Francis. 1990. "Measuring Building Performance." Facili-
4. List what values should become design issues for the fol- ties. May: 17.
lowing: EDRA. 1969-96. Proceedings of the Annual Conference. Publisher
A. an artist's studio varies.
B. a small doctor's clinic Feerer, Michael. 1977. Family Services Ward: Environmental/
C. a branch bank Architectural Programming. Program for Atascadero State Mental
D. a major hotel Hospital, Atascadero, Calif.
E. an industrial building Goldman, Mark, and Frieda D. Peatross. 1993. Planning for a
Captive Audience. In Professional Practice in Facility Programming,
5. Would a set of value areas different than HECTTEAS work edited by Wolfgang F. E. Freiser. New York: Van Nostrand
better for you? Are any important values missing in the Reinhold.
HECTTEAS set? If so, prepare an alternative list of value Hall, Edward T. 1959. The Silent Language. Garden City, N. Y.:
areas for you to use when beginning to program. Would this Doubleday.
list be modified for some projects? ____ . 1966. The Hidden Dimension. Garden City, N. Y.:
5. Try to think of buildings in which the design expression has Doubleday.
been dominated by just one issue. Can you think of any such Hart, Vaughan. 1995. "Erich Mendelsohn and the Fourth Dimen-
building(s)? If you can, ask a colleague if they agree with sion." ARQArchitectural Research Quarterly. 1(2): 50-59.
you. Will they be able to identify other issues that they feel Hershberger, Robert. 1969. ''A Study of Meaning and Architec-
had an impact on the design of the building? ture." Ph.D. diss., The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Hoag, Edwin, and Joy Hoag. 1977. Masters of Modern Architec-
ture: Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe, and
Walter Gropius. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
3.10 References House Beautiful. 19 5 5. The Character of the House is the Begin-
ning of Architecture. November: 248, 292.
Ackoff, Russell. 1966. Classroom lecture and discussion in Oper- International Conference of Building Officials. 1994. Uniform
ations Research at The University of Pennsylvania, Philadel- Building Code: Administrative, Fire- and Life-Safety, and Field
phia, Pa. Inspection Provisions. Volume 1 of Uniform Building Code.
ANSI. 1996. New York: The American National Standards Insti- Whittier, Calif.: ICBO.
tute. Jerde, Jon. 1992. Public lecture in the College of Architecture at
Brand, Stewart. 1994. How Buildings Learn: What Happens After The University of Arizona.
They're Built. New York: Viking. Kahn, Louis I. 1961. Masters design studio discussions at the
Brown, Denise Scott. 1967. "Planning the Powder Room." A1A University of Pennsylvania.
journal. 47(4): 81-83. Lawton, M. Powell. 1975. Planning and Managing Housing for the
Crosbie, Michael J. 1994. Green Architecture: A Guide to Sustainable Elderly. New York: Wiley.
Design. Rockport, Mass.: Rockport Publishers. Marans, Robert, and Kent Spreckelmeyer. 1981. Evaluating Built
Deasy, C. M. 1974. Design/or Human Affairs. Cambridge, Mass.: Environments: A Behavioral Approach. Ann Arbor: Survey Re-
Schenkman Publishing Company. search Center, University of Michigan.
Diffrient, Niels, Alvin R. Tilley, and Joan C. Bardagjy. 1974. Hu- Moleski, Walter, with Roberts, Wallace and Todd. 1990.:
manscale 1/2/3: A Portfolio of Information. Cambridge, Mass.: Richard Allen Homes Site Safety and Security Analysis.
MIT Press. Philadelphia, Pa.
170 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Newman, Oscar. 1972. Defensible Space: Crime Prevention through

Urban Design. New York: Macmillan.
Novitski, B. J. 1996. "Telecommuting Design: Merging Technolo-
gies Change the Rules of Collaboration." Architectural Record.
184(10): 46-51. Preparing to Program
Pastalan, Leon A., and Daniel H. Carson, eds. 1970. Spatial Behavior
of Older People. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Institute of Gerontology,
University of Michigan; and Wayne State University.
Pena, William. 1980. Lecture at continuing education seminar at the
University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Ramsey, Charles George. 1994. Ramsey/Sleeper: Architectural
Graphic Standards. New York: J. Wiley.
Sheydayi, Yury. 1985. Lecture by faculty colleague at Arizona State
University, Tempe.
4 .1 Pre-Design Services
Sommer, Robert. 1969. Personal Space: The Behavioral Basis of 4.2 Architectural Programming
Design. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
4.3 Discovering Crucial Issues
____ . 197 4. Tight Spaces: Hard Architecture and How to Humanize It.
4. 4 Program Planning
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
4. 5 Exercises
Spencer, Eldridge. 1962. Site Location Analysis for Lawrence Hall of
4. 6 References
Science. Spencer and Lee, Architects, San Francisco, Calif.
Straub, Calvin C. 1970. Design studio discussion at Arizona State
University, Tempe.
Stratta, James L., Ted J. Canon, C. Martin Duke, and Lawrence G.
Selna. 1976. Reconnissance Report Mindanao, Philippines
P re-design services occur at a number of times and places, be-
ginning with the client's first thoughts about a project. Com
mercial projects often begin with a financial feasibility study. Some
Earthquake, August 17, 1976. Oakland, Calif.: Earthquake En-
gineering Research Institute. projects also require a site suitability study to determine if an owned
Venturi, Robert. 1977. Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture. or desired site will accommodate the contemplated project. Wise
New York: Museum of Modem Art. clients will then want a master planning study to determine how best
Wilson, Forrest. 1984. A Graphic Survey of Perception and Behavior to utilize the selected site. The next pre-design service, referred to as
for the Design Professions. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. architectural programming, typically consists of developing
Wineman, Jean D., ed. 1986. Behavioral Issues in Office Design. information necessary to complete schematic design and to begin
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. design development for a project.
Zevi, Bruno. 1957. Architecture as Space: How to Look at Archi-
tecture. New York: Horizon Press. 4.1 Pre-Design Services
• Planning
• Programming
Several services are conducted prior to design studies in archi-
tecture. Generally, these pre-design services are accomplished by
different people at different times. Occasionally, they are done by
one programming team at the beginning of a project.

171
172 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 173

Planning risky financial venture. Will the required interest rate and points
• Financial Feasibility keep project costs low enough to offer competitive rental rates to
tenants? The same question is relevant for costs of land and con-
• Site Suitability
struction. If your client is planning to purchase an overpriced site,
• Master Planning that alone may compromise the potential success of the project. The
Three different types of planning studies may be required before financial feasibility study should show this to be the case, and it
commencing architectural programming. All such studies require might be possible to use the study to convince the seller that the site
development of at least some programmatic information. However, is overpriced. Similarly, the probable cost of construction must be
the architectural programmer is frequently only a minor participant determined. If market conditions are leading to very high construc-
or possibly not even involved in the first type of planning study. tion costs, it might be wise to delay the project until construction
costs come back into line so that a feasible project can be devel-
FINANCIAL FEASIBILITY
oped. The following four-way financial feasibility analysis was
done as part of a larger study by the author for a site that he planned
A financial feasibility study may be conducted even before a site to develop. It showed that the project would not be feasible given
has been selected. This involves predicting if the market conditions, the asking price for the land, current interest rates, construction
available financing, site situation, and building costs will combine costs, and rental rates (Fig. 4-1).
in such a way as to lead to a successful project, one that will pro- All of this information is
vide a favorable return on investment. This is an important pre-de- oriented toward the prediction
sign activity when developing plans for speculative developments. of future events. Developing
It makes little sense to do architectural programming for a facility some of this information may
until it is certain that what is being proposed is economically not be what a person with an
viable. architectural background is best
Financial feasibility studies involve collecting demographic in- prepared to do. Architects are
formation about the market situation in the targeted area. Is there a typically well prepared to dis-
need for a new hotel, shopping center, or other venture? Do too cover information on the site
many exist in near proximity? Is another in the planning stage? and surrounding physical fea-
Will another similar facility have a definite market advantage be- tures, as well as on site and
cause of a more favorable location? Is there, or will there soon be, building costs. Fortunately,
enough traffic past the site to ensure that customers will be avail- there are other people available
able to purchase the product, whatever it may be? Will the traffic with marketing, real estate, and
be passing the site at such a time and in such a manner that it will financial skills to aid in the de-
be easy, even desirable, to stop and take advantage of the services velopment of the financial
available? As was shown earlier, it is even important to know on feasibility study. Their services
which comer of an intersection a gas station should be located. The should be sought and utilized
same is true for shopping centers and grocery stores. If a street- by a programmer involved in
oriented business is located on the morning rush hour side of the such a study. There are also
street, it may not get as much business as one located on the return several books, articles, and so-
trip side, when the people passing by are running errands on their phisticated computer programs
way home. that address financial feasibility
It is also necessary to determine the availability and cost of analysis (Rushman 1986; Bar-
money. Will local financial institutions provide the necessary fi- rett and Blair 1988). A team of Figure 4-1 Four-Way Financial Feasibility Analysis.
nancing? They may not be willing to support what seems to be a
17 4 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 175

knowledgeable persons with varying interests, skills, and resources MASTER PLANNING
will be required to do an effective financial feasibility study. The program for a master plan is only one step removed from that
of the site suitability study. Once the site has been selected and
purchased, it is common practice to prepare a master plan for the
SITE SUITABILITY development of the site. Such a plan ordinarily shows the various
Once a project has been determined to be feasible, it is important to stages of the proposed development so that an orderly and eco-
discover if the intended use can be accommodated on the nomical growth pattern can be maintained throughout the life of the
prospective site. This can be accomplished with a site suitability enterprise. To do this requires information on the immediate and
study. If the owner does not currently own the site, it is wise to do long-range needs of the organization, so that the designer can
this study before the site is purchased. Unlike the financial explore how the site can be arranged to accommodate the planned
feasibility study, a person with a design education is generally well phases of development (Rubenstein 1987; Daber 1963). The pri-
prepared to undertake site suitability studies. mary programmatic data required for master planning relates to
The information required for a site suitability study tends to be major development, growth, and change over time. It is still a
more limited and general than that required for a master plan or planning activity, where prediction of what might or should occur
schematic design study, because the end product is simply one or in the future is important.
more two-dimensional diagrams, rather than a plan with strong In order to prepare a master plan, the designer needs information
three-dimensional implications or an actual design for a building. about the client's values, goals, and expectations relative to site
The site suitability study needs only to demonstrate that a site is development, the type and overall size of facilities to be provided,
large enough and configured properly to allow a number of suitable the probable order in which they will be built, and an approximation
plans to be developed. The study need not articulate a particular of their size, both initial and ultimate. It is not necessary to develop
plan that will satisfy all of the requirements of the client or detailed information about each building facility, internal space
architect. It does need to verify that the necessary infrastructure of needs and relationships, or specific building technologies. It is
streets and necessary to include basic information about the nature of the site-
MIKVAH FOR ORTHODOX JEWISH CONGREGATION
utilities are available to its drainage patterns, soil conditions, and existing structures-as well
IDEAS EXPLORATION
as the characteristics of traffic on adjacent streets, including where
1.

A.
Locate the Mikvah off of the existing courtyard.

SOUTH SIDE IN PLAYGROUND EAST OF OPENING

Oponvlowlromontrancu1ocounyard;111dsynagoguopo1ch. Vary
close to existing utllilles (power, waler, Gower, !las).
Can hldo all mechanical oquipmont In lnncod yard east of Mikvah.
CandovelopMikv11hlorcookingu1onsilsingardansoulholMikvah. Can
-- support the proposed de-
SITE LOCATION PLAN

velopment. It also needs to

verify that city codes, ordi-
automobiles, service vehicles, and pedestrians can enter and leave
the site; the general character of the surrounding area; major
collactrainwatoroflroofofoxistingbuik:ling.
C11nus1101dstingroo!lorlnconspicuoussolarwatorhoaling. nances, and services will neighboring structures; site orientation; views; prevailing breezes;
PLAYYARD
Usesandundovclopedarcaolplayground.
lackolprivacyforwomennsmustpass1hroughcourtyard.
Dillicult to as~uro personal salety from vehtcte lo and Imm Mlkvah.
allow the development to average and extreme temperatures; and so on. Other considerations
smau bulldable urea, m:iy fon::o MilM1h 10 extend into ccunynro.
Novisu11lpros11ncofrcmSthStro11t.
take place (Lynch 1971). SERVICE
B
include zoning ordinance requirements such as types and sizes of
8. SOUTH SIDE JN PLAYGROUND WEST OF OPENING
Vlowovorlandi;c:aplnglncourtyard1oon!rancoolMikvah. • I The following study by SEA~ICE
buildings allowed, set-backs and height restrictions, on-site storm
FunhorlmmcxistingutiUlios(powor,water,i;cwor,gas)
Can hldo all mechanical equlpmem In lone ed yard wost or Mikvah. Can
dovo!op Mlkvah for cooking utunslls In garden south ol Mikvah. the author for a small reli- water retention, fire access to all buildings, and parking and
Cannotcollectrainwatoroflroo1ofoxistingbuildlng.
Connel use o~s1ing roct !or Inconspicuous solar wator h11allng.
Disrup!sdcvolopodorcaolplaygmund. COURTYJ~ ..• gious building to be landscaping requirements. The overall human, cultural, and
can provide private access Imm wast parking area.
Can develop a sceure route from parking to Mlkvah.
Largerbuildab!oamawithlnplaygmund. located near an existing environmental issues must also be considered.
Novisualprosencolrom51hStroot.

courtyard explores the pros

SYNAGbGUE
-- PARKING
The program should articulate desired images or meanings for
C. WEST SIDE IN PARKING NORTI-1 OF PLAYGROUND FENCE
Vlnwcvnrlnndscapinglnccurtya1dtaon1rancoclMlkvah.
Further from exis11ng ull~itias (powm, water, sewer, gns.) and cons of three the development so the architect can consider appropriate three-
Canh!doallm11chanlcal11qulpmentlnl11nccdyardscu1hclMlkvah.
C11ndovelcpMlkvahlo1cookiflgulansilsing11rdonwostolMikvat1.
Cannotcolloctraillwa!orc!froololoxlstingbui!ding alternative locations. For dimensional design in the layout of buildings, parking, etc. Aes-
Can use sou1h mecn. yard for Inconspicuous solar water hoa11ng.
Canprovi<1oclosc,privateaccesslmmwes1parkingnrea.
Candcvolopasccu1erou11lfmmpr.ll<ing10Mlkvah major projects, like a new thetic issues can and should have an impact on a master plan. The
Doosno1disruptplaygroundaroaso!all
May limit synagoguogrowthtowastcfcourtyard.
Stmngvlsual presencc Jrcm sth sncm. hotel, three or more
FIFTH STREET
only issues of little importance for master plan programming are
completely different sites those that relate to specific human and technological requirements
Figure 4-2 Site Suitability Study. with much more complex for the buildings.
conditions may need to be
analyzed (Fig. 4-2).
 176 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 177

A transition can be for a developmental problem in which new, three-dimensional

!I seen from the almost form will be the result. There are three types of programming that
r pure planning informa- relate to the corresponding phases of design services.
I tion needed for a finan-
cial feasibility study to SCHEMATIC DESIGN
the combination of both
planning and design in- Programming for schematic design must provide the information
formation needed for the the designer needs in order to decide on the basic formal and spa-
site suitability and mas- tial organization and aesthetic character of the proposed build-
ter planning studies. ing(s). It must provide information on the human and cultural
This is to be expected. It issues essential to making appropriate design decisions about
is a rare occasion when building organization and relationships. It must set forth the client's
any architectural pro- expectations relative to building image and any other aesthetic
gramming activity has requirements. It should also include information on environmental
an exclusive need for issues, urban or rural context, growth and change, special material
just the planning, design, or system needs, and economic opportunities or constraints. The
or selection levels of in- purposes of schematic design programming are very much like
PLAN
formation. For example, those of master planning, but schematic design programming
the master planning requires additional information relating to the specific performance
Figure 4-3 Covenant Baptist: Master Plan.
study for the Covenant and design requirements for architectural development.
Credit: Hershberger - Kirn Architects.
Baptist Church by Her- Schematic design programming need not focus on particular
shberger Kim Architects products, systems, or equipment that can be accommodated within
shows the physical configuration of the first phase of development, a range of potential architectural concepts or solutions. The
but also shows how subsequent phases of development might schematic design program should provide information on the
occur to fully utilize the site (Fig. 4-3). performance requirements of materials, products, equipment, fur-
nishings, and systems that would meet the needs of the client user
Programming group. The type of information needed is that which could affect
the basic spatial and formal decisions made during schematic
• Schematic Design
design.
• Design Development If needed equipment will require an elaborate chimney or ex-
• Construction Documents haust system that might be seen above the roof, this information
should be evident in the schematic design program so the designer
Programming for schematic design begins where master plan- can deal with it. If a certain space will require extensive windows,
ning leaves off. It requires much of the same information needed this must be stated, because such spaces cannot be buried in the
for master planning, but considerably more information on the interior of the building. If a particular type of material or system
specific facilities to be designed. Design programming tends to be will provide the required level of comfort, but others will not, this
more extensive and complex than master planning, because in- should also be made known. It is also necessary to know the
formation must be provided that will influence the specific three- specific activities and furnishings that must be accommodated, as
dimensional development and character of each building, and well as their configuration and size, in order to make an accurate
especially the size and relationships of the spaces within them. It estimate of the size and character of each space. The key question
may or may not involve considerations for growth or change over in schematic design programming is:
time. It is programming for "design" rather than for "planning";
Can the information make a design difference?
178 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 179

If the answer is yes, program sheets in the

the information belongs program document and
in the schematic design the balance can appear
program. in an appendix.
A good example of Space program
schematic design pro- sheets typically include
gramming was for the the special values, goals,
author's Thirsty Earth facts, needs, and ideas,
house. The clients indi- as well as the spatial
cated a strong desire relationships for each
during programming to identified space in the
have their house placed· schematic program. In a
into the land. As the sense, each space pro-
Figure 4-4 Thirsty Earth House: Design Drawing. husband said, "Critters gram sheet is a micro-
in the desert keep cool program for a particular
by burrowing into the space (Fig. 4-5).
ground." This informa
tion went into the architectural program and the resulting CONSTRUCTION
schematic design concept was for a house dug into a ridge and
DOCUMENTS
completely covered by earth and desert plants. This allowed for
The detailed program-
spectacular views from either side of the house, but with a building
ming required for con-
form that appeared to be part of the earth itself (Fig. 4-4).
struction documents is
most often accomplished
DESIGN DEVELOPMENT
informally by the per-
It is essential for design development programming that the de- son(s) charged with pro-
signer be aware of requirements for material finishes, illumination ducing the construction
levels, lighting control, electrical outlets, conditioned air documents. This aspect
distribution and control, plumbing fixtures, built-in cabinets or of programming
shelves, and fixed and moveable furnishings and equipment for involves obtaining the
each required space. There may also be specific requirements for information necessary to
other systems needed to satisfy the client, users, or community. A select particular
design development program typically includes all such re- building ma-
quirements that differ from or exceed accepted standards. If this terials, equipment, fur-
information is gathered after the schematic design has been ap-
nishings, and systems Figure 4-5 Space Program Sheet.
proved, it typically will be collected by members of the design
needed to complete con- Credit: Kelly Angell, 1997. Architecture Expansion Program. College of Architecture, The University of
team in a secondary programming effort (Pena et al. 1977). In this struction documents. Arizona.
case, only the persons involved with particular aspects of the The selections are often
proposed facility will be consulted for the supplementary in-
made in direct consultation with the client's staff or with profes-
formation.
sional engineers and other specialist consultants who have devel-
If design development information is collected as part of the oped expertise in the building type being designed. The
initial programming effort, much of it can be included on space information can also be obtained directly from manufacturers'
product catalogs and in such sources as the Sweet's Catalog Files
(1997).
 180 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 181

This information might ment phases of architectural services. Whether the programmer
make a design difference will collect information for financial feasibility, site suitability, or
in the details of a build- master planning depends on how the problem has developed up to
ing, but generally not in the time the architectural programmer is hired by the client. Some
its overall formal or spa- of these studies may have been accomplished before architectural
tial organization. It is, of programming is initiated. If not, the architectural programming
course, important to most process can be expanded to include them. On the other hand, it is
architects that the detailed rarely necessary or desirable in architectural programming to
development of the collect all of the detailed information necessary to make final
project be in accordance selections of products, equipment, and furnishings for construction
with the major conceptual documents. This information will be more appropriately generated
thrust of the architecture, after schematic design and design development decisions have
so that the project as a been made.
Figure 4-6 Product Manufacturer Literature. whole will be consistent
Credit: Catalog #197 in 1997 Sweet's General Building & Renovation Catalog File, The McGraw-Hill in projecting the desired
Companies. Permission: McGraw-Hill
image to the community 4.3 Discovering Crucial Issues
(Fig. 4-6).
At each level of architectural programming, the objective is to iso-
Why is this information not collected during design development
late the crucial issues, the areas of knowledge that are most likely
programming? Actually, some of it is. However, the great amount
to make a design difference. In other words, the objective is to de-
of detailed information necessary to make final material and equip-
velop a better understanding of those areas where the costs of de-
ment selections when preparing working drawings and specifica-
signer error could be great. If it is too expensive to relocate
tions is not gathered during design development programming. It is
left out to avoid encumbering the designer with information that is buildings to a new site in order to expand, the initial building(s)
not required to make schematic design and design development must be located in such a way as to allow future expansion on the
decisions. Furthermore, there generally are many ways to solve a present site. If it is crucial that a certain image be maintained to
design problem and each way will require different equipment, ensure continuing patronage for a commercial enterprise, then it is
furnishings, and systems. There is little point in collecting detailed important to communicate this image with clarity. If it is important
information during design programming that will not be needed as that operational costs not rise substantially over the life of a
the design is developed. It is better to leave this information out of building, materials and systems selected must be either very
the program, so that the designer can obtain a clearer picture of the durable or inexpensive to replace.
major design issues which need to be resolved. Detailed infor- Interestingly, the cost of error is rarely the same in both direc-
mation collected during design programming need not, of course, tions. If a room is too small, it may not accommodate the intended
be discarded. It should be documented and placed in an appendix equipment and personnel. The cost of error of a room being too
or filed for possible use in preparing the construction documents small can be substantial-a new room or addition might be required
to rectify the problem created. On the other hand, if a room is
designed to be somewhat larger than required, the cost for this
additional space might be comparatively small, consisting only of
the extra cost of the additional floor area and surrounding surfaces,
4.2 Architectural Programming and perhaps a very small increase in utility costs. The additional
space would definitely be advantageous as the enterprise expands
Architectural programming typically involves the collection of in- or requires new equipment, storage, or personnel. In short, it is
formation relating to the schematic design and design develop- often less costly in the long run to err in the direction
182 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 183

of over-sizing a space. Similarly, a modest increase in the initial

cost of roofing materials may save a great amount of subsequent
cost in roof repairs as well as costs of possible damage to interior
systems and furnishings. The programmer should consider the po-
tential cost of error, and tailor the program information to mini-
mize the cost of error (Ackoff 1968; Brill et al. 1984).
The same is true in matters of public health and safety. Engi-
neers typically allow for a margin of error in the systems they de-
sign, over-designing them by a factor of two or three to allow for
occasional imperfections in materials and equipment, or poor
workmanship in the field. The cost for the margin is quite low in
comparison with the costs of a building system failure. Architects,
on the other hand, often provide no more than the minimum
number of exits required by code, even though the added initial
cost of providing more exits would be low in comparison to the
cost in human lives that could result in case of fire or panic. Ar-
chitects need to change their mind-set in this regard. Wherever cost
of error is likely to be very high, the architect, both as programmer
and designer, must learn to pay attention and to err in the direction
where added costs will be small. If moral compunction is not an
adequate argument, perhaps major liability problems will be
convincing.

4.4 Program Plarmlng

• Schedule
• Costs
In order to plan a programming activity, it is necessary to have
a preliminary understanding of the scope and complexity of the
design problem. If the project is to be a small house or studio, a
few visits with the client and to the site may be enough to under-
stand and describe the design problem, particularly if the pro-
grammer will also be the designer. If the project is significantly
larger, it will be necessary to develop a complete programming
plan, such as the one below, detailing all of the activities that must
take place to produce the program document. The following
diagram by Walter Moleski for The Philadelphia Orchestra Hall
Project is a verbal and graphic illustration of typical information
gathering activities used to arrive at an architectural program for a
complex building project (Fig. 4-7).
184 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 185

Schedule dicating when each activity will

be conducted, and indicates the
Program scheduling is a process requiring the programmer to
number and type of personnel to
estimate the time needed to do a responsible program, before the
be involved for each task. This
nature of the problem is known. Sometimes the programmer has
process is helpful in determining
the benefit of a financial feasibility study and/or a completed
how long the programming will
master plan which sets forth the scope of the project. Often, the
take and what it will cost (Figs.
budget restricts the size of the project. Sometimes the continuing
4-9 and 4-10).
nature of the institution makes clear the level of complexity to be
expected. Occasionally clients will have prepared a brief or a call
for proposals which spells out their thinking about the nature and
Costs
scope of the programming project. The programmer must develop
the schedule based on this information. Like most other architectural ser-
Scheduling first involves preparation of a list of all of the ac- vices, the costs of programming
tivities necessary to develop the program, such as shown in Figure will vary depending on the type,
4-7. For complex projects, this list might include interviews with size, and complexity of the pro-
the client(s) and other knowledgeable persons, review of relevant ject, and with the scope of ser-
literature, observation of existing and similar facilities, site and vices. A normative figure for an
climate analysis, preparation and administration of questionnaires, architectural programming bud-
get for most projects is between Figure 4-9 Simple Programming Schedule.
sampling and data analysis, client/user work sessions, and
preparation of the program document. one-quarter and three-quarters of Credit Nancy Cole

The following illustration from "Programming the Third Di- one percent of the construction
mension" (Goldman and Peatross 1993) indicates the percentage of cost, or between $2,500 and $ 7,
time spent on information gathering tasks for correctional facility 500 for a million dollar con-
programming. Be aware that much of this struction project (Pena et al.
work is done by a few 1987; Freiser 1993a; Moleski
firms that specialize 1997; Farbstein 1997; Pan 1997).
in these facilities, so Programming for a tenmillion-
that previous research dollar project might run between
is often applicable to $25,000 and $75,000. The exact
new commissions, and amount will, of course, vary
thus does not need to depending on the building type
be repeated (Fig. 4-8). and size.
After deciding on The costs of programming for
the programming activ- a residence would likely be ab-
ities, a time allocation sorbed within the normal fee of
schedule is formulated. the architect and might actually
This schedule typically involve no more than three or
itemizes every activity, four extended meetings with the
sets up a bar chart in- client family-one or two at their
Figure 4-8 Data Collection Methods. existing home, one on the Figure 4-10 Complex Programming Schedule.
Credit See Tustler et al 1993. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser
prospective site, and perhaps Credit See Tustler et al.1993. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser
186 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 187

one in the architect's office. The results might then be prepared as a pital, there are many unique spaces with particular requirements,
short program document (or brief) for confirmation by the client and a relatively high cost of error if each space is not satisfactory
that they agree with what the architect has stated. The costs of such in most respects. For the high-rise office building, there may be
a program, usually prepared by the design principal of a small firm, only a few space types that must be programmed, and they will
if billed at an hourly rate of between $ 7 5 and $100 per hour, tend to be general in nature. This is particularly true for speculative
would run between $1,200 and $2,000 for 16 to 20 hours of work. office buildings, where unknown tenants will come in later and
If projected as a percentage of construction cost, this would imply a program and design their own spaces within the framework
construction cost between $160,000 and $800,000 if the normative provided. The programming cost for such a development may be
figures of one-quarter to threequarters of one percent were to be very small, since most developers use a number of space standards
used. In actuality, the programming costs for a small custom house repeatedly. The program may need only to relate to specific
are very similar to those for a larger custom house. Therefore, the conditions of site and climate, city codes and ordinances, and the
percentage rate should be greater for the smaller house-one-half to particular market image desired. Financial feasibility studies may
three-quarters of one percent for the $160,000 house ($800 to already have determined the appropriate size and particular nature
$1,200 fee) and onequarter to one-half of one percent for the and characteristics of the project. In any case, the programmer
$800,000 house ($2,000 to $4,000 fee). In other words, to make $75 must become familiar with programming costs associated with the
per hour on the least expensive house, the programmer would have various types, sizes, and complexities of a project in order to make
to charge three-quarters of one percent and complete the program- an appropriate estimate for the cost of programming services.
ming in 16 hours. To make $100 per hour on the most expensive Similarly, a program intended only for master planning pur-
house, the programmer could charge one-quarter of one percent and poses will cost much less than one intended for the schematic de-
complete the programming in 20 hours. Obviously, the larger the sign of a building. A program that includes some detailed
fee, the more time that can be spent on programming and still make information needed for design development will cost more than
the desired hourly rate. In other words, the potential for profits one intended only for schematic design. How to determine the ex-
increases with the size of the project, given a standardized act cost of programming is not easy for the novice programmer.
percentage-based fee structure. Most programmers use a standard percentage fee to begin with,
The same situation holds true for other building types-the then develop a history of actual costs from which to make more
smaller the project, the larger the percentage for the architectural precise programming cost estimates.
programming fee. This is because there is a minimum level of ser- It should also be possible for the programmer to develop a
vice required, regardless of the size or expense of a project. In the breakdown of costs based on the expected programming proce-
case of the house, there is the need to meet with the family at their dures to be used, including costs for gathering information on val-
home and at the site, at least one more meeting to discuss what was ues and goals, discovering factual information, negotiating and
programmed, analysis of the particular site, search of local codes coming to agreement with all programming participants relative to
and ordinances, and time to document the results so that no specific facility needs, and preparing and publishing the pro-
misunderstandings will occur later. Sometimes a smaller project, gramming document. The comparative costs for preparing rela-
particularly those operating under tight budgetary constraints, will tionship matrices and diagrams, determining and illustrating space
cost more to program because a lot of time will be necessary to sort sizes, and setting forth specific requirements for each space in a
out aspects of the project which the client desires, but cannot programming document can also be established. Developing costs
afford. for each service will, of course, relate to the amount of time and
Costs for programming also range considerably for projects of effort required by personnel at each pay scale.
different levels of complexity. Programming costs for a hospital Wolfgang F. E. Preiser (1993), in a survey of architectural firms
will likely be very high in comparison to programming costs for an found that the vast majority did not bill programming separately
equally expensive high-rise office building. In the case of the hos- from their overall fee, with only 11 percent of the firms
 188 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 189

billing programming produce the program-

as a separate service. ming documents. Or
These firms reported they produce the best
that one-half to over program that they can
five percent of within their standard
billable time is fee, simply by sitting
devoted to program- down with the client
ming (Fig. 4-11). and trying to resolve
In this same re- what is needed
port Preiser found, through the interview-
as would be ex- ing process. Is this an
pected, that pro- adequate way to pro-
gramming was much gram? Sometimes it
more intensive for appears to be-or at
institutional projects least the architects
(Fig. 4-12). and clients seem satis-
He also found fied with the results. Figure 4-13 Methods of Data Gathering.
Figure 4-11 Comparative Programming Costs. that less than ten Often, however, it is Credit: See Preiser 1993, 17-20. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser
Credit: See Preiser 1993, 17-20. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser
percent of the ar- not. In these cases,
chitectural firms the client gets much
responding to the less than hoped for or even major problems requiring complete re-
survey conduct any design and alteration of recently completed facilities. This is un-
information gather- fortunate and costly in many ways. These problems can be avoided
ing activity beyond by first completing a competent architectural program.
interviewing (Fig. 4- What would the added costs be to have architects or professional
13). programmers prepare
Is it any wonder better programs? They
that many architects are relatively small
have such a poor compared to design,
reputation relative to construction, and pro-
programming? ject costs. They are
The fact is, the extremely small when
education of many compared to life cycle
of today's architec- costs. This is shown
tural firm leaders clearly on the follow-
predates the teach- ing diagram from a
ing of programming study relating to cor-
in architectural rectional facilities
schools, so these (Fig. 4-14).
Figure 4-12 Programming Intensive Projects. firms tend to rely on The savings to the Figure 4-14 Percentage of Life Cycle Costs.
Credit: See Preiser 1993, 17-20. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser the client to client for competent Credit: See Preiser 1993, 380. Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser
190 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Preparing to Program 191

architectural programming can be substantial because programming 3. Without reference to either of the above master planning
mistakes have major impacts at every subsequent phase of the ideas, develop a short list of crucial issues for schematic de-
project, often involving considerably greater costs to overcome the sign of the new family life center. Would responding to these
mistakes than the total cost of preparing the architectural program. issues cause you to re-assess the location of this center?
Architects should make this case clearly when considered for
architectural commissions. It will add a small amount to the archi- 4. Given the characteristics of the existing development, of the
tect's fee, but will save everyone a great deal of time, money, and neighborhood, and the local climate and conditions, what
good will in the long run. would be the appropriate systems and materials to use for the
new family center? Would they relate to existing materials
and details? Would they be different?
4.5 Exercises 5. Assume that you have been asked to master plan the site and
prepare an architectural program for the family life center.
1. Visit an older existing church or synagogue site near where
you are located. Is there adequate automobile access and
parking? Are the various units of the facility appropriately Develop a list of all of the information gathering techniques
related to each other? Is pedestrian circulation clear and that you would need to use to become knowledgeable enough
unimpeded by driveways or excessive stairways? Are there to prepare a competent program for a completely new facility
provisions for handicapped individuals in the parking areas for the church or synagogue.
and throughout the buildings?
Develop a bar chart schedule showing when all of these ac-
Prepare a sketch drawing of the site including all buildings, tivities would be accomplished and who would be doing
parking, and landscape areas. Pace off the perimeter of the them.
site and of the various buildings to make the drawing roughly
What would you charge the church for your programming
to scale.
efforts? How would you determine your costs? How long
Imagine that the owners now need to add a new "Family Life would it take you to do the programming? Is this a good way
Center" and related parking to provide for daily activities, to estimate your costs? Are there better ways?
particularly for the old and young of the congregation. Where
What would be your personal hourly take home pay based on
would this facility best be located on the existing or on an ad-
the fee and time needed to do the study? Would it be ad-
joining site? Assume that they could purchase an adjoining
equate to make a good living? What do you think is a good
site if no room is currently available on the owned property.
living?
If you were to start over, where would you have located the
existing facilities and the family life center? Would they be in
different locations from the present locations? Why? 4.6 References
4. Develop a short list of crucial issues and related goals for Ackoff, Russell L. 1968. Scientific Method: Optimizing Applied
master planning the above site again, assuming that there was
Research Decisions. 1st corrected edition. New York: Wiley.
no existing development.
Barrett, G. Vincent, and John P. Blair. 1988. How to Conduct and
After having done this, reassess where you would locate the Analyze Real Estate and Market Feasibility Studies. New York:
various facilities, including the family life center. Would they Van Nostrand Reinhold.
be in different locations than your original placement? If so, Brill, Michael, Stephen T. Margulis, Ellen Konar, and BOSTI.
why? Did the crucial issues and related goals make a 1984. Using Office Design to Increase Productivity. Buffalo, N.Y.:
difference? Workplace Design and Productivity.
192 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Dober, Richard P. 1963. Campus Planning. New York: Reinhold

Publishing Corp.
Farbstein, Jay. 1997. Discussion by telephone.
Goldman, Mark, and Frieda D. Peatross. 1993. Planning for a
Captive Audience. In Professional Practice in Facility Programming,
edited by Wolfgang F. E. Preiser. New York: Van Nostrand
Information Gathering
Reinhold.
Lynch, Kevin. 1971. Site Planning. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T.
Press.
McGraw-Hill Construction Information Group. 1997. Sweet's
General Building & Renovation Catalog File. New York: McGraw
Hill.
Moleski, Walter. 1997. Discussion by telephone.
Pan, Solomon. 1997. Discussion by telephone.
Pena, William, William Caudill, and John Focke. 1977. Problem 5 .1 Literature Search and Review
Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. Boston, Mass.: 5.2 Diagnostic Interviewing
Cahners Books International. 5.3 Diagnostic Observation
Pena, William, Steven Parshall, and Kevin Kelly. 1987. Problem 5 .4 Questionnaires and Surveys
Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. 3rd ed. Wash- 5. 5 Site and Climate Analysis 5.
ington, D.C.: AIA Press. 6 Exercises
Preiser, Wolfgang F. E. 1993a. Recent Developments in Facility 5. 7 References
Programming. In Professional Practice in Facility Programming,
edited by Wolfgang F. E. Preiser. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold.
Preiser, Wolfgang F. E., ed. 1993b. Professional Practice in Facility
N o matter which method or approach to architectural pro
gramming is used, it will feature techniques and tools for
gathering information about the client, users, site, and other
Programming. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. factors in order to define the nature of the architectural
Rubenstein, Harvey M. 1987. A Guide to Site and Environmental problem. If the data gathered is extensive, -then various
Planning. 3rd ed. New York: Wiley. techniques and tools of analysis will be necessary to distill the
Rushman, Stephen. 1986. How to Perform an Economic Feasibility raw data into useful information. This chapter covers the most
Study of a Proposed Hotel/Motel. Chicago: American Society of basic and frequently used information gathering and data
Real Estate Counselors. analysis techniques and tools. It does not cover every approach
Tustler, Wilbur H., Frank Zilm, James T. Hannon, and Mary Ann currently used by professional programmers. However, careful
Newman. 1993. Programming: The Third Dimension. In Pro- reading and application of the materials presented should allow
fessional Practice in Facility Programming, edited by Wolfgang F. the programmer to develop the information needed for most
E. Preiser. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. commissions. It will also advance the beginning programmer to
the point where other techniques and tools can be evaluated
and used as appropriate for a particular programming problem.
A person can learn a great deal about architecture by reading and
going to lectures, as well as from conversations, movies, and
television. Much can also be learned by general observation of

193
194 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 195

people interacting with their physical and social environments. The ageable amounts for the designer to assimilate. These are signifi-
more diverse and varied an architect's experience with the cant problems that will be discussed.
environment, the more knowledge that person can draw upon in The procedures covered in this chapter should prove sufficient
any architectural programming or design situation. But what one for most small- to medium-scale programming problems. Persons
has experienced and learned may not apply to a particular problem. wishing to expand their understanding of programming to include
What we think is true may not be true. What we think is false may more advanced or specialized information gathering or data
be true. It is important to study the particular situation for which a analysis techniques and tools should review books such as Facility
new building is being considered before deciding what the new Programming (1978) and Programming the Built Environment (1985)
building should be. Information should be gathered on client and edited by Wolfgang F. E. Freiser, The Architect's Guide to Facility
user values, goals, and needs as well as on facts about the site, Programming (1981) by Mickey A. Palmer, Methods of Architectural
climate, context, and existing facilities in order to understand what Programming (1977) by Henry Sanoff, Problem Seeking (1987) by
is required. William Pena et al., and Architectural Programming:
The most obvious, but often overlooked, approach to obtaining Creative Techniques for Design Professionals (1995) by Robert
information about a particular architectural problem is to see what Kumlin. These books contain case studies and detailed examples of
others have written about it. Literature search and review programming procedures used by professional programmers, and
techniques can be employed to uncover a great deal of useful in- include references to a number of other texts and articles that
formation about a project. The problem is doing this in an efficient contain even more detail on specific procedures. Methods in En-
and reliable fashion. Several successful techniques of literature vironmental and Behavioral Research (1987) edited by Robert
search are covered in this chapter. Bechtel, Robert Marans, and William Michelson; Inquiry by Design
There are also likely to be a number of people available who (1981) by John Zeisel; and Creative Design Decisions (1988) by
have not written about or published their experiences, but never- Stephen J. Kirk and Kent F. Spreckelmeyer are examples of lit-
theless have a wealth of knowledge concerning the problem at erature that concentrates on some of the more useful advanced in-
hand. Certainly the client will have much to share. So will the users formation gathering procedures.
of the existing facilities, if there are any. Others who would have
knowledge to share include persons responsible for similar
enterprises and the users of similar facilities. There are also experts 5.1 Literature Search and Review
in particular building types, and other design and engineering • Information Needs
professionals, social scientists, and public officials who should be
consulted. These people can be interviewed or asked to respond to • Literature Sources
questionnaires to obtain the knowledge they can contribute. It is • Library Search Procedures
also possible to observe persons in existing facilities or • Non-Library Search Procedures
environments similar to the proposed project to discover more
about actual behavior patterns. Several strategies for gathering • Literature Review Procedures
firsthand information through interviews, questionnaires, and ob- • Matrix Summary
servation techniques are also covered in this chapter.
• Sampling Plan
If large numbers of personnel or settings are involved and time
or budget is limited, as is almost always the case, then it will be Nearly all architectural students that the author has encountered
necessary to select exactly who and what should be studied. A feel that they have learned quite enough about literature search and
sampling plan will be needed to select representative persons from review in their freshman English courses. But few of these students
whom to gather the information. It will also be necessary to have been effective in finding information appropriate for
develop procedures to reduce the gathered information to man- programming a particular architectural project. This is
196 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 197

not because the information is unavailable in print, but because it is After all, not much of what follows is very important if you do not
typically not found in the same libraries and reference sources get the commission!
appropriate for English or history research papers. Indeed, in many Where do you obtain this information? Visit their offices. Re-
cases the information needs, sources, and requirements are so quest copies of their printed materials. Show your interest in them
different in architectural programming that the strategies for search and the proposed project before the formal interview. This will
and review must be revised significantly to be effective. help to ensure that your firm will stand out from others being
interviewed.
Likewise, it is important to familiarize yourself with the general
space vocabulary and facility requirements of the organization.
Information Needs Nearly every business or institution has a particular jargon with
• Precommission which the architect should be familiar during the interview. If you
are trying to get a commission to do a church for an unfamiliar de-
• Programming nomination, will the members of the building committee refer to
• Design the primary meeting space as the "church," "sanctuary," "worship
center," or will they use
The above list indicates three distinct time periods or phases another term? Similarly, there
when literature resources can be of great value to the architect. may be a particular arrange-
Each phase requires different types of information and involves ment of spaces about which
somewhat different search strategies in order to be successful. you should be aware. Lack of
familiarity with their organi-
zation may result in losing the
PRECOMMISSION
commission.
For the architectural firm seeking a commission for a project type Most institutions belong to
that team members have not previously programmed or designed, it larger groups, such as church
is vitally important to know as much as possible about the potential denominations, that publish
client and the client's facility needs prior to the first meeting or guidelines for appropriate
interview. Literature on or by the particular organization is very physical development.
useful: its own publicity, news releases, newsletters, etc. The Sometimes these can be found
information contained in these documents can be most helpful in in the local offices. If not,
obtaining a feeling for the organization, its manner of operating, correspond directly with the
financial resources, and potential as a client. It can provide a organization headquarters to
preliminary understanding of the purposes and goals of the obtain the appropriate litera-
organization as well as the potential for growth and facility ture. This literature will typi-
development. It can also be helpful in securing the programming cally provide both the typical
commission. vocabulary and space stan-
Clients, like most people, typically are flattered and impressed dards. Strategic Planning and
when others show a sincere interest in their particular concerns. Building Planning for New
Familiarity with the client's organization is a concrete demonstra- Congregations (1990) of the
tion of this interest and can make the difference in being hired or Board of Church Extension
not hired-it can be an effective marketing tool for architectural of Disciples of Christ is an figure 5-1 Planning and Design Guide: Cover.
firms that specialize in or offer programming as a primary service. excellent example (Fig. 5-1). Permission: Board of Church Extension of Disciples of Christ
198 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 199

An excellent job interview strategy is to bring up the special tion find to be of enough importance to pub-
vocabulary, typical space standards, or unique relationships which lish? It may be possible to identify the prin-
the organization prefers to demonstrate your interest in discovering cipal purposes or "institutional values" of the
the special character of their institution. Time-Saver Standards for organization, as well as primary goals and
Architectural Design Data (Callender 1982) and other similar directions for advancement and/ or change.
standards can also serve as helpful beginning points to obtain basic Guidelines for space size may be provided in
information on the building types that reoccur in our society. some degree of detail as shown in Fig. 5-2.
Monographs on particular building types are available in many Information on the site and its surround-
libraries and can serve to familiarize the architect with special ings, as well as on the urban infrastructure,
requirements of the building type and provide an understanding of can be obtained from various governmental
precedent. Are there particular formal arrangements that occur agencies. Cities typically have extensive files
repeatedly in different times and places, even at very different containing plans and other documents relat-
sites? It is important to understand the reasons behind such formal ing to specific sites that are available to the
arrangements, to determine if some strong institutional value is developers of new projects. They also have
being expressed, and to show your awareness of these values, planning and development documents such
should the potential client show an interest. as general plans, zoning ordinances, design
review policies, building permit guidelines,
PROGRAMMING and the like. The key provisions of these
should be documented in the program. Cities
Once the commission is obtained, programming can begin in
also develop or adopt building codes
earnest. The same information obtained earlier can be reviewed for
(building, mechanical, plumbing, fire safety,
applicability to the problem at hand. Further vocabulary building
etc.) which contain information that is im-
and understanding of the organization can go on as well. An
portant to include in the architectural pro-
examination of the records and archives of the organization can
gram. Current versions of all of these
also be very fruitful. Is there a program for the existing facilities?
documents are likely to be available at city
What were the goals and objectives then? What projections were
offices. They may also be available in the
made for growth and change? Was there a master plan showing
government documents section of the local
where future facilities were anticipated? What about the actual
public or university library. Those that
construction documents? Were specific provisions made to
contain useful information should be ob-
accommodate growth and/ or change in the organization or
tained for reference during both program-
facilities? Were some walls designed as knockout panels to allow
ming and design. The Tucson Historic
additions? Were certain utilities extended in anticipation of future
Districts: Criteria for Preservation and De-
expansion? Is there an organizational chart showing how various
velopment (City of Tucson 1972) is typical of
departments and people relate to each other? Are there annual
this kind of document (Fig. 5-3).
reports or files which reveal special developments? This can be
As pointed out in earlier sections of the
useful information at the beginning of the programming stage and
text, information about the needs of special
should be sought out in cooperation with the organization's staff.
user groups applying to a particular problem
If the organization has a library, it might include trade journals
can be obtained in the literature. There is also
containing special information about this and similar organizations.
an abundance of environmental design
If it is a subsidiary of a larger entity, the headquarters may have a
research available covering the territorial, Figure 5-2 Organization Desfgn Standards.
more comprehensive library that can be accessed for additional
privacy, community, safety, and Credit: Board of Church Extension of Disciples of Christ, 1990. Strategic
information. What concerns do the people in the organiza- Planning & Building Planning for New Congregations. Permission: Board
of Church Extension of Disciples of Christ.
200 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 201

other social and psycho- During the design

downtown tucson logical needs of various development phase of
user groups: the elderly, architectural services, there is
young, handicapped, in- a whole body of information
carcerated, and so on. that can be obtained from
This type of literature reference books such as
typically is available in Architectural Graphic
major public and univer- Standards (American Institute
sity libraries. of Architects 1994) and
monographs on particular
DESIGN building materials and
Prior to or during design, systems such as the excellent
an entirely different body one on Metal Design and Fab-
of printed information be- rication by architects David
comes important to the Frisch and Susan Frisch
(1998). Manufacturer's liter- Figure 5-4 Sweet's Catalog File in Library.
architect. The journals of
the architectural profes- ature on building products
sion, such as Architecture and equipment are also available. This literature typically is not
and Architectural Record, available within a university or public library system, but is readily
as well as related publica- available to architectural or programming firms upon request. There
tions dealing with values are also general catalog files that include the products of many sup-
and design methodologies pliers, such as Sweet's Catalog File (McGraw-Hill Construction In-
such as Oppositions and formation Group 1997), which are updated yearly and may not be
the DMG Newsletter, are of available in public libraries. They will be found in most
continuing interest to the architectural libraries and in the offices of most practicing architects
designer. Issues devoted (Fig. 5-4). Sources
Literature
to particular building • Building and Planning Standards
types may be of
considerable interest in • Historical Documents/ Archival Materials
terms of the spatial and • Trade Publications
formal organization of the
• Research Literature
facility. Books and other
publications on the his- • Professional Publications
Figure 5-3 Planning and Development Guide. tory of a building type or • Codes and Ordinances
the architecture of partic-
Credit: Tucson Historic Districts: Criteria for Preservation and Development, 1972. City of Tucson,
Department of Community Developmen1/Planning Division, Tucson, Arizona.City of Tucson, Depart- ular places, such as Prece- • Government Documents
ment of Community Developmen1/Planning Division
dents in Architecture • Manufacturers' Publications
(Clark and Pause 1996), • Popular Literature
might also be of interest, as they can aid in the analysis and evalu-
ation of potential solutions to the architectural problem. • World Wide Web
 202 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 203

As is evident from the above discussion, the types of literature coverage of events relating to
and printed material available and useful to the architectural pro- the proposed development; le-
grammer are diverse both in nature and location. Each of the ten gal descriptions and restric-
categories of printed materials may contain useful information. A tions; records of street and
brief description of each of these information sources is included in utility alignments and ease-
the following paragraphs, along with their most likely location and ments; zoning and design re-
the areas of programming in which they would be of benefit. view decisions; and the
Representative titles are also noted. client's records of building
programs, plans, and
BUILDING AND PLANNING STANDARDS specifications, and plans for
development.
Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data (Callender
1982), Architectural Graphic Standards (American Institute of Ar- Newspaper archives may
chitects 1994), and Interior Graphic and Design Standards be in a public library or the
publisher's office. Most legal
(Reznikoff 1986) are exam
descriptions of property can be
ples of printed documents
located in a county recorder's
that contain standards for
office. City documents are
site development, building
usually available through the
types, space types, and
public works, engineering,
systems within buildings.
and/or planning offices. The
These and other similar
client's records are sometimes
documents can be found in
carefully stored in files, but
most architectural libraries
quite often are within the
MAIN FLOOR and should be part of an
client's dead storage areas or
architect's reference library.
MAIN FL.OOR

lost forever because no one

They can be useful in
thought they were worth
developing a general
saving. Occasionally, formal
understanding of a building
archives are established to
type or system in the early
preserve the records of an
stages of programming or
establishment or an area of
even prior to obtaining the
knowledge. Information
commission, and the more
located in all of the above
specific systems-oriented
areas can be valuable during
standards can be useful for
programming and design. The
design development and
adjoining plate is from the
construction documents
architect's drawings for the Figure 5-6 Pima County Court House.
(Fig. 5-5).
Pima County Court House that Credit Roy Place Architect, Pima County Court House, Tower Details. Permission: From the
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS/ Arizona Architectural Archives, College of Architecture, The University of Arizona
are being preserved in the
ARCHIVAL MATERIALS Arizona Architectural
Figure 5-5 Planning Standards. Archives of the College of
Credit: De Chiara & Callender, 1973. Time Saver Standards for Building Types. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
These are the community's
or client's own records. Architecture, The University
NY, NY, p. 677. Permission: McGraw-Hill
They include newspaper of Arizona (Fig. 5-6).
 Information Gathering 205
204 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

TRADE PUBLICATIONS
Homey Hospital
Trade publications include magazines, newsletters, journals, con-
ference proceedings, and monographs relating to a specific orga-
nization or institution. Newsletters may be generated by a local
organization or by a state, regional, national, or international as-
sociation. Journals and conference proceedings are usually benefits
of membership in the association. These publications are often
maintained at the association headquarters, in major research
collections at university libraries, and if the magazine, journal, or
monograph is of community interest, within public library systems.
Such publications are useful in vocabulary building prior to
obtaining a commission and in the early stages of programming
when establishing the important values and issues to be considered
in the design. They are also important sources for obtaining an
understanding of an organization's current concerns, occasionally
including very helpful critiques of how previously designed
buildings have worked.

RESEARCH LITERATURE 2a

Literature on human behavior in buildings can be found in the

conference proceedings of the Environmental Design Research As-
sociation (EDRA 1969-); journals such as Environment and Behavior,
The Journal of Environmental Psychology, The Journal of Architectural I
and Planning Research; and in a variety of monographs such as I
t.
Planning and Designing the Office Environment by David A. Harris /
(1981), Tight Spaces by Robert Sommer (1974), A Graphic Survey of r-----\...s, .. .-'
I
Perception and Behavior for the Design Professions by Forrest Wilson I
I
I
(1984), and many others.
These publications are typically available in major public li-
braries and university architectural libraries. Architectural firms
should have the more generally applicable books and journals in
Figure 5-7 Building Wayfinding.
their own libraries, and those wishing to be involved in particular
Credit:( Peponis et al 1990), 555-590. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.
building types should acquire monographs and journals on that
building type in order to have the material at hand during pro- PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS
gramming and design. Information in these journals and mono-
These include professional journals such as Architecture, Architectural
graphs should become a part of the architect's understanding of the
Record, and Architectural Review as well as numerous monographs,
field. Information on particular user groups and facility types
architectural history books, and related books and journals in urban
would be appropriate before obtaining a commission and espe-
planning, landscape architecture, and interior design. ,
cially during schematic and design development (Fig. 5-7).
206 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 207

These are, of course, the publi- and other materials as pub- EXCERPTS FROM CHAPTER 1994 UNIFORM BUILDING
16 CODE
cations most likely to be avail- lished by the American Soci-
FOOTNOTES TO TABLE 16-B-(Contlnued)
able in the architectural libraries ety for Testing and Materials 9Jntermediare rails, panel fillers and their connections shall be capable of withstanding a load of25 pounds per square foot ( i.2

of both the professional schools

of architecture and architectural
offices. They contain infor-
(ASTM). States often have
codes covering portable or re- I
kN/m2) applied horizontally at right angles over the entire tributary area. including ope. nings and spaces between rails.
Reactions due to this loading need not be combined with those of Poomote 8.
JOA horizontal load applied at right angles 10 the vehicle barrier at a heigh! of 18 inches (457 mm) above the parking surface.
The force may be distributed over a I-foot-square (304.8-millime1er-square) area.
r1111e mounting of handrails shall be such 1h11t the completed handrail and supporting structure arc capable of with· standing a
lend or 11t least 200 pounds t890 kN) applied in any direction 31 any point on the rail. These loads shall
locatable structures since they 12Vcrtic11l not he assumed lo act cumulatively with Item 9.
members of storage racks shall be protected from impact forces of operating equipment, or racks shall be designed so

mation appropriate at all levels can be moved across city and 13The 250-pound that failure or one vertical member will not cause collapse of more than the hay or buys directly supported by that member.
(I. I I kN) load is to be applied many single fire sprinkler support point but not slrnuuencously to nil support

of architectural programming county boundaries. Counties joints.

TABLE 16·C-MINIMUM ROOF LIVE LOADS'

and design. Issues of profes- usually adopt building codes

sional journals and conference for unincorporated areas.
proceedings contain articles re- Cities either develop their own
lating to almost every building building codes or adopt in
type, occasionally with in-depth whole or part uniform codes
analysis and evaluation of spe- such as the Uniform Building
cific examples, making them Code (International Conference
highly useful in the program- of Building Officials 1994) or
ming process (Fig. 5-8). National Building Code (BOCA
Monographs by firms spe- 1990) as well as related
cializing in particular building documents for mechanical,
types such as hospitals, schools, plumbing, and electrical
and commercial office buildings requirements. They also
can also be extremely useful develop general plans and
since the firm's experience is zoning ordinances that restrict
available to the reader. History the type, size, and nature of fa-
and theory books may assist the cilities that can be built in var- I Where snow loads occur, the roof structure shall be designed for such loads as determined by the building official.

architect in the development of ious parts of the community. Sec Section 1605.4. For special-purpose roofs. sec Section 1605.5.
Zsee Section 1606 for live load reductions. The rate of reduction r in Section 1606 Formula (6-1) shall be as indicated
Figure 5-8 Professional Journal cover. appropriate design concepts, as nances are quite specific
Sometimes these ordi- in .· in the ruble. The maximum reduction R shall nor exceed the value indicated in the table.

Iaddition
1
JA flat roof is any roof with a slope of less than / unit vertical in 12 units horizontal (2% slope). The live load for flat roofs is in
4

Photo Credit: Paul Warchol. Makuhari Housing Complex, China, Japan. Steven Holl Architects. well as in the development of terms of building size, set- to the ponding load required by Section 1605.6.
4
As defined in Section 3206.
Permission: Architectural Record
details for a particular situation. backs, heights, sign location 5Scc Section 1605.5 for concentrated load requirements for greenhouse roof members.
1-246
and size, and even of building
and landscape materials and Figure 5-9 Uniform Building Code.
CODES AND ORDINANCES treatments. These documents Reproduced from the Uniform Building Code™, copyright© 1994, with the permission of the
are typically available at the publisher, the International Conference of Building Officials
These include federal, state, county, and municipal standards,
county or local planning and
codes, and ordinances typically geared to protecting the public
building departments at cost. They are sometimes available in
health, safety, and welfare. They are often legal documents that
must be complied with, so are of paramount importance in pro- public and university libraries in the government documents section.
gramming and design. Standards are often promulgated at the fed- Check if they are kept current by the library because of constant
eral level and include requirements for the workplace such as those updates and modifications. Because these documents contain legal
included in the Occupational Safety and Health Act (Blosser 1992); requirements for building, it is mandatory that they be referenced
for the handicapped as covered in publications of the American and that key provisions likely to impact design be· articulated in the
National Standards Institute (ANSI); and for asbestos program (Fig. 5-9).
208 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 209

11 ••••••••••• 12
GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS form of product literature in
1
2
305 In addition to codes and or- the United States. Many
dinances, both federal and manufacturers include small
state governments generate a brochures of their product
tremendous amount of printed line in these catalogs, which
material. This includes cover every aspect of build-
Plan Elevation
information on particular ing construction. These
(c) Free-Standing Overhanging Objects
organizations and building manufacturers, and many
types, special manufacturing others not included in
or other processes, special Sweet's, also have their own
systems and materials, and a more extensive catalogs,
host of other topics. These which include standard
publications are generally details, cut sheets, samples,
found in the government and the like. They generally
documents section of public will make these available to
( c) Ouemead
Hazards and university libraries. Gov- architectural firms at no cost
ernment documents have their in the hope of having their
own catalog and methods of products specified in a
12m.,
30
access. Request help from the building, so almost any ar-
5
government documents chitectural firm will have
librarian about how to copies of the Sweet's file
proceed. Be sure to look at and many other product Figure 5-11 Sweet's Catalog File: Contents.
these documents because they catalogs in their firm li- Credit: Contents, 1999 Sweet's Contract Interiors Catalog File, the McGraw-Hill Companies. Permission:
!hi• -!>ang ••••
g""rNter thin 1213051 may contain programmatic brary. Again, these materi- McGraw-Hill
eeause no one can
approach the object Plan information on the exact type als are rarely available in
from thla direction
of facility for which you are public libraries, but should be available and up-to-date in archi-
tectural libraries and offices.
(d)
preparing a program. For ex-
Object.! Mounted on Ptista or Pylons
This type of information is primarily used during the design
ample, the Small Business
Administration (SBA) pub- development and construction document phases of architectural
Figure 5-10 Accessibility Guidelines.
lishes information on how to services when particular materials and systems are being selected.
Federal Register, Vol. 56, No. 14, Jan. 22, 1991, p. 20
set up many small busi- This information may also be of help to the programmer in
nesses. The Federal Register establishing the physical dimensions of required equipment and
publicizes rules for various systems (Fig. 5-11).
laws such as from the Proposed Rules for the Americans with Dis-
abilities Act (ADA) (Fig. 5-10). POPULAR LITERATURE

Occasionally it is possible to find useful information in the popular

MANUFACTURERS' PUBLICATIONS
literature, such as Time, Life, The New Yorker, and Better Homes and
Manufacturers' catalogs and other similar publications almost al- Gardens nationally, as well as in Sunset, Arizona Living, and other
ways relate to the specific materials or systems that they produce. regional publications. These may have feature stories on the client's
As previously noted, Sweet's Catalog File (McGraw-Hill Construc- organization or articles and commentary on architects or
tion Information Group 1997) is the most generally available architecture of interest to the readership. This type
210 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 211

Eo;y to 1,110 liom crw cofTlP<Jlor • ll'l ln1:1 ctnce, heme. 00111
of information is likely literature search steps are generally appropriate (Yao 1987). Sys-
to be most useful when tematically following such a procedure will almost always result in
vp-tc-ecte iflfOllllCllion familiarizing oneself a more efficient, hence less time consuming and costly, search than
ccecec. fo!°f!'ot1&d procvct 1r11ormofi::m U:ceiot\l

co101 rop11t111nto1iom or p•oUucls

with a particular client, if more casual procedures are utilized. Browsing through the
Yl"HAT EQlllPMmTJUIMCES l'/U ee NEEDED?
rather than for obtaining shelves of the stacks of a library and thumbing through the current
Computer O"d modom (minimum 96IXJ bcurn. pnono ~no information relevant to a periodicals are not efficient nor cost-effective methods of retrieving
OnillV :1rvictt providc1 • !or cocoa tc 11•u·1 lntomol
particular commission. information.
WllATWIU IT CC»T'7
Tn11111 oi no choroo I<'! occ1m mo First sccrce 1llu on tM uuemet 1-:ir
lhOJO wim an ln1omcl ~n11oc1ion.

Oolino 1orvi"co5. wcti as Arno1ico Onlioo. cerreuse.vc end Prodigy, and enecr WORLD WIDE WEB
uvtcmet ~111\'k:o p.ovld1111. 1uch as netccrn.
cccnu loo.
PS1 cr.o MCI do cterce a smo~
DECIDE GENERALLY WHAT INFORMATION

WHA1 IS '!HE FIRST WURCE WEii ADDRESS (llP.L)7

Students have recently
rl!lt sowee hm a lilt cl p1ovidors wiln priono numt>eri ovo~oole. Cc'1 ct
800·305-lOBll
WOULD BE HELPFUL TO DISCOVER
http.//www.olionl.corn/ been successful in find-
ing current information
A lonil ncm ~c Finl !lourco rilo to manulocru1ou· illus pm11id115 cuoct
A few minutes thinking about what you hope to accomplish with
es
Yl1tlll INf'OlllMTKlH CAN FOUND THE!1£'1 occeu tc mort!lnformoHon

t111w1e fUOtlio111 Dlt.cl commun!cotion lo monu!octtu1;1!'1 m1011gh om.oil rcr to)tor

on the World Wide Web. the literature search is always time well spent. If you have already
fh11 fi'st scorcc irn:rnx to crcoccts
Ai Finf source ltu1ho!od product •rllde1
D,oww oo~lv llvouoh hl.111d1odi or p1ocll.icts ona tnou1ond1 or
This information is vari-
llui:l!a!iom
done programs or designs for a number of similar projects, you may
Plodud lodoic1 for monuroctwon wl!n Uullro!cd oroducl ontriln f0'51, oc;y 10 uso. whor1111or ona whonovor you neee i:ilormollon

able in nature and spotty

'>:I.lick toodbcck 10 Arcniioch' h;! scctce
not need to conduct a literature search at all. If the project appears
Tredo ncm1u tor mC11ulochJ<or.: with Kh.mrctOd pnx1uc1 entries
in building-related areas to have only one or two significant differences from earlier
CSl MaslcrFormcl~

projects, you might concentrate only on these areas. But if the

•at this time, but is likely
~urch on OllV wc1d In o Fi11t 5ourco UUll1cm1d on1ry.
product, lrode rmrr.l!I. or fi1m commission is for a project type with which you are essentially
CSi Mc..tlcrro1mot~ c1oni~ca11on nomber 01 catoQott
to increase dramatically
unfamiliar, you should conduct a thorough review-it could help you
in quantity and quality
get the commission. In all but the first case, identification of what
Figure 5-12 Architects' First Source. over time. It is also only
you need to know will help streamline the steps that follow.
Permission: Architects' First Source, Inc. as reliable as the source,
so programmers would
CONSULT WITH THE LIBRARIAN ON SPECIAL SOURCES Introduce
be wise to confirm information found on the Web with other
yourself and the task at hand to the architectural librarian, if there is
sources. Architects' First Source (Diercks 1996) is helpful in finding
product manufacturers (Fig. 5-12). one at the library where you are doing your research. Otherwise,
ask for a librarian generally familiar with the areas in which you
Library Search Procedures will be seeking information. Librarians are ex
• Decide generally what information would be helpful to dis- perts in literature searches and ·
cover know a great deal about the
resources in their library, and
• Consult with the librarian on special sources will almost invariably save you
• Follow up on the special sources time. Ask if there are any
authoritative reference sources
• Check the appropriate subject headings in the catalog system
in your area of concern. There
• Consult the appropriate indexes to periodical literature may be sources which can pro-
• Investigate the government documents index vide you with all of the infor-
mation needed-the search is
• Conduct a computer literature search over! Often, there will be sev-
•Obtain and review the most promising sources of information eral sources known to the li-
brarian that contain limited, but
Library search procedures will vary from library to library, but
nevertheless useful, infor-
all have many of the same general characteristics. The above listed mation (Fig. 5-13). Figure 5-13 Librarian Helping with a Search .
212 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 213

The published standards mentioned in the previous section may later date. The catalog entry for a book will also note if it contains
be available. There may also be monographs directed more illustrations, drawings, plans, and a bibliography. Such information
specifically to the subject at hand. The librarian may also know may help you decide if the particular document is worth pursuing.
about a specially prepared bibliography on the specific subject.
These lists of references may be annotated as a result of a previ- CONSULT THE APPROPRIATE INDEXES TO
ously organized research effort on the subject by a knowledgeable
PERIODICAL LITERATURE
person, perhaps another architectural programmer. For instance,
Vance Bibliographies includes a large number of special topic bib- The librarian may also be able to refer you to the appropriate in-
liographies on architectural subject material. Here again, if the dexes to periodical literature. Some of the appropriate indexes for
bibliography is current, several of the other steps in the literature architectural periodicals include the Avery Index to Architectural
search may be unnecessary as you proceed directly to find and re- Periodicals, Art Index, and Architectural Index. The Avery Index can be
view the most promising sources listed in the bibliography. accessed in some libraries with a computer search. A valuable
resource for finding appropriate indexes is Information Sources in
FOLLOW UP ON THE SPECIAL SOURCES Architecture, edited by Valerie J. Bradfield (1983). The librarian
Obtain and review all of the special sources to which you are di- may also be able to refer you to appropriate indexes, bib-
rected by the librarian. At the very least, this will give you enough liographies, or abstracts in other fields. As in the references for
information to identify what you are seeking. Often, however, books, write down the complete citation for each article: author,
these sources will provide all that is needed for preprogramming title of article, title of journal, volume and issue number, full date
activities and may be sufficient even for programming if an of issue, and inclusive page numbers, as well as the index and
abundance of information is found in the subject area. If the subject headings consulted. If the particular periodicals in which
information is not sufficient, it is well to peruse the references and you are interested are not covered in a standard index, a time-
bibliographies contained in the various publications for other leads, consuming review of the tables of contents of each publication
and especially to continue to develop the appropriate terminology may be necessary to
and subject headings needed to continue with the search. find articles or chapters
applicable to the
problem at hand. In this
case, always try to find
CHECK THE APPROPRIATE SUBJECT HEADINGS IN relevant information in
THE CATALOG SYSTEM the most current
If no special bibliography is available or if additional resources are documents. They may
needed, it is advisable to conduct your own search for books in the make reference to
library's catalog. Use appropriate subject headings for your topic, earlier publications, so
as listed in the Library of Congress Subject Headings or in accordance you can avoid a seem-
with the library's catalog system. Using this terminology, you can ingly endless search
proceed to find additional sources on the subject. When relevant through the contents of
books are located, write down the complete bibliographic numerous periodicals.
information for each: author, title, place of publication, publisher, This is an especially
year of publication, and call number. This consumes some initial good strategy in using
time, but saves effort in the long run. Also note the subject head- unindexed trade jour-
ing(s) under which the book was found so that it will be easy to re- nals and newsletters
turn to the same heading if additional information is desired at a (Fig. 5-14). Figure 5-14 Indexes in Architecture Library.
214 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 215

INVESTIGATE THE GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS INDEX Government Non-Library Search Procedures

documents are generally located in a special section of major Traditional literature search procedures such as those described
libraries. You must work with the section librarian to locate the above are appropriate for only some of the printed documents
desired materials, because they are not referenced in either the needed for architectural programming and design. Many docu-
library's main catalog system or indexes. The librarian will likely ments will not be in a library or indexed, so the search can be time
refer you to specific materials as well as acquaint you with the use consuming and even fruitless if not approached systematically.
of the Monthly Catalog of United States Government Publications and This is especially true for organization archives. First the archives
other special reference tools. As mentioned earlier, some must be found, then the filing system determined, and finally the
government documents can be invaluable in a programming effort. search for specific useful information undertaken. An excellent
For instance, many government documents sections maintain approach to retrieval of useful archival information is provided in
complete up-to-date codes and ordinances applicable within a the book Inquiry by Design by John Zeise! (1981). This book should
specific area of the country. be available in any architectural library.
Often, copies of the needed information can be obtained from
CONDUCT A COMPUTER LITERATURE SEARCH appropriate agencies, such as the city planning, building, and en-
In many libraries, it is also possible to conduct a literature search gineering departments. Documents relating specifically to the site
on CD-ROM or over the Internet. It is also possible to request a for a building project are typically stored in the files of local,
special computer literature search. Features of such searches are county, and state offices and can be accessed through their catalogs
speed of retrieval, access points beyond the standard author-title- or filing systems.
subject approach of a printed index, and other specialized search Manufacturers' catalogs are available in the architect's library
capabilities. Some data bases currently available include Art Liter- and accessed in accordance with a uniform specification number-
ature International (RILA), Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals On- ing system. If information on a particular product is not available
line, and the Architectural Database of the Royal Institute of British in the architect's library, calls to the Sweet's BuyLine (1-800- 892-
Architects. Similar data bases exist for other fields which may be of 1165) or to local building product distributors will usually result in
interest for a particular project. One example is Medline for a response from a product representative who will bring the needed
medical facility design issues. Such searches are worth pursuing if materials to the office.
speed is an object. A charge may be involved for the search. Some trade publications may be found lying around the client's
facilities. If their content appears to be promising, it may require
OBTAIN AND REVIEW THE MOST PROMIS~ SOURCES OF correspondence or calls to parent organizations to locate original
INFORMATION
publications. This may involve exasperating delays in obtaining
ordered materials. Depending on the nature of the problem, it may
With all of the bibliographic information in hand, it is now time to be very important to obtain this missing information. An historic
find the most promising sources. The books contained in the cata- preservation or restoration project, for instance, may take a great
log should be available in the library. If checked out, request a re- deal of research in a variety of places to establish the original
call. If available, they can either be accessed directly on the shelves design characteristics of a building. Should one proceed without it?
or brought to you from closed stacks. Most libraries will also have Probably not. The same is true for many other problems.
public serials lists, which indicate if a periodical is available in the
library and if it is in paper copy or some microformat. It is likely
Literature Review Procedures
that some sources will not be available in the library. In this case, it
may be necessary to utilize the services of interlibrary loan to ob- There is probably much to be said for the systematic note taking
tain the materials. Be prepared, however, to wait several days to advocated in most bibliographic research procedures. The. author,
obtain the materials and to pay a small charge for the service. on the other hand, has found for a programming search
216 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 217

that photocopying of title pages and appropriate content pages

onto 8Yz'' x 11" sheets is more efficient and effective, and in the
long run produces more readily retrievable information than notes
on cards.
If the information source is available on an on-line data man-
agement system, it can be called up using a personal computer and
the desired pages printed. Original copies can then be filed for
future use and, when appropriate, the pages can be incorporated
into an appendix to the program. Key statements can be
highlighted or marked in the margin for easy retrieval. If an entire
book or journal contains appropriate material, then it should be
checked out for the duration of the programming process, or pur-
chased for the programmer's permanent collection.
The actual relevance of material will, of course, be determined
by the person doing the literature review. Here, as in all areas of
information gathering, the best tests of relevance are whether the
information is likely to make a design difference and whether Figure 5-15 Value-Based Programming Matrix.
there will be a substantial cost of error if the design is not done
properly. Some care must also be taken relative to reliability and
confirmed for the specific project using firsthand information
validity. Just because something has been published does not
gathering techniques.
make it true. A notation system relating to the reliability of the in-
formation may be appropriate for any materials excerpted from a Sampling Plan
questionable source.
As with any information gathering procedure, only the amount of
information that can be reasonably processed and summarized
Matrix Summary within the constraints of time and budget should be collected. A
In the first stages of literature review, it is best to summarize the plan should be developed before beginning the search. The plan
information within the eight value categories covered in Chapters must address one fundamental issue-what does the designer need
1 through 3 or a similar comprehensive set of categories with to know? In other words, what can be found that will make a
which the programmer is comfortable, as well as to designate design difference? The plan must also be made with respect to the
whether the material appears to relate to project goals, facts, and available time and money for conducting the literature search,
needs for the new facility. Using such a system of classification review, and summary. And there must be time and money left af-
and summary can help in the development of the ultimate ter this activity to obtain and summarize firsthand information and
programming matrix (Fig. 5-15). It can serve as the original basis to meet and work directly with the client/user group to develop
for determining the direction of the firsthand information and publish the program document. So, the literature search and
gathering techniques: interviewing, observing, and questioning. review process must fit within a general research and
Areas of the programming matrix in which there is limited or programming plan. Once this is determined, the programmer
no information may indicate the need for more directed literature should develop a particular search strategy. Which of the sources
search or firsthand information gathering techniques. Areas where are likely to contain the most useful information? Go to these first!
much has been discovered in the literature will be of great help in Which of the sources are likely to contain valuable information not
defining the problem, but the information will need to be available using other information gathering techniques? Check out
these sources also! In other words, try to decide where
218 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 219

the highest return on invested time is likely to occur. After search- 5.2 Diagnostic Interviewing
ing the areas of high return, summarize what you have found using
the matrix as a guide. If something is missing, go directly to the • Value and Goal Seeking
most likely source of information. Do not wander aimlessly • Planning the Interviews
through the library or interesting periodicals hoping that something
• Interviewing Process
will turn up-it usually does not.
When the search time budget is nearly used up, summarize what • Interviewing Skills
you have found for each category of the matrix and use this as the Interviewing is the most frequently used method for gathering
basis for planning the next stages of information gathering. What information in architectural programming. The very first contact
has been found that is sufficient? What needs to be confirmed by with the client, even before obtaining the commission, tends to be
firsthand observation or interviewing? What has to be completely an interviewing situation in which the client attempts to determine
developed from original sources? Is there still something that must if the architect or programmer is qualified to do the work, and the
be obtained in the literature? If so, what can be shortened in the architect or programmer tries to obtain an initial understanding of
balance of the programming process in order to obtain the the nature of the proposed project. They interview each other.
necessary information by further literature search? After obtaining the commission, the programmer begins in
Ask yourself, what is the likely cost of error if the missing in- earnest to interview the client, and then various users, expert
formation is not obtained? If the cost is likely to be great, then the consultants, and others who may have special knowledge. The goal
information must be obtained. If the cost is likely to be very small, is to discover the primary reasons that a new facility may be
then it may not be worth the time and money needed to go needed: the particular values and goals of the client; requirements
after it. The specific design solution for the master plan; requirements for the first phase of develop-
may accommodate the expected ment; expected growth and/or change; any special conditions or
problem satisfactorily and no one restrictions relative to site, materials, and systems; the construction
will know the difference. But, if the budget; and possibly the client's expectations regarding the image
information could make a great dif- or aesthetics of the project. The programmer, thus, tries to obtain a
ference, like the existence of an un- complete understanding of the design problem to be undertaken. If
buildable easement through the the project is quite large or complex, with a sizable staff having
property, it must be found. Other- important information to share, or with special users whose needs
wise, design decisions may be made might be rather unusual, an extensive series of interviews may be
or the building may be constructed needed to help discover the special nature of the proposed project.
in such a manner that it must be re- The activity is very much like that of a doctor trying to make a
moved from the easement at great medical diagnosis, but the architect is looking for information that
cost to everyone involved. The pro- will help to define the architectural problem rather than the
grammer must always be alert to the medical problem. We, therefore, refer to the process as "diagnostic
crucial variables and make certain interviewing."
that they are adequately covered. If Note that this type of interviewing is sometimes referred to as
we do not discover and note such "unstructured interviewing." However, this is inappropriate ter-
important information in the minology, because there is a great deal of structure required in
program, the architect could even carrying out such an interview successfully. The required method-
design a building on someone else's ology and the associated techniques and tools of diagnostic inter-
Figure 5-16 Building Over Property Line. property-a very costly error (Fig. 5- viewing are covered in the following sections.
Credit: Carl Okazaki
16).
220 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 221

Value and Goal Seeking timeframe and budget are available; how interviewing fits into the
The main purpose of diagnostic interviewing is to discover the pri- several methods that will be used to gather the needed information.
mary architectural values and project goals of the clients, staff, and
users of an architectural facility. This helps the programmer obtain DEFINING THE "WHOLE PROBLEM"
an early understanding of the important values and goals of clients If a programmer can establish the goals, facts, and needs relating to
and users in order to develop a framework in which to consider the eight value areas outlined in Chapter 2, there is a good chance
facts, needs, and ideas relating to the project. This may not be easy of developing a comprehensive definition of the architectural
to do. Some clients already will have decided what they need, and problem. As discussed earlier, a programmer can begin with an
will have difficulty trying to discover the values and goals that led entirely different set of value categories, such as Pefia and Focke's
to their decisions about needs. Nevertheless, it is important to get (1969): function, form, economy, and time; or Palmer's ( 1981):
them to back up a bit to determine if their needs relate to the human factors, physical factors, and external factors.
essential values and purposes of the organization, or if they are not Planning for an interview requires that the interviewer remember
needs at all, but wishes-something that is desirable, but by no the various value areas that may significantly influence the design
means essential (Marans and Spreckelmeyer 1981). of the facility, so as to be able to use them as a kind of checklist
It is necessary to identify the various values and goals in order to during the interview. As noted previously, the author uses the
help the designer gain an understanding of the important design acronyms "HECTTEAS" or "TEST EACH" to remember the eight
issues and, thus, to give the designer a basis on which to evaluate value areas. Any number of similar associations can be used to
design decisions. Continuing with the medical analogy, it is recall each of these or similar issue areas.
important to make the appropriate diagnosis before deciding upon The interviewer will receive essentially five types of program-
the treatment. Understanding the values and goals of an or- matic information from interviewee: values, goals, facts, needs, and
ganization changes architectural design from a problem solving ideas. Each area should be included in a mental matrix so that
activity into an activity in which important goals can be achieved significant information can be sought, particularly with respect to
and important values can be expressed. important values and goals:

Planning the Interviews Values Goals Facts Needs Ideas

• Defining the "Whole Problem" Human
• Natural Categories Environmental
Cultural
• Sampling Plan Technological
Temporal
• Logistics Economic
• Priming Aesthetic
Safety
• Documentation Other?
• Analysis
As with any information gathering activity, planning can save NATURAL CATEGORIES
one a great deal of time and effort both in collecting the needed In a series of interviews, some of the above listed value categories
information and analyzing it later. Planning typically involves some may not be considered to be important by the person(s) being in-
type of preliminary resolution of how the whole problem can be terviewed. This is okay! Only the programmer need be concerned
defined; what data can make a design difference; which persons can about defining the whole problem. The programming approach
provide the most useful information; which persons have authority should be flexible enough to admit new categories of information if
to make tradeoffs and establish priorities; what they arise and especially to allow "natural" categories to surface
222 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 223

and be substituted for the value categories listed above. Image may Dean Director of Architecture Director of Design
be very important to the client, and if so, image could be used in Associate Dean Assistant Administrative Assistant Administrative Assistant
Dean Administrative Secretary Secretary
place of aesthetics. Similarly, a client may be interested in building Associate Business
systems and, if so, building systems could be substituted for Manager Administrative Architecture Faculty Interior Design Faculty
Assistant Development First year students First year students
technological. If economics was found to be of very little concern, as Officer Receptionist Second year students Second year students
is possible in academic problems but rarely in real world problems, Shop Superintendent Third year students Third year students
Librarian Fourth year students Fourth year students
this category could be left out all together. Economics would not be Archivist Graduate students Graduate students
necessary to the definition of the "whole" problem. Head Custodian Graduate Assistants Graduate Assistants
The point is that the final programming matrix should include Director of Planning Industrial Design Faculty
the value areas that the client, programmer, and designer agree University President Administrative Assistant First year students
University Provost Secretary Second year students
cover the important issues for a particular design problem. They Advisory Council Pres. Planning Faculty Third year students
may or may not be the eight HECTTEAS areas used as the begin- AIA President(s) First year students Fourth year students
Campus Planning Dir. Second vear students Graduate students Gradua
ning point in structuring the interviews. Facilities Director Third year students re Assistants
Faci I ities Management Fourth year students
Graduate students
SAMPLING PLAN (PERSONS, PLACES, TIMES) Graduate Assistants
If the project is a very simple one such as a home, it may be readily
apparent who should be interviewed: the wife, husband, children, Figure 5-18 Architecture Interviewees.
grandparents . . . anyone who would ultimately live in the house. If
the project is for a large institution, it may not be so apparent who
should be interviewed. The programmer should request an It is not always advisable or even possible to interview only in-
organizational chart and review it with the client to identify the key dividuals. Group interviews have the advantage of time efficiency,
officers, department heads, and other persons who are likely to be because they cover the interests of a number of persons with pre-
knowledgeable about or have the authority to make decisions sumed similar concerns at one time. If they are "primed," the per-
regarding facility needs. The client should also sons involved can meet and discuss their concerns prior to the
be asked about other per interview and possibly arrive at a consensus on some issues. The
sons in the organization danger is that some persons' viewpoints may be suppressed because
Development
Secretary who might have some spe- others might dominate the exchange, .or there may be fear of some
Officer
cial knowledge. The client type of reprisal. The gain in efficiency in obtaining the views of
Business
Manager should identify users and larger numbers of people must be weighed against the possible cost
Associate Assistant visitors who are not part of of error of obtaining biased information. There is no way to antici-
Dean Dean
the organization, but who pate the size of this error, but if it seems like the cost might be
Library Research hop Custodians
Staff Director Super Staff nevertheless must use the great, precautions must be taken. The groups might be reformed.
facility. These could be pa- Or any individual wishing a personal interview should be granted
trons, suppliers, service one.
Secretary Secretary Administrative
Assistant
persons, city fire depart- In any case, a listing of persons to be interviewed should be
Interior Industrial ment personnel, and many prepared for each new programming commission. If the list in-
Facult Facult
others. For some projects volves a great number of individuals, it may be necessary to de-
Students Students Students Students
this would include cus- velop a sampling plan whereby only a representative sample of
tomers-the most important each category of user is interviewed. The objective is not to see
Figure 5-17 Organizational Chart. users of the facility (Figs. how many people can be interviewed, but rather how few can be
Credit: Nancy Cole 5-17 and 5-18). interviewed to obtain complete and reliable information (Figs. 5-19
and 5-20).
224 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 225

When possible, interviews should take place in the client's or

user's existing environment. This is especially true if the intervie-
wee will be relocated to the new facility. This tends to make the
person more comfortable in answering questions, but also makes it
easier for the person to focus on his/her own architectural en-
vironment. If something is difficult to explain, the interviewee can
point out characteristics of the existing facilities that are sat-
isfactory or unsatisfactory. The one exception to this is if the in-
terviewee's environment is simply too uncomfortable: too noisy,
too cluttered, lacking in privacy, or some other circumstance that
would make conducting an interview very difficult. In this case, it
would be important to identify a nearby conference room or other
suitable space where more favorable interviewing conditions could
be found, but close enough to his/her own place for the interviewee
to recall issues of importance and even to take the interviewer to
the appropriate location to point out key problems or solutions.
The time of the interview is also important. Select a time when
the interviewee is not being expected to produce work. Ideally, the
client or someone on staff should arrange an interview schedule in
Figure 5-19 Individual Interview. which everyone to be interviewed would be prepared to undertake
the interview at an appointed time. If this cannot be arranged, then
the interviewer will simply have to be somewhat flexible and
prepared to adjust the interview schedule as circumstances require.

LOGISTICS

The first interview should not take more than an hour. If more than
one hour is required, another interview should be scheduled. There
are several reasons for this. First, the primary purpose of the first
diagnostic interview is to get at the key issues that are of concern to
the interviewee. It should not take longer than an hour to get at a
person's primary values and goals, a number of important facts and
needs, and some key ideas for reorganization or design. Second, it
is generally more productive to obtain a clear picture of the values
and goals of the different participants before attempting to obtain
all of the factual information and specific needs that might best
serve the organization. Third, interviewing fatigue is a reality that
should not be ignored. If too much time is spent in the interview,
most people will lose interest and want to return to activities of
Figure 5-20 Small Group Interview. more concern to them. In other words, it is best to use
226 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 227

the first interview to estab- • Key values or design issues

lish a framework for later, To: Interviewee's Name
• Specific goals that could be Fr: Programmer's Name
more directed research. better met with improved
This research may involve Re: Interview date, time, and place
facilities Please consider the following as you prepare for the
focused interviews to obtain
more factual information, • Constraints that must be interview:
but because of time and considered 1. The purposes of [name of organization]
budget considerations, may • Important performance or 2. The role of your department in serving these
also involve a structured design requirements. purposes
questioning and/ or an ob-
3. Specific goals that should be accomplished by
servation period followed For interviews with staff, the
improving the facilities
by group work sessions to priming issues should include
Figure 5-21 Interviewer versus Interviewee Ideas. cut down on both the time value areas identified earlier by 4. Important conditions or constraints that must be
Credit: Carl Okazaki and expense of further in- the leadership of the organization considered
formation gathering. as important areas of concern for 5. Specific requirements for your department
Interviewing is a very effective but inefficient way of obtaining the persons being interviewed.
information. It is undoubtedly the most effective way to get at the However, it should be made We will try to remain focused on these topics throughout
clear that the categories listed are the interview, because our time will be limited to one hour.
owner's, client's, user's, and customer's values and goals. It
generally is not an efficient way to obtain facts or to establish only a stimulus to get the in-
terviewee(s) thinking about the We appreciate very much your thoughtful consideration of
needs for the facility. Facts can be obtained more efficiently
nature of the architectural prob- these issues and look forward to talking with you on [date,
through literature search and review, observation, measurement,
lem and that they should feel time, place].
and by structured questioning procedures. Needs, on the other
hand, can be established most efficiently during client/user work free to bring up other areas of
sessions, where several people can review the values, goals, and It concern unng e m erview, Figure 5-22 Priming for an Interview.
facts before arriving at a conclusion regarding needs. What inter- is also important to tell them
viewees express as needs may be personal ideals, wants, or wishes how their response will be useful to the designer (Fig. 5-22).
that are not necessary to satisfy the purposes of the organization.
More importantly, however, the interviewer must not project what DOCUMENTATION
he or she thinks are the purposes of the organization onto the The purpose of the interview is, of course, to obtain information
interviewee. The interviewer must learn to listen (Fig. 5-21). that can be kept and analyzed with other information gathered in
the programming process. It is necessary, therefore, to have a
systematic way of recording the information obtained for later
PRIMING retrieval and analysis. It is best to plan ahead for both the
It is a good idea to give each person to be interviewed some ad- documentation and the analysis to be certain they can be done
vance notice of what is to be accomplished in the interview, so he efficiently and in a manner that does not bias the results. This is
or she can think about key programming issues and requirements. not easy to do. Regardless of how an interview is documented, the
This should not be a list of specific questions. Rather, it should in- information obtained tends to have less structure than other more
clude broader categories of information such as: quantitative information. If one is not careful in documenting the
• The purposes of the organization interviews, the amount of information gathered can be so vast as
to be unfit for analysis within time or budgetary restrictions.
• How a department or position supports those purposes
 Information Gathering 229
228 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

There are some general techniques for ensuring that some of the
worst problems do not occur. First, it is important to develop a
recording instrument that will allow easy identification of the pro-
ject, interviewee, his/her position or title, interviewer, and the
time and location of the
interview. This informa-
tion should be at the top
of each sheet or card on
which the data will be
recorded. Second, all of
the issues that the pro-
grammer wishes to cover
during the interview
should be listed just be-
low in a compact, read-
able form so as to allow
maximum room for re-
cording the information
obtained (Figs. 5-23 and
5-24).
Contrary to the nor-
mal practice for "struc-
tured" interviews, it is
Figure 5-24 Interview Summary Sheet.
important not to provide
Credit: Rob Osier, 1987. Program far DAX Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona State University
a number of specific
questions on each page
with a limited amount of freely. Conversely, if the interviewer has a restrictive recording
space to record each an- format but allows the interviewee(s} to move about freely, the in-
swer. This does not allow terviewer is constantly required to search through the recording
the interviewee the flexi- sheets to find the category into which the information should go.
bility to approach the This may make it very difficult for the interviewer to concentrate
subject from her/his point on the interview, and it is distracting to the interviewee. Finally,
of view, but rather forces not everything discussed needs to be recorded, only the conclu-
her/him into the inter- sions. If care is taken in this regard, the recorded information can
viewer's framework. This be both understandable and manageable to analyze.
can have disastrous re-
sults in terms of omitting ANALYSIS
important ideas and in-
formation that may have The analysis of the results of the interviews is difficult because
come out had the inter- each respondent is likely to have brought up different values and
Figure 5-23 Interview Summary Sheet.
viewee(s) been allowed issues. Even when considering the same value area, the intervie-
Credit: Scott Walker, 1987. Program far Trophy Den. Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona State
University to discuss the topic more wees may have expressed different goals, as well as facts and
230 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 231

needs. Here, again, it is helpful to use a matrix format to organize

the information obtained. The analysis could use a numerical des-
ignation for each person interviewed, beginning with the highest
ranking person as number one. A check could then be placed under
the number of each respondent that mentioned the particular value,
goal, fact, need, or idea. These could then be tabulated to determine
the relative importance of each item (Fig. 5-25).

Figure 5-26 Interview Coding Sheet (2).

'
1) has been out-voted in terms .of which values, goals, facts,
needs, and ideas are most to least important. Should the majority
rule? Should the person(s) who will be held responsible for the
success or failure of the project have more say? This must be de-
termined in order to have a meaningful analysis of the data.
There will also likely be more value, goal, fact, need, and idea
Figure 5-25 Interview Coding Sheet (1 ). statements expressed for each category [value, goal, fact, need,
idea] than the three shown on the preceding matrix. It is therefore
An alternative would be to designate if the value, goal, fact, best to use a separate coding sheet for each category and to increase
need, or idea was considered to be extremely important (3), very the statements in each category as they occur.
important (2), important (1), or not mentioned (0). The numbers It should be expected that persons with different responsibilities
could be added to get a more sophisticated idea of the relative im- in an organization will have different values and goals, be aware of
portance of each entry (Fig. 5-26). different facts, have different needs, and desire different resolu- .·
Note that even here the tabulation does not reflect the whole tions to the perceived design problem. The interview coding sheets
picture. In a number of cases the highest ranking person (person will allow the programmer to see the areas of consensus as well as
232 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 233

of division. The results can be summarized on a

Key Values and Goals series of lists, such as the adjoining one, or placed and interviewee(s). The interviewer should state briefly his/her name,
in a programming matrix, with controversial areas position, what should be accomplished, and how long the interview
1. Location Having lots of pedestrian flagged so they can be considered later during should take. The fact that the interviewer is part of the design team is
traffic in the area is generally enough to make interviewees both cooperative and
client/user work sessions (Fig. 5-27).
essential. interested. Long introductions or rapport building are neither
Because the purpose of diagnostic interviewing
2. Visibility The store must be seen by
passing pedestrians and is to obtain a feeling for the important design necessary nor desirable. Second, confirm that the interviewee(s) are
vehicles. issues, this works quite well. But it must be correctly identified by name and title and record the time and location
It must convey its purpose understood that this is only the beginning of the of the interview. Third, outline the categories of information that will
with signs, displays, information gathering. Controversial areas that be covered during the interview.
materials, and colors.
The entry must be
might be settled through input from a larger If the interviewee(s) have already been primed for the interview, it
convenient, ample, and sample of people can be followed up with addi- does no harm to reiterate the issues of concern. This will help keep the
protected. tional focused interviews or a questionnairebased interviewee on track. The interviewer should take charge and make
5. DisRlay The merchandise must be survey. Questions of fact can be checked using clear that the interview is a time for architectural business, not casual
displayed under the most observation techniques and by returning to the conversation or complaining about personal problems with staff or
favorable conditions
appropriate literature. Ultimately, in superiors:
Figure 5-27 Interviews Analysis Summary Statement. value-based programming, the areas of impor-
1. Introduce the interviewer: name and position.
tance and difference are sorted out in a group
session typically involving most of the interviewees. The results are 2. Indicate what is to be accomplished.
placed before the group in an initial matrix and discussed until a
3. State the length of interview.
decision is reached about the inclusion and importance of each item.
This procedure will be discussed thoroughly in Chapter 6. 4. Confirm the interviewee's name and position.
5. Record the time and location of the interview.
Interviewing Process 6. Outline the categories of information to be covered: values,
• Introduction goals, facts, needs, and ideas.
• Appraisal The final part of the introduction is to mention the first issue, such
• Diagnosis as:

• Recording
Let's begin by discussing the central purpose(s) of your organization.
• Review
• Open Ending In what ways will the new building help your organization meet its ob-
jectives?
The introduction, review, and open ending each occur just once
during each interview. Appraisal, diagnosis, and recording, on the APPRAISAL
other hand, occur numerous times as the interview shifts from one
topic to another. This step should consume 90 to 95 percent of the time of the interview
(Ripley 1980-85). It is the time spent actively listening as the
interviewee(s) discuss what they know or think they know about the
INTRODUCTION
proposed project. It involves only minimal question asking by the
The introduction involves a few very important activities. First, it is interviewer. In fact, many times it is better not to ask a question at all,
important to recognize the different roles of the interviewer but rather to begin with a statement about
234 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 235

an area on which the interviewer would like to obtain information-

something like the following: the diagnosis. This is all that is recorded! The interviewer does not
Tell me your feelings about the overall purposes of the organization and try to take down everything that the interviewee says. This would
how they should influence the design of the new facility. be much too laborious, would interfere with the ongoing interview,
and would provide a mountain of data that would be very time
This is generally enough to get a response from the interviewee. consuming and costly to analyze. The intent is to record only those
The purpose of appraisal is to keep the interviewee talking about items of information that have been identified as important by the
architectural issues until something is learned that could make a interviewee(s).
design difference. To do this involves a whole series of listening The first attempt at a diagnostic statement may not be agreeable
skills, supporting gestures, comments, and probes to keep the to the interviewee(s). If so, the interviewer must try again, and
interviewee talking until an accurate diagnosis can be made for perhaps again, until the interpretation is agreed to by the in-
some aspect of the building problem. The key is to listen for what terviewee(s). When several interpretations have been agreed to,
the interviewee(s) think are the important values, goals, facts, such that an area of discussion is complete, then the diagnosis is
needs, and ideas to be addressed in the program while providing summarized and recorded while the interviewee(s) watch-knowing
the necessary cues to support and encourage them to continue at that their concerns are having an influence on the programming
this level of discourse. There are five essential skills used in the process. In this way a major part of information analysis is
appraisal stage of an interview: acceptance, reflection, clarification, accomplished in the field. This is an extremely important pointonly
amplification, and redirection. These techniques will be discussed the verified conclusions are recorded and carried forward into the
in detail under Interviewing Skills. programming process. This has the psychological advantage of
showing that the interviewee's concerns have been articulated
while avoiding the recording and analysis of everything that has
DIAGNOSIS been discussed.
This is the crucial stage when the interviewer attempts to interpret The interviewee(s) will feel comfortable and can relax while the
and summarize the concerns of the interviewee(s). The important interviewer records the important information that has just been
kernels of information about values, goals, facts, and needs, as well summarized, confident that their concerns have been heard. This
as ideas, that shed light on the nature of the architectural problem also provides a time break when the interviewee(s) can be thinking
are distilled from what the interviewee has said. This generally of other areas of concern. It may be appropriate for the interviewer
involves interpretation of what has been said, stepping a little to indicate what the next area of discussion will be, or conversely
beyond the information presented, and restating it in terms that will simply to suggest that the interviewee(s) be thinking of something
fit into the programming matrix. This demonstrates to the else to discuss.
interviewee(s) that the interviewer has heard them and understands Please be thinking about while I write this down.
and appreciates their concerns. It also allows the interviewer to
bring a certain topic to closure so as to be able to go on to the next. This type of recording works well for interviews with up to
There are two important diagnostic skills that the interviewer needs three interviewees. When the interview is with a larger group, it
to learn: interpretation and summary. These will also be covered in generally works better to record the same information, but on
detail in the Interviewing Skills section. newsprint or graph paper set before the group on an easel, or per-
haps on 5" x 7" cards taped to a wall surface, so that the entire
group can confirm that what is recorded is correct. This technique,
RECORDING
which typically involves more than one interviewer, will be
outlined in Section 6.1.
Whenever a diagnostic summary statement has been made by the Note that the use of a tape or video recorder is rarely desirable
interviewer and affirmed by the interviewee, it is time to record during diagnostic interviewing. Not only is this intimidating to
 236 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 237

most people, especially those who are lower in a hierarchy, but it been provided and to briefly point out what will be done with it,
also leaves all of the raw data to re-analyze after the interview, what the balance of the programming effort will involve, when the
when the person(s) who can correct or clarify are no longer pre- interviewee(s) might be involved again, and to offer thanks for
sent. This can be a tremendous waste of time and result in serious their help. If it appears that additional interviewing time would be
misinterpretations of the productive, as with the principal officers of a corporation or other
interviewee's comments. persons with a wealth of information, then it is also an appropriate
time to make an appointment for another interviewing session,
REVIEW work session, or whatever else would be useful.
Review takes place to- If it becomes clear early or at some point in an interview that a
ward the end of the in- person has little to offer, is extremely preoccupied with a deadline,
terview. It is a verbal has an important phone call, has become bored with the discussion,
summary by the inter- or is otherwise unable to concentrate, the interviewer should be
viewer of everything that sensitive to this and terminate the interview. If appropriate, another
has been recorded. interview time can be scheduled or an early open ending can occur,
The review of the with the person advised when it will be possible to review the
summary verifies that the results of the interviewing session.
interviewee's concerns
have been recorded and Interviewing Skills
will be carried forward in
the programming process. • Acceptance
It often stimulates the in- • Reflection
terviewee to add other
important thoughts to be • Clarification
recorded. • Amplification
The review also
serves as a time for the • Redirection
interviewer to determine • Interpretation
if all of the programming
• Summary
categories have been dis-
cussed. If not, this can be The successful diagnostic interview requires the development of
pointed out, and the in- a number of interviewing skills to be used during the appraisal and
terviewing process re- diagnosis stages of the interviewing process (Ripley 1980- 85; Rae
peated for the category(s) 1988; France and Kish 1995). These are crucial to the success of the
remaining to be covered interview. The first three skills (acceptance, reflection, clarification)
(Fig. 5-28). relate to the appraisal portion of the interview and are known as
"active listening" skills. The next two skills (amplification,
redirection), known as "management" skills, also are part of the
OPEN ENDING
appraisal process and involve short verbal probes to manage the
Figure 5-28 Interview Summary. This is the time to ac- interview. The final two skills (interpretation, summary) relate to
Credit: Jennifer Keaton, 1997. Architecture Expansion Program. Permission: College of
knowledge the value of the diagnostic portion of the interview and bring: closure to a
Architecture, The University of Arizona. the information that has portion of the interview.
238 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 239

ACCEPTANCE
terviewer has to say. The slightest negative gesture of the inter-
Acceptance is both an attitude and a technique. As an attitude, it viewer may be interpreted as rejection or disinterest. Yawning,
conveys respect for the worth of the interviewee. It implies that crossing the legs or arms, stepping back, and looking away are all
that interviewee has inherent value as a person and has important negative cues that may be interpreted as disinterest and may stop
things to contribute. As a technique, it involves both verbal and the interview cold. The down-beat "umm-hum" of the bored com-
non-verbal responses. The verbal responses are very simple, such pared to the up beat "uh-huh" of the interested can make a world
as "uh-huh,'' "interesting,'' and "yes, go on." Any simple phrase of difference in whether an interviewee decides to continue with
implying that the interviewer is listening and what the interviewee what she/he is saying.
is saying is okay will do. The technique is employed throughout Indeed, the interviewer needs to learn when to use both posi-
the appraisal portion of the interview and is especially useful in tive and negative techniques! If the interviewee is talking too
keeping the interviewee talking. quickly or heading in the wrong direction with irrelevant banter,
There are also several non-verbal aspects of acceptance that are the interviewer should use no active listening techniques at all.
at least as important as the verbal acceptance skills, and together This will usually slow the person down. If not, stepping or leaning
they are very powerful tools: back or some similar negative gesture can often stop an irrelevant
line of discussion. Then a forward, open motion and simple probe
• The facial expression and nodding of the interviewer: The can be used to get an interviewee back on track without telling
facial expression of the interviewer, including eye contact, them they are wandering. But if the interview is to be successful,
must convey genuine interest in what is being said. A smile the upbeat tone and gesture must be used frequently and the
and vertical nod of the head when the interviewee has said downbeat tone and gesture used only very rarely. Otherwise, the
something of interest encourage the person to continue interviewer will be seen as manipulative and the interviewee may
speaking. If an interviewee is rather hesitant in speaking, become uncooperative or guarded in what he/she says.
these gestures should be both frequent and exaggerated (like
an actor) to be most effective. The nodding can be of the
REFLECTION
entire upper body. While this may seem silly and contrived
at first, it is very effective. Reflection is the restatement or paraphrasing of the interviewee's
comments. It involves both content and affect. Reflecting content
• The tone of voice and inflection of the interviewer: The small involves feedback of what has been said, often in a more concise
comments are essentially meaningless, except in the sense manner. The following are examples of reflection of content:
that they communicate that the interviewer is there and is
interested. The tone and inflection of voice are important in Interviewee: I am really most concerned about the safety of the clients.
(nod) They simply do not look after their own best interests and often walk
expressing interest in what is being said.
into equipment or throw open doors without any concern as to who might
• The distance and posture of the interviewer: If the interviewer be beyond them. (I see) They ... etc.
sits at a comfortable distance and leans slightly forward, the Interviewer: Your primary concern is the safety of the clients.
interviewee will infer a friendly interest on the part of the
interviewer. It will help them to feel secure in responding to or:
the interviewer's questions. On the other hand, if the Interviewee: If I had my way around here, we would have a copy machine
interviewer sits fairly far away, then leans back, crosses in every department, rather than one central one which always takes me
her/his legs, or looks away, disinterest will be com- away from my desk, and has people waiting when I need something done
municated. This combination usually will prevent any inter- right away (uh-huh, nod) Besides, the machine is broken down half the time,
viewee from continuing with their responses. so we must send our materials out for repro- , duction, which is even more
inconvenient. (I see, nod) A copy machine' in the department, even a small
In fact, many people are very sensitive to the semiverbal and one, would make my job much easier and more productive.
nonverbal cues, and react to them more than to anything the in-
240 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 241

Interviewer: The centralized reproduction department doesn't meet your The reflection should be the essence of the experience. The in-
needs as well as would a departmentalized system. terviewee will feel both understood and affirmed. The key is to
Interviewee: That's right. As often as I use the copy machine, I probably make a fresh, new statement with the same meaning as the words
need one right by my desk! (smile) of the interviewee. Do not worry about getting it just right. The
client will let you know when your reflection is wrong. The fact
or
that you are actively listening will help him/her feel comfortable
Interviewee: We need to communicate to those passing on the street that about telling you more.
they are welcome to come in and shop.
CLARIFICATION
Interviewer: A welcoming appearance at the street is important.
If the interviewee is vague in the discussion, or talking about
Note that the interviewer is adding nothing new to what has things with which the interviewer is unfamiliar, it may be neces-
been said, but is distilling the essence of a more lengthy discourse. sary to seek some additional information to clear up the inter-
The exact statement is not repeated. A parrot-like response viewer's understanding. In these cases, it is necessary for the
should be avoided, because it can be irritating, especially if re- interviewer to insert some gentle probes into the discussion.
peated several times during an interview. Crystallizing the in- An excellent example of clarification in an interview could be
terviewee's comments in new words shows that the interviewer is taken from an interview that the author had with a member of First
really listening to what is being said. This is generally taken to be a Presbyterian Church, Sun City, Arizona (Fig. 5-30).
compliment and reacted to favorably by interviewees. It must not
be done too often, however, or it will soon become stilted and old. Interviewee: The problem with the south aisle is the blasted "head
It needs to happen only when the interviewer feels something has knockers."
been said that could be important for the program.
A reflection can also be of the expressed attitude. An interview for Interviewer: I don't understand what
you mean.
Frank Lloyd Wright's Kaufman House (Falling Water) might go
something like the following Interviewee: Oh, the "head knockers"
(Fig. 5-29): are those confounded structural
members that come down at an angle
over the side aisle of the church.
Interviewee: When I visited the Kauf-
man house, I was really awed by the Interviewer: Go on, I am still confused
incredible site. (yes!) Then as I ap- about the problem.
proached the house I became aware
that the environment was closing in Interviewee: Well, the people going
on me. (nod, uh-huh) When I reached down the south aisle, if they are not
the entry, I was completely enclosed really careful, may wander to the left a
and in a tight space. But when the little and bang their heads against the
door opened, it was as if the world wood members. (oh!) It really hurts!
had opened up to me. The space (ouch!) Some people have even been
was huge and I could see out over knocked down or cut their heads!
the wonderful forest beyond. I was
An alternative way of seeking
really dumbstruck!
clarification is simply to use the
Interviewer: This was an incredibly confus
Figure 5-29 Kaufman House (Falling Water). moving experience for you! ing term again as a question. The Figure 5-30 Head Knockers.
242 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 243

interviewer might have followed up the first interviewee statement It may be necessary to redirect after each recording session.
somewhat as follows: This generally involves two techniques. Early in the interview
when the interviewer is clearly trying to discover what is on the
Interviewer: Head knockers?(silence)
interviewee's agenda, these probes (not specific questions) are
Interviewee: Oh yes, you wouldn't know. (nod, tor sure!) Those are those generally as follows:
structural members that come down at an angle over the south aisle and
That was excellent. Now what else is of concern to you?
hit people on the head when they are not watching.
Okay Is there something else I should know?
Interviewer: Hit people?
If the interviewee is persistently too focused, particularly the
Interviewee: Well, if people don't watch where they're going, they may get client or another leader of the organization, it might be necessary to
too close to the member and bump their heads. It really hurts, you know! be more specific:
(I would think so!)
Now that we've covered some key problem areas of the current facilities,
AMPLIFICATION let's redirect our attention to plans for the future. What are some key
issues there?
If you are not getting enough information on the topic using the
three active listening techniques, it might be necessary to introduce Later in the interview, as the interviewer considers what is
some additional verbal probes to obtain the needed information. needed to complete the mental matrix, the questions may be even
These could involve simple questions or statements such as the more focused, but still not specific. These may follow an interme-
following for almost any issue being discussed: diate review of what has already been recorded.
Could you tell me more about that? Now, let's go to the second area. Where does your department fit within
the overall organization? How should this affect design of the new
What else?
facilities?
That's useful information. Tell me morel
or
An amazing tool for amplification is silence. If the interviewee
needs encouragement to talk, one of the best techniques is for the We have now covered , and ______ .
What about safety or budget? Are these issues of concern to you?
interviewer to remain quiet and let the interviewee fill the silence.
'
There are very few people who can stand to look at an interviewer The amplification and redirection probes are ways to keep peo-
for long without saying something. Once they begin to talk, the ple talking about the areas in which the interviewer is interested.
other skills can take over. The interviewer should consciously de- Notice that the interviewer asks very few direct questions, espe-
velop his/her own tolerance for silence, so as to "outlast" the in- cially ones that can be answered yes or no. This is very important-
terviewee and cause him/her to continue the conversation. when the interviewer asks a direct question, he/she may get only a
direct answer, often a very simple one, then silence returns as the
REDIRECTION interviewee waits for the interviewer's next question. The
If an interviewee is extremely talkative, it may be necessary to re- interviewer may feel he/she must go on to the next question to fill
mind him/her gently that time is going quickly and that unless at- the silence. This should be avoided by using the techniques
tention is paid to the architectural issues, there will not be time described here. For instance, if the last question about concerns for
enough to cover all areas that might be of concern. This might in- safety or budget had been answered, "Yes," the interviewer should
volve such statements as: follow up with something like:
Let's get back to ______ issue. Uh-huh (nod and smile)
That is really interesting, but we need to focus on __ . Go on! (silence)
244 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 245

If this is not enough, add a redirect such as: ditional thoughts. When the topic has been covered sufficiently the
Tell me more about safety concerns! (questioning look with brows raised, interviewer says something like the following:
then silence) Interviewer: Okay, relative to the head knocker issue, we are agreed that
all circulation areas in the new addition must be clear of obstructions and
Notice that neither of the follow-up techniques involves a that the existing "head knockers" will have to be removed, even though
question. The interviewee is first directed to a new subject area, they are important structural elements in the existing building. Is this
then essentially forced to elaborate on the brief answer. After the correct?
second probe, the interviewer should remain silent until the in-
Interviewee: Yes. Enough people have been hurt by those darn things!
terviewee responds.
It would, of course, be better if the final redirection did not in- The above is a summary statement for project needs. There
volve a question at all. could also be a more general summary statement after several such
We have covered ________ , and __ Now,
items had been discussed:
let's talk about safety or budget. Interviewer: A most important value for this project is safety tor the users
This redirect can not be answered with a yes or no. It requires of the building. A specific goal would be to eliminate all building hazards
that threaten the health or safety of the building occupants.
some discussion of the two issues.
The summary should be used to close out an area of discus-
INTERPRETATION sion, but not restate every point made (Fig. 5-31).
Once stated the interviewer should say something like:
Once the interview reaches the stage where the interviewer feels
that an important point has been made (i.e., a point with design This is really important. I would like to record it while you begin to think
implications), then it is time to offer an interpretation in terms of about
values, goals, facts, needs, or ideas. This usually involves going
beyond what has actually been said to make an initial diagnosis of As you can see, diagnos-
some kind. For example, in the illustration on the "head knockers," tic interviewing is a very
the interviewer might offer the following conclusion: powerful and effective way
to get at the issues of great-
Interviewer: You're saying that you do not want any "head knockers" in est concern to the intervie-
the addition to the building. wee(s). Is it very difficult to
Interviewee: That's true. But we also want to get rid of the head knockers master the techniques? Not
in the existing building! for some individuals. They
have learned to be active
Note how the interviewee will clarify any incorrectness in the
interpretation. This paves the way for a summary statement. listeners on their own,
usually because they are
people who have a sincere
interest in what other peo-
SUMMARY
ple have to say. They have
After one of the issues or focus areas has been completely dis- already learned many of the
cussed and several diagnostic interpretations made, it is well to techniques during informal
recapitulate, to condense, and to crystallize the essence of what the conversation. They need
interviewee has said. This will help to close out a phase of the only to develop a few
interview or possibly to stimulate the interviewee to bring up ad- of the specialized skills. Figure 5-31 Solution to Head Knockers.
246 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 247

For those of us who would rather hear ourselves talk, it takes a viewee's values, feelings, beliefs, and attitudes as well as their
concerted effort to learn all of the techniques and to use them. perception of the goals, facts, needs, and ideas related to the project
Good luck! being programmed.
When observing, on the other hand, the client or user is treated
as an object. The interest is in what they do, their actual behavior.
5.3 Diagnostic Observation By careful observation the programmer can develop an
• Different than the Diagnostic Interview understanding of how the activities of the client, user, or other
building occupants are supported or inhibited by the architectural
• Understanding environment. Quite often the observer finds that what people say
• Types of Observation they do is not really true. Conversely, what one observes may not
predict very well what the observed person is really thinking or
• Observation Formats feeling.
• Photographic Methods Interviewing and observation are complimentary. They serve to
verify each other, to be reliability checks. Taken together they help
Although most architectural programming commissions begin the programmer diagnose the nature of a design problem and
with an individual or group interview session, it is not possible for consequently help the designer understand what needs to be ac-
most programmers or designers to understand and define the complished. The interviewer is more effective in obtaining an un-
architectural problem fully or to offer appropriate design sugges- derstanding of a person's strongly held beliefs, values, attitudes,
tions until they have personally experienced the project site and
ideas, and the like. Observation is more effective in obtaining an
existing and/or other similar facilities. It is like a physician asking
understanding of the relationships of buildings to users, of build-
the patient about symptoms to discover important clues as to the
ings to their surroundings, and of patterns within the building itself.
nature of an illness, but observing the patient to find further, often
The point of both is diagnosis, to understand the nature of the
more reliable, clues. Such observation includes visual inspection,
architectural design problem (Deasy and Lasswell 1985).
listening to the heartbeat, and taking the patient's temperature,
blood pressure, and so on to check for abnormalities or other
Understanding
problems. This analogy is appropriate for architectural pro-
gramming and design. It is important to observe all areas of envi- Observation can be used to gain understanding of nearly all of the
ronment and human interaction to discover what seems to be design issues discussed in the earlier chapters. Observation of the
working satisfactorily and where there are significant problems relationships of form and content can shed light on human, tem-
that could be eliminated by appropriate design. poral, safety, and aesthetic issues. Observation of the relationships
This section will include discussions on the kinds of observa- of form to context can lead to understanding of the physical,
tion that are most useful, alternative levels of focus, the impor- temporal, and cultural environments. Similarly, observation of the
tance of scale and time, examples of various observation formats, relation of the building to its own parts and the principles of its
and comparative levels of obtrusiveness. organization, like syntax in language, should clarify both tech-
nological and aesthetic values.
Different than the Diagnostic Interview Sometimes it is possible to detect causal relationships, when
Observation and interviewing are at opposite ends of the spectrum one factor changes in response to changes in another factor. In
in the way that information is obtained. With interviewing, the contrast to Louis Sullivan's (1949) statement that "form follows
client or user is treated as a subject. Each person is considered as a function," Winston Churchill said, "We shape our buildings:
potential source of information, knowing something that can be thereafter they shape us!" (Bardens 1969). Churchill's argument
communicated to the interviewer. The interest is in the inter- was that the parliamentary system of the United Kingdom, with
248 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 249

the parties of the "government" and portant design differences, to gather only as much information as is
of the "loyal opposition," was at least necessary to understand the problem-that is, to obtain the "ounce
partially the result of the equally of explanation." A carefully planned and executed interview and
divided sides of the halls of observation program can do much to ensure that useful information
parliament, in essence forcing a two- is collected and useless information is not.
party system of government. On the
other hand, the aisle-less hemicycle Types of Observation
of the French assembly allowed for • General Observation
many political parties and fractions
• Walk-Through
of parties moving from the left to the
right. It was easy for a member to • Space Inventory
make a slight move to the left or • Trace Observation
right and, thus, to change political
affiliation. In the United Kingdom, • Behavioral Mapping
on the other hand, it was very diffi- • Systematic Observation
cult politically to move across the
There are several distinctly different types of observation, each
center aisle to change dramatically
of which can be included in the information gathering activities of
from one party to the other. Churchill
architectural programming. The extent of use of each will vary for
Figure 5-32 House of Commons: Plan Diagram. believed that this helped to create the
any particular commission.
Credit Nancy Cole stability of the British govern-
ment and the instability of the
GENERAL OBSERVATION
French
government. This was As human beings, and especially as architectural programmers and
understanding resulting designers, we are constantly involved in general observation of the
from a lengthy period of world around us. This observation typically is simple and
observation by Churchill unstructured. We watch the world to understand it. The more we
(Figs. 5-32 and 5-33). concentrate on the relationships of various things to the architec-
Similarly, the object tural environment, the more we build our intuition as to how ar-
of both interviewing and chitecture can best relate to and support the human activities to be
observation is to accommodated. We also gain understanding of organizational and
increase the aesthetic principles, and which materials, systems, and forms
programmer's under- respond best to external influences. We gradually build our un-
standing of the nature of derstanding to the point where we can easily and quickly decide
the design problem. As how something should be designed.
Russell Ackoff and But this sometimes leads us to err! The problem with general or
others have said, ''An undirected observation is bias. We look for things that interest us
Figure 5-33 French Assembly: Plan Diagram. and ignore things that do not. We may even color our perception of
ounce of explanation is
Credit Nancy Cole
worth a ton of descrip- how well something works by whether we think it is attractive, or
tion" (Ackoff 1967). It is perhaps come to consider something attractive if it works very well.
possible to gather exten- Even so, constant alertness to the physical and -' aesthetic attributes
sive amounts of description from either interviewing or observa- of buildings and their relationships to content and context is very
tion, but to obtain understanding takes diagnostic skills. The important for programmers and designers. We
objective should not be to gather as much information as possible,
but to observe those things that have the potential to make im-
250 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 251

should begin observing for with the subjective viewpoint of the client as to the nature of each
programming when we first problem. It is an excellent way to begin preparation for more sys-
step onto the client's tematic observation. If planned in advance, the walk-through can
property, and continue be very effective in generating hypotheses about the nature of the
during interviews, when problem; for instance, if combined observation/interview forms are
visiting similar projects, used. This is especially effective if arrangements can be made for
and on the first visit to the each department or section leader to meet the client and pro-
new site. This provides a grammer as they enter their area, because experiences of these
sensitivity to environmental persons can be shared as the walk-through proceeds. This can en-
issues and a head start in hance the information obtained by involving those with more direct
knowing where to look as experience in that particular environment.
we begin more directed It is also important to walk through similar facilities to those for
types of observation. which you are programming. Arrange to visit other projects of the
For example, casual same or similar types and sizes to listen and observe how they
Figure 5-34 Dislocated Parking Bumpers.
observation at the Uni- work, perhaps in contrast to your client's facilities.
versity of Texas at Austin Recording observations and comments during a walk-through is
revealed that bicycles were parked almost anywhere on campus not easy, because the walk-through usually proceeds rapidly and
where there was a means to lock them to something, but not in covers many important issues. A clipboard with a number of sheets
university-provided racks that required locking through the wheel of paper folded vertically down the center, with observations down
spokes where the spokes could easily be damaged. Could this in- the left side and commentary down the right side, works well, if the
fluence how to design bicycle parking? Similarly, at The Univer- programmer can remember to record the room name and location
sity of Arizona, it is easy to observe that the surface-mounted prior to each observation and the commentator's name prior to each
automobile bumpers are soon dislocated and present a very un- comment (Zeisel 1981).
satisfactory appearance (Fig. 5-34). The recorded notes
should be brief, but de-
WALK-THROUGH tailed enough to remind
A combination of observation and interviewing takes place simul- the programmer of the
taneously in the building walk-through, an information gathering entire observation and
technique used frequently in architectural programming. If a client associated commentary.
has come to the point of being unable to conduct operations This is important, be-
satisfactorily in an existing facility, they often seek out an architect cause the programmer
to design an addition or new facility. The architect first discusses may want to return to
the problem with the client in a diagnostic interviewing session, an apparent problem
often in the client's office or conference room. But as various area later on to observe
problems are discussed, the client invariably suggests that they get it more carefully. The
up and go look at some of the problem areas. A walking walk-through notes can
observation and interviewing situation has begun. They get up to- also serve effectively in
gether and go from place to place to observe and discuss the key generating a more thor-
issues and problems as the client sees them. ough and systematic ob-
This approach to information gathering is very beneficial to the servation effort (Figs.
architect in that it couples the objectivity of direct observation 5-35 and 5-3 6). Figure 5-35 Walk-Through Observation Sheet.
252 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 253

furnishings, and equipment. It is best to do this

after a typical day, but before janitors or
maintenance personnel have come in, so you
can observe where objects are actually used. If
available, take appropriately scaled plans and
elevations of the area on which to sketch fur-
nishing and equipment arrangements. If plans
and elevations are not available, take a clip-
board to obtain the same information. It is also
important to have a tape measure to obtain
sizes of objects and distances between the
objects and the surrounding walls, and to take a
camera to provide photo documentation of the
space. Polaroid or digital cameras are excellent
for this purpose, because you can determine if
you obtained a satisfactory picture before
leaving the space.
Space inventory categories include:

1. Dimensioned plan of space

1. Furnishings and equipment shown to
scale on plan
1. Annotated elevations or perspective
views (photographs or sketches)
1. Key to trace evidence of use and misuse
of the space
1. Identification of key issues, good solu-
tions, and problem areas

The site developed space inventory sheets

will vary according to the nature of the space
Figure 5-36 Walk-Through Observation/Interview. and the information available about it. The ad-
Credit: Perry Vettraino, 1987. Program for Retail Pet Shop. Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona State University joining are typical student developed on-site
space inventory sheets (Fig. 5-3 7). Similar on-
site space inventory sheets by the author can be
found in Appendix A-2.
SPACE INVENTORY The initial sheets can be refined to make a
After the initial walk-through is complete, it is important to make more systematic and handsome presentation of Figure 5-37 On-Site Space Inventory Sheets.
arrangements to return to the walk-through area to review the in- the space inventory information (Fig. 5-38). Credit Jhon C. Casey, 1987. Coin Operated Laundry Program.
formation obtained and then to make an inventory of the space, Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona State University
254 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 255

Level-2nd Conunent:
Area -Missing ceiling panels, visually
Nature of Activities: unpleasant. Space no: 17 Comments:
Used for the viewing -Insulation hanging from ceiling. Amount: •Well located; near Roll Call Room -Good
sorting, and storage visibility to lobby/Reception Area •Good
-Open central space Occupants: visibility to Communications Center
-Messy and unorganized. •Dimension too small
Floor: Ground floor •DisorganizM space
-Plenty of room. •Office occupied 24 hours/day with shifts
Area: from 5 Patrol Unit Commanders
approx. 170 sa. ft.

Nature of activities;

•Supervision of patrol
-Tearn briefing (up to 10 people) •Writing
information for public meetings

Figure 5-38 Finished Space Inventory Sheet.

Credit Jennifer Keaton and Erik Peterson, 1997. Section 1. Second Year Design Studio. Architecture Expansion figure 5-39 Professional Space Inventory Sheet.
Program. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona Credit Raymond Bertrand (1993). Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser

Professional programming firms will often develop space in- and the methodology appears to be so simple. Yet, it is often an im-
ventory forms to expedite information gathering and to ensure that portant step in developing an architectural program. Simply put, the
what will be needed later is included (Fig. 5-39). space inventory involves the physical measurement, photographic
The space inventory can be an important adjunct to other in- documentation, listing, and counting of the materials, equipment,
formation gathering techniques. It is rarely covered in programming and furniture in the interior and exterior spaces of the client's ex-
and research texts, perhaps because its need is not so obvious isting building(s) that will be affected by the plans for expansion
 256 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Information Gathering 257

or relocation. It can also involve similar documentation of other improve design. Are there marks on the
comparable facilities thought to be more adequate than those cur- walls where the backs of chairs have rubbed
rently occupied. against them? Perhaps a wainscot or a
This type of inventory serves as a kind of checklist for the pro- thicker base or base shoe is needed to keep
grammer to make certain that nothing is forgotten in the new fa- the chair backs away from the wall, or
cility. It also serves as the primary basis for the client and users to another chair should be selected for the new
estimate what will be needed to serve them in the new facility. building. Signs of pedestrian traffic, such as
Using the information from the inventory, they are able to see and worn spots and smudge marks on carpets,
easily understand what they currently have, compare it with similar can show where and how they have been
facilities, and then project what they will need for the new facility. used. Broken light fixtures and
windows or spray paint on walls may indi- Figure 5-41 Abrasion on Masonry Steps.
cate areas of high vandalism where con-
TRACE OBSERVATION cerns for building security should not be
Observation of physical traces is a very good and unobtrusive way underestimated. Freezing and thawing can
of gathering information about how an existing facility has been cause very noticeable abrasion on brick
used and abused, and can often be accomplished as an adjunct to faces, especially at exposed edges and cor-
the space inventory effort. It involves observation of evidence left ners (Fig. 5-41).
behind by users (Zeisel 1981). Abrasion also frequently occurs because
Throughout the diagnostic observation process, the observer of traffic in areas not intended for heavy use.
should not only be aware of the interactions of people and their en- Bicyclists on a university campus, for
vironment in an overall or global sense, but should also look care- instance, like to go everywhere that pedes-
fully to see if clues about the human and environment interaction trians go. If adequate provisions are not
have been left by previous users. Signs of rearrangement or remod- made, they will often make trails through
eling can be important to diagnosis. What areas of the building grassed or garden areas to reach their des- Figure 5-42 Bicycle Ramp by Stairs.
have already been subjected to a number of changes in use? It may tinations (Fig. 5-42).
be likely that such areas will continue to be rearranged and There may also be examples of accretion
modified rather than abrasion. This frequently hap-
given their previous history. If chairs or pens on doors where inadequate space has
tables are located in different places been provided to post notices (Fig. 5-43).
each time a room is visited, it may indi- However, as shown on the next page, if a
cate that the room is used for more pur- conveniently located bulletin board is
poses than those indicated in an covered by a locked glass door, there are
interview with the client. Signs in un- few people who will get permission to have
usual places may indicate some inade- their notices posted there. They will simply
quacy in the original design. For post them on the door (Fig. 5-44)!
example, door signs such as "Do Not Look for locations where the paper piles
Open Quickly" or "Door Swings Out," up at the end of the day, both on the desk
or pavement markings as shown in Fig. and in the wastebasket. Are there adequate
5-40, may indicate a major problem in work surfaces, filing spaces, and trash re-
door location. ceptacles? Examine an architect's environ-
Wear and tear on furnishings, floor ment after a major charrette! Look in the
surfaces, wall surfaces, and the like are rest rooms. Are there redundant paper dis
Figure 5-40 Door Swinging into a Walkway. good indicators of use, providing excel- pensers and waste receptacles? This may Figure 5-43 Accumulation of Notices.
lent clues as to how the architect could
 258 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Information Gathering 259

indicate the inadvisability of providing

built-in containers when the owner is going
to hire a supply firm to put in their own
system (Fig. 5-45). It would be better to
save the money for use elsewhere.
Are there similar problems outside? Is
there an accumulation of debris at the trash
enclosures (Fig. 5-46)?
Or what if the architect forgot to in-
clude a mailbox in a design? One could
show up just outside of the school door
(Fig. 5-47).
Unlike the more descriptive space in-
Figure 5-47 Mailbox near School Entry.
ventory, the purpose of trace observation is
to discover relationships explaining how Figure 5-49 Library Exit Area.
Figure 5-44 Notices in Convenient Location. people behave in and use spaces. Just as the
good physician does with a patient, it is
necessary to look very closely to make the
correct diagnosis, so proper treatment or
intervention can be prescribed. For ex-
ample, in the programming for the College
of Architecture and Environmental Design
at Arizona State University, the program-
mers documented numerous situations that
indicated problems with existing spaces.
The faculty offices were found to be much
too small to accommodate all of the storage
space needed for books and oversized
documents and models (Fig. 5-48). As a
Figure 5-45 Paper Dispensers and Receptacles. result, the program called for larger offices
and better provisions for storing oversize
materials.
The accumulation of furnishings and
equipment near a required exit from the
Architecture Library at The University of
Arizona indicates a need for more space
and attention to safety issues (Fig. 5-49).
Similarly, heavy barricading and bolt-
ing of the rear exit door of a gun shop is
probably a very good indicator that there
are serious problems with burglary and
theft that must be dealt with during design Figure 5-48 Typical Faculty Office. Figure 5-50 Rear Door of Gun Shop.
Figure 5-46 Debris at Trash Enclosure. (Fig. 5-50). Credit: Greg Daugherty, Marianne Dziki, and Leanne Streit, 1986. Credit: Ethan Hine, 1987. Gun Shop Program. Permission: School of Architec-
Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona State University ture, Arizona State University
 260 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 261

BEHAVIORAL MAPPING
cessful urban space included:
Behavioral mapping is a technique de- sun(light), access to street,
veloped by social scientists to obtain a seating, water, trees, and food
better understanding of how people use vendors as important elements,
various public spaces (Ittelson et al. and a combination called "tri-
1970; Cook and Miles 1978). It angulation" as key to attracting
typically involves the use of a map or users. Studies by Downs, Stea,
plan of the space or place being studied. and others (Downs and Stea
The observer takes this map to the site 1973) have revealed similar in-
and records where people are located sights for both outdoor and in-
and codes what they are doing. This is door environments.
done throughout an entire time cycle, A simplified version of the
often at different times of year, in order same technique can be used in
to get a good idea of how the space or mapping existing circulation
place is used. The frequency counts can systems when programming for
reveal heavily used areas, seldom used the expansion of existing facili-
areas, paths of travel, places of ties. It is also useful in studying
conversation, and the like and, hence, places of particular congestion
Figure 5-51 Solar Oasis Pedestrian Circulation.
can be most helpful to the programmer or importance, such as the
Credit: Richard Larry Medlin and NBBJ/Gresham Larson, 1988. Program for the
Arizona Solar Oasis, Phoenix, Arizona. Permission: Richard Larry Medlin
in coming to an under- nursing station in a hospital or
standing of existing behavior in a the cooking and serving areas of
space. This is of value when re- restaurants, in order to de-
modeling or adding to an existing termine the space or arrange-
Figure 5-53 Specialty Bakery Serving Area.
space. It is also of value in com- ments required to relieve traffic Credit: Radziah Mohamad, 1987. Specialty Bakery Program. Permission: School of Architecture,
ing to a general understanding of congestion or especially incon- Arizona State University

how people use space. Pedestrian venient movement in these

patterns are shown in the follow- kinds of situations (Fig. 5-53).'
ing illustration from the program-
ming study for the Solar Oasis in SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION
Phoenix, Arizona (Fig. 5-51).
• Problem Oriented
A more specific behavioral
map showing a variety of activi- • Multiple Focuses
ties occurring in an urban park • Time/Scale Sampling
was conducted by Randolph T.
Hester Jr. (1975) in the Big Court • Statistical Analysis
of Jefferson Park (Fig. 5-52). Systematic observation as used in programming differs from
An excellent example of such other types of observation in several respects. First, it is planned or
mapping is shown in the film The structured to obtain specific information about previously identi-
Social Life of Small Urban Spaces fied problems in the relationships between buildings and their hu-
by William Whyte (1988). In this man content, their physical surroundings, and elements of the
Figure 5-52 Jefferson Park Behavioral Map.
study, Whyte discovered that the buildings themselves. Second, it is structured to minimize bias and
Credit: Hester, Randolph T. Jr. 1975. Neighborhood Space. Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden,
Hutchinson & Ross Inc. Permission: Randolph T. Hester Jr. key elements in designing a sue- preconceptions by making certain that the observer takes into
262 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 263

consideration all factors that may be influencing a particular en- nose which areas in a
vironmental situation. It is an important supplement to the other hospital had essential
forms of observation when some question about conflicting find- relationships with each
ings needs to be resolved. other (Fig. 5-54)
• Problem Oriented: In programming, systematic observation - Places If places, or set-
should be conducted only to answer specific questions raised or to tings, are to be the
test specific hypotheses developed from the results of the other five focus, then the
forms of observation, the initial interviews, and the literature search observation will involve
and review activities. If the interviews conflict with the observa- staying in one place and
tions relative to how some space is used, it may be advisable to set noting all of the people
up a specific study to discover the actual behavior in a space. who use the place, why
For instance, if doctors and nurses have different perceptions of they use it, when they
where they spend their time and on what kind of hospital activities, use it, whether they do
it may be possible to set up a situation in which the doctors and it singly or in groups,
nurses can be observed systematically over a period of time to and again what
confirm or disprove the other findings. This would be important, of furnishings or
course, only if the results could make a design difference and equipment tend to
impact on some important human values. In the above example, support the interaction
this could involve the time it takes the doctor or nurse to get to a (Barker 1968). For ex-
Figure 5-54 Uncoupling Spatial Systems.
patient who suddenly is discovered to be in a life threatening ample, careful observa-
Credit: Lindheim, Rosyln, 1966. Putting Research to Work. AIA Journal. February: 46-53.
situation-the survival value comes into play. How far can the tion of multiple patient Reprinted with permission from ARCHITECTURE, February, Copyright 1966, BPI Communi-
nursing station or the doctor's parking area be from a patient room rooms in special care cations, Inc.
and still maintain an acceptable margin of safety? Functional facilities for the elderly
values could also be involved. How many times can nurses go has led researchers to
between the nursing station and a distant patient's room in an eight- the conclusion that a
hour shift without compromising their effectiveness due to single person will
exhaustion? occupy the room (Fig.
The problem to be studied should be one that is considered im- 5-55), and that the
portant relative to the design of the facilities to be programmed and others will be absent as
for which the previous evidence regarding requirements is in- often as possible
conclusive. (Pastalan and Carson
• Multiple Focuses: In order to ensure that all parts of the par- 1970).
ticular problem are considered, it is usually wise to alternate the - Tasks A focus on tasks
focus of observation between people, places, tasks, and objects. would result when
- People If people are the primary focus, the observation activity someone has identified
may involve the tracking of people to see what they do the importance of a
during the course of a workday. This would include fol- particular activity, and
lowing them about and recording what they do, with whom the designer must know
they interact, how and when certain interactions take place, how many and what Figure 5-55 Multiple Patient Room.
what furnishings or equipment support the interaction, and kinds of people are in-
on. This was accomplished very well by Roslyn Lindheim volved in the activity,
in a hospital study titled "Putting Research to Work" where and when it takes support it (Moore and Golledge
(Lindheim 1966). It allowed her to diag- place, and the props that
are used to 1976).
264 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 265

community; still another person may concentrate on the views

from the site. In systematic observation it is important to vary the
R
A scale of observation to ensure that a complete understanding of the
w design problem will result.
M
Scale is particularly important as we consider the various
A phases of programming. If the programming is for master planning,
T
E
attention to the site and its surroundings is most important. It
R would be necessary to establish interrelationships of various
I buildings and other features both on and off the site. If, on the
A
L other hand, the intent is to produce a program for schematic design
s of a particular building after the master plan has been established,
then the focus will be narrower and relate to the content of the

+
building to be designed as well as to its interaction with the
immediate external environment. For purposes of design develop-
ment, the focus will be almost exclusively on details, materials,
equipment, and furnishings to see how they are used and how they
hold up. In all cases, it is important to sample from at least the next
higher and next lower scales to obtain a better understanding of the
nature of the design problem.
The various scales of place focus include:

• Region
1.------------------------..J • Community
• District
• Neighborhood
Figure 5-56 Layout of Manufacturing Facility.
• Site Surroundings
Credit: Mostafa Shalaby, 1968. Dissertion: Optimum Layout of Manufacturing Facilities, The University of
Pennsylvania. Permission: Mostafa Shalaby.
• Site
• Buildings
- Objects Focus on objects is crucial if the observer is to com-
prehend such things as an assembly line cycle. An under- • Zones within Buildings
standing of what happens to a particular manufactured item, • Rooms
from the raw material entering the facility to the finished
product leaving the facility, could effectively determine the • Spaces within Rooms
optimal spatial layout of a manufacturing plant (Fig. 5-56). Time of observation is also of considerable importance. What a
• Time/Scale Sampling: It may not be readily apparent, but it is person observes at one time of the day, week, month, or year may
true that we all live in different worlds. For almost any individual, have little to do with what would be seen at another time. In the
the world changes day by day. For various individuals, the scale of life of most businesses, Monday morning is a time of considerable
environmental focus can be drastically different. One person may interaction and confusion. In the life of a church, nothing happens
visit a place and concentrate on how the site impacts the buildings early Monday morning, because the big occasion was the day
placed upon it; another person may visit the same place and before. The observer must carefully sample from the times when it
concentrate on how the buildings impact the surrounding will be most fruitful to observe. This can be based on
 266 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 267

what the clients and users have said about various periods of use or der to accommodate this typically unprogrammed activity, rather
by random or systematic sampling of all possibilities. In pro- than allowing it to interfere with important nursing functions (AIA
gramming, however, because of the typical lack of time and money Task Force on Aging 1985).
to conduct a study, it is usually necessary to concentrate on what Duration of an activity may be of equal importance. If one major
the client/users consider to be the crucial times. For any kind of activity overlaps with another major activity, it could create serious
retail business, this might include the peak periods, the slow times, spatial problems. For instance, if people are coming to park for one
and the typical or average times. In a restaurant, the crucial times event before people attending another event have departed, there
would be similar; however, these periods might occur and be rather may be a considerably increased need for parking for the few
different three times each day at meal times. minutes of overlap. How is this accounted for in the existing
However accomplished, systematic observation must cover the facilities or other exemplary facilities? If a facility is only used
complete cycle or cycles of use to obtain an accurate understanding periodically or seasonally, problems of shutdown and startup may
for program diagnosis. Such studies could have a crucial impact on be very important. Seasonal variation of activities may be
the size of the facility, possibilities for outside overflow, for one- pronounced, even for a continuously operating facility. These vari-
person staffing at slow periods, or other such factors. ations should be accounted for, even if the period for observation
It may also be useful to understand the frequency and duration must be confined to only one season. It may require further liter-
of use. What are the peak periods of use? How frequently do they ature search and/or interviewing to fill in the needed information.
occur? How long do they last? These are all important issues that could have major impacts on
These are important questions design requirements. Systematic ob-
when it comes to planning servation, coupled with trace obser-
ingress and egress from a site. vation and archival research for times
Will a traffic light be required? or events that cannot easily be ob-
How much backup space will be served, can prove most useful in un- %
needed to minimize congestion covering important information that 35
and accidents? The same is true can make a design difference.
for interiors. How much room is • Statistical Analysis: Systematic
required at a nursing station in a observation should be organized to
home for the elderly? (Fig. 5- allow for easy analysis when infor-
57) If observation of several mation gathering is complete. If the
such facilities reveals that these expected cost of error is not great, this
places are typically congested at may involve the simple counting of
certain times of the day because events and other descriptive statistics
many of the wheelchair bound to show the frequency, magnitude,

D
and other elderly gather to
observe the activity of the
and distribution of various events.
The results of such counting and
nurses, even when plans of the averaging can be shown in his- 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040
DAYAOOM/DJNJNG building suggest that the tograms, pie charts, graphs, and tables
residents should be elsewhere,
Percentage of Population over 65. The over 55
(Figs. 5-58 through 5-61). The
the programmer needs to development of such statistics is dis-
population increased from 9 percent in 1900
STORAGE
understand why this is the case. cussed in detail in a number of books to 21 percent in 1980. It will take a dramatic
The client may wish to enlarge written by social and behavioral sci- leap early in the next century.
the area around the station or to entists (Siegel 1956; Blalock 1960; f" 5 58 H' t p t A 65
1gure - ls ogram: ercen over ge .
Figure 5-57 Nursing Station and Dayroom.
locate Rosenbaum 1979; Weisberg et al.
1996). Credit: (AIA Task Force on Aging 1985), 2. Permission: American Institute of Ar-
Credit: (AIA Task Force on Aging 1985), 113. Permission: American Institute of Architects a dayroom adjacent to it in or- chitects
268 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 269

SELECTED TABLE FROM ARCHITECI'S' HIRING CRITERIA

\Vhen schools of architecture place
such an emphasis on the portfolio, it is Alumni Rating of Relative Importance of Job-Seeking Tools
sometimes difficult for students to realize
that the portfolio may not be the single
most important tool when looking for • Pcmcnnl interviews.
work. Perhaps one of the most
informative questions on the professional OPortfolio.
survey asked the alumni lo distribute 100 i3Renumc.
points between conventional job-seeking 39.35%
tools in order to rate the importance of • Lcttcrn ofrccommcndntion.
each tool. Please see "Alumni Rating of 0 Connection t.o fomili11.r
Relative Importance of JobSeeking ccntucts.
Tools." El Cover letters.

(I] Follow-up phone calls.

18.25%
g;jMnilo:r.

Figure 5-59 Pie Chart: Job-Seeking Tools.

Credit: Daniela Fruenfelder, 1993_ Master's Thesis, Decoding Architect's Hiring Criteria and Students' Perceptions
of the Job-Seeking Process, in Communication, College of Architecture, The University of Arizona, 21 July 1993, 2.
College of Architecture, The University of Arizona

Figure 5-61 Table: Windowed versus Windowless.

Credit: Patricia Partridge, Tony Rodriguez, Barbara Sacks with Professor Robert Hershberger, Advisor, 1983.
Windowed vs Windowless Schools: An Analysis at Economy Behavioral and Academic Effectiveness. Post
Occupancy Evaluation. Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona State University

If the costs of error are likely to be very high, as with a frequently

repeated element such as the patient room in a hospital, a space
station environment, or even a building to be repeated many times
Figure 5-60 Frequency: Percent of Occupancy. across the country, then the client may be satisfied with nothing less
Credit: Robert Cass, Fred Marks, and Steve Sedor, 1974. Research Study an Use at Existing and Future Space in than a study in which the probability of an error occurring might be as
Hayden Library. Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona State University little as .001 percent. In other words, this would
270 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 271

Bldg. Rm. Date ___ _ involve setting up an experimental or observing what information will prove to
Bldg. Rm. Date ___ _
quasi-experimental situation involving be useful during analysis (Fig. 5-63).
Who (principal significance tests using inferential statis- Another format used in the walkthrough Who, does what, to/with whom, how,
characters) tics. In such cases, the beginning pro- observation and by experienced observers when, where? Does Arch help/hinder?
grammer would be advised to associate for systematic observation involves How can design it better?
Does What (activity,
task) with an environmental scientist familiar creasing the observation sheet
with the conduct of such studies to make near the center and reserving the left side
To/With Whom certain that the probability of an event can for observations and the right side for
(others) be predicted accurately. The development commentary, as described on page 251.
of such studies is the subject of complete In any format, it is important to be clear
How (with what textbooks and will not be covered here
objects) about what is actually observed and what is
(Bechtel et al. 1987). inferred from it. The two types of
Where (place, information should not be mixed, so
setting) someone else can make sense of the infor-
Observation Formats mation when it comes time to incorporate it
When (time, frequency, duration) A number of different observation formats into the program. In other words, observed
have been developed for systematic facts and inferred ideas or concepts should
Does architecture help or hinder? Why? observation studies (Zeisel 1981). One be kept distinct, so that a person
approach is to take the various focus cat- interpreting the results does not mistake a
egories and develop a holistic informa- fact for an idea, or vice versa.
Could it be better designed? How? tion listing (Fig. 5-62) to be certain that Depending on the specificity of the re-
a complete observation has been taken and search task, it might be necessary to de-
recorded (Lindheim 1966). velop a recording format specifically for
The first six categories are capable of the observation task. For example, this Figure 5-63 Observation Form #2.
Figure 5-62 Observation Form #1. observation and are descriptive in na- could include the floor plan of an area to
ture. The final two categories are the be used for behavioral mapping. It could also involve a series of
subjective interpretation and diagnosis by the observer, as well as specific questions or required observations in which a simple count is
suggestions or prescriptions by the client for possible treatments or taken. Such forms must be developed in response to the observation
interventions that would improve the situation. These categories help to be undertaken. In any case, the observer should become very
to develop understanding of the relationships between human familiar with the observation problem(s) to be able to make critical
activities and the architectural environment. The description alone observations, and not to collect a great deal of useless data. In
means little unless it resuits in an accurate diagnosis of the problem, programming, the emphasis should be on gathering only the
so that an appropriate remedy can be proposed. information necessary to develop an understanding of the design
Some observers are comfortable with such a structured matrix. problem, rather than gathering as much information as possible.
Others prefer to keep the eight categories in their heads or only at the
top of the first recording sheet, to allow for more freedom of
response and recording in each of the focus categories. The re-
mainder of the sheet can remain blank for recording a series of ob- Photographic Methods
servations, taking as much space as needed, including additional A number of social scientists (Collier 1967) and programmers (Davis
pages. The important thing to remember is to cover all of the focus and Ayers 1975) are strong advocates of photographic
categories listed at the top of the sheet. It is hard to tell when documentation as a primary observation method. There is no sub-
 272 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 273

stitute for such documentation when it comes to the space inven- and expensive (Webb 1981). They often involve time-lapse pho-
tory. Photographs of rooms showing all of the principal elevations, tography to cover the full spectrum of use of a facility. As with
the furnishings within the room, the type and spacing of light fix- other systematic methods, this approach is most fruitful when a
tures, and the like are invaluable as the programmer begins work on hypothesis has been generated. It is important to generate actual
space requirement sheets for the new or expanded facility. It is counts to determine if what was observed at a certain time was
impossible to remember all of the details of the existing spaces un- really characteristic of a total situation. This allows repeated
less they have been documented. Photographs are undoubtedly the observation of the same place, so that information missed the first
most accurate and efficient way to document everything in a space. time can be picked up later. The approach is especially valuable
Various programmers advocate different film types for this job. when some important architectural feature, such an escalator or
Polaroid shots have the advantage of letting you know immediately conveyor, is going to be used in a major public building and there is
if you have recorded the needed information and allow coding of concern about how well existing ones work.
room, orientation, and special commentary as you
proceed. It is, however, quite
tedious to use this procedure
on large projects. An al- 5.4 Questionnaires and Surveys
ternative for the competent • Relationship to Other Methods
photographer is to use high-
speed color print film and • When to Use the Questionnaire
either a log or previously pre- • Planning Is Essential
pared plan of the building on
which to show the location of • Understanding
each shot by number. Addi- • Questionnaire Preparation
tional information such as
room name, furnishing, or • Steps to Prepare a Questionnaire
ceiling heights can also be
• Logical Order of a Questionnaire
recorded in any of these for-
mats. Digital cameras are be- • Question Types
coming popular and have the
advantage of direct transfer • Sampling
into the program documents. • Bias
It is rather easy to document
trace evidence using any of • The Survey
these methods. Photographic • Data Analysis
images make very convincing
• Cost of Error
evidence of findings when in-
cluded as part of a program- A questionnaire is an instrument that employs a predetermined set
ming report (Fig. 5-64). of questions to be answered by a respondent. A survey is the
Photographic techniques administration of the questionnaire to a group of respondents. It can
for systematic observation be administered by an interviewer who records the responses, or
Figure 5-64 Annotated Photograph: Drug Store.
are much more complicated given to the respondents to answer at their convenience (Blalock
Credit: Marcia Morris, 1987. Drug Stare Program. Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona
State University
1960; Berdie et al. 1986; Weisberg: et al. 1996).
274 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 275

Relationship to Other Methods is rarely the case. It is usually quicker and less expensive simply to
The questionnaire/survey is different from diagnostic interviewing, go back and ask someone for additional information or to count or
primarily because it relies on pre-established questions, which each measure something to obtain the missing data.
respondent is asked to answer. The questions typically are closed, The time and effort to prepare, administer, and analyze a major
that is, having a limited rather than an openended response format. questionnaire intended to obtain information about respondent
The respondent is required to follow both the line of questioning values, goals, needs, and ideas is warranted only when
and the line of answering predetermined by the persons preparing programming facilities for very large or complex organizations. On
the questionnaire. Unlike observation, both interviews and those occasions, it is advisable to employ a survey specialist to
questionnaires treat the respondent as a subject rather than as an assist in developing and administering the questionnaire to ensure
object. They are also more intrusive than observation in that they its reliability and validity. It is, however, important for the
require the respondent's full attention. The self-administered programmer to understand the purposes of the questionnaire and
questionnaire is somewhat less intrusive than the interview, the procedures to be followed in order to provide guidance to the
because the respondents can answer the questions at their at a time specialist. It is also important for the programmer to be able to
and place of their own choosing. However, the questionnaire develop and administer more limited questionnaires focusing only
requires respondents to answer questions developed by the on specific facility, furnishing, and equipment needs for mid-size
programmer in the order presented-to accept the programmer's projects for which funding for professional survey consultants may
agenda rather than discussing areas of greatest personal interest. As not be available.
a result, the diagnostic interview tends to be more effective in
discovering issues of importance to the respondent, while the Planning Is Essential
questionnaire is usually more effective in obtaining factual While casual (unplanned) observation and interviewing are both
information about specific facility and equipment needs. reasonably effective ways of obtaining useful information about
The questionnaire can also be very effective in determining issues of importance to various user groups, there is no such use-
whether or not most respondents share the viewpoints of those fulness to casual questionnaires. The effective use of question-
initially interviewed. Like the interview, and unlike observation, naires requires more preparation than any form of interviewing and
the questionnaire can be used to get at why people do what they do, most forms of observation. The programmer must first establish
what they think works well or poorly, and how they think what information is needed, and then use the questionnaire only if
something might be done better-but only within the limits of the the information cannot be more easily obtained by searching the
alternatives actually provided in the questions. Just how effective literature or through interviewing and/ or observation. Having
the questionnaire is in this respect depends on the proficiency of established that a questionnaire will be required, the programmer
the programmer in preparing, administering, and analyzing the must determine the specific questions that should be asked to
results of the questionnaire. obtain the needed information. It must also be established who will
receive the questionnaires and whether the selected respondents
can provide reliable and valid answers. It should also be
determined if there is enough budget and time available to
When to Use the Questionnaire
administer and analyze the questionnaire.
A questionnaire should not be used in architectural programming The medical analogy might once again be of some use, even
until after literature review, diagnostic interviewing, and diagnostic though it breaks down in several respects. Most physicians have
observation have been completed. Even then, it should be used developed a medical history form, a questionnaire that they use to
only if it would be more expensive to obtain additional needed ask each patient (or parent) to complete prior to interviewing or
information by continuing with the other information gathering observing the patient. Such questionnaires ask about basic de-
techniques. For most small- to medium-sized programming mographics: name, address, occupation, age, sex, and the like .
commissions this
276 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 277

They also ask about previous illness (even in the patient's family), if
Understanding
related persons are still alive, current medications, allergic reactions to The purpose of the entire programming process is to obtain and
drugs, and so on. You might wonder why such a standard questionnaire communicate the information needed to help the designer obtain a
is not appropriate in architectural programming? The answer is that correct understanding of the architectural problem. The intent is not to
most people are very much alike in terms of their basic anatomy, generate a large quantity of descriptive data. The questionnaire is
physiology, and types of medical problems. Most buildings are not! different from diagnostic interviewing in that its primary use in
Each building type has fundamental differences in organization and programming is to obtain supporting evidence: facts, opinions, and
structure as well as specific space needs. The doctor is trying to needs to enrich understanding, rather than to obtain a broad
diagnose problems within a group of similar entities. The architectural understanding of the issues and activities important to the client and
programmer is trying to diagnose the nature of the entity itself, an user groups.
entity which as yet does not exist, albeit an entity nowhere near the
complexity of the human body. Questionnaire Preparation
There are, however, instances in which the medical analogy is
The process of preparing a good questionnaire is quite involved and
appropriate regarding the use of questionnaires in architectural
time consuming (Berdie et al. 1986; Weisberg et al. 1996). It is similar
programming. If an architectural programmer has done numerous
to when a professor prepares an "objective" test using true-false and/or
programs for a particular type of facility (offices, hospitals, schools),
multiple choice answers. It is time consuming and even exasperating to
there are likely to be recurring questions. Questionnaires developed to
develop a series of "objective" questions to test the broad issues and
provide such information on previous projects might be adapted for use
understandings that an instructor hopes the student has obtained. Such
on each new project. Such repetition has the advantage of developing "objective" tests do not lend themselves to questions about broad
some standards of comparison and eventually, perhaps, of developing issues or areas of understanding. Rather, they tend to force the teacher
some generalizable knowledge about the nature of a particular to ask about facts: names, dates, and formulas which the student must
institution, user memorize. However, if the instructor is able to develop a satisfactory
group, or activity area. set of questions, the answers can be placed directly on a computer cod-
In any case, the time and effort re- ing sheet by the student and machine graded, thus taking virtually no
quired to develop an appropriate time on the part of the instructor to analyze the results. On the other
questionnaire for each new commission hand, if the instructor chooses to administer a "subjective" short
should not be expended until the programmer answer or essay test, the problem is reversed. It may not take long to
has a good idea of the nature of the develop a set of satisfactory questions, but the reading and evaluation
specific architectural problem. This can of the answers will be time consuming and fraught with subjectivity as
usually be determined through literature the grader tries to determine if the students really understood the
search and review, diagnostic material on which they were being tested.
interviewing, and diagnostic observation. In programming, the way out of the dilemma is obvious. Use the
If information is still needed, a diagnostic interview to get at the broader conceptual issues. Use the
questionnaire can be developed to test questionnaire to confirm or refute what has been discovered using the
preliminary conclusions or to uncover other information gathering methods, but more particularly, to obtain
additional facts about the user, con- information on the specific space and equipment needs of the
text, climate, etc., that would be too time individual respondents. In a large organization, obtaining this type of
consuming and costly to generate information could be very time consuming, hence expensive, to obtain
through additional diagnostic inter- in any other way.
viewing or observation (Fig. 5-65).
Figure 5-65 Typical Checklist Questionnaire.
278 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 279

The literature review, diagnostic interview, and diagnostic ob- quirements that served as
the starting point for devel- 1. Shop facilities are completely inadequate and poorly
servation activities serve as the basis for determining what should
oping a questionnaire on located.
be asked in the questionnaire. They help the programmer under-
stand the nature of the problem and reveal what detailed infor- how to improve the archi- 2. Studio spaces are not large enough to provide adequate
mation is still required. There are ten basic steps required in the tecture building at The Uni- student stations at the sophomore and junior levels.
preparation of a questionnaire. They are sequential in the sense that versity of Arizona (Fig. 5- 3. The lecture room is unattractive, noisy, and cramped, with
they usually occur in the order shown below. However, it must be 66). Determine who should uncomfortable seating. Its lighting controls are very difficult to
understood that there will be recycling or minor loops within the ten be answering the questions: use effectively, especially by visiting speakers. It is also difficult
steps, and when completed, there will quite often be major client, users, others. for visitors to find.
recycling from the beginning to the end of the entire list. There is no sense asking
4. The slide library is much too small and crowded.
a question of someone who
Steps to Prepare a Questionnaire has no idea how to answer
Figure 5-66 Key issues and requirements.
• List the goals and objectives of utilizing a questionnaire it, or who may provide ir-
relevant or inappropriate
• Determine who should be answering the questions: client, answers. Should there be one overall questionnaire to be answered
users, others by everyone, or should there be two, three, or more different
• Prepare a schedule for the types of questions to be asked questionnaires to be answered only by those capable of answering
particular questions? Would it be easier to go back to certain key
• Develop specific questions for each part of the questionnaire individuals and ask them some of the questions? Just as information
• Analyze the questions to see if any can be combined or elim- should be provided to those who need to know, information should
inated be sought from those who do know. The chances are that a number
of questions will be dropped from the questionnaire as a result of
• Answer the questions as if you were in each respondent group
this analysis and re-addressed by diagnostic interviewing or
• Revise the questions to make them clearer observation. A number of other questions will be asked only to
• Attempt to tabulate the answers and summarize the results subsets of the respondents.

• Revise the questions to make tabulation possible

• Pre-test the questionnaire with your peers and members of the PREPARE A SCHEDULE FOR THE'TYPES OF
respondent group(s)
QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED

LIST THE GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF Organize the needed information so a systematic way of asking the
UTILIZING A QUESTIONNAIRE
questions can be developed. Will demographics come first? Will
opinions on organizational issues come second? Will controversial
List in general terms what information is needed. Are there specific issues follow? Will detailed personal equipment needs come last?
hypotheses (propositions that need to be confirmed) about how the How can each of these question types be best asked? Can each
organization should operate? Would the client like to know how the question within a group be asked using the same format? If not,
majority of users feel about certain issues and be willing to modify should a subset be formed to allow two or more different question
the program to accommodate their preferences? Are there facts types?
about specific furnishing or equipment needs that are still un- DEVELOP SPECIFIC QUESTIONS FOR EACH
known? Write this information down and review it with the client PART OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
and designer (if available). They should be able to determine which
hypotheses, issues, and facts are important enough to warrant the Write down each question as clearly as possible using simple ter-
use of a questionnaire. The following is a short list of issues and re- minology. Consider at all times what the designer really needs to
 280 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 281

1. In addition to the equipment currently in the shop,

know to make design decisions. Will Does including "why" pro-
Rate how each space functions
which of the following should be i11 the new shop? a simple "yes" or "no" answer suf- vide the programmer with es-
Check all that apply. fice? Are there several options that sential information? Will there excellent good fair poor very poor
allow for a multiple choice response? be enough analysis time for the a. Room 103
a. __ metal working and welding equipment Can the question be an inventory list, programmer to code and b. Room 204c
b. __ plastic working and molding equipment c. Room 302
c. __ ceramic working and finishing equipment where the respondent simply checks tabulate all of the "why" an- d. Con!. Room
d. __ miniature model making tools off the appropriate categories? Or swers, especially if they are di- e. Sundt Gallery
e. __ painting booth f. 1st fir studio
f. other _________________ _
does there need to be a ranking of verse? Would it be better to
g. 2nd fir studio
items in terms of priority? Should the ask more detailed questions h.3rd fir studio i.
answer involve rating, such as from about each room (Fig. 5-70)? Grad studio
"highly desirable" to "highly In the previous example,
or
undesirable?" Should the question be would it be important to add a
Rank order from 6 (most needed) to 1 (least needed) open-ended, requiring the respondent follow-up ques- Figure 5-69 Combining Questions.
to fill in a blank area with his/her tion such as in Fig.
a. __ metal working and welding equipment own words? 5-71.
b. __ plastic working and molding equipment
c. __ ceramic working and finishing equipment
Try to ask the question in a way
d. __ miniature model making tools that will get the needed information 1. Evaluate the effectiveness of Room 103 on the following scale
e. __ painting booth in as clear and understandable a
f. other __________________ _ ANSWER THE excellent good fair poor very poor
manner as possible, so that the an-
swers can be easily coded, tabulated, QUESTIONS AS
a. size
and computer analyzed (Fig. 5-67). IF YOU WERE IN b. sight lines
Figure 5-67 Checklist versus Rank Order. Would a simple checklist or a rank EACH c. seating
d. acoustics
ordering be better? RESPONDENT e. lighting
Would the ranking questions yield GROUP f. lighting control
1. How does Room 103 function as a classroom?
important information not obtainable g. ventilation
by the checklist questions? Or would Can the people you h. slide proj.
excellent_ good _fair_ poor_ very poor_
a rating question be more desirable will be questioning i. video
Why? ___________________________________ _ and easier to analyze? Would it be really answer your j. overhead proj.
questions? Will the k. chalkboard
desirable to know why (Fig. 5-68)? I. floor surface
2. How does the TM. Sundt Gallery function?
After a series of questions has answers be as you m. HC access
been formulated, it is relatively easy expected? For ex-
excellent_ good _fair_ poor_ very poor_
to see if some questions are asking ample, in a multiple Figure 5-70 More Detailed Questions.
Why? ___________________________________ _ the same thing and, thus, might be choice format, the
combined or the least effective ones respondent may
Figure 5-68 Rating Scale with Explanation.
wish to choose two
or three answers, or Indicate the most needed improvement(s) _____________________________ _
eliminated. By reviewing the ques- think to herself,
tionnaire goals and the question categories, it is also possible to see "Well, sometimes
if an essential question has been left out, or that a question, as it's this way, and
phrased, will not obtain the desired information. Revise the other times it's that
questions as necessary to arrive at the needed information (Fig. 5- way, now which
69). should I check?" Figure 5-71 Follow-up Question.
282 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Information Gathering 283

Can the question be phrased to avoid these difficulties? Or, quite

often people in one respondent category simply will not have the ATTEMPT TO TABULATE THE ANSWERS
understanding necessary to answer the question. For example, first-
AND SUMMARIZE THE RESULTS
year students who have not yet been admitted to a professional
program in architecture will not know how well the upper division If only one or two persons in the organization can answer a ques-
studios work. If you asked them that question, they might respond, tion, ask them! There is no sense in asking everyone. Most orga-
but how much confidence would you have about the answer? nizations are not truly democratic. The opinion of the boss will be
Similarly, questions relating to the desired size of a space or object far more important than that of a temporary employee. But if you
are often very difficult for laypersons to answer. They may be able need a majority opinion or to summarize or average the answers
to tell you what they do and what equipment and/or furnishings from some particular group, can it be done with the type of an-
they need, but few can tell you the size of space that will be swers you will be receiving? Can these answers be easily analyzed
required. That is something that the programmer will have to figure by computer? Will you have enough time and money to hand code
out from the answerable questions and the wealth of information and tabulate the answers? If not, you may need to reformulate the
that can be obtained in other ways. questions so that the answers can be more easily tabulated. Or you
may wish to reassess your strategy and be satisfied with the results
of additional interviews with a few key people.

REVISE THE QUESTIONS TO MAKE THEM CLEARER REVISE THE QUESTIONS TO MAKE TABULATION POSSIBLE Does the
This is an iterative, laborious process. The questions have to be just question really need to be answered? Can the programmer figure
right or you receive practically nothing of worth for your effort. out the answer from the literature review, interviewing, and
You cannot probe, answer the respondent's questions, or give observation activities? Are there standards available and little
examples of what you mean if you are not there to do so. This, of reason to suspect that the current situation is really unique? Could
course, is a good reason to have an interviewer administer the a different question be asked that would confirm the standard or
questionnaire. Even so, if it becomes clear after a number of reveal the few ways in which the situation is unique? Many
persons have already responded that a question has been poorly questions simply need not be asked. It might be interesting to
written, what should be done with their answers? It is much better know, but in truth it is not likely to make even a minor design
to spend the time and energy beforehand to be certain that difference!
problems will not occur that could invalidate some responses. Why burden the respondent with the question and the pro-
The story is told about one of the early Kinsey Reports on the grammer with the work of tabulating and trying to make sense of
sex lives of Americans of a question that asked: "Do you think that such answers? There is rarely time or budget to waste in pro-
new babies should be sterilized?" The majority of respondents said gramming. But for those questions that remain to be answered in a
"Yes." Apparently these people thought the question related to questionnaire, it is important to make it as easy as possible to
keeping babies clean or in a clean environment. Others who administer, code, tabulate, and analyze the results.
responded "No" apparently thought the question dealt with sexual
sterilization. But could anyone be certain? Because there could be PRE-TEST THE QUESTIONNAIRE WITH YOUR PEERS
no follow-up, as in the diagnostic interview, there was no way to AND MEMBERS OF THE RESPONDENT GROUP(S)
tell what the respondents really did mean, so the question had to be
discarded. There was no reliable way to interpret the result. The The pretest is an essential part of the preparation of any ques-
same frequently happens with much less controversial topics such tionnaire. It involves a small number of respondents who are asked
as those found in architectural programming. to complete the questionnaire and to comment on its merits and
faults. It lets the programmer know if the questions are presented
in a reasonable order, phrased in understandable terms, and if the
answers generated will be useful to the designer.
284 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information G;1thering 285

The programmer also learns how long it takes for a respondent to which the program is being prepared and should be conducted us-
complete the questionnaire and sees if it is possible to make sense ing the same three steps as in the first pretest.
of the answers. Indeed, it allows the programmer to check if all Again, this pretest must be followed by a careful review of the
previous steps were well carried out. results to make certain that the answers given can be coded, tab-
At least two pretests should be conducted. In the first pretest, it ulated, and analyzed in a satisfactory manner. Will the answers be
is desirable to ask other members of your peer group, particularly useful to the designer? Will they provide information that will help
the persons most likely to be involved in the design and design de- the designer obtain a better understanding of the problem? Indeed,
velopment of the project, to pretend to be respondents as they com- it may be necessary to iterate through the entire 10 steps several
plete the questionnaire. There are five typical steps in a pretest: times to refine the final questionnaire. If this appears to be a very
time consuming and tedious procedure, rest assured that it is!
1. Ask the respondents to complete the entire questionnaire However, it will be worth the initial time spent in terms of overall
while you keep track of the time it takes them to do so. time saved.
2. Ask them to critically review each question, the order of the Students reading this material will no doubt recall midterm or
questions, and the length of the questionnaire. final examinations in which certain questions were phrased in a
very confusing way, or dealt with areas that had hardly been cov-
3. Go through their answers with them to see if they answered ered in the course, or were about trivial issues, when important is-
appropriately. sues had been covered. Unfortunately, it is difficult for a professor
4. Ask them to offer suggestions to improve the questionnaire. to pre-test an examination because of the distinct possibility that
the questions will leak to the remainder of the class, invalidating
5. Try to tabulate the answers to determine if the results will be the test. And how would the instructor grade the students selected
understandable. for the pretest? Fortunately, with a questionnaire there is no such
Have you asked the most important questions? Were they in a problem, so validation of its potential effectiveness through pre-
logical order? Was the questionnaire too long? Did you ask leading testing can be done to the great benefit of the questionnaire.
questions? Did you use jargon that could not be understood by
some respondents? The answers to these questions might prove Logical Order of a Questionnaire
embarrassing if your colleagues are highly critical of the • Interest the Respondents
questionnaire. However, as a professor once said (Ackoff 1967): • Discover Who They Are
Better to be a fool among your peers than before the world. • Proceed from General to Specific
If you cannot take the constructive criticism of your colleagues, • Save Personal Questions Until Last
it will be worse from members of the respondent group. Actually, • Allow for Explanation or Justification
most respondents will be very guarded in their criticisms and
suggestions to the detriment of helping you improve your product. • Tell the Respondents What to Do When Finished with the
Because your colleagues and friends have your best interests in Questionnaire
mind, they are likely to be more aggressive, hence more helpful, in The above listed order works well for questionnaires associated
their criticisms and suggestions. with architectural programming. It is not necessarily the ideal order
After you have repeated steps one through nine of questionnaire for other kinds of questioning situations, particularly those where a
preparation in answering the criticisms rendered in the first pretest, person might feel uninvolved, as with a public opinion survey or
it is time to conduct a pretest with members of the respondent with the evaluation of colleagues relative to organizational change.
group(s). This pretest should involve two or three persons from The programming questionnaire can go directly: to the desired
each of the actual subgroups relating to the facility for information so long as the order is understandable
 286 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 287

HMO: FACILITY REQUIREMENTS and the answers to earlier questions If the demographic questions are PHOENIX DOWNTOWN INFILL HOUSING
do not set an inappropriate frame- limited in number and were not con- QUESTIONNAIRE
Name Position Date_/_/_ work for answers to later questions. sidered to be overly personal in the
This questionnaire is aimed at discovering the specific
pretest, it works well to put these The Phoenix Housing Authority is in the process of
INTEREST THE RESPONDENTS questions at the beginning of the developing plans tor over a thousand low cost infill housing
furnishing and equipment needs of the staff of HMO
units to be placed in the southwestern section of the city.
Company. It is important that you respond to all questions This activity is best accomplished questionnaire. People typically like
Because you have indicated an interest in relocating into
so that your needs can be determined and the designer with a statement at the very top of to think about themselves, and if the this housing when it becomes available, the authority is
be required to provide you with adequate space. Please response categories are obvious and
take the time necessary to respond to each question
the questionnaire or in a brief cover most interested in your preferences and needs. Please take
thoughtfully and accurately. Thank you very much for your letter that explains the question- broad enough, most respondents can a few minutes to consider carefully what you feel would be
provide reliable answers with little the most satisfactory housing for you. Be assured that the
help? naire's purpose and, especially, why
housing authority will be responsive to the results of the
it is important that respondents effort. They are thus off to a good
questionnaire.
Figure 5-72 Introduction to a complete it. Usually, it is best to be start with the questionnaire and in an
Questionnaire. straightforward about its purposes appropriate mind-set relative to PART ONE (Please respond to each question by
as in Fig. 5-72. stating their personal ideas about the underlining the appropriate answer)
There is no need to labor this introduction. Practically anyone desired information (Fig. 5-73).
knowing that his/her facilities are about to be improved will co- The first question could be an 1.Your age? Under 20 20-29 30-39 40-49
50-59 60-69 Over 69
operate fully. important one on which to separate
2.Your sex? Male Female
the questionnaires to see if there are 3.Ethnic background? Caucasian Black Asian
DISCOVER WHO THEY ARE significant differences in housing Mexican Native American Other
This section is on the demographics of the respondents. Who are preferences and needs for various 4.Marital status? Married Single (includes
ages of adults. No difference may divorced, widowed, never married)
they? What is their role in the organization? What characteristics 5.Number of adults living in household? One Two
do they have that might cause the designer to do something appear between some adjoining
Three Four Over four
differently? Will you want to sort out questionnaires based on' this categories, but differences may 6.Number of children living in household? One
information? Will you want to come back to some respondents to become evident between several Two Three, Four Over tour
ask more particular questions depending on their responses? Here, categories, e.g., under fifty and over 7.Ages of Adults? 18 thru 29 30 thru 49

again, ask only what you really need to know. Is it important to fifty. This category might also be 50 thru 69 Over 69
interactive with other categories such (Underline as many as currently apply.)
know the respondent's sex or age? Maybe not! If you do want to 8.Ages of Children? Under 6 6 thru 12
separate the responses based on age, be sure to use large enough as sex and marital status. Single
13 thru 18
age groups so that you do not appear unnecessarily personal in women over fifty living alone are (Underline as many as currently apply.)
asking the question. You need to know the respondent's name only likely to have different housing 9.Current monthly rent? Under $200 $200-$300
if you want to be certain who has completed the questionnaire to preferences and needs than married $300-$400 Over$400
women over fifty living with a 10.Affordable monthly rent? Under $200
be able to make a new request of those who fail to complete it, or if $200-$300 $300-$4QO Over$400
you have the need, time, and money to follow up on specific or spouse, and than married women
unusual answers. under fifty hliving with la spouse and Figure 5-73 Introduction and Demographics.
The most likely reason to ask demographic questions is to be children. There may also be differ-
able to separate subgroups to discover their special preferences or ences relating to housing prefer-
needs. For example, if you were commissioned to program a major ences between persons of different ethnic groups owing to their
public housing project involving several ethnic groups and age cultural backgrounds.
groups, you would probably want to separate the responses during Note that it was not considered important in the above ques-
analysis into age, sex, and ethnic groupings in order to draw con- tionnaire to discover if the single person was divorced, widowed,
clusions about the needs and preferences of each of the subgroups. or never married. The reason for asking only if single or married
 288 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 289

rather than being more detailed might be to avoid appearing to be PROCEED FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC
1. Which type of housing would meet your needs
too curious about personal matters such as cohabiting unmarried You cannot assume that a respondent best? Rank in order of preference:
men and women. It might be embarrassing or threatening for a re- shares your concerns about a particular 1 most preferred to 4 least preferred.
spondent to admit to cohabiting in such a questionnaire. Indeed, it problem, or even that he or she is con-
is problematic whether question four should have been included at centrating on the questionnaire or thinking a. Single Family detached
all, since marital status can have a serious negative impact on (one or two stories)
about what it will accomplish. It is far b. Single Family attached
public assistance. It might have been better to leave out the ques- more likely that he or she will be thinking (duplex, triplex, row)
tion entirely, and simply to determine with later questions if two or about personal affairs. Hence, the ques- c. Multiple Family walkup
more adults living in a household prefer arrangements that make tionnaire has to be structured to get the (up to three stories)
cohabitation possible. The designer does not need to know if the respondent into the programmer's mindset. d. Multiple Family elevator
relationship has been officially sanctioned by the state. It is (up to ten stories)
The introduction and demographic
important, however, for the designer to know how many adults and questions begin this process. But the first 2. Once into your unit could your family live
children are likely to be living together in the same household and few substantive questions really set the comfortably in a two story unit?
how many, if any, are willing to sleep in the same bedroom. tone and serve to get the respondent think- yes __ no __ {check one)
It is also important to know the ages of the children and adults, ing about architectural issues (Fig. 5- 7 5).
because the implications for neighborhood support facilities vary The first question gets right to the heart If you answered "no", is someone in your
for different age groups. Interestingly, however, if most of the household disabled in some way?
of matter. Which type of housing would yes __ no _. Please describe: _____________ _
children of prospective tenants are young, there is a good be preferred by the respondent? Here it is
possibility that the housing and support facilities will have to adapt important not to offer an option
as the children grow older, unless it can be determined that families that could not be made available because
typically move out of such housing as the children age. The final of cost, density requirements, or other Figure 5-75 General to Specific.
two questions about financial ability may be crucial in limits. The designer needs to know what
determining the size and quality of hous will help him/her make intelligent design decisions within the
ing and support facilities that can be built. various constraints imposed by site, climate, client, economics, etc.
PART ONE {Please respond to each question by Do you think that there are other de- Was this a good lead question? Could it have been asked more
underlining the appropriate answer) mographic questions that should have clearly? What first substantive question might you have asked in-
been included? Could some of these stead of the one shown? -
1. Number of male adults living in household?
One Two Three Four Over four
questions be left out without sacrificing More specific questions that follow might relate to the number
2. Number of female adults living in household? necessary information? These are the of bedrooms or baths. Although here again the type of housing, or
One Two Three Four Over four types of questions that must be dealt with more precisely society's willingness and/or the tenant's ability to
3.Ages of Adults? 18-29 30-49 50-69 when preparing a questionnaire. Re-
(Jver69 pay, may limit the number of bedrooms even for large family
member, unless the information requested groups: one for the cohabiting adults, one for single males, one for
(undertlne as many as currently apply)
4. Number of children living in household?
could actually impact how something single females, regardless of age. A low-income family will likely
One Two Three Four Over four might be designed, it should not be asked have to share one bathroom regardless of the size of the household.
5.Age of Children? Under 6 6-12 13-18 (Fig. 5-74)! In any case, only questions to which the architect can actually
(underline as many as currently apply.) Would this shortened list provide the
6.Ethnic background? Caucasian Black
respond should be asked.
demographic information necessary to
Asian Mexican American Indian Other
7.Affordable monthly rent? Under $200
design housing for the group of respon- SAVE PERSONAL QUESTIONS UNTIL LAST
$200-$300 $300-$400 Over$400 dents? If not, what would need to be
Any question that seems very personal in nature is best located to-
added?
ward the end of a questionnaire. Otherwise, the respondent is likely
Figure 5-74 Simplified Demographics to feel that the questionnaire is being unnecessarily inquisitive,
Section.
290 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 291

9. Would you be willing to accept and may not complete it or may give inaccurate ful to the designer. On the other hand, if the 9. Please explain your answer:
gang-type showers in the locker responses-either of which makes the overall questionnaire is to go to several hundred re-
room if the number of toilet stalls results of the questionnaire less useful. An ex- spondents, it may become financially impos-
could be increased? ample would be the provision of showers in sible to code and tabulate all possible answers,
yes __ ; no __ . schools and other public facilities. In the past, so such amplification may in fact be wasted.
it was assumed that men were willing to share The person(s) preparing the questionnaire or if you prefer to be more specific
or more elaborately gang-type showers, while women required in must assess the time and money available to
dividual stalls. It would be useful to discover if analyze the questionnaire. If the time and 9. If you answered "no" to the above question,
9. Limited school budgets normally most women today would gladly give up the money are not available for proper analysis, please explain your answer. This will be of
preclude supplying toilets or urinals privacy provided by shower stalls in order to great help to the designer.
do not ask the question(s).
beyond the minimum required by code. have a greater number of toilet stalls. A ques-
However, if gang-type showers in both
tion that could get at this issue might be
the men's and women's locker rooms
were acceptable to the users, it would
phrased somewhat like that in Fig. 5-76.
How many other ways could this question TELL THE RESPONDENTS WHAT TO DO WHEN
be possible to
provide two additional toilet stalls in be asked? The objective in writing the ques- FINISHED WITH THE QUESTIONNAIRE Figure 5-77 Supplemental Questions.
the women's toilet rooms and two tionnaire is to get at important design issues in The respondent must know what to do with
additional urinals in the men's toilet an easily understood way. The first question the questionnaire when it is completed. This
rooms. Would this be a desirable may be too short and brusque. Will the re- Thank you very much for completing this
can often be stated as part of the introductory questionnaire!
tradeoff as far as you are spondents understand what gang-type means? section or in a cover letter. However, this
concerned? The second question may be too long. How information should also be provided at the end Please fold the questionnaire in thirds
yes __ ; no_; not sure __ . could each question be better phrased? of the questionnaire after a salutation such as along the dotted lines shown on the back
If nearly all of the men respondents replied in Fig. 5-78. sheet and insert it in the pre-addressed,
Figure 5-76 Personal Questions.
yes and most of the women respondents said stamped envelope attached to the
yes, what should the designer do? What about Question Types
questionnaire.
the opinion of the minority? Perhaps they have an extremely valid
reason for saying no. Here is a case where it would be important to • Dichotomous
Remember, the questionnaire must be
allow for amplification or justification of the answer, and quite • Nominal returned no later than Friday, April 12,
possibly to encourage the designer to allow for choice. It may be
• Ordinal 1998, to be useful to the designer.
that a number of both men and women would prefer individual
shower stalls. • Interval Thanks again for your help!
The same may be true for other situations relating to issues such • Short Answer
as personal territory, privacy, and safety. A variety of options can be Figure 5-78 Instructions at Ending.
discovered and provided for in design, if questions are phrased in • Open-Ended
such a way that an appropriate variety can be determined. There are a number of different types of questions that may be
used in a questionnaire. They vary from simple checklists to open-
ALLOW FOR EXPLANATION OR JUSTIFICATION ended free-answer questions (Blalock 1960; Bradburn et al. 1979).
It might be useful to state at the beginning of the questionnaire that As mentioned before, the simpler the response, the easier it is to
the respondent should feel free to explain any answer, and to code and analyze the results. Also, the simpler and clearer the
include a blank line after each question or a final blank page for this question, the less problems there are with reliability; that is, the
purpose (Fig. 5-77). This way, no one should feel unduly more likely the respondents will provide the same answers under
constrained by the questionnaire. Such amplification is often use- slightly different circumstances of time or place. The answers
 292 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 293

must also be valid. Validity in this sense means answers that are for more stalls is general, or
applies only to one or the other 5. There are an insufficient number of toilet stalls in restrooms in
both true and important relative to design. If you repeatedly ask a the College of Architecture. True __ False __
group of uninformed or misinformed people a question, you might of the sex groups (Fig. 5-80).
get consistent (reliable) answers, but they would be misleading, or
hence invalid. Similarly, if you ask a question requiring answers NOMINAL (SINGLE WORD,
that are more detailed or precise than the respondents are capable 5. It would be desirable to increase the number of toilet stalls in
CHECKLISTS, MULTIPLE
restrooms in the College of Architecture. Yes __ No __
of providing, the results are likely to be imprecise at best. Some CHOICE)
respondents will leave the question blank, indicating they do not
know, while others will venture a guess, providing answers that are This type of question is often a Figure 5-80 Reworded Dichotomous Questions.
neither reliable nor valid. In any case, the effort should be made to variation of the dichotomous
question, which requires only
ask questions to arrive at the needed information in the most a check for affirmative (or negative) answers. It is particularly ef-
reliable and valid way possible. This generally means that the fective when there are long lists of similar questions. The most
questions must be phrased simply and clearly relative to the common lists in programming typically deal with furnishings and
particular respondent group's understanding of the problem, and equipment. Another such list might relate to activities of the re-
that the possible answers be equally simple and clear for the benefit spondent.
of analysis. This is easy to say, and difficult to accomplish.
These are easy to code directly onto computer coding sheets for
analysis, which can be as simple as computing the total number of
checks for each answer for a particular respondent subgroup. The
DICHOTOMOUS (TRUE/FALSE AND answers in the final column below would, of course, have to be
YES/NO QUESTIONS) hand tabulated and considered on the merits of the justifications
These questions usually involve an assertion that the respondent offered. Here, it might be important to know the names or titles of
must determine to be true or false, or with which they agree or the specific respondents to determine if there is actually a smaller
disagree (Fig. 5-79). subgroup than the demographic data indicates. In any case, the total
Such answers can be coded onto computer answer sheets and number of checks allowed should be reasonable and based on
analysis would involve only counting the number of positive and information gained in the
negative answers. If the demographics allow separating the an- previous literature review, di-
agnostic interviewing, and di- 6. Please place a check in the appropriate column for
swers into respondent groups, it may be possible to determine if furnishings needed in your office.
opinions vary for different groups. For example, women faculty, agnostic observation activities
staff, and students may have different atti (Fig. 5-81).
indicate if more than 4
tudes in this regard. Perhaps only the faculty The multiple choice ques- item & number 0 1 2 3 4 More
5. There are an insufficient number of toilets in tion is a variation where there a. executive desk
the women's rest rooms in the College of I staff toilets require additional stalls. Male
are more choices than yes/no, b. secretarial desk
Architecture. True __ False __ respondents would have no basis on which to
but usually only one answer is c. executive chair
respond to the above questions, d. secretarial chair
o nor would they be affected, so they should permitted, as the following
e. side chair
r question indicates (Fig. 5-82).
not be asked to respond. It might be better to f. conference table
5. It would be desirable to increase the
rephrase the question to omit "women's" so This question would, of g. conference chair
number of toilets in the women's course, only be applicable for a h.4 drawer filing cabinet i.
rest rooms in the College of Architecture. that both men and women could respond
person who had previously 2 drawer filing cabinet
Yes No relative to their own experiences, and then to
separate out the answers for analysis based on indicated a need for a secretar-
Figure 5-79 True/False and Yes/No Questions. sex, so as to be able to determine if the need ial desk. Figure 5-81 Nominal Questions (Checklist).
 294 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 295

7. Your preference for a secretarial desk is which of the

ORDINAL (RANK ORCIERING) Ordinal allow easier sta-tistical analysis. It is possible
100
following? (check one) questions can be used to discover a to calculate totals, means, and distributions 90
particular respondent's preferences for the several possible answers to each 80
a. left side typing surface question. It is also possible to establish the 70
for almost anything. However, it is 60
b. right side typing surface
c. typing surface on both sides difficult to summarize results from a rank order for a question for the whole group. 50
d. other (explain) number of respondents (Fig. 5-83). In the above case, the highest rank would be 40
given to the category with the lowest total 30
A problem can occur if a respon- 20
dent feels that two or more of the score, and the lowest rank being given to the 10
category with the highest total score. It is also 0
possible answers are of equal
importance. Another problem is the possible that some categories may rank the
Figure 5-82 Multiple Choice Questions. same, or nearly the same (Fig. 5-85). g. a. b. f. c. d. e. h.
coding and analysis of the results.
About all that can be done is to add
Figure 5-85 Histogram Showing Rank
10. Please rank the following in terms of their up the responses to each subquestion Ordering.
importance to you. and divide by the number of SHORT ANSWER
(1 as most important to 7 as least important) respondents to come up with the
average rating for each category. These questions are necessary when more specific information is
a. Functional Relationships This can be rather deceptive if some needed than could reasonably be provided using a finite number of
b. Response to Climate categories. Questions asking for a person's name, address, and
c. Relationship to Existing Building respondents give several items the
d. Structural Expression same ranking or leave out some telephone or identification number are examples of short answer
e. Initial Cost items because they cannot decide questions for which simple categorization is rarely appropriate.
f.Operating Costs g. These are all demographic questions and are nominal in nature.
where they rank. It is not easy for
Aesthetic Image Questions asking a respondent what he or she thinks are important
most respondents to make clear
decisions relative to rank ordering. It design issues, or for suggestions as to how to solve a problem, may
Figure 5-83 Rank Ordering Questions. may require the presence of an also prove difficult to cover with a limited set of alternatives. It
interviewer to be certain that the may not be appropriate to assume that you have thought of all of
question is completed correctly. the alternative ideas. A short answer may be required (Fig. 5-86).
Please rate the following questions from: 1. (extremely
important), 2. (moderately important), to 3. (relatively Hence, it is generally best to avoid The problem with the short answer is coding. Each answer must
unimportant). this kind of question in a distributed be content analyzed and coded by a person, which takes time and
questionnaire. money. If the possible answers are seemingly endless or
8. How important to you is each of the following relative to approaching infinity, then coding simply breaks down to the most
the addition to the College of Architecture? (Check the frequently mentioned categories and the rest are grouped under an
appropriate blank) INTERVAL (RATING SCALES) "other" category. This may be useful for an exploratory ques-
Questions requiring ratings are tionnaire when interviewing to accomplish
1 2
a. Functional Relationships 3 somewhat more complex than the same purpose would be difficult or im-
b. Response to Climate true/false or checklist questions. possible. However, the diagnostic interview is
c. Relationship to Existing Building better suited to finding answers to such
d. Structural Expression
They are similar to multiple choice 14. What are the three most important issues
e. Initial Cost and rank order questions, except that questions. If some doubt exists about whether for the design of a new architecture
f. Operating Costs the persons interviewed are representative of building?
they deal with a continuum of a. ~~~~~~~~~~~-
g. Aesthetic Image the group, additional interviews can be con-
h. Safety/Security attitudes or preferences for each b. ~~~~~~~~~~~-
ducted until sufficient understanding of the
subquestion (Fig. 5-84). c.~~~~~~~~~~~-
categories of response can be established.
Unlike rank ordering, this type of
Figure 5-84 Rating Scales. question is easy to answer and code, Figure 5-86 Short Answer
Questions.
even on computer coding sheets, to
296 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 297

a. Please explain~~~~~~~~~~~-
The most common short answer question ever, only the student group would be so large as to require that a
that should be used in a questionnaire is the questionnaire be used. A representative sample or even the entire
request for amplification, clarification, or in- group of persons in other categories could be interviewed.
sertion of nominal information for "other" In the case of the students, it might make sense to survey a
Figure 5-87 Short Answer Clarification. categories. Here again, the value of this in- sample from each class level (freshmen through senior under-
formation is questionable, unless there is graduate, first- and second-year graduate, non-majors using the
sufficient time and budget for the survey building, etc.). If there are 50 or more students at each year level,
team to analyze the results. When this is possible, a number of in- perhaps only ten need to be surveyed to obtain a reasonably ac-
sights can be gained that would otherwise have been missed (Fig. curate understanding of student attitudes, needs, and ideas. This is
5-87). a type of stratified sampling procedure. Selections within each
group might involve further stratification (e.g., by age, sex, eth-
OPEN-ENDED
nicity, place of residence) or perhaps by random selection. If a
Use of open-ended questions in a questionnaire can be problematic. need exists to project from the small sample to the population
It is difficult to count or summarize the variety of answers likely to (group) the sample represents, it is probably advisable to utilize a
be obtained from a large number of individuals, but it is possible to random sampling procedure, so the probability of the sample being
read through the responses to gain a feeling for the sentiment of the unlike the overall group can be estimated. This can be done rather
group. However, this approach to analysis is fraught with easily by identifying every member of the group, assigning a
uncertainty about how much the reader brings from past experience unique number to each, then utilizing a table of random numbers to
to the conclusions reached. It is, of course, possible to do a select the persons to be given the questionnaire. This approach
complete content analysis in which certain groups of answers are becomes more important as the population of the group to be
identified and their instances counted, but this is a very time surveyed increases (Fig. 5-88).
consuming activity. In either case, the wisdom of using open-ended Note that a somewhat different questionnaire may be necessary
questions in a questionnaire is doubtful, because the same for some of the groups surveyed. For instance, if you wish to
information could more easily be obtained through diagnostic survey users who are not employees, but perhaps frequent or
interviewing. occasional visitors or customers, they will not be able to provide
the same depth or detail of information as a staff member. It is also
Sampling possible
As with the methods of information gathering discussed earlier, to utilize a single survey -
sampling is extremely important when using questionnaires instrument with direc- Dea Director of Architecture Director of Planning
n
Associate Dean Graduate Program Director Administrative Assistant
(Blalock 1960; Ackoff 1962). If the wrong persons are asked to tions to respondents to Administrative Associate Administrative Assistant
respond, the answers may be useless. It is, therefore, important to skip over certain portions Business Manager
Development Officer
Planning Faculty
First year grad students
Architecture Faculty
develop a careful sampling plan. So who should be included? The of the questionnaire, de- Administrative Assistant First year students Second year grad students
Third year grad students
Receptionist Second year students
people who are likely to know the answers! Depending on the role pending upon earlier an- Shop Superintendent Third year students
Graduate Assistants
Librarian
they fill in an organization, the people questioned may have very swers. Archivist
Fourth year students
Fifth year students
different, but possibly equally valid, answers. It is important to Typically, sampling Head Custodian First year grad students
Second year grad students
Director of Landscape Arch.
Administrative Assistant
identify all of the different categories of people likely to be affected for programming Provost Third year grad students
Graduate Assistants
Advisory Council Pres. Landscape Faculty
by the design solution and to survey a sample from each of these questionnaires involves AIA President First year grad students
Second year grad students
groups. For example, a questionnaire relating to the expansion of stratification of the entire Campus Planning Dir.
Facilities Director
Library Visitors
Third year grad students
Lecture Visitors Graduate Assistants
an architectural building may need to be responded to by each of population of users or po- Facilities Management Gallery Visitors
the following groups: student majors, other students, faculty, staff, tential users of the facil-
administrators, and maintenance personnel. Probably, how- ity to be designed. Thus, Figure 5-88 Persons to Survey in Architecture.
the sample is referred to
298 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 299

as a stratified sample. The stratification is usually done with respect A key problem of survey research is bias. This problem has
to the role the persons play in the facility so that all legitimate needs been considered at great length by social scientists involved in
are accounted for in the survey. Within each strata, the sample survey research (Blalock 1960). A brief summary here will help the
should be random to ensure that various types of individuals have reader understand several of the areas where problems of bias can
an equal chance of being represented: young, old, male, female, develop. Persons concerned with the impact of such problems are
minorities, and so on. If it is possible to identify each member of the advised to consult with people who have spent their lives
population and to assign them numbers, then a simple random developing the skills necessary to conduct research that avoids
sample can be made using a table of random numbers. If a random these biases.
sample is taken for each subgroup, the sampling procedure is SAMPLING
referred to as a stratified random sample. If the strata involves only
a few persons, such as the maintenance staff, it may be possible to If the sample leaves out certain population subgroups or clearly
question the whole population so that there will be no need to worry admits a disproportionate number of another group, the results are
about representation within the strata. Finally, since the opinions likely to be biased toward the interests of the represented groups.
held by some members of an organization may be considered more As already mentioned, however, programming research is typically
important than those held by other members, for instance, biased toward the interests of the management group, since they
management versus staff, there is often an agreed or imposed pay the bill. Other people are surveyed to be certain that their
weighting of some strata. In this case, the sampling design might be legitimate needs are satisfied.
referred to as a weighted stratified random sample.
If it is not possible to identify each of the members of a strata, QUESTIONER
such as expected visitors to the facility, it might be necessary to use This is the most common bias in programming research. It involves
a systematic random selection procedure, that is, choosing the first such things as leading questions. These are questions that look for a
respondent using random selection, then selecting every tenth (or certain answer: "Don't you agree that more toilet stalls are needed
another number) person to respond to the questions. The sample in the women's toilet room?" "Most educated people now desire a
would then be referred to as a systematic stratified random sample. bidet in addition to the normal toilet stool. What is your
This turns out to be a relatively complicated procedure, and there preference?" If a question looks as if it is leading toward a certain
are entire books on the topic (Rosenbaum 1979). If the organization answer, it probably is not a good one. Another problem is vague or
is large and/ or complex, it would be highly desirable to work with confusing questions: "What do you do each day?" This question is
professionals in developing the survey. However, if the organization simply too broad.
is simple or small, common sense can go a long way toward
Classic examples of confusing and leading questions are found
developing an adequate plan. Here again, our earlier discussions of
in the political literature. For example, a recent survey by a political
cost of error should not be forgotten.
action committee asked respondents to rate issues of importance.
One issue was to "Eliminate obsolete [my italics] federally funded
programs." It would be unusual for any reasonably intelligent
Bias person to answer that we should keep "obsolete" programs. Another
• Sampling question asked: "Do you believe everything [my italics] you hear or
see from the media?" It is hard to imagine many persons saying
• Questioner "yes" or "not decided" to this one. The same questionnaire asked:
• Respondent ''Are you committed to fighting the liberal bias in the news media?"
(Quayle 1996). No matter how you answer this question, you can
• Situation
be counted as agreeing that there actually is a "liberal bias" in the
• Technique news media. Perhaps .
300 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 301

The language in a questionnaire must be absolutely clear to the and return? If the required sample is large, it may be very expen-
respondent, because there is no opportunity to probe or ask for sive to have someone visit every respondent. Indeed, if this much
clarification. The respondent reacts only to what he or she under- time can be made available, perhaps a series of diagnostic inter-
stands the question to ask. views would be a more appropriate use of available time!
Sometimes arrangements can be made to have all respondents
RESPONDENT come to a central place, as with an examination, where general in-
This can be a problem in both interviews and questionnaires. In structions can be given to everyone and questioners can be avail-
this case, the respondent tries to say what he or she thinks the able to answer specific questions as they occur. This can be
questioner, or perhaps management, wants to hear. This is partic- efficient, ensure a reasonably good understanding of the questions,
ularly true when the respondent's answers can be identified as and enable the programmer to get the questionnaires back very
belonging to the respondent. If this is a problem, it is sometimes quickly. It does not, however, allow the respondents to refer to
necessary to have the questionnaire returned in an unmarked en- their own environments to obtain the requested information. Like a
velope. But even with this precaution, a person in a unique role closed book exam, it requires that the person recall all of the in-
may easily be identified by their concerns. Rarely, however, is a formation requested. Most people are not very good at recalling
question asked in architectural programming that might cause environmental information, so chances are
major problems between supervisors and subordinates. that answers will be neither reliable nor valid.
INDUSTRIAL GROUP OF AMERICA
The most common procedure, where a 11 EAST EDGE STREET,
SITUATION building programming activity is concerned, CAMBRIDGE, MA 10238
is to prepare a cover letter with the signature
This can also be a major source of error in surveys. If the re- of the client, to be sent either to department May 17, 1997
spondent is asked to complete a questionnaire when busy, you can heads for distribution, or directly to a prese-
be sure that not much thought will be given to the endeavor, even lected sample of administrators and employ- Roger Grand, Director of Development
if the questionnaire is completed. Or if a work environment ees as appropriate. The letter should briefly
questionnaire is administered away from a person's workstation, it Dear Roger:
state the purpose of the questionnaire, by
is likely to result in guesses based on poor recollection or what date it must be completed, and how and The enclosed survey from the architect of the
visualization. Both the time and place to administer a questionnaire where it must be returned. It is also important new plant needs to be completed and returned
should be carefully chosen. to stress the questionnaire's importance in to the Personnel Office no later than May 24,
1997. It is crucial that you take the necessary
obtaining a satisfactory building for the time, consulting appropriate staff, to complete
TECHNIQUE
respondent's particular needs, so respondents and return the questionnaire on schedule.
The way of asking questions can also introduce bias. As already will have a personal interest in completing the
mentioned, it is difficult to discover a person's unique values, questionnaire (Fig. 5-89).
goals, and ideas with any "objective" question in which all of the Once returned, the questionnaires can be We value your continuing service to the
company very much and hope that you are as
possible answers have already been identified. Multiple choice or collated as appropriate and then the job of
excited as we are about the opportunity to
checklist questions confine a person's answers to those available. coding the data onto appropriate data forms greatly improve our working environment.
can begin. Whenever possible, this should be
The Survey done on computer answer sheets, so that the Sincerely,
entire analysis can be done by computer.
Ultimately, the time comes to administer the questionnaire-to When this is not possible, a carefully pre-
conduct the survey. Will it be affordable to have a person admin- planned sheet for manual tabulation can be
ister each of the questionnaires? Will it be possible to send or de- Charlotte Mead, President
used to tabulate and summarize the results.
liver the questionnaires to each of the respondents to complete Once summarized, the format should be Figure 5-89 Cover Letter.
 302 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 303

such that the results are readily apparent; that is, they should make If, on the other hand, the population from which the samples
sense to the designer. Otherwise, the entire survey effort will have were taken is very large in comparison to the samples, it may be
been a waste of everyone's time. necessary to test the significance of the results using some
combination of descriptive and inferential statistics. A very com-
Data Analysis mon social science technique is to develop means and variances for
various distributions of data and to use t-tests, analysis of variance,
If the questions have been carefully written to allow ease of coding or some other appropriate parametric or nonparametric test of
and an appropriate sampling plan has been developed and fol significance. If it comes to this, both social scientists and
lowed, analyzing the results is a statisticians should be involved in the development of the ques-
relatively straightforward prob- tionnaire, sampling plan, and statistical analysis. The discussion of
lem. Clerical staff can be in- these research procedures is beyond the scope or intent of this text.
structed how to code the limited Those interested in pursuing these approaches should refer to such
number of short answer books as Methods in Environmental and Behavioral Research
responses. The programmer or (Bechtel et al. 1987).
designer can be given the longer
open-ended answers to try to Cost of Error
obtain an overall view of the
It should be added that cost of error is a factor to be weighed in the
respondents' answers. The
development and analysis of any information gathering activity
balance of the answers can be
(Ackoff 1962). If the information was not gathered at all, would
transferred to computer coding
there be a cost if the designer was allowed to design and construct
sheets and the data fed to the
an inappropriate building? Very likely there would be large costs.
computer to develop specific
The various rooms within the building might be of the wrong size
information such as totals, av-
or shape, so the intended activities could not take place within the
erages (means), distributions,
rooms. The cost of error may involve lost efficiency of production,
and other statistics.
and thus an overpriced product. Or it might involve the cost of a
For most programming com-
complete remodeling of the building to make it usable. The
missions, simple descriptive
building might project an inappropriate image to the community,
statistics such as those men-
so that the intended users will not enter. The building may let in
tioned above are appropriate. If
maximum sun in the hot summer months and minimum sun in the
the number of persons ques-
cold winter months, so the utility costs would be very high. The
tioned is a substantial propor-
building might greatly exceed the client's budget, causing
tion of the total, there is very
bankruptcy for the client, who might sue the architect for damages.
good reason to believe that they
Clearly, in the case of no information gathering, the costs of er-
will be representative, es-
ror can be high. What about the case of minimum information
pecially if they were chosen
gathering-the case where the client provides a brief and the ar-
randomly. Simply illustrating
chitect begins to design? In this case, the cost of error depends on
the results by tabulations or vi-
how good the client is as a programmer. In many cases, the client
sually with tables, pie charts, or
will not be very good. Client programs are often reactions to in-
histograms will be enough to let
Figure 5-90 Questionnaire Results. adequate present facilities. In an effort to oil squeaky parts, the-
the designer know what is
Credit: Jeffrey Burns, Malcolm Calvin, Mitch Dodge, and Paul Johnson, 1996. U of A Liquors client may forget what kind of business he or she is really in-
Building Program. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona
needed (Fig. 5-90).
304 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 305

valved in. Clients often have a very poor sense of size, so they tend for user groups for whom the architect or perhaps even the client
to over- or underestimate the sizes of needed spaces. The client may has had little previous experience, the development and
tend to be overly conservative or even redundant in what is wanted. administration of a carefully constructed questionnaire may prevent
Most laypersons have not been educated on the environmental misconceptions developed in the initial interviewing sessions from
possibilities for flexibility, adaptability, incremental growth, or going forward into the program. If important issues that have the
other areas where an architect has knowledge. The costs of error can potential to affect design cannot be fully explored within the
be quite high if laypersons are left to do their own programming. framework of interviews and observation, then broad distribution of
They may give up on program needs, thinking they cannot get a question-
everything they want, when in fact they could with careful naire will save money in
programming for multiple use, growth, and so on. They may also the long run. 7. Educational Space Requirements
get a facility that is appropriate for the past when their organization Similarly, when a great The projection of future numbers of classes should tnkc into consideration not only the growth expected in
is moving toward the future. The costs in such cases are often deal of factual information church school attendance, but the changing or advancing age of present and future class members.
Particular attention should be given to the need for adult classes for entirely new groups of young adults
substantial, but difficult to measure precisely. from a large number of
which will be expected to come into a growing church. New congregaLions will need to consider starting at
least one new adult class every year for the first five years.

So what about a program prepared by an architectural firm in subgroups is needed to

consultation only with the owner/ client? Here again it depends on establish the minimum or NEEDED NOW (First Unit) FUTURE/MASTER PLAN
the programming qualifications of the architectural firm and how even optimal size of a great "Space
Needed
well the owner/client represents the users. If the architectural firm number of repetitive Sq. Ft. For Avg. *Space Recomm.
has done similar buildings before, it may be able to design a spaces, obtaining this in- Per Avg. Attend. Pro- Avg. Space Students
Age Pupil Attend. +20% vided Attend. Needed Per Room
satisfactory building with very low costs of error. However, if the formation in a detailed 3 Ft.
client/user is unlike those of previous commissions by the architect, manner may allow incre- "'*Infants
Bctw'n
Cribs 4-10
then some preconceptions will be inappropriate and the resulting mental savings in terms of *"'Tcxldlers I 25-35 4-10
*"'Nurserv I 2 25-35 6-10
architecture is likely to impose costs on the client that could have convenience, stress, or **Nurscrv II 3 25-35 8-12
=Kind'zrn 4 25-35 10-12
been avoided. building or furniture costs, =Kind'am 5 25-35 10-20
But what if the architectural programmer has done a careful lit- which will be very sub- Grade I 6 20-30
erature review, conducted extensive diagnostic interviews, and ob- stantial when totaled. Here, Grade 2 7 20-30
Grade 3 8 20-30
served both the organization and the new site carefully, but has not the time and cost Grade 4 9 20-30 12-25
Grade 5 10 20-30
administered and analyzed a carefully planned questionnaire ac- associated with developing Grade 6 II 20-30
cording to a scientific sampling plan? What will be the cost of and administering a ques- Gradc 7 12 15-250

error? This depends on the specific problem. It is, however, the tionnaire may be war- Grade 8
Grade 9
13
14
15-25
15-25
author's experience that many master planning and schematic ranted. Each situation will Grade 10 15 15-25 12-25
Grade II 16 15-25
design programs can be developed quite adequately without dictate what needs to be Grade 15-2'
IL.

administering a questionnaire of any kind. Literature search and done. The programmer Post Hiah 12-20

review, interviews, observation, and client/user work sessions (see must be alert to discover Adults I 12-20
Adults 11 12-20
Chapter 6) provide sufficient information to convey an what is appropriate. For ex- Adults Ill 12-20 12-25
12-20
A.OUitS JV
understanding to the designer that allows development of a building ample, organizations such Adults v l--20
design meeting the needs of clients and users alike. Very few errors as the Disciples of Christ "Space listed does not include restrooms, storage, stairways, hallways, etc., 25%-30% should he added to tom!
educational space for these areas. The minimum recommended room size is 300 square feet.
result, and those that do occur are easily remedied through minor often develop self-report "'"'Jn many instances there will be more children in preschool and nursery rooms during worship than during church
school. Include the number which is the largest attendance if it is during the worship hour. 27
furniture rearrangement or organizational change. Hence, the cost questionnaires, allowing
of error is usually minimized. individual congregations to
However, with very new, large, or complex institutions where accurately determine their Figure 5-91 Disciples of Christ: Questionnaire.
Credit: Board of Church Extension of Disciples of Christ, 1990. Strategic Planning & Building Planning
change is a constant or is highly unpredictable, or for facilities facility needs (Fig. 5-91). for New Congregations. Permission: Board of Church Extension of Disciples of Christ
306 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 307

5.5 Site and Climate Analysis

site. If the site is on a hill, next to water, between two existing
• Site Considerations buildings, or with major day or nighttime views, these conditions
will strongly affect how a building should be designed. Time issues
• Site and Climate Analysis are also difficult to address when a site has not been selected.

Site and climate analysis is a part of architectural programming Site Considerations

that is conducted parallel to the several information gathering
• Regional Conditions
activities covered in this chapter. It is not an information gathering
method like the others. Rather, it is a specific application of • Local Conditions
literature search and diagnostic observation. It is included in this • Site Conditions
chapter on information gathering because of the particular nature of
the application and because it often precedes the development of the The analysis of a site for programming purposes should be both
programming matrix covered in the next chapter. systematic and comprehensive. It can include more subjective site
The analysis of site and climate during architectural program- evaluations dealing with the various "moods" or "qualities" of the
ming is dependent on several conditions, the foremost being that a site as experienced by the programming group. If included, this
site has been identified and is accessible for analysis. If a single site would not relieve the building designer of the normal responsibility
has been identified or is already owned by the client, then to confirm the program and, hence, to review the factual site infor-
conducting a complete site and climate analysis is essential to the mation and to visit the site to determine if the more subjective in-
preparation of an architectural program. If several sites have been formation corresponds to his/her own evaluations. As with the rest
identified but none actually selected or purchased, then the analysis of the information contained in an architectural program, the site
of each site might initially be limited to the information necessary and climate data serve only as a beginning point for the designer.
to make the selection. Indeed, the architectural programming
process may be held aside while a more limited site suitability study REGIONAL CONDITIONS
is conducted.
Every site is located within a larger regional context. It may be on
Although the principal human issues, specific user needs, and the south slope of a major watershed subject to periodic flooding or
the space program for a facility can be studied in the absence of a subterranean water flow. The same topography may result in
specific site, a comprehensive architectural program covering en- nocturnal weather cycles or periodic weather anomalies. For in-
vironmental, cultural, technological, temporal, economic, safety, stance, a location at the midpoint of a southern slope may create a
and aesthetic issues is usually dependent on the identification of a generally warmer nighttime condition than a location either in the
specific site. The topography, geology, hydrology, size, exposure, lowest drainage areas or at the top of the sloped area. The site may
configuration, views, and vegetation of a site are all likely to have a be located near a major geologic fault and be subject to earth-
significant impact on what will be designed, so these areas of in- quakes. If the site is on a broad alluvial fan in a river basin, the river
formation need to be developed. The macro- and microclimatic could change course during a period of major flooding and destroy
conditions will have an impact on what functions can occur out- any improvements. If the site is downwind from a major source of
doors and may impact the orientation and configuration of the fa- air pollution or in the flight pattern of a military or commercial
cilities to be designed. Code and ordinance requirements and deed airport, there may be problems with air or noise pollution, and even
restrictions relating to the specific site will have an impact on de- the possibility of a disaster threatening the lives of the building
sign, as will the existing community fabric. Locally available ma- occupants. Any information of this type relating to the region in
terials, construction techniques, and market conditions are also which the site is located should be developed and included in the
likely to affect what can be designed. Even the desired image of a programming document, because it could have a major effect on
facility is likely to change from an urban to a suburban to a rural what is designed (McHarg 1969).
 308 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 309

LOCAL CONDITIONS SITE CONDITIONS

The context of the site is also important. What currently exists near The conditions of the site itself are of great importance to the de-
the boundaries of the site? Are there existing buildings, streets, signer. The site's shape and dimensions, primary orientation and
rivers, forests, or other important features? What are the likely views, topography and geology, microclimate, flora and fauna,
future uses? What is the current zoning on all sides of the natural and built features, and other peculiarities are all needed to
property? Does the municipality have a history of making zoning begin and complete the design. These, like the broader local and
changes or granting use variances? Or does it have a history of not regional conditions, must be discovered and set forth in the
deviating from earlier zoning and other regulatory decisions? Is architectural programming document so that the programmer can
there an orderly process available whereby arguments for change understand the context to which the facility requirements must
can be heard and a rational decision made? Is the site in a desig- relate.
nated zoning district or
at its fringes, where Site and Climate Analysis
change is more likely? • Literature Search
Are the surrounding
buildings of a • Site Surveys
consistent character and • Photographic Documentation
quality to which the
• Other Procedures
proposed facility should
conform, contrast, or The methods and techniques of site and climate analysis during
respond in some programming vary depending upon the nature of the particular
fashion? What existing problem. Literature search, interviewing, observation, and
city services or utilities photographic documentation are all used to collect information
are available at the site: about the site and climate. Engineered site surveys, hydrological
water, sewer, electrical, surveys, and even archeological studies are often required. Detailed
gas, telephone, trash coverage of site analysis procedures are included in a number of
pickup? Are the books specifically addressing site analysis and planning (Lynch
services all beneath 1971; Rubenstein 198 7). The student of architectural
grade or are some at programming is encouraged to obtain such books and to learn the
grade or above grade? approaches covered. Only a cursory examination of the various
What kind of traffic methods, techniques, and tools of site and climate analysis will be
passes by the site? Is provided in the following paragraphs.
the major access road
divided so that a LITERATURE SEARCH
median break would be Much of the important data on regional and local conditions can be
required to gain access obtained from existing public documents available in public li-
to the site? Are there braries, private bookstores, and the archives of governmental or
streetlights and pedes- quasi-governmental agencies. Access to these information sources
trian crossings at exist- varies from place to place but generally is not difficult to achieve,
ing comers? Any or all because everyone who develops projects in a particular region or
Figure 5-92 Pedestrian Path System.
of these may have an locality has need for this type of information. U.S.G.S. topographic
Credit: City West, 1987. Downtown Pedestrian Core Path. The Phoenix Public Arts Master Plan: Prelim-
inary Observation. Permission: Bill Morrish impact on design (Fig. maps are readily available in map stores, outdoor sporting
5-92).
 310 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 311

goods stores, and often in blueprint shops. with suitable vertical intervals is
Watershed information is often available in generally a requirement for de-
local libraries, Army Corps of Engineers of- sign. Similarly, it is important to
fices, and within city and county engineering determine the soil conditions,
offices. Climate data can be obtained from including bearing strength and
most local or university libraries as well as expansiveness of the soil, before
from the National Weather Service offices, making design decisions.
often located in or near municipal airport fa- Although required by the de-
cilities. With the advent of a number of com- signer, the site survey and soil
puter programs dealing with energy efficient analysis often are not a direct
design, data banks on weather are available in part of the architectural program
association with energy analysis programs (Fig. 5-95).
used by architectural and engineering firms.
Maps of existing utilities (water, sewer, gas, PHOTOGRAPHIC
power) and public streets, sidewalks, and
DOCUMENTATION
curbs are often available in the engineering or
public works divisions of local municipalities. It is also possible to obtain pri-
Existing ownerships and legal descriptions of mary information, such as aerial
property, including easements and deed photographs, of many sites in
restrictions, can be found in the offices of the municipalities where aerial pho- Figure 5-95 Pilgrim Plaza Office: Site Survey.
county recorder or in large real estate and title tography companies operate. Credit: Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels, Par 3 Studio, 1974. Pilgrim Plaza Office
Building Site Survey
Figure 5-93 Site Utility Information. insurance offices. In short, there is often a These images are made at vari-
large body of site and climate information ous engineering scales and show
Credit: Fourth Year Design Studio, Professor Poster, 1990. Salvation
Army Homeless Facility: Program and Site Analysis. College of Ar- available in local libraries, archives, and other the precise location of major
chitecture, The University of Arizona geographic, geologic, building,
repositories of information (Figs. 5-93 and 5-
94). and landscape features. They
often are oriented so as to
SITE SURVEYS contain information about topo-
graphical conditions, and may
The type of topographic and geologic infor- even include contour lines su-
mation contained in public documents such as perimposed on the photograph.
those described above are often enough to These are of great value to the
meet the needs of architectural programming, designer and may be included as
particularly for master planning a site. folios in an appendix to the
However, before proceeding with schematic program document.
design, it is wise to develop more specific site Direct photography of the site
information. An architectural site survey and its immediate context by the
including setting of corner stakes, locating all programming group is also of
site features (major outcroppings, trees, great value to the designer when
Figure 5-94 Air Current Diagram. existing structures), and public utilities
included in the program or its
Credit: Bradley Graham, 1978. Main Library for Flagstaff. Permission: (water, sewer, gas, electricity, telephone, Figure 5-96 Aerial Photo: Downtown Tempe.
School of Architecture, Arizona State University
appendix (Figs. 5-96 and 5-97).
cable, etc.), and establishing site contours Photo credit: Landiscor
312 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 313

OTHER PROCEDURES

Walking and observing the site and sur-

roundings; making comparisons with other
known sites; holding discussions with local
residents about microclimates (weather,
prevailing breezes, etc.), air quality, noise
pollution, flooding, and other potential
problems; sketching base maps; and noting
WE'ST
significant features and views are other
ways of evaluating a site (Figs. 5-98 and 5-
99). Detailed discussion and representation
of these procedures are included in various
books on site analysis. The student who has
not had the opportunity to take a course on
site analysis should review one or more of
·~~ Winter Sun Path r;:::>~
these books (Lynch 1971; White 1983; l::::::::,!::::::::i=~~
Rubenstein 1987).
SOUTH Figure 5-98 Site Analysis Sketch.
Credit: Line and Space, 1990. Building Program far a New Elementary School,
5.6 Exercises Sonoita Elementary School District #35. Permission: Line and Space.

Literature Search and Review

1. Go to the library and find at least
two books and three articles on
architectural programming. Hint: the
topic is not listed in the subject
catalog.
1. Find three references for. program-
ming a preschool. How does it differ
from a day-care center architec-
turally?
1. Discover the basic ways that parking
structures work. Consider a vacant
site nearby. What system would
NORT"\.l
work best?
Figure 5-97 Composite NSEW Views. 1. Find where all of the utilities are lo-
Credit: Bradley Graham, 1977. Main Library far Flagstaff. Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona State University
cated servicing a specific site near
your home: water, gas, power, tele-
phone, cable.
5. What are the basic exiting require-
ments for an auditorium in a type 3 Figure 5-99 Site Analysis Sketch.
building according to the Uniform Credit: Arquitectura Ltd, 1988. Pre-Design Workbook, Verde Meadows
Building Code (UBC)? Recreation Center. Tucson, Arizona. Permission: Arquitectura Ltd.
314 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 315

6. Your client wants a steeply pitched roof, but is unsure of the Diagnostic Observation
material to use. How many different generic types of roofing 1. Tune up your observational abilities by looking at familiar
material can you find in the product literature that would be
places, varying focus from people, to places, to tasks, and to
appropriate to use?
objects.
Diagnostic Interviewing 2. Conduct a walk-through of a familiar facility with a user to
learn how their perceptions differ from yours. Use a record-
1. Choose a partner and an observer. Then try to sit facing the
partner for one minute without communicating anything! ing sheet similar to one of those described to record your
Have the observer check the time and whether you or your observations, the user's comments, and your own thoughts.
partner communicated anything. 3. Take a space inventory of two different spaces used for the
You will find that a minute of silence is a long time. You same general purpose, like two faculty offices or class-
will also find that it is practically impossible not to rooms. Use all of the techniques described to make the in-
communicate! Even if you say nothing, much will be ventory. Then try to determine through the use of trace
communicated non-verbally. Ask the observer what he/she evidence how the rooms have actually been used.
saw. 4. Take a map of a well known public space and conduct a
2. Stay in the same grouping with two persons playing the one-day session mapping the behavior of all users to see if
roles of interviewer and interviewee by facing each other at the conclusions of other researchers appear to be confirmed.
a comfortable distance. Decide on a current design topic to 5. Take a problem in your environment and plan a systematic
be discussed. Then try to use only non-verbal acceptance observation to cover all people, places, tasks, and objects
skills (nodding, uh-huhs, smiles, openness, eye contact) to over a certain time period. Vary the scale of your observa-
keep the other person talking. Then add verbal acceptance tion from area to room, materials, and furnishings. Set up
skills. Have the observer explain what he/she saw. your observation to involve counts of various elements at
3. Switch roles and add two active listening skills (reflection, specified time intervals so that simple descriptive statistics
clarification). Switch roles again and add the management can be developed and a pie chart or histogram used to sum-
skills (amplification and redirection). It will take some prac- marize the findings.
tice to become comfortable using all of these appraisal
skills.
Questionnaires and Surveys
Practice these skills in private conversation. Try to get another
person to do all of the talking. You will be amazed at how 1. Using the 10 steps of questionnaire preparation, develop a
interesting the person will find you to be, when he/ she does all of questionnaire to administer to your colleagues to determine
the talking! the human/functional needs for a completely up-to-date de-
sign studio. Use each of the first five question types outlined
4. Also practice the diagnosis skills. In succinct phrases, try to
interpret the essence of what you have heard. After a period in the text.
on the same general topic, summarize to obtain some 2. Accept the criticism of your peers in a pretest and recon-
affirmation that you have captured the interviewee's point of struct the questionnaire in a logical order and with more
view. appropriate questions.
5. Plan an interview to include the six steps outlined in the 3. Identify the different categories of persons who can provide
chapter (introduction, appraisal, diagnosis, recording, re- insights about your organization, and select a small repre-
view, open ending). sentative sample of persons to fill out your questionnaire.
6. Following the above plan, role play a complete interview on 4. Administer the questionnaire to the sample, tabulate the
an architectural topic of interest using a three-person group answers, and analyze the results.
(interviewer, interviewee, observer).
7. Follow up with two or three actual interviews for a current
project. Bring along an observer to tell you how well you do.
316 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 317

5. Analyze and evaluate what you have learned in the exercise 5. 7 References
about:
a. Questionnaire preparation Ackoff, Russell L. 1962. Scientific Method: Optimizing Applied
b. The logical order of questionnaires Research Decisions. New York: Wiley.
c. Advantages and disadvantages of question types ____ . 1967. Class lecture in operations research at the University
d. Problems of sampling of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
e. Problems of answer analysis AIA Task Force on Aging. 1985. Design For Aging: An Architect's
Guide. Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Architects.
6. Identify the various forms of bias that have become apparent American Institute of Architects. 1994. Architectural Graphic
and restructure your questions to avoid this bias. Standards, edited by John Ray Hoke. New York: John Wiley.
7. Have you discovered information that would have been dif- Bardens, Dennis. 1969. Churchill in Parliament. South Brunswick,
ficult to uncover with literature review, interviewing, or ob- N. J.: A. S. Barnes.
servation? What types of information? Barker, Roger. 1968. Ecological Psychology; Concepts and Meth-
8. Did you find it difficult to discover some types of informa- ods for Studying the Environment of Human Behavior. Stan-
tion that would be needed to redesign your facility? What ford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
types of information? Bechtel, Robert, Robert Marans, and William Michelson. 1987.
Methods in Environmental and Behavioral Research. New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Berdie, Douglas R., John F. Anderson, and Marsha A. Niebuhr.
Site and Climate Analysis
1986. Questionnaires: Design and Use. Metuchen, N.J.: Scare-
1. Go to the offices of a local or regional planning agency and crow Press.
request information on a specific site within their area of Bertrand, Raymond. 1993. The Role of the Programmer as Inter-
jurisdiction. Request general plans, area plans, topographic preter and Translator. In Professional Practice in Facility Pro-
maps, aerial photographs, legal subdivision plans, road plans, gramming, edited by Wolfgang F. E. Freiser. New York: Van
and utility plans including sewer, water, power, telephone, Nostrand Reinhold.
gas, etc. Were these all available in one place? If not, what Blalock, Hubert M. Jr. 1960. Social Statistics. New York: McGraw-
other agencies did you have to visit in order to obtain the Hill Book Co. Inc.
requested information? Blosser, Fred. 1992. Primer on Occupational Safety and Health.
2. Using the same site, attempt to perform a thorough regional, Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Affairs.
local, and site analysis. Keep track of the time you take to Board of Church Extension of Disciples of Christ. 1990. Strategic
uncover the needed information in each area. Develop a Planning and Building Planning for New Congregations. Indi-
diagramming system in which all of the information can be anapolis, Ind.: Disciples of Christ.
presented effectively in a program document. BOCA. 1990. The BOCA National Building Code. Country Club Hills,
3. Search the local library or visit the nearest weather bureau or Ill.: Building Officials and Code Administrators International.
weather station to obtain weather information that applies to Bradburn, Norman M., Seymour Sudman, and Edward Blair. 1979.
the above site. Add some of this information to the site Improving Interview Method and Questionnaire Design. San
analysis with notes and diagrams. Francisco: [ossey-Bass.
Bradfield, Valerie J., ed. 1983. Information Sources in Architecture.
4. Refer to textbooks and other references on regional, local, Boston: Butterworths.
and site analysis methods and techniques. Do the same for Callender, John, ed. 1982. Time-Saver Standards for Architectural
climate analysis. There is much to be learned in these areas. Design Data. New York: McGraw-Hill.
318 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Information Gathering 319

City of Tucson. 1972. Tucson Historic Districts: Criteria for chology. In Environmental Psychology: Man and His Physical
Preservation and Development. Tucson, Arizona: Department of Setting, edited by Harold M. Proshansky, William H. Ittleson, 'and
Community Development, Planning Division. Leanne G. Rivlin. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Clark, Roger, and Michael Pause. 1996. Precedents in Architecture. Kirk, Stephen J., and Kent F. Spreckelmeyer. 1988. Creative Design
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Decisions: A Systematic Approach to Problem Solving in Ar-
Collier, John Jr. 1967. Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research chitecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Method. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Kumlin, Robert R. 1995. Architectural Programming: Creative
Cook, R., and D. Miles. 1978. Plazas for People: Seattle Federal Techniques for Design Professionals. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Building Plaza: A Case Study. New York: Projects for Public Lindheim, Rosyln. 1966. Putting Research To Work. AIA]ournal.
Spaces, Inc. 66(2), 46-53.
Davis, Gerald, and Virginia Ayers. 1975. Photographic Recording of Lynch, Kevin. 1971. Site Planning. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press.
Environment and Behavior. In Behavioral Research Methods in Marans, Robert, and Kent Spreckelmeyer. 1981. Evaluating Built
Environmental Design, edited by William Michelson. Stroudsburg, Environments: A Behavioral Approach. Ann Arbor: Survey Research
Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. Center, University of Michigan.
Deasy, C. M., and Thomas Lasswell. 1985. Designing Places for McGraw-Hill Construction Information Group. 1997. Sweet's Catalog
People. New York: Whitney Library of Design. File. New York: McGraw-Hill.
De Chiara, Joseph, and John Hancock Callender, eds. 19 7 3. ____ . 1997. Sweet's General Building & Renovation Catalog File. New
Time-Saver Standards for Building Types. New York: McGraw Hill York: McGraw-Hill.
Book Co.
McHarg, Ian. 1969. Design with Nature. Garden City, N.Y.: Natural
Diercks, Janet E., ed. 1998. Architects' First Source For Products. History Press.
Atlanta, Ga.: Architects' First Source. Moore, Gary, and Reginald Golledge. 1976. Environmental Knowing:
Downs, Roger, and David Stea, eds. 1973. Image and Environment; Theories, Research, and Methods. Stroudsburg, Pa.:
Cognitive Mapping and Spatial Behavior. Chicago: Aldine Pub. Co. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
France, Kenneth, and Michelle Kish. 1995. Supportive Interviewing in Palmer, Mickey A. 1981. The Architect's Guide to Facility Pro-
Human Service Organizations: Fundamental Skills for Gathering gramming. New York: Architectural Record Books.
Information and Encouraging Productive Change. Springfield, Ill.: Pastalan, Leon A., and Daniel H. Carson. 1970. Spatial Behavior of
Charles C. Thomas. Older People. Ann Arbor: Institute of Gerontology, University of
Frisch, David, and Susan Frisch. 1998. Metal Design and Fabrication. Michigan; and Wayne State University.
New York: Watson-Guptill Publications. Pefia, William, and John W. Focke. 1969. Problem Seeking: New
Harris, David A. 1981. Planning and Designing the Office Envi- Directions in Architectural Programming. Houston, Tex.:
ronment. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Caudill Rowlett Scott.
Hester, Randolph T. Jr. 1975. Neighborhood Space. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Pena, William, Steven Parshall, and Kevin Kelly. 1987. Problem
Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. 3rd ed. Wash-
International Conference of Building Officials. 1994. Uniform ington, D.C.: AIA Press.
Building Code: Administrative, Fire- and Life-Safety, and Field Peponis, John, Craig Zimring, and Yoon Kyung Choi. 1990. Finding
Inspection Provisions. Volume 1 of Uniform Building Code. the Building in Wayfinding. Environment and Behavior. 22(5):
Whittier, Calif.: ICBO. 555-590.
____ . 1994. Uniform Building Code. Whittier, Calif.: ICBO. Ittelson, Preiser, Wolfgang F. E., ed. 1978. Facility Programming: Methods and
William H., Leanne G. Rivlin, and Harold M. Proshansky. 1970. The Applications. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. ____ .
Use of Behavioral Maps in Environmental Psy- 1985. Programming the Built Environment. New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold.
320 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Quayle, Dan. 1996. Election Year Survey on Politics and the Media.
Alexandria, Va.: Media Research Center.
Rae, Leslie. 1988. The Skills of Interviewing: A Guide for Managers
and Trainers. Aldershot, Hants.: Gower.
Reznikoff, S. C. 1986. Interior Graphic and Design Standards. Work Sessions
New York: Whitney Library of Design.
Ripley, Robert. 1980-85. Classroom lectures and demonstrations in
active listening in the architectural programming class at
Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona.
Rosenbaum, Sonia. 1979. Quantitative Methods and Statistics: A Guide
to Social Research. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
Rubenstein, Harvey M. 1987. A Guide to Site and Environmental
Planning. 3rd ed. New York: Wiley.
Sanoff, Henry. 1977. Methods of Architectural Programming.
Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. 6.1 Client/User Work Sessions
Shalaby, Mostafa. 1988. The Optimum Layout of Single Story 6.2 Executive Work Sessions 6.
Manufacturing Areas. Ph.D. diss., The University of Pennsyl- 3 Work Session Setting
vania, Philadelphia. 6.4 Matrix Development
Siegel, Sidney. 1956. Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral 6.5 Presentation Methods
Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill. 6.6 Requirement Sheets
Sommer, Robert. 197 4. Tight Spaces; Hard Architecture and How to 6. 7 Exercises
Humanize It. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. 6. 8 References
Sullivan, Louis. 1949. The Autobiography of an Idea. New York:
Peter Smith.
Trites, David, Frank Galbraith Jr., Madelyne Sturdavant, and John
Leckwart. 1970. "Influence of Nursing-Unit Design on the
T he final method for gathering and analyzing information for
architectural programming is the work session. This is a type
of show and tell activity in which the programmer presents the
Activities and Subjective Feelings of Nursing Personnel."
Environment and Behavior. 2(3): 303-334. previously gathered information to the client/user group on a large
Webb, Eugene T. 1981. Nonreactive Measures in the Social Sciences. wall-sized matrix with the intention of defining the whole problem
Boston: Houghton Mifflin. when completed. The client/users are asked to confirm or refute
Weisberg, Herbert F., Jon A. Kronsnick, and Bruce D. Bowen. what is presented, to generate new information, and to reorganize
1996. Introduction to Survey Research and Data Analysis. the information to improve the matrix. It is a very effective method
Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. for filling in gaps left after using the other information gathering
White, Edward T. III. 1983. Site Analysis: Diagramming Information techniques. It is also effective in getting the client/user to make
for Architectural Design. Tucson, Ariz.: Architectural Media. decisions regarding which of the previously suggested values,
Whyte, William H. 1988. The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces goals, facts, needs, and ideas should be retained in the architectural
[video recording]. Los Angeles, Calif.: Direct Cinema Limited. program.
Wilson, Forrest. 1984. A Graphic Survey of Perception and Behavior Work sessions are the heart of any client/user group program-
for the Design Professions. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. ming process where agreement with the program is considered es-
Yao, Wimberta. 198 7. Literature Search Steps. Unpublished sential. They are both the final step of information gathering and
manuscript. Arizona State University, Tempe. the first step of program preparation.
Zeisel, John. 1981. Inquiry by Design: Tools for EnvironmentBehavior
Research. Monterey, Calif.: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
321
322 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager . Work Sessions 323

As an information gathering process, the work session is similar method of presentation be flexible, to allow for change and aug-
to diagnostic interviewing as discussed in Chapter 5. It is similar in mentation by the work session participants.
that the programmer is attempting to get the clients/users as a
group to articulate what they think is important information for
architectural programming. The same active listening skills utilized 6.1 Client/User Work Sessions
in the diagnostic interviewing process are helpful in getting the
clients and users to identify their areas of concern. It is different • Composition
from the diagnostic interviewing sessions in that the programmer • Presentation
will typically be presenting information obtained from the other
information gathering methods with the intent of securing • Interaction
agreement from the client/user decision makers as to its accuracy • Negotiation
and importance. To do this effectively, skills in appropriate • Agreement
presentation of information and negotiation of agreement are
essential. • Wrap-Up
Value areas that were identified in the literature search, inter-
viewing, observation, and questionnaire/survey phases of infor- Composition
mation gathering need to be presented and discussed. Do the
The client/user work session should involve all of those persons
decision makers agree that the preliminary list of values is com-
who have a stake in the project. This, of course, would involve
plete? If an order of importance was identified earlier, do the de-
virtually everyone who will ultimately use the facility. In most
cision makers agree with the order? Are the specific project goals
cases this is impractical, so a representative group must be as-
appropriate? Are the decision makers willing to spend money to
sembled. Typically, this group will consist of the leadership of the
accomplish them? Which goals must be accomplished? Which
organization, division and department heads, perhaps section
could remain unaccomplished and not seriously reduce the effec-
tiveness of the organization? Are the previously identified goals, leaders, and representatives from each of the employee or user
facts, or needs statements really important or just someone's pet types. The intent, on one hand, is to be democratic, so that no one
project, which the organization as a whole is unwilling to support? in the organization will feel left out of the process-indeed, so that
In other words, the work session is a time for both active pre- every person can talk about their values, goals, needs, and ideas
sentation and listening by the programmer and the client/user de- with someone who will attend the work session. On the other hand,
cision makers. If the first five areas of information gathering could and equally important, the intent is to not leave anyone out who
be considered as primarily objective in their intent, simply to can shed important light on the needs of the facility.
obtain the data, this phase could be considered as primarily For a college of architecture building addition, the client/user
subjective. It is a time for group decision making, a time for sorting work sessions may involve the dean, each department chair,
out what is important from what is not. It is, as Pefia and Focke elected representative faculty (design, technology, history, etc.),
(1969) said, a problem seeking situation, a time to resolve and elected representative classified staff, elected representative stu-
agree on the design problem. Presentation, interaction, and dents (from each year level), development officer, librarian, media
negotiation of agreement are the essential methods. specialist, shop superintendent, head custodian, and any other
The effectiveness of work sessions is at least partially due to the person likely to have a unique perspective on the project. Such a
presentation of everything that has been discovered in a clearly group could easily number 25. For a church, the programming
organized format, such that the whole problem can be seen and group would likely involve the senior minister, each associate
understood by those present. It is also essential that the minister in charge of a particular area (contemporary worship, edu-
cation, youth, music, fellowship, outreach, etc.), choir director, or-
ganist, elected chairs of various committees (staff parish, deacons,
324 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 325

trustees, finance, worship, music, education, missions, foundation, If there has been little or no in- The total budget for the project is one million dollars. With
etc.), appointed representatives of various age groups ( children, formation gathering prior to the initial expected overhead costs, architect/engineer fees,
youth, young singles, married, older singles, etc.), head custodian, work session, the programmer must furnishing costs and the like, the construction budget will
etc. Here again the number can easily reach 25 or more. The same indicate how the session is to proceed. be in the neighborhood of eight hundred thousand dollars.
will be found to be true for most other organizations. For large This could involve pointing to a wall
corporations, there will be even more persons that may have a stake containing signs for values, goals,
Figure 6-3 Project Budget.
in a major building project. In such cases, it can be important to facts, needs, and ideas spaced along
conduct parallel sessions relating only to parts of the project, so that the top of the wall, then explaining
a manageable number of persons can be involved in each session. the programmer's intent to develop
It is also possible, when conducting the sessions in the client's information under each of these
facilities, to invite all interested persons in the organization to stop categories during the work session,
by during lunch breaks and after hours to review the progress of the beginning with values and working
work, so as to be able to communicate items of im- through to ideas. The process could
portance that seem to then follow the CRS system (Pena et
have been missed by al. 1977) with members of the
the participants. Occa- programming staff preparing and
"The Salvation Army, founded in 1865, is an international, religious and
charitable movement organized and operated on a quasi-military pattern and is a sionally, this will bring posting cards for each of the
branch of the Christian church. Its membership includes officers (clergy), out someone with a suggestions made by the group (Fig.
soldiers/adherents (laity), members of varied acnvity groups and volunteers who particular point of view 6-5). An alternative would be to have Figure 6-4 Project Schedule.
serve as advisors, associates and committed participants in its service function. or expertise who can several easels with grid paper, on
contribute to the over- which the programmer could write the
"The motivation of the organization is love of God and a practical concern all process and improve suggestions and then post them on the
for the needs of humanity. This is expressed by a spiritual ministry, the the program. wall as each sheet becomes full of
purposes of which are to preach the gospel, disseminate Christian truths, supply information (Fig. 6-6).
basic human necessities, provide personal counselling and undertake the If there has already been a sub-
spiritual and moral regeneration of all persons in need who come within its
Presentation stantial effort at information gath-
sphere of influence regardless of race, color, creed, sex or age.
ering, the programmer will explain
When the group session how the preliminary matrix was de-
begins, the programmer veloped. This could involve a brief
Figure 6-1 Mission of Salvation Army.
typically presents a brief review of the value categories along
Credit: Fourth Year Design Studio Professor Paster, 1990. Salvation Army Homeless Facility, Program and
overview of the the left side of the matrix and the
Site Analysis. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona organization's mission, the goals that have thus far been artic-
purpose of the project the ulated, perhaps identifying those
proposed budget and the which seem most important. The
We are here today to begin to formulate the goals and requirements for a expected schedule as programmer could then discuss the
new wing of the residential unit. This wing will allow our organization to determined facts, needs, and ideas that have been
accommodate an additional thirty women and their children for long enough in an earlier meeting
periods to allow the women to be trained for and to receive suitable
uncovered in a similar fashion. This
with the executives of verbal presentation of the
employment.
the organization (Figs. Figure 6-5 Matrix Development with
Figure 6-2 Purpose of the Project. 6-1 through 6-4). Cards. Photo Credit Richard Brittain
Credit: Fourth Year Desian Studio Professor Paster. 1990. Salvation Armv Homeless Facilitv. Proaram
326 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 327

be important in correcting misunderstandings and filling in missing

information.
The group session at this point tends to be synthetic, that is, to
be involved in bringing together all of the findings to get a picture
or better understanding of the whole problem. Are the values pre-
sented in the correct order? What is the highest priority for design?
Is it function, form, economy, time? Is it image, context, life cycle
costs, user needs? Are all of the presented values really of impor-
tance to the organization? Has some value area been completely
left out as the interviewed individuals have considered the nature
of the problem? Are the goals attainable? Are they attainable by
means of architecture, or are they a matter of reorganization or eco-
nomics in general? Are the facts valid, or are they someone's idio-
syncratic statements? Are there other facts that need to be stated?
Are there specific needs or ideas for solution which have not been
revealed, or are those thus far stated inappropriate in some man-
ner? This is what the interaction of the work session is all about.
Figure 6-6 Matrix Development with Grid Paper. The client/users are expected to confirm or refute what has been
presented and to add any material that has been omitted. This
visual matrix helps to ensure that everyone (client, user, pro- requires the programmer to use the interviewing skills discussed
grammer, designer) understands what is being presented. This is a earlier (acceptance, reflection, clarification, amplification,
very effective system of presentation with many additional benefits redirection, interpretation, and summary), but now they must be
that will be discussed in the following sections. applied with each and every participant who has something to say
during the work session. The participants must understand that they
are free to state what is on their mind. It should also be clear that
what is being presented is what the programmers have discovered
Interaction so far, and that it might be inaccurate in many respects. The group
As soon as the programmer has concluded his/her initial pre- must understand that the programmers have no vested interest in
sentation of the results of the information gathering phase of the presented information and are looking for the client/users to set
programming, it is time for the client/users to begin reacting and them straight while it is still inexpensive to do so, rather than after
interacting. Is the statement of purpose for the .new facility the architectural firm begins design or, worse yet, after
appropriate? Is the initial program statement as presented on construction has begun.
the matrix correct? If taken seriously by the designer, would the If it appears that a few people want to dominate the work ses-
resulting building meet the important goals of the organization and sion, it may be appropriate to have different echelons of people in
serve the actual needs of the users? This is the time for feedback at different times, with the key decision makers reserved for first
from the client and users (the subjects of the interviews and the and last (see 6.2 Executive Work Sessions). Or within groups, it
objects of observation). Did the programmer discover the design may be necessary to be systematic, to go around the group in one
problem, or is it yet to be adequately defined? Are the most direction, asking for input from each person, possibly for each
important issues covered? Chances are that the various information category of information.
gathering methods have resulted in only partial understandings of Leading a work session is a very subjective activity and re-
the problem. The group session will quires a good deal of sensitivity to be done effectively. When a
328 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 329

person says something, a simple verbal acceptance or reflection

may be appropriate to assure the person that their participation is contribute. Let's really listen to each person's ideas to be sure of the
appreciated and was heard. If it is unclear whether they are talking point that is being made."
about goals, facts, needs, or even ideas, a simple question asking It might also be stated, for the first part of the session, that the
for clarification in this regard may be appropriate. If the rules of brainstorming will apply, e.g., that no suggestion can im-
programmer thinks he/ she really understands what is being sug- mediately be challenged (Rawlinson 19 81). Challenges will be
gested, it is appropriate to offer a diagnostic statement or an in- recognized only after the initiator has had time to articulate fully
terpretation such as: the idea and its rationale, and until after each person in attendance
An important image goal is to communicate concern for the user in the has had an opportunity to present his or her ideas. This later
quality of the building. condition has the pleasant effect of removing the author of an idea
from the criticism, because criticism offered later can be directed at
If the person nods his/her head in the affirmative, then the the idea, rather than at the person who suggested it.
programmer should say something like,
If there is a challenge to any idea after this initial go around,
If others agree, (pause) I will record the idea and place it in the matrix. that challenger should be asked to articulate his/her thoughts, then
Okay? others should be asked how they feel, or if there is still another
If someone disputes the idea of another participant, then the alternative. The author of the original idea can remain somewhat
programmer must go through the same process to determine what anonymous if he/she wishes, or even join in trying to improve the
the new person is concerned with, using the various stages of active new statement. The final intent of negotiations of this type should,
listening as required, until the new person's thoughts are fully wherever possible, be a win-win situation (Hall 1993). The group
articulated. Here again the programmer must see if the first person should be looking for a statement that addresses the legitimate
has accepted the new argument. If so, then the new idea should be concerns of all parties. If possible, a consensus should be reached,
put on a card (or grid paper) and tacked up for all to see. If others recorded, and placed on the matrix.
still disagree, then the procedure must be continued until a If a consensus cannot be reached, it may be possible to obtain
consensus is reached, or both ideas can be left up as unresolved agreement to list both ideas and to let the designer grapple with the
issues for the chief decision maker(s) to decide at a later date. The problem. This often is an appropriate resolution of conflict. It is
work session must not be allowed to deteriorate into extended akin to Robert Venturi's "both/and" philosophy rather than an
conflict between opposing parties. "either/or," "black/white," mentality (Venturi 1977).
The author, for instance, once conducted a work session with a
church building committee in which some of the members insisted
that the church seating be in the round so that all worshipers could
Negotiation gather around the communion table as evidence of their being a
Negotiation between persons with strongly held opposing points of "community of believers." Another group of the members insisted
view is not easy to handle. Sometimes it reflects personal ani- that a more traditional church with chancel at one end, seating in
mosities or power struggles that have very little to do with pro- rows between, and the narthex at the other end was the only
gramming a new facility, but the work session becomes a forum appropriate solution. Because the groups were nearly evenly
for the disagreements to surface. The programmer should try to divided and firmly set in their opinions, the programmer asked if it
remain neutral in such arguments, never actively taking one side or had to be one way or the other, that perhaps the designer could
another. The programmer may, however, serve as a kind of neutral figure out a way in which each group could sit in the manner they
analyst, sharing insights based on professional experience. desired.
Rules of conduct can sometimes help in this situation. It might The members of the church's programming group could not
be stated, for instance, that "this group is here because the owner see how this could possibly be done, but were relieved to pass the
feels that each person in the group has something important to problem on to the architect, who found it very easy to resolve by:
 330 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Work Sessions 331

arranging the main section view of what is before the group, emphasizing only the most im-
of seating in a traditional portant points, is usually appropriate. This should be followed by
manner, but with side an open ending, in which the programmer indicates what will be
sections angled and done with the information, when the participants can expect to see
brought forward to sur- the results in another work session or in preliminary report form,
round the communion and what they should do with it when they receive it. Here again it
table. The building com- is wise to ask everyone to review the preliminary program
mittee, which had been so promptly, and to let the programming group know immediately if
divided, accepted the so- they have any problems with it. This has two important benefits:
lution unanimously. When
1. It allows the conscientious participants to help in proof-
the church was built, those
reading and confirming that the programming report is an
who preferred one way
accurate reflection of the agreements reached in the session.
always sat in "their"
section, and those who felt 2. It is a good way to keep the less conscientious (or more crit-
the other way sat in ical) from arguing that they did not have a chance to review
"theirs." Everyone was and comment on the program before it was adopted.
happy, not only that their It is important to let everyone have an opportunity to comment
needs were satisfied, but at a time when changes are still easy to make!
Figure 6-7 Church of the Palms: Plan. that the other group's
Credit: Robert Hershberger and Ernest Nickels, Par 3 Studio
needs were satisfied as
well (Fig. 6-7).
Agreement
6.2 Executive Work Sessions
Special work sessions with the top leadership of an organization
Once agreement has been reached, the suggestions should be
can be used effectively both before and after the larger client/user
recorded on cards or grid paper and placed on the wall so that
work session(s). The first executive work session with top leader-
everyone can see and affirm that the programmer's understanding is
ship should be used to gain an understanding of the mission and
agreeable to all. When working on a complex building type, this
structure of the organization, Jo establish the purpose of the pro-
process can take several hours, even days, as numerous values,
ject, and to set forth budget and schedule guidelines. It is important
goals, facts, needs, and ideas are discussed, modified, refined, and
to present this information at the beginning of each client/user
finally agreed upon as being appropriate to include in the program.
work session to set a framework in which the participants can
If the project is small, or there are only two or three decision
work. The second executive work session is important for refining
makers involved, then such an elaborate procedure would be in-
appropriate. Simply preparing a preliminary programming report and prioritizing all of the programmatic information advanced from
on BYz'' x 11" paper of what has been discovered, circulating it to the client/user work sessions, in confirming the project schedule,
the persons concerned along with a request for review and com- and in agreeing on specific square footages to be allocated to
ment, followed by a meeting around a small conference table, may various functions while exploring the budget and expected project
be all that is necessary to come to agreement as to the nature of the costs.
architectural problem. The reason for working with a more select group for these ses-
sions is quite simple. Decisions relating to project purpose, size,
Wrap-Up schedule, and budget should be made by those who will be held
accountable for them. Pena's axiom that "those who will be held
When the matrix appears to be complete or everyone is exhausted responsible must have authority" clearly applies here (Pefi.a and
by the process, it is time to wrap up the session. A very brief re- Focke 1969).
332 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 333

These later work sessions may include trading off earlier es- sions in which the advantages and disadvantages of each decision
tablished required spaces, sizes, or desired materials and finishes in are openly discussed by those with responsibility for various areas
order to bring the building size or quality into line with the fi- of the organization. In this way, the final decisions will provide the
nancial capabilities of the organization. There could be trade-offs most beneficial overall distribution of resources. Often these
of earlier established needs in order to meet other requirements decisions will be by consensus of the decision makers, but usually
such as project schedule. For instance, this might be done to avoid over the objection of someone who feels disadvantaged.
disruption of the client's ongoing operations. The executive group Sometimes the final allocations of space and other resources
might also discard some programmatic concepts or design ideas will be over the objection of one or more persons who feel that
that they feel could threaten the successful continued operation of their area of responsibility is not receiving sufficient attention. This
the organization, even though other people in the organization feel is simply a fact of decision making responsibility and authority.
strongly about including them. The programmer should serve as an unbiased catalyst or mediator
The approach described above may seem undemocratic to some who allows, indeed insists, that the client resolve these disputes, so
readers, but there are very few organizations where everyone that the designer is not asked to do the impossible! The
involved is of equal status. The people at the head of the or- programmer should not be drawn into making decisions about
ganization are clearly the ones who will be held responsible for the client operational needs, or worse, to serve as an arbitrator who
success or failure of the overall organization and, therefore, must makes the decision. The programmer can often mediate the
claim authority to make decisions of this magnitude. On the other differences and offer advice based on personal or professional ex-
hand, the head of a particular division within the organization perience. If the programmer has sufficient experience, and partic-
should have authority concerning specific program requirements ularly if the designer is part of the team, it may be possible to allow
for the spaces allocated to that division. Similarly, the secretarial some programmatic indecision or ambiguity, knowing that
staff should have some authority over the furnishings for and appropriate design decisions can accommodate the difficulty.
arrangement of their individual workspaces, and the janitors or In some areas, such as the net-to-gross ratio (efficiency) or the
maintenance personnel should have some say about how the current level of construction costs for a particular building type, the
janitors' closets and work areas are arranged as well as about programmers must be knowledgeable and hold their ground,
maintenance problems associated with particular materials, fur- because they will be held responsible if the building cannot be de-
nishings, and equipment. signed within the gross square footage allocated or built for the
All of the people in the organization should have input into the stipulated budget. In other words, there are some areas where the
areas of the program affecting them. Superiors in an organization programmer must have or develop special expertise. It is a rare
who avoid or ignore this input risk failure in part of the organiza- client that has sufficient understanding or expertise in these areas,
tion. However, superiors are generally in their positions because so the client should not be expected to make the final decisions in
they have a broader view of the needs of the organization, and ul- these areas. If the programmer is also the designer or if the designer
timately will be held responsible if their area or division is not ef- is a part of the programming team, then he or she should have
fective. They must, therefore, be able to make final decisions as to something to say about the probable construction costs, costs of
what goes and what stays, particularly if the organization has a particular materials, appropriate space sizes, building efficiency
limited ability to provide all of the desired amenities. expectations, building configurations, and so on. The designer
Ultimately, it is the strongly held values of the executive lead- should also have input on the project schedule. He or she ought to
ership of an organization, set up against the realities of budget and have the most to say about aesthetics, building form, fire safety,
schedule, that will determine the allocations of space and the accessibility, and other areas in which the designer ultimately will
construction quality for the project. The tradeoffs that may be be held responsible for failures.
necessary can rarely be accomplished successfully solely by the Clearly, a variety of work sessions will be necessary to estab-,
chief executive officer. They are generally the result of work ses- lish all of the project parameters. The programmer must develop
334 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 335

an understanding of the nature of an organization and make certain the program to the client, users, and designer.
that the persons who will be affected by programming decisions The two floor plan diagrams show typical
are included in the appropriate work session(s). room arrangements for work sessions involv-
ing 20 to 30 participants in a standard class-
6.3 Work Session Setting room of approximately 32 feet by 40 feet
(Figs. 6-8 and 6-9).
The work sessions should, ideally, be on the client's premises in a The first plan shows an open room with
room large enough to accommodate all of the participants and the chairs arranged in an arc facing the matrix
presentation materials. For major programs, the room should be wall. This arrangement has the advantage of
available all day long and into the evening hours for one or more being easily changed to allow all participants
days. For smaller projects, the work session might take place in a to face the wall currently being used. It also
three- to four-hour time frame, with a few days in between two or allows participants to move around and come
three such sessions. In this way the programmer will have time to and go. The second plan shows an
refine and re-present information before each session. arrangement using eight 30" by 96" tables to
The work session room should have at least three walls that will form a u-shaped plan. This has the advantage
accept tacks or tape, several work tables, and seating for all of providing each participant with a place to
participants. The lighting level should be quite high for easy visi- take notes and lay out their materials. It also
bility, and there should be good sound isolation from the rest of the allows the programmer to move around the
building. Ideally, the room should have a separate thermostatic center area to show everyone detailed
control and adequate ventilation for long sessions, which may information. It makes moving in and out of the
involve more than the normal number of occupants of the room. session more difficult. Also, some of the
The programming matrix for a card-based presentation is typi- participants will have their backs to some of
cally set up along one wall of a large room. For a grid paper pre- the posted materials at all times.
sentation, more than one wall will likely be required. In either case,
the initial presentation can be set up prior to the group meeting
using the value categories, goals, objectives, ideas, and needs 6.4 Matrix Development
statements identified during information gathering and/ or the first
executive work session. Related information such as the mission • Values
statement, organizational chart, purpose of the project, preliminary • Goals (intentions, objectives, aspirations)
space allocations, preliminary relationship matrices, sketch
relationship diagrams, preliminary cost estimates, and tentative • Facts (constraints, conditions, opportu-
project schedules can be set up on the remaining wall(s). nities)
If wall space is at a premium, the organization's mission and or- • Needs (requirements)
ganizational chart could be presented at the beginning of the meet-
ing by slide or overhead projection, preferably the latter, so that • Ideas
they can remain visible or be shown again as needed during the
session.
Such a format for presentation allows everyone in the work Values
session to see and act upon the same information at the same time As discussed in Chapters 2 and 3, the focus of
and to make group decisions as to the true nature of the ar- value-based programming is to discover the
chitectural problem. So, while the work session is the last stage of key values that should become issues as the Figure 6-9 Typical Work Session Room Plan .
information gathering, it is also the first stage of presenting
336 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 337

designer attempts to create architecture. The programmer must dis-

cover and enumerate the values associated with the purpose(s) of the
organization for which facilities are to be designed. The programmer
should also identify other important values of the client, users,
community, and designer (if already selected). Typically these value
areas can be remembered using the acronym HECTTEAS: human,
environmental, cultural, technological, temporal, economic,
aesthetic, and safety. However, it must be remembered that the im-
portant value categories are likely to change from project to project.
The alternative acronym TEST EACH reinforces the notion that
there is not a pre-determined number or order for the value cate-
gories. After the initial values have been identified or confirmed in
the client/user work session(s), the programmer should "test each" of
the unused HECTTEAS values to determine if some were
inadvertently left out. For example, a client/user group may not
mention safety concerns as they focus on the primary mission of an
organization, but if mentioned as a possible issue, they may say "oh
yes, this is very important, particularly in the _ areas." Safety could
then be added as another value area. On the other hand, the
client/users may say this is not a major concern, and it would not be
added as a value area. Thus, programming matrices in value-based
programming might vary from one project to the next, as illustrated
in the following sample programming matrices, with the values
listed down the left side of each matrix (Fig. 6-10).
The last programming matrix is composed essentially of the eight
HECTTEAS areas outlined in Chapter 3, but with some slightly
different words that might relate better to how a particular
client/user group thinks about their design problem. The idea in
value-based programming is not to use the list of eight value areas
for every project, but to come up with the most appropriate value
areas for the problem at hand, especially categories that are easily
understood by the client, users, and architect.
The programmer should TEST EACH of the HECTTEAS value
categories to be certain that no value of importance is left out, and
thus to be sure that the whole problem will be adequately defined.
As with the CRS system, it is a tremendous advantage to be able to
define the whole problem in a limited, easy-to-remember set of
categories, so that both direction and flexibility of inquiry can be
maintained. Values are easy to recognize because they typically can
be represented by single words.
Values can be expanded upon with broad statements suggesting
appropriate goals for a facility. This was done as part of the
programming activities for the new building for the College Figure 6-10 Sample Value-Based Programming Matrices.
 338 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 339

of Architecture and Environmental If, on the other hand, functional efficiency is very important,
Design at Arizona State University then "function," "efficiency," or "functional efficiency" would be a
(Fig. 6-11). value category, and there could be one or more related project goals
such as:
Goals (Intentions, Objectives,
To minimize the number of persons needed to operate the shop
Aspirations)
To define separate areas to be used by customers and staff
When the programmer has identified
the overall value areas that are most As previously mentioned, there should be at least one project
appropriate for a particular problem, goal for every value area. If there is not, then the programmer
attention is then directed to identify- should question if the value area
ing specific goals relating to each of is really worth noting. Perhaps
the values. The goal statements are the value relates primarily to
placed in the second column next to organizational structure, ad-
the value to which they relate. Goals ministrative assignments, or ac-
may relate to more than one value. If tivities that are not affected by
so, try to place the goal next to the the design of the facility, and
value to which it is most closely re- thus should not be part of the
lated. It is also possible to have sev- architectural problem statement.
eral goals for each value area. Indeed, Or perhaps the value is a "lip-
there are often subvalues or issues service goal," as Pena et al.
(Duerk 1993) that relate to each of (1977, 58-59) state, important to
the main value areas. For example, if everyone, but not something
"environment" were one of the value anyone is willing to do anything
areas, goals might include preserving about.
topography and flora in site Goals are usually general, and
development, being a good neighbor thus difficult to measurerelative
to surrounding development, and
to accomplishment. As
orienting for solar penetration or for
Figure 6-11 Architecture Building Expansion. statements, they are easy to
views.
Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona State University recognize because they usually
Goals are those aspirations, inten- begin with the words "we need"
tions, or objectives that bring focus to followed by an infinitive such as
the programming and design project. to have, to communicate, to
What is it that the client wants to accomplish by building? If achieve, to define, or to organize.
there is a concern that the appropriate image be projected for a Sometimes the "to" is left off and
small commercial facility, "image" should be used as a value cate- the goal statement begins with a
gory, and following it there should be one or more project goal verb. Both types of statement are
statements such as: seen in Fig. 6-12.

Some goals will be very lofty Figure 6-12 Goal Statements Sheet.
To communicate the nature of the business through the designed form or global in nature others more Credit: Elaine Cesta, for Par 3 Studio, 1976. Program far Tempe Center for the Handi-
To provide dominant verbal/graphic signs to identify the business ' capped, Tempe, Arizona
340 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 341

particular. Some will be very important in expressing the nature of

the institution, others in solving particular problems. It is not
important to differentiate between the types of goals early in the
programming process, but later it may be necessary to sort them
out on a priority basis and keep only those with broad implications that will support these activities. The size and characteristics of
for design as goals and to convert others that are more specific, or basketball courts are well established and can easily be discovered
more directly measured in terms of accomplishment, into in reference books such as Ramsey/Sleeper: Architectural Graphic
appropriate need statements. Standards (Ramsey 1994). There is also information on appropriate
In the above regard, it should be understood when the matrix is sizes and distances relating to most social activities from
being developed in a programming work session, that the process is conversation to dancing. If functional efficiency is considered
not entirely ordered or predictable. If someone offers a goal important, the literature can be searched to discover facts about
statement that has little or no relationship with earlier stated values, exemplary facilities; the currently occupied facilities can be
the goal is placed in a new bottom row of the matrix. Once placed, observed to identify areas that are most and least efficient; and
the participants will inevitably state a new value to which the goal time can be taken to visit similar facilities to obtain comparable
statement relates. The same will be true for facts, needs, and ideas information. Time-Saver Standards for Building 'Iupes (De Chiara and
statements. The programmer can try to keep everyone focused on Callender 1990) contains numerous facts regarding most standard
an area, but the participants will contribute in areas where they have building projects.
knowledge and/or interest. In a matrix without preestablished value If views are valued and a goal to capture particular views has
categories, it is possible to add information, even when it is offered been established, then special attention can be given to identifying
at an inappropriate time. the precise direction and nature of the desired views in the
program document. These are facts. The illustration below from
Facts (constraints, conditions, opportunities) the Desert House project at The University of Arizona shows both
After the project goals are identified, it is much easier to know the desirable and undesirable near and far views from the site. It
where to focus attention in discovering facts and establishing also indicates wind direction and solar
needs. angles at various times of
the year (Fig. 6-13). VEHICLE TRAFFIC NOISE

Facts are reliable. pieces of information about the existing and future .
Facts such as shown
situation involving the design project. .
above are not likely to be
Typically, facts relate. to specific conditions, constraints, and
discovered during a work
opportunities that should influence design. There will be facts
session. Rather, in value-
that relate to each of the earlier identified value areas. There will be
facts about the human purposes or activities to be accommodated, based programming, they
cultural concerns, legal requirements, environmental context, will be found in the infor-
economic situation, time factors, available technology, safety mation gathering stage of
regulations, and aesthetic preferences. But which facts to search site analysis that precedes MARJSEPT. 21 SUNSET270"

out and at what level of detail will depend on the importance of the the work session. Thus,
particular values and related project goals-what the client hopes to these facts are developed
accomplish with the building project. before and often presented
If the building must accommodate a specifically defined activ- during the work session.
ity such as a basketball court or a less-defined but still known ac- They are extremely useful 1BD0 175° JUNE2l NOONALTTTIJOE:
81" MAR.JSEPT. 21 NOON ALTITUDE: 58°

tivity, such as "socializing," many facts can be discovered about to the designer when pre- DEC. 21 NOON ALTITUDE: J5°

the size, shape, and relationships of the physical environment sented in diagram form, be-
cause they can be pinned Figure 6-13 View/Wind/Solar Diagram.
up at the designer's desk Credit: Richard Brittain, Martin Karpiscak, Fred Matter, and Kennith Foster, 1988. Desert House: A
Water/Energy Conservation Demonstration and Research Project Final Report. College of Architecture,
for ready reference as the The University of Arizona.
design is being developed.
342 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 343

During the client/user Needs are requirements that must be satisfied in the design of the project. When
PROGRAMMING MATRIX: FACTS
work session, it is more placing needs in the programming matrix, it may be difficult to
l. a.
Handicapped access required for all galleries. likely that the programmer differentiate needs from goals. An example given in the goals
will discover facts about section earlier was: "to define separate areas to be used by
2. a. All gallery exhibits should be easy to assemble,
disassemble and store. client/user operations and customers and staff." The goal could as easily have been stated as
b. Main gallery should function as a display area for both activities. This is particu- a requirement: "provide separate areas for customers and staff." If
student and professional work.
larly true relative to, the an item makes just as much sense when stated as a need, change it
Satellite galleries to provide additional display
c. space for student work. merits and faults of the ex- to a need. Goals should be broader in nature. For example, it is not
isting facility. But it is also as easy to restate the other goal statement made earlier as a needs
3. a. Energy efficient lighting is cost effective over true for expectations of the
time. statement: "to minimize the number of persons needed to operate
new facility. Adjoining is a
4. a. Higher qualities of material are more cost effective over
the shop." Even if the "to" is removed and the statement reads like
list of the facts gathered
time. a requirement: "minimize the number of persons needed to operate
(North Light)
during a work session re-
b. Effective lighting enhances work displayed the shop," there is no clear directive to the designer as to what
and the quality of space. lating to a gallery and exhi-
bition space (Fig. 6-14). should be done to accomplish this. It
5. a. Exhibits are valuable and should be protected.
Facts can be easily dis- thus remains a goal: some-
6. a. Quality gallery space will enhance work exhibited. tinguished from goals and thing desired, but with no
i a. One loading zone approximately 500 sq. ft. to accomodate
needs because they are not clearly defined performance , medium size trucks or vane for loading and unloading
7. a. Extremes of temperature and humidity can harm exhibits.(Main Gallery only)
art work.
something the clients or or feature required.
b. Easy access to visitor and temporary parking.{Main Gallery
being a product of the college, should be users either want or do not The programmer should only)
8. a. Student work,
displayed.
want. They simply are not seek requirements where
c. Ramps and elevators to be unless the gallery is
statements or diagrams ex- they do not exist! If the client required located at grade.
Figure 6-14 Gallery and Exhibition Facts Sheet. pressing or showing what is looking to the architect for d. Student galleries shoul be located adjacent t
circulation. d o
Credit: Walter Bullock, Dagnall Folger, and Timothv Bade, 1986. Building Area 11, Gallery and Exhibition exists, what is known to a creative new way to achieve
Spaces, Architecture Building Expansion Program. Permission: College of Architecture and
Environmental Design, Arizona State University work in other situations, or a goal, it makes little sense to
2. a. Movable partitions based on a modular system so that the
what is likely to exist in the set forth strict performance or partitions can be combined to create larger display eurfaces.

future. Facts are located in the third column of the matrix and are design criteria. It may be
b. Easily adjustable, minimal heat gain, even lighting and
placed in the row of the goal to which they most closely relate. better left as a goal. However, glare reduction.

They are recorded and placed in the matrix whenever they are if a particular performance or c. Electrical outlets at various spacinge. Standard spaced wall
outlets, Cieling outlets spaced one per every 200 sq. ft.,
pointed out and agreed upon during the work session. feature really is required, it Floor outlets spaced one per every 100 sq. ft.
should be stated. Figure 6-15 d. Storage to accomodate 25, 12-15 sq. ft. display
partitions, 15 display stands, and 5 locking display
Needs (requirements) shows the list of needs from cases, along with 200 sq. ft. of space for storing short
term visiting exhibits. (Main Gallery only)
Once the important values, goals, and related facts have been the matrix for the Gallery and
e. Double doors at all entries to accommodate access to large
identified, it is important to establish and agree with the Exhibition Space in the previ- exhibits. (Main Gallery only)

client/users upon project needs. Needs, like goals and unlike facts, ous illustration. f. Visual connection from exterior circulation to interior of
gallery.
relate to the future facilities, not simply to the present or future In a programming matrix,
situation in which the future facilities will exist. In preparing the the same general information g. Storage for each satellite gallery should accomodate; 6, 12-15
sq. ft. display partitions, and 3 display stands.
matrix, the programmer should not worry about whether the needs can appear as both fact and
statements relate to performance or design features. The need. For example, certain
Figure 6-15 Gallery and Exhibition Needs Shaet.,
programmer should record them simply as needs by using short site or climate conditions can
Credit: Walter Bullock, Dagnall Folger, and Timothy Bade. Permission: College of Architecture and
clear phrases and/or visual representations as appropriate. be Environmental Design, Arizona State University
 344 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 345

said to exist as fact. Necessity to account for these facts in design selves. These images should not only be welcomed by the pro-
can be stated as needs. This is often very confusing to clients and grammer, but should be discussed at length to develop an under-
users, especially if the programmer appears to be confused about it. standing of the underlying values being expressed. All images of
Student programmers frequently cannot decide whether some items this kind should be retained in an appendix of the program.
are actually goals, facts, or needs. It helps if the work session The reason for collecting both programmatic and design ideas is
proceeds from left to right across the matrix, going from the primarily because both kinds of ideas frequently occur during
glolbal values tobroad goals, to related facts, and finally to needs programming. Clients, users, and architects all come to the pro-
in a logical progression from general to specific.The programmers gramming process full of preconceptions-things they would like to
should remember, however, that there will be opportunity to re- see occur somewhere, sometime, perhaps in this particular project.
organize or restate the information when they prepare the program The ideas will be expressed and should be recorded, because they
document. They should not be overly concerned if the matrix is not might be useful to the designer.
completely correct. If all of the cells have been filled with useful There may also be ideas for a functional solution to a particular
information, it is likely that the overall problem has been fairly well user problem, to meet particular city or governmental requirements,
defined. Correct placement can occur later in a less public forum. or to respond to site and climate conditions. There may be ideas for
particular spatial solutions to the problem. It is only natural when
confronted with a problem to develop ideas of how to solve it, even
Ideas if one is not an architect. These ideas should be encouraged, but
Ideas relate to how the design problem might be solved. They can recognized for what they are-preconceptions based on an
fall into the category of programmatic concepts as defined by incomplete definition of the problem. However, they may be
CRS (Pena et al. 1977) and involve good ideas and potentially important
such notions as "centralized versus de- form generators. The designer should
centralized," which may have a great be informed about what the client and
deal to do with how the organization is occupants think would be appropriate
structured but may not necessarily have design solutions, as long as the ideas
strong physical design implications; or are not stated as requirements.
perhaps to design ideas such as "compact When ideas come up during the de-
versus dispersed." which have very velopment of the matrix, they can be
direct physical form implications. These expressed verbally, with a simple dia-
can often be represented by conceptual gram, or both ways. Pena et al. (1969,
Figure 6-16 Centralized versus Decentralized.
diagrams (Figs. 6-16 and 1977, 1986) refer to such diagrams as
6-17). "programmatic concepts" and caution
There might also be ideas expressed not to include "design concepts." An-
other author, Edward T. White (1972),
oO 0 about how the building might appear.
refers to all such diagrams a "pre-
00 0 00
These might include pictures _of other
buildings that the client or users find at- cepts." This author prefers to refer to
0 0 000 tractive, which they bring forward. This all such diagrams, sketches, and pho-
0 0 0 frequently occurs for house commis- tographs simply as "ideas", so as to not
0 0 sions, where the husband and wife have give any idea more status than an-
been collecting a file or scrapbook of other (Figs. 6-18 through 6-20). . .
houses that they like in anticipation of Regardless· of how they are labeled, Figure 6-18 Concept Diagram. . . .
Value-base programming deals with Credit: Anderson OeBartolo Pan, Inc, 1986. Architectural Program for the City of
Figure 6-17 Compact versus Dispersed. having a new house designed for them- Tucson Main Library. Tucson, Arizona. Permission: ADP Marshall
 346 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 347

all of the ideas brought forward by the client/ The same approach can, of course, be used by
users. The ideas should be recorded as they oc- any programming firm and with whatever
cur during information gathering and placed in information categories they deem to be appro-
the matrix during the work sessions. Like all of priate. Thus, the card system is an effective
the information inserted in the matrix, the ideas method to use in value-based programming.
should be evaluated by the programming group The following are reproductions of a number
~ ~ ••••. t :.Si-\AOt::. k, ~1-l-ANce ~"ei relative to their appropriateness for the particular of "fact" cards prepared during a programming
W- -!k.t. O~e';f<:.T eNvtF<ONMeNT •• ..i.. design problem. Those ideas that are obviously session by CRS (1971) for a Community Mental
12~~ 1-!eAT i..-oc-o °"' r....u~.
inappropriate should be discarded. Those ideas Health and Retardation Center (Figs. 6-21
that are relevant should remain in the ideas through 6-23).
column. Note how the preformatted cards include
Figure 6-19 Precept Diagram.
The purpose of the large visible matrix set up simple diagrams with a few descriptive words Figure 6-21 Form Fact.
Credit: Brooks & Associates AIA, Architects and Planners, 1985.
Design Program and Site Analysis for Morris K. Udall Regional
in one room is to set forth the whole problem for developed during the programming session, pre- William Peiia, HOK
Park and Recreation Center. Tucson, Arizona. Permission: all participants to see, to comment upon, to mod- viously prepared site information modified to
Albanese-Brooks Assoc. PC ify, and ultimately to accept as a correct repre- point up particular facts, and occasionally cards
sentation of the design problem. With this with only words on them.
definition more or less complete, the initiative Because CRS did a large amount of their
again returns to the programming team to further work on facilities similar in type and size, they
refine the information-to develop space often found comparable goals, facts, and needs
projections and relationship digrams, and to pre- and reoccurring concepts that could be repre-
pare cost estimates and schedules based on the sented in a similar way. This allowed the mem-
information developed in the matrix. bers of the firm to become very efficient and
skilled in developing new cards. They kept these
cards very simple and straightforward, which
6.5 Presentation Methods gave their presentations a sense of continuity and
quality. It takes time to learn these skills of
• 5" x 8" Cards Figure 6-22 Economy Fact.
summary and restraint, -as will be evident in the
Figure 6-20 Design Idea. William Peiia, HOK
• Grid Paper following cards by students.
Credit: Kuzuhiro Baba, 1985. Duck and Decanter Program. Per-
mission: School of Architecture, Arizona State University • Other Techniques Figures 6-24 through 6-27 are representative
of 5" x 8" cards prepared by students in the
• Electronic Methods School of Architecture at Arizona State
University over several years. As can be seen the
5" x 8" Cards cards can be as varied as imagination, time, and
talent allow.
The best known method of presenting program information was de- Cards with a small amount of text and simple
veloped by William Pena et al. (1969, 1977, 1987) of CRS. This diagrams seem to be the most easily read and
system involves the use of horizontally placed, unlined 5" x 8" cards understood during a programming session. But it
on which one goal, fact, concept, need, or problem statement is pre- is not easy to come up with crisp statements or
sented visually and verbally. These cards are tacked or taped to a meaningful diagrams in the heat of a
wall surface organized into the firm's standard information matrix: programming session (Fig. 6-28).
function, form, economy, and time down the left side and goals, For most students, it is much easier to de-' Figure 6-23 Time Fact.
facts, concepts, needs, and problem statement across the top. velop text-based cards during the actual work William Pefia, HOK
session (Fig. 6-29).
 Work Sessions 349
348 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Text-based cards have the advantage of sim-

ple recording at a scale that is easier for the
group session participants to read and react to
from a distance. However, they lack the visual
icon to which persons can readily attach and re-
member the meaning of the card.
All of the previous cards by students were de-
veloped during actual work sessions and repre-
sent some of the best cards made over several
years in the work session setting. However, the
development of uniformly attractive and mean-
ingful cards during a work session is difficult, Figure 6-30 Refund Card.
Figure 6-24 Goal Card. Figure 6-27 Idea Card.
Credit: Les Partch and Marcello Cardenas. Permission: School of Credit: Rich Potosnak and Paul Price. School of Architecture, especially when several unequally talented stu- Credit: Jennifer Da Ros, Will Pew, Adam Sprenger, and Lauren
Watson. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona.
Architecture, Arizona State University Arizona State University dents are producing the cards. Therefore, the au-
thor has encouraged students to refine the cards
after the work session in order to have a more
attractive and meaningful matrix to review at the
next work session (Figs. 6-30 through 6-32).
Note how the text-based approach, as shown
above, has the advantage of leaving enough
room on the same card for amplification of the
key words or phrases with smaller lettering. In
this case, key words for the basic idea are printed
so as to be easy to read when up on the wall, but
additional information clarifying and amplifying
the idea can also be included in small print. This
Figure 6-31 Refund Card.
Figure 6-25 Fact Card. Figure 6-28 Text and Diagram Card. tends to overcome the fact that only those
Credit: Jennifer Da Ros, Will Pew, Adam Sprenger, and Lauren
Credit: M. Arnold and Curtis Clark. School of Architecture, Arizona School of Architecture, Arizona State University involved in the programming session have any Watson. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona.
State University
idea about the true meaning or intent of the
pictures and short phrases.
A number of professional programmers also
use text-based cards during work sessions (Fig.
6-33).
Like CRS, many firms use a combination of
small diagrams with short verbal descriptions.
This is an effective way to combine the advan-
tages of pictures and words, without some of the
problems (Fig. 6-34).
Developing effective visual and/or text-based
cards during a work session is very difficult be-
cause of the speed at which they must be pro- Figure 6-32 Refined Cards.
Figure 6-26 Need Card. Figure 6-29 Text-Based Card.
duced to keep up with the session. It is desirable, Credit Jennifer Da Ros, Will Pew, Adam Sprenger, and Lauren
Credit: Vince Dodd and Richie Poole. School of Architecture, School of Architecture, The University of Arizona.
Arizona State University
therefore, to produce as many cards before the Watson. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona.
 350 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 351

session as is possible. Such cards can be pre- The author has found it better to have some seemingly redundant
pared based on all of the previous information cards in the matrix, rather than being drawn into an argument as to
gathering activities. They can be done at the where a card belongs. It is often possible for a programmer to
student's workstation or in the architect's office devise an appropriate replacement card while other areas are being
over a period of time. This is particularly true discussed. It is also possible to resolve such things in the quiet of
for all of the zoning, site, utility, and climate the programmer's office after the work session (Fig. 6-36).
data cards (Fig. 6-35).
Regardless of how or when the cards are
produced, an essential element of the card matrix
is the notion of "carding" and "discarding" (Pena
et al. 1969, 1977, 1986). When the card is first
Figure 6-33 Text-Based Card.
placed in the matrix, it is done with the implied
Credit: Anderson DeBartolo Pan, Inc. Permission: ADP Marshall
or actual questions: Is this okay? Does the card
represent what has been said? It is offered in a
similar way as the interpretation in diagnostic
interviewing. If accepted in interviewing, the
idea is recorded. If accepted in the work session,
the card is kept in the matrix.
After a card has been up for a time, it may
become evident that it is not quite right. In this
case, the card may be modified or taken down
(discarded). If further discussion has shown that
NOl5Y ARE:A5 QUIET AREAS the card is inappropriate, or its need has been
ZCNE Z°"'E
eliminated by similar cards, it will stay down. In
ZONE QUIET AREA& FROM NOl5Y AREA&
other cases, a new card will be made and put in
its place.
Figure 6-34 Text and Diagram Card.
It may also be discovered that a card is or
Arquitectura Ltd.
seems to be in the wrong cell of the matrix. Now
the programmer must decide if this is the case,
often with competing opinions being expressed
by the work session participants. As mentioned
previously, what originally appeared as a goal
may later appear to be a need. It may be
necessary to develop two or even three cards. For
instance, an original goal might be "to stay
within the overall project budget." A fact might
be that the overall project budget cannot exceed
"four million dollars." The need would then be
Ii POETRY CEOTER 96
"to stay within the overall project budget of four
million dollars." An appropriate card could be Figure 6-36 Site Data on BX" x 11" sheet.
Figure 6-35 Site Data Card. placed in each of the three cells relating to the Credit Gorky Poster, W. Kirby Lockard, Chris Evans, Kim Kuykendall, Scott Pask, and Donna Sink. Permission:
Credit Anderson DeBartolo Pan, Inc. Permission: ADP Marshall economic value category. Architecture Laboratory, Inc.
 352 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 353

Grid Paper goals placed directly under as they are pre-

Another group session presentation sented. This sheet is set high enough on the
technique involves the use of wall to allow a second sheet to be hung below
standard flip chart pads of 1" cell, it. To the right of the value/goal sheet is hung
28" x 38" grid paper on which to a fact sheet, then a need sheet, and finally an
record the program information. In idea sheet. At 28" wide, the four sheets take
this form of presentation, a single up nearly 10 linear feet of room width. This
programmer uses four easels on allows a matrix with as many as four value
which to record goals, facts, needs, areas along a 40-foot wall. It would, thus, re-
and ideas for each value area. As quire at least two such walls to accommodate
the sheets become full, they can the eight HECTTEAS value areas.
Figure 6-37 Grid Paper on Easels. Because there are several rows of infor-
then be removed from the easels
and placed on the walls of the room mation on each sheet, the sheets cannot be as
in an arrangement similar to the easily modified as can the cards. Incorrect
card system (Fig. 6-3 7). This can information can be corrected by inserting
be done by a member of the words above or below the original statement.
programming team or a member of This can look messy. If much change is
the work session group. required, the original information can be
It is also possible to begin with a crossed out. New or substitute information can
number of partially completed be added after the last statement on the Figure 6-39 Goals on Grid Paper.
sheets tacked or taped to the walls appropriate sheet (Figs. 3-39 and 3-40).
of the room that list the previously When the sheets on the walls are full, the
identified value areas, followed by programmer prints on the grid paper on the
specific project goals, key facts four easels. When filled, these are taped on the
relating to the goals, preliminary wall below the ones already there for all to see
statements of needs, and even ideas and review. The programmer can also add
for partial solution of the problem. information to the posted sheets if there is
The completeness of this room.
presentation, of course, will depend It is important to use markers designed
on the completeness of the earlier specifically for easel paper or to tack up
information gathering processes double thicknesses of the sheets to prevent the
(Fig. 6-38). markers from flowing through to the wall
Because information is recorded behind. A more foolproof system is to tack or
at a larger scale than on cards, this tape brown butcher paper across each of the
system requires more wall surface walls first, and then to tape the grid paper
than the card system. The author sheets on top of the butcher paper. This has
uses two or more walls of a room the advantage of providing a uniform
beginning on the left side with the background for the presentation, even when
first value, which is listed at the top the room walls are of a variety of colors or
of the first sheet and with surfaces. It is also easy to roll up
Figure 6-38 Grid Paper on Wall. Figure 6-40 Facts on Grid Paper.
 354 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 355

the entire presentation for easy transportation

to and from the work session. Be certain to get other size cards, 8Yz'' x 11" sheets of paper, newsprint paper on
permission from the client for whatever easels, or the use of large chalk or white boards. Another option
system is used if working in their facilities. might involve presentation of the material using slides, overhead
Some clients are very particular about having projection, or possibly the distribution of the information to each
their walls marred by tack holes, tape pulls, or of the participants in small packets of 8Yz'' x 11" paper, or some
flow pen marks . combination of the above. However, remember that the intent at
Note that the grid paper system requires this point is to be very flexible-to be able to gather and change the
that the session participants focus on one value information in accordance with the desires of the work session
area at a time. Otherwise, each sheet of grid group. Any approach that interferes with this flexibility should be
paper would have information on mixed value avoided.
areas and could be quite confusing. If the work The use of 8Yz'' x 11" sheets has the advantage, particularly with
session participants decide that they need to the variety of fonts and drawing programs available on personal
discuss another value area, the programmer computers, of allowing the development of easy-to-read in-
must move to the other value area. Or if it is a formation including sufficient detail and, perhaps, graphic material
new area, then it may be necessary to flip the in a form that can be affixed to a wall, but which can also be
paper over the top of the easel to expose clean stapled and circulated to those who could not attend the work
sheets below. The new information can be session. A computer and a small ink-jet printer in the work session
recorded on these sheets and later placed on room may allow a member of the programming team to prepare
the wall. sheets during the session, in the same manner as for cards. It may
Figure 6-41 Needs on Grid Paper. Typically, the grid paper procedure is text- be tempting, however, to place more than one idea on each 8 Yz'' x
based and does not use visual illustrations or 11" sheet. This would make individual sheets difficult to discard
diagrams such as those contained on the cards during the work session. However, if not done, it would tend to
in the CRS programming process. It is double the size of the matrix. In the author's experience, the use of
possible to include a sketch diagram on the standard 8 Y:l" x 11" sheets works best when programming with a
grid paper to make an idea clear to the very small client/user group, all of whom can sit around a table and
participants. But this might be used only five easily see, discuss, and modify the sheets as appropriate.
or 10 percent of the time, rather than for every The use of chalk or white boards presents a number of diffi-
piece of information (Figs. 6-41 and 6-42). culties. Usually the boards are not large enough to hold all of the
Site and climate information can be pre- matrix information at once, so, as changes are made, erased in-
sented on prints of surveys or aerial photos, or formation is lost. Or if much information is provided in one area
on 8Yz'' x 11" sheets. The client's mission, there may not be enough space left to add to it. Similarly, if some
purpose, and organization chart can be simi- new rank ordering is desired, there is no easy way to reorder. Also,
larly presented, or if too small to read from when the session is finished, the information must be transcribed,
across the room, can be transferred onto grid or it will be lost when erased. If boards are already available in the
paper for the work session. work session room, usually on only one wall of the room, they can
be used more effectively to show and modify the project schedule
or the project budget during the later stages of the work session.
After the initial presentation by the programmer, it is essential·
Other Techniques that all program information remain visible and changeable. The
card system is most flexible in this regard. The 8Yz'' x 11" paper
Possible alternatives to the above matrix pre-
Figure 6-42 Ideas on Grid Paper. sentation techniques could involve the use of
356 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 357

system can work for small groups. The grid paper system is suffi- boards. These suggestions are im-
ciently flexible that it can also work. In fact, where a single pro- mediately shown to the entire
grammer is involved, grid paper is practically the only way to group on their individual monitors
present the program effectively to a medium- to large-size group, and on several large screens at the
because development and placement of cards and 8 Yz" x 11" paper front of the room. This process
sheets requires at least two programmers-one leading the stimulates ideas from others to the
discussion, the other preparing the cards or paper sheets. With the point where a large number of
grid sheets a single programmer can both lead the discussion and suggestions can be generated in a
put the notes on the sheets. very short period of time. The sug-
The use of slides or overhead projection for recording infor- gestions are shown in the order
mation in a work session is very awkward. Not only is it difficult to presented and anonymously, so that
modify erroneous information in a timely way, but it is not possible no participant need fear that
to place all information in front of the group at one time. A someone else in the work session
projected Microsoft PowerPoint presentation would make it easier will dislike their idea and nega-
to modify information during the session, but it is still not possible tively identify the suggestion with
to place all information in front of the group at one time. This the person making it (Figs. 6-43
leaves the participants uncertain if everything has been suitably and 6-44). Figure 6-43 Electronic Work Session Leader.
considered and modified. Thus, slides and overhead projection After the initial suggestions Credit: Cathy Spamm. Permission: Center for the Management of Information, The have been
should be reserved for introductory or background material on the made, the group can use University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
client group's mission, history, organizational structure, and a discussion format to comment on
purpose for the project, or for final presentation of program other ideas. They can also place the
materials where only minimum interaction and/or modification is suggestions into appropriate
expected. categories and prioritize them by
simple voting procedures. This is
an effective method of generating a
Electronic Methods large amount of valuable informa-
Collaborative groupware technologies are being used by business tion in a short period of time. In-
organizations for developing mission, vision, and strategic planning deed, the method is so effective
documents. Recent developments in interactive computer that it can virtually eliminate the
technologies also hold considerable promise for programming. need to conduct interviews with
Methods of group decision making (Delbecq et al. 1975; Linstone any of the individuals participating
and Turoff 1975) using various brainstorming techniques are par- in the work session.
ticularly adaptable to collaborative electronic environments. For The information can be elec-
example, programmers from the College of Architecture and the tronically tabulated and repre-
Center for the Management of Information at The University of sented in the after-voting format
Arizona (Mittleman 1995; Doxtater and Mittleman 1996) have for all to review. The group can
adapted existing computer software to support structured on-line again be asked to suggest Figure 6-44 Electronic Work Session Participants.
programming sessions for large groups, with each group member refinements in an open-ended Credit: Cathy Spamm. Permission: Center for the Management of Information, The
seated at a computer console in one of several collaborative labo- electronic discussion session until University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
ratories on campus. all parts of a potential information
The assembled group members make suggestions about values, matrix have
goals, facts, needs, and ideas using their individual computer key- been covered. This information can be saved electronically, printed,
and distributed during or immediately following the session.
 Work Sessions 359
358 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

The only apparent drawbacks to the system are: 6.6 Requirement Sheets
1. The need to assemble all of the participants into a space • Brown Sheets
away from their own workplaces for an extended period of
• Other Formats
time
A second work session is used to expand upon and clarify the
1. The relatively high cost of renting the collaboration facilities
needs information to make it more useful. The various facility
and facilitators.
needs stated on the matrix during the first work session are de-
If the entire programming group can be so assembled this veloped into lists of required interior and exterior spaces, including
method has the advantages of: the projected size of each. Matrices and diagrams showing
1. Avoiding normal workplace interruptions during the session. relationships between spaces are developed for focused consider-
ation. Tables showing the proposed project schedule and estimates
1. Generating a tremendous amount of information in a short of project costs are also developed or refined during this session.
period of time. Ideally, agreement on the lists is obtained from the client/users
1. Being able to assimilate and reorganize the data during the before ending the session.
session. all suggestions to remain anonymous. All of this information is typically developed in tabular form,
4. Allowing
independent of the information matrix, at a large enough scale for
5. The savings in manpower all work session participants to see. The information is sometimes
Most Important Issues (Vote)
costs, because of the effi developed from scratch as a final stage of a work session, but an
Voting Results
Agree/Disagree (5-Point) {Allow bypass)
ciency of the process, are initial tabulation is more frequently prepared in the programmer's
Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Neutral (N), Disagree (DJ, Strongly Disagree (SD) likely to more than offset the office prior to the final work session. This preliminary tabulation is
Number of ballot items: 12 Total
number of voters (NJ: 22 cost of renting the space. based on the results of the other information gathering activities
Where decision laboratories are including reference to standards and the results of earlier work
sessions with the executive group of the organization.
available, the author highly recom-
It is wise to use enough space (wall and paper) and a flexible
mends their use, especially on com-
system so that initial space, size, time, or cost projections can be
plex or controversial programming
revised several times throughout the presentation, negotiation, and
projects. Note that personnel in the
Center for the Management of Infor- agreement process, until everyone is satisfied that each space is of
mation at the University of Arizona sufficient size to accommodate its intended uses, and that the size
and scope of the project does not exceed the proposed budget and
are currently working on Internet
schedule. This can take time to work out to everyone's satisfaction.
software that will allow collabora-
Indeed, it is often a good idea not to prepare the information matrix
tive work sessions to take place on
and the various tabular sheets at the same work session. It is
computers located throughout a
client's organization. When this soft- probably better to schedule two or more separate sessions, so that
ware becomes available, it will elim- everyone will be reasonably fresh for each session. This is
especially true for the programmer, who must demonstrate the
inate the need to assemble a group at
same leadership through all of the sessions.
a remote location. Indeed, it may
Requirement sheets cover such areas as space identification and
eliminate the need to have a group
allocation, relationship matrices and diagrams, room program
assemble at all. The participants
could remain at their personal work- sheets, project schedule, and project cost analysis. While the devel-
stations and the collaborative work opment of information in each of these areas can begin during the
Figure 6-45 Prioritized Values Summary Sheet.
executive work session(s) and the client/user work session(s), the
Credit: Daniel Mittleman. Permission: Center for the Management of Information, The session could occur in a so-called
final documents are typically developed in the programmer's office,
University of Arizona virtual environment (Fig. 6-45).
360 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 361

usually on the computer. This information is returned to the user The obvious advantages of the combination of the large brown
for confirmation and editing as needed to obtain final agreement. paper sheets and chalk are that all of the spaces and sizes can be
CRS developed the concept of brown sheets of butcher paper shown at once and can be revised repeatedly in place until every-
that can be taped up on the work session room walls and printed on one is satisfied that all assignable spaces have been identified and
with colored chalk (Pefia et al. 1969, 1977, 1986). This allows for that appropriate square footages have been recorded for each. The
erasing and modification of data as the work session(s) progress. It same is true for relationships, schedule, and costs. At the end of the
is an effective, if somewhat messy, technique for developing this session, the programmer needs only to roll up the brown sheets and
type of information. Kumlin (1995), on the other hand, take them to the office to transcribe the information into the
recommends the use of 30" x 40" sheets and stick-on notes, or program document. This is an efficient and effective way to de-
white boards. The author uses grid paper, usually on a dedicated velop and obtain agreement on the spatial allocations, relation-
easel. When reasonably complete, each of the sheets is transferred ships, schedule, and costs for medium-sized to large and complex
to a wall to free up the easel for another area of information. projects. The primary disadvantage of the brown sheets is the mess
In the interest of avoiding redundancy, the detailed discussions created by the chalk. The paper can also look very messy after a
of space identification and allocation, relationship matrices and few erasures. In addition, in order to see the sheets effectively, it is
diagrams, space program sheets, cost analysis, and project usually necessary to supplement the chalk with black flow pens.
schedule are contained in Chapter 7. The discussion in this section This, of course, makes changes of categories difficult to make.
will be confined to the various methods of presenting this in-
formation during the work session. Other Formats
It is also possible to use 30" x 40" sheets of print paper or 26" x
Brown Sheets 32" sheets of grid paper on which to develop the tabular informa-
As stated earlier, the space allocations, relationship matrices, pro- tion on requirements (Fig. 6-47). The 30" x 40" sheets have the
ject schedule, and project cost analyses are first developed during advantage of being larger than any other alternative to the brown
the work session on rolls of brown butcher paper. These sheets are sheets. The grid paper sheets have the advantage of taking up less
rolled out and taped horizontally across an entire wall. Colored room than brown sheets or 30" x 40" sheets, so that easels can be
chalk is then used to identify the various spaces, number of each used while developing and initially displaying the information.
type, and the appropriate square foot allocations. The space types In both of the above cases, the material is confined to a much
are often listed in accordance with smaller area than when using rolls of brown butcher paper, so that
the existing or proposed de- only limited information can be contained on an individual sheet. It
partmental structure of the orga- is also more difficult to modify the number of spaces or square
nization, so that subtotals of the
areas required can be tabulated.
All of the identified spaces can
be listed on another sheet and a
matrix developed to show how the
various spaces relate to each
other. Simple relationship
diagrams can also be shown. The
same sheet can be used to show
how the project schedule is likely
to develop as well as to develop a
matrix to estimate project costs
Figure 6-46 Typical Brown Sheet. (Fig. 6-46). Figure 6-47 Posted Requirements on Grid Paper.
362 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 363

foot sizes required, particularly if markers are used to record the

information. A number can be crossed out and replaced only a few
times before the entire sheet becomes too messy to understand. The
use of stick-on notes for areas and costs can help mitigate this
problem, but it does not allow space names to be changed or
shifted. Both of these alternative methods are obviously more ap-
propriate for smaller or less complex projects, where it is less
likely that a great amount of space will be needed and where the
number of changes to the presented information is likely to be
small.
The use of simple BW' x 11" sheets can be appropriate for a
table-top discussion with client(s) for a small project or in any situ-
_.
ation where it is not possible to have a group work session to work ___________
out differences. The use of a laptop computer and spreadsheet
program with a small ink-jet printer can be effective in allowing
automatic tabulation as areas and costs change.
For larger projects, it may be possible to use the computer and
spreadsheet program along with a digital projector to allow all
participants to see what is being changed. Otherwise, it may be
necessary to circulate the preliminary space allocation table, the Figure 6-48 Space Allocation on Grid Paper. Figure 6-50 Project Cost Estimate on Grid Paper.
relationship matrix, the tentative project schedule, and the project
cost projections to everyone concerned for their review and
suggestions before and after the work session. Once reviewed,
these allocations could be modified and then returned to the re-
spondents until a point is reached where everyone is satisfied with
all of the proposed allocations. Obviously, the use of a work
session involving all of the decision makers would be more effi-
cient and appropriate for most organizations.
The easel-size grid paper sheets have the advantage of being
easy to see for use in the work sessions. With large format photo-
copy machines, they can easily and inexpensively be reduced to
BW' x 11" sheets for inclusion in a program report. Where funding
for programming is small, this has the distinct advantage of saving
personnel costs, which can be substantial in transcribing brown
sheets.
The one-inch grid has the added advantage of helping the pro-
grammer line up rows and columns to provide a common format
from sheet to sheet. They also provide appropriately sized module
on which to draw graphic representations of the required square
footages at a scale that all session participants can see and use to
make comparisons of their relative sizes. The same, of course,
would be true for SW' x 11" grid paper sheets for small groups sit- Figure 6-49 Relationship Diagrams on Grid Paper. Figure 6-51 Project Schedule on Grid Paper.
ting together at a table (Figs. 6-48 through 6-51).
364 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Work Sessions 365

6.7 Exercises from the organization, asking them to modify and expand
the information presented on the matrix and requirement
1. Pretending to be a client or user, develop the following in- sheets.
formation for the top three value areas of a simple design 5. Ask the groups to critique both the matrix used to present
problem. the data and the developed data. Ask them how the infor-
a. Decide on the three value areas. mation could better be obtained and presented. Also ask
b. Develop three to six appropriate goals. them to critique how you handled the work session. How
c. List several facts relating to the design problem. could your performance be improved? How could the card
d. Write at least three design requirements for the top prior- maker's performance be improved?
ity goal statements.
e. Note and/or diagram several design ideas. 6. Use the grid paper presentation system and proceed through
the two questions above with the same groups or different
Discuss your results with a colleague. Do they make sense? groups from the same organization, asking them at the end
Do they help your colleague understand the design problem? of the session which method worked best. Also ask them if
Note that in a real programming situation with a client and and how each method could be improved.
users, it should be possible to discover this information! 7. Consider alternative ways of obtaining data from large
Conjuring up goals, facts, needs, and ideas would not be groups of individuals. Could the information gathering
appropriate.
methods described in Chapter 5 replace the group sessions?
2. Analyze a program document by someone else, possibly For what type or size of projects would only work sessions
found in the library or in an architect's office, and answer be needed? For what type or size of projects would both the
the following questions: information gathering methods and the work sessions be
a. What are the primary values and goals for this project? required? Is there an alternative way to obtain the-
Are they clearly stated? information?
b. Does the program provide clear criteria for evaluating the
success of the design?
c. Does the document illustrate design ideas or concepts?
If so, are they presented in such a way as to allow the 6.8 References
designer freedom to design, or are they already pointing
toward a specific design solution? CRS. 1971. Community Mental Health and Retardation Center
Program. State of Maryland Department of Public Improve-
3. Select a few colleagues to participate in an executive work ment. Baltimore, Md.
session to set forth the mission of the your school or office, De Chiara, Joseph, and John Hancock Callender, eds. 1990. Time-
to decide on a building project that would meet perceived Saver Standards for Building Types. New York: McGraw-Hill.
needs of the organization, to develop a clear statement of the Delbecq, A. L., A. H. Van de Ven, and D. H. Gustafson. 1975.
purpose of the project, and to establish a preliminary budget
Group Techniques for Program Planning: A Guide to Nominal
and project schedule. Also have them enumerate the values,
Group and Delphi Processes. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman.
goals, facts, needs, and ideas for such a project.
Doxtater, Dennis, and Daniel Mittleman. 1996. "Creating a New
4. Organize the information collected during earlier exercises Campus Setting for S.A.L.T.: Facilitation Design Processes by
on a card-based, wall-mounted programming matrix similar Linking Kinds of User Knowledge with Electronic Decision-
to the ones described in this chapter. Then conduct a work Making in Groups." In Proceedings of the 3rd Design & Decision
session with a larger group of volunteers Support Systems Conference. Held at Spa, Belgium, August. 81-
116.
366 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Duerk, Donna P. 1993. Architectural Programming: Information

Management for Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Fisher, Roger, and William Ury. 1981. Getting to Yes: Negotiating
Agreement Without Giving In. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Hall, Lavinia, ed. 1993. Negotiation: Strategies for Mutual Gain:
Program Preparation
The Basic Seminar of the Harvard Program on Negotiation.
Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage.
Kumlin, Robert R. 1995. Architectural Programming: Creative
Techniques for Design Professionals. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Linstone, H. A., and M. Turoff, eds. 1975. The Delphi Method:
Techniques and Applications. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
Mittleman, Daniel David. 1995. Architectural Programming Tool Box:
Using Group Support Systems Technology to Increase the
Effectiveness of User Participation in Architectural Programming. 7 .1 Program Form
Ph.D. diss., The University of Arizona. 7.2 Program Content
Pena, William, and John W. Focke. 1969. Problem Seeking: New 7. 3 Preliminaries
Directions in Architectural Programming. Houston, Tex.: 7.4 Executive Summary
Caudill Rowlett Scott. 7.5 Values and Goals
Pena, William, William Caudill, and John Focke. 1977. Problem 7. 6 Design Considerations
Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. Boston, Mass.: 7. 7 Project Requirements
Cahners Books International. 7. 8 Space Identification and Allocation 7.
Pena, William, Steven Parshall, and Kevin Kelly. 1987. Problem 9 Relationship Matrices and Diagrams
Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. 3rd ed. Wash- 7 .10 Space Program Sheets
ington, D.C.: AIA Press. 7 .11 Budget and Cost Analysis
Ramsey, Charles George. 1994. Ramsey/Sleeper: Architectural 7.12 Project Schedule
Graphic Standards. New York: J. Wiley. 7 .13 Design Analysis
Rawlinson, J. G. 1981. Creative Thinking and Brainstorming. 7 .14 Appendix
New York: Wiley. 7 .15 Exercises
Venturi, Robert. 1977. Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture. 7 .16 References
New York: Museum of Modern Art.
White, Edward T. III. 1972. Introduction to Architectural Pro-
gramming. Tucson, Ariz.: Architectural Media.
A fter gathering and analyzing information about the various
issues in architecture, it is necessary to process and organize
this information so it can be communicated effectively to the client
and to the designer. It is important to inform the client and designer
of the findings both to help them understand the nature of the
architectural problem and to obtain their concurrence that the
program document is correct as presented.
Programs are prepared for at least three different design phases:
master planning, schematic design, and design development.

367
368 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 369

Programs for each of these design phases should contain the in- 7.2 Program
formation that the designer needs to make informed design deci-
sions for that phase. Frequently, programming and design for a Content
master plan is completed prior to beginning schematic or detailed The content of programs
programming for specific buildings. Some architects and pro- varies, depending on what
gramming firms advocate that only the information required for the programmer considers
schematic design be included in the initial program for a building, to be the most important
so as to avoid confusing the designer with detailed information information about a pro
before it is needed (Pena et al. 1969, 1977, 1986; Duerk 1993). ject. If the programmer is Figure 7-1 Typical Program Covers.
Often, however, a comprehensive architectural program containing preoccupied with func- Credit: Students of the Architectural Programming class at The University of Arizona, Spring Setional
the information required for all three design phases is prepared at considerations and/ mesters of 1998. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
the beginning of a major project. There are advantages to each or budget, then these ar-
approach relative to efficiency and cost of information gathering eas are likely to receive the most attention in the program. If site
that need to be assessed on a project-by-project basis. and climate analysis are major concerns, then these might receive
For ease of explanation, this chapter deals with a emphasis. If the programmer is oriented toward the overall values
comprehensive architectural program covering all three phases of and goals for the project, then these might receive the most at-
programming, but when appropriate indicates to which design tention. If facility needs are the objective, then these might be
stage the information typically relates. treated in greater depth. A balance is needed when programming
for architecture.
The designer surveys the programming document and attempts
7.1 Program Form to find information relevant to a particular stage of design. Thus, if
the program is to be most helpful in the pursuit of architecture, it
A variety of presentation formats are used in architectural pro-
should be organized so that the designer can first discover the
gramming. Most often the final architectural program is produced
major issues and goals, then the facts and needs, and lastly the
as a bound paper publication. Typical sizes include 8Y2" x 11" ver-
more detailed information on how to develop the design.
tical or horizontal and 8 W x 14" or 11" x 1 7" horizontal. They are
The level of development and detail should increase and be-
generally bound at the left edge with a plastic comb or three-ring
come more focused at each stage of the programming and design
binder, so that the document can be opened and laid flat for easy
process. If too much detail is included in the first stage, it may
use by the designer. In addition to cover stock, they often have a
have a negative impact on design by confusing important formative
transparent film cover to protect the booklet. The larger programs
information with relatively unimportant information. On the other
are placed in three-ring binders because of their added strength and
hand, if too little information is provided, the designer may make
flexibility of use.
erroneous decisions based on incomplete information. The
Note that the format of the sheets can be varied to allow in-
programmer must be able to ascertain the important information
corporation of illustrations and to promote easier reading. The
for each stage of design and present it in a way to be of maximum
vertical format works well with single columns and illustrations or
benefit to the designer.
a combination of double columns and half- or full-page illus-
A complete architectural program is likely to have five to eight
trations. The horizontal format can accommodate three or four
major sections including an executive summary, values and goals,
columns per sheet with illustrations either one or two columns
wide and with possible sidebar usage. The choice is usually a de- design considerations, specific project requirements, budget,
cision of the programmer and often depends on the programming schedule, and an appendix of relevant materials. The reader. should
budget and word processing capability of the programming firm. understand, however, that the varying nature of design' problems
The SW' x 11" format is best for placing on book shelves and for will affect how each program is structured, so that a slightly
filing, which is a significant advantage (Fig. 7-1). different format can be expected for every program.
 370 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 371

TABLE OF CONTENTS A program for a small is important to allow the doc-

1 Preliminaries 1-5
project may combine ument to lay flat when open.
5 Project Requirements 15-40
Transmittal 1 Master Plan Requirements 15 several of the sections
September 24, 1982
Acknowledgment 2 Schematic Design Requirements 17 into a single section. A
Directory 3 Building Design 17
very large program for a Transmittal
Methodology 4 Interior Design 18 Wesley Veatch, Minister
References 5 Space Allocation 20 hospital or major govern- The cover sheet is sometimes Bellevue Christian Church
lOSth Avenue, S.E. and S.E. 25th
Relationship Matrix 23 ment building complex followed by a letter of trans- Bellevue, Washington 98004
2 Executive Summary 6-8 Design Development 26 may have several more
Purpose of the Project 6 Building Systems 26 mittal from the programmer to Dear Wes:

Major Issues 6 Space Program Sheets 28 sections and be in several the client indicating the nature I am pleased to submit this report of the Architectural
Consultation at the Bellevue Christian Church.
Design Considerations 6 volumes. However, the of the document and its The Long Range Planning Committee did an excellent job of
Project Requirements 6 6 Budget and Costs 41-42 basic structure of the establishing the direction of your church and identifying specific
Project Schedule 7 Owner's Budget 41
intended uses. Often this letter facility needs. This report is an architectural reflection of the
Budget and Costs 8 Estimated Construction Costs 41
program is likely to re- is used only as an accom- identified needs. The two phase proposal is in recognition of the
highest priority items and budgetary restraints. Accomplishments of
Program Agreement/Sign-off 8 Estimated Project Costs 41 main similar to the one panying transmittal and is not
phase one should promote the growth necessary to proceed quickly
into phase two.
Financial Feasibility 42 illustrated in Fig. 7-2. included in the program I hope the suggestions I have made will receive your serious
3 Values and Goals 9-11 consideration and serve as a basis for ultimate development of your
Image in the Community 9 7 Project Schedule 43-44
document (Fig. 7-4). site and facilities.

Operational Efficiency 10 Design 43 I surely did enjoy meeting with you, your wife and the several church

User Needs 11 Construction 44 7.3 Preliminaries members in the Long Range Planning and Design Committees. Please
give them my regards and keep me ix>sted on developments.
Security and Safety 11 Acknowledgment
Constuction Cost 11 8 Ideas 45-48 • Cover Sheets Cordially,
Design Precepts 45 Some programs include a sec-
4 Design Design Analysis 47 • Transmittal tion acknowledging help re-
Considerations 12-14
Site and Climate 12 9 Appendix 49-67 • Acknowledgment ceived in developing the
Codes and Ordinances 13 Data Collection Summaries 49 program. This section is impor-
Organizational Structure 13 Reference Materials 62 • Directory tant to include in order to give Figure 7-4 Typical Transmittal Letter.
User Characteristics 14
• Methods credit where it is due. It can be
Figure 7-2 Typical Table of Contents for an Architectural Program. an effective public relations To recognize the contributing energies of all involved people would
• References tool. However, if used, it is im- produce a list far too long to print. Special thanks, though, must
go to Allen Arebalo (Program IV Director) and Mary Wagner (Program
portant to understand the poli- IV Psychologist). They took a great deal of time away from their
daily schedule to provide information, leads and access throughout
tics of the organization, to make the complex hospital environment.
MORRIS K. UDALL Cover Sheets certain that the acknowledg- Jay Farbstein gave direction and feedback throughout the project. Gene
REGIONAL PARK AND Schultheis contributed valuable energy to initial research and
RECREATIONAL CENTER The typical architectural program doc- ments do not leave out someone development.
ument includes heavy paper or plastic important or associate the
@) Copyright August 1977 Michael Feerer
cover sheets with the essential infor- project with someone who has
DESIGN PROGRAM mation on the front cover. These include lost credibility in the organiza-
AND SITE ANALYSIS the name of the project, the owner/client tion (Fig. 7-5). Figure 7-5 Short Acknowledgment.
organization, the name and address of Credit: Michael Feerer., 1977. Family Services Ward, Environmental Architectural
DECEMBER 9, 1985 the programming group, logos, Program for Atascadero State Mental Hospital. Atascadero, California. Permission:
Directory Michael Feerer
photographs, publication date, and any
BROOKS e ASSOCIATES Ali\ ~ \ ARCHITECTS &
PLANNERS ~
other information that helps identify the If there are persons that the design team should contact relative to
contents of the document. specific areas of design, a directory can be included that lists the,
The document shown in Fig. 7-3 is areas of concern, name, position, address, telephone, and e-mail for
typical of a horizontally composed the appropriate persons. Inclusion of the directory can be an
Figure 7-3 Plastic Comb-Bound Program Cover.
Permission: Albanese-Brooks Assoc. PC
document. The plastic comb binding important time saver for the designer(s), particularly during design
372 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 373

development when detailed information may be If the summary appears to Ye gratefully acknowledge the following publications:
Organization Name, Address, Phone, FAX
required for specific areas of the project. The de- be an adequate reflection of
Owner/CEO American Institute of Architects. General Conditions of
VP (.in charge) signer will use the directory to contact persons the overall needs of the the Contract, Washington, D.C.: American Institute of
Department Officer 1 who can provide needed information (Figs. 7-6). organization, the executive Architects, 1976.
Department Officer n can accept the program Dell 'Isola, Alphonse. Value Engineering in the Construction
Building Manager Methods without spending valuable Industry, Nev York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1982.
Architect Name, Address, Phone, FAX
If the program is a major one, such as for a gov- time reading through all of the
Partner (n charge)
Project Programmer ernmental agency planning a large facility or for detail that may be important Kitchell CEM. Planning A Successful Contruction Project,
Sacramento, CA: Kitchell GEM, 1986.
Project Architect numerous replications of the same facility, a to subordinates, but of no
Project Designer
separate section on programming methods may special concern to the Kitchell CEM. Security Testing Glazing Program and
Consultarnt(s) Name, Address, Phone, FAX executive. The executive can Recommendations (prepared for the California Department of
Contact Person(s)
be useful. This section typically includes a sum- Corrections), Sacramento, CA: Kitchell CEM, 1985.
mary of the information gathering and analysis delegate to others the task of
Regulatory Agency, Address, Phone, FAX State of California, Youth and Adult Correctional Agency,
procedures used to produce the program docu- reviewing detailed informa- Board of Corrections (prepared by Farbstein/Yilliams and
Contact Person(s)
ment, so that subsequent users have a trail to tion in specific areas. In the Associates). Corrections Planning Handbooks, Sacramento,
same way, the executive CA: Board of Corrections, 1981.
Figure 7-6 Directory Categories/Information. follow when challenging conclusions or trying National Institute of Justice
to acquire additional informa- summary allows the designer
Construction Information Exchange
tion for a specific installation to obtain an understanding of Box 6000
PROCESS
(Fig. 7-7). the entire design problem Rockville, MD 20850
before digging into all of the (800) 851-3420 or (302) 251-5500
The contents of this report were developed through a series of user
References supporting information NOTE: Refer particularly to the following NIJ publication:
interviews and Library Admi ni strati on revi.ews held at the offices necessary to develop a DeYitt, Charles, B. National Directory of Corrections
of Anderson DeBartolo Pan, Inc. during the weeks of April 14th - Construction (First Edition), Vashington, DC:
18th and April 21st - 25th. Further work sessions were held during It is also appropriate to ac- successful design. Indeed, it U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice,
the week of April 28th - May 2nd with the City of Tucson Library knowledge reference materials reveals to anyone reading the 1986.
Planning Consultant, Richard L. Waters; and the Architect's Space that could be useful to the de-
Planning Consultants, David and Andrea Michaels, to refine the document the key issues to
results of the User Interviews Space Needs Tabulations and to signer for particular aspects of Figure 7-8 Typical List of References.
look for as they continue
establish spatial requirements and criteria for a balanced budget. the project. This list could oc- Credit: Kitchell CEM, 1986. More for Less: Jail Construction Cost Management Handbook. State
through the document. of California, Board of Construction Cost Management.Kitchell CEM
cur in an appendix (Fig. 7-8).
Format
Follo\lfing. these work sessions a Preliminary Program Report The executive summary typically is only a few pages in length and
containing the results of the Space Needs Tabulations was developed
and reviewed by all parties involved in the programming process.
7.4 Executive contains information about all program areas. It should briefly
The Spatial Needs Summaries included herein have incorporated the Summary state:
comments and modifications suggested in those revisions.
• Purpose • The organization's mission/purposes
• Format • How the project will serve these purposes
Figure 7-7 Typical Methods Section.
• The principal values or issues
Credit: Anderson DeBartolo Pan, Inc. 1986. City of Tucson Main Library Architectural Pro-
gram. Tucson, Arizona .. Permission: ADP Marshall purpose • Specific goals to be achieved
The executive summary serves
several important purposes. • Important constraints or opportunities
As the name suggests, it allows the executive to take only a few • Special user needs
minutes to read and understand the nature of the architectural /
• Overall sizes and relationships
problem.
 374 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 375

• The quality level of materials and systems On the other hand, if the owner changes the project requirements
• The project schedule substantially after the program has been accepted and especially
after design has commenced, or even when the building is at some
• The project budget and preliminary cost estimates. stage of completion, it should be clearly understood that such
changes will serve as a basis for the architect to renegotiate fees. A
If it is for a speculative building, it might also include summaries disclaimer in the program, or as part of the agreement for
of market conditions or financial feasibility studies. These are sim- professional services, might help avoid unnecessary disputes and
ply very condensed versions of the sections that follow, but with delays during the design process. This is especially important if the
emphasis on the overall goals, requirements, schedule, and costs. client decides that substantial additional space is needed or that an
The executive statement may also indicate that some require- upgrade in material or system quality is essential, but wants both
ments of the program may change as the design progresses, and, if within the original design and construction budget. This is not an
so, that a change in the scope of services and compensation may be unusual situation! Clients often change their minds as they gradually
required. If such a statement is included in the summary, it gives the develop an understanding of the design implications of the program.
programmer and architect a measure of protection if later de- Some are also very forgetful as to what they had agreed upon
velopments require extensive earlier. Many clients are unrealistic about what they want, compared
changes in the work (Fig. 7-9). to what they can afford.
EXECUfIVE SUMMARY
It may not be possible to get
The following program is an initial understanding of the primary goals used to develop a small everyone to sign off on a dis-
commercial building to accommodate a retail camera store. The total building square footage of the retail claimer such as the one shown 7.5 Values and Goals
camera store is expected not to exceed 1200 s.f .. This may allow the possibility for additional
commercial retail or office space, depending on the site size and local codes. in the adjoining executive sum-
mary; however, it is an excel- After the executive summary should come a section in which the
The main issues of this program are to: communicate store type and image through store front design,
lent idea. The preliminary information developed in the programming matrix is refined for the
provide a welcome environment and easy access for the client, provide an open plan with 90-95% of
merchandise displayed and the flexibility of interior spaces to simplify circulation, provide adequate design is in some sense another program document. A direct reproduction of a wall-sized matrix is
interior lighting that will effectivly display mechandise, be cost effective while in accordance with local restatement of the program, of- not possible in an BW' x 11" document, so it must be presented in
codes.
ten containing compromises another way. The author has found that first presenting the values
The proposed site is locate in the Central Commercial District of downtown Tempe, Arizona, on the relative to goal accomplish- and goals in simple phrases or sentences is an effective way to bring
north side of seventh street between Mill Ave. and Maple Ave .. The site is presently vacant and ment, variations from the pro- the designer up-to-date on the crucial issues to be dealt with in
rests next to a historical warehouse on the west side and a single story commercial building on the east
gram in the actual size or schematic design. This section can be followed in logical order with
side.
relationship of spaces, and a design considerations (facts) section to show the context in which
The Owner/Client, Programmer, and Designer understand and agree that this is a preliminary program other characteristics that do not the values can be expressed andthe goals met .This section. can be
document, and acknowledge that funher design exploration may reveal additional opportunities or
conform exactly to the original followed by an extensive project requirements section in which
constraints which might necessitate adjustments in program requirements. If such adjustments have any
major effects on the issues stated in this program, it may be necessary to renegotiate fees to reflect the program document. This is to master plan, schematic design, and design development
increased scope of architectural services.
be expected and should not requirements can be systematically covered. Finally, the ideas
Total Budget: Low $50211.00 Med $71729.00 High $83246.00 come as a shock to airone. It generated for the matrix can be presented.
should be understoo~ by all The primary values and goals of the client/user articulated in
Owner/Client ________________________________________ _ parties that the program is not the programming matrix should be identified and amplified as
Date. _____________ _
immutable; that more will be necessary to show the designer what is important to accomplish
Programmer _______________________________________ _ Date. _____________ _
learned about the program dur- in the design. The importance of this section in setting an appro-
Architect _________________________________________________ _ Date ______________ _ ing the design process; and that priate framework from which to structure the rest of the program and to
this new knowledge might begin design cannot be overstated.
necessitate deviations from the As covered extensively in Chapters 1 through 3, values and is-
Figure 7-9 Short Executive Summary.
original program (Robinson sues uncovered in an architectural program will include several
Credit: Michael Kummer, 1987. Retail Camera Shop Program. School of Architecture, Arizona
State University and Weeks 1984). major areas such as the HECTTEAS areas: human, environmental,
 376 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 377

cultural, technological, temporal, economic, aesthetic, and safety. • Cultural (traditions, laws,
What is the mission of the particular institution for which the pro- codes, and ordinances)
gram is being prepared? What special considerations should there • Technical
be for the human users? Is function a very important considera-
tion? Are there users with handicaps or other special needs? Is it \ important • Other
to communicate a certain image to the community? Does the community
Programmers present the design
have important urban design objectives or guidelines which the individual
considerations generated during the
building must support and enhance? Similarly, there are often values and
goals relating to the natural environment, to available technology, to time, to programming process in a variety
economic conditions, and to aesthetics. The important goals for the project of ways. Some programmers, such
should be enumerated with each appropriate value. as William Pena of CRS, preferred
In value-based programming, the values should be placed in or- to present them in
der of importance, with specific goals or objectives listed and the same format as found in the
discussed beside each value heading. The goals should also be programming matrix that his firm
ranked relative to importance from essential, toimportant to uses (Pena et al. 1969, 1977, 19 8
desirable, or some simliar listing. Prioritization. of values and goals 6). The "facts" section of the
is of help to the program matrix needs only to be
programmer when budget constraints require reductions in program taken down from the wall and re
produced in program format. Gen- Figure 7-11 Facts Page of a CRS Program.
requirements. It also helps the designer know where to focus
design efforts. erally, however, Pena and other Credit: CRS, 1971. Community Mental Health and Retardation Center Program. Per-
programmers using the card sys- mission: William Pena, HOK
It is important in this section of
tem will reduce the card size in the
Design Goals and Objectives
the program to provide the de-
program and add verbal descrip- 1. Current main entry is confused with back entry. (Main entry does not
Chapter 2 of this program contains a detailed list of design goals and
signer with an opportunity to de- face community.
objectives. Major goals are summarized below:
tion to make them more under-
velop a clear understanding of 2. Presently there is only 1 elevator that is inadequate in speed and
Economics. Maximum value for investment (best ratio of quality to cost). Minimize
standable to persons who were not accessibility.
maintenance, repair and replacement costs.
what must be accomplished and
at the work sessions (Fig. 7-11). 3. At this time, the rear stairwells serve as both a circulation vertical
Ooerational Efficiency. Efficient layout and flow. Minimize
what would be desirable to ac- system and ingress/egress, which major conjestion, causes
staffing requirements. Access for the handicapped.
By re-presenting the cards, this and threatens emergency procedures. e>titing
complish if various constraints
Control. Security and Safety. and Excellent visual surveillance approach avoids the possibility that
physical control.
allow. There is no point in clut- 4. The handicapped access is limited to front entry through gallery and
information will be included in the secondary basement entry. Callery entrance is locked after 5 pm, and
Timing. Occupancy by the end of September, 1984. Maintenance of current
tering the designer's mind with basement entry is locked many times also, therefore denying handicapped
operations. Accommodation of long t e rm development, including flexible interior
layouts and an eventual separate commercial crossing point. programming document that was access to elevator.
constraints until a clear under- 5. Currently, students are unaware of other students wo r k within the
not actually presented to and different levels of the college. (Pre-proffessional included.
standing of what the client hopes
Ener~v and Environment. Comfort throughout the facility with energy efficiency.
considered and accepted by the
Special attention to canopies and booths. Adequate, glare-free light; acoustic
to accomplish has been attained 6. Existing information tack boa4ds can only be accessed during
controls.
group during the work sessions. adrninistraion office hours which limits student awareness.
ImaEe and Esthetics.A quality design reflecting the dignity, vigor and stability of the (Fig. 7-10).
U.S. government. Response to local climate and culture. Welcoming. Programmers using verbal cards or 7. Presently, there is only 1 soft drink machine which is
inconveniently located in the basement. and is many times empty.
grid paper are more likely to
User Perception and Wayfinding. Sensitivity to user/visitor problems of access,
information needs, communications as well as extreme contrasts of light and heat. transcribe the information into a
7.6 Design typed format and, thus, to produce Figure 7-12 Facts Page of a Text-Based Program.
Workolace Quality. A pleasant, comfortable, attractive place to work, with the ability
a somewhat more dense and Credit: David Sandvig, Rob Darney, and Chris Caroselli, 1986. Program for the New Ar-
of workers to control certain aspects of their envirnoments.
Considerations (facts) information rich set of facts. This
chitecture Building. Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona State University

Figure 7-10 Values and Goals Summary. • Human (activities and char- is
acteristics) particularly true if their intent is to provide information not just for
Credit: Farbstein/Williams & Associates, Inc., 1983. Border Station San Luis, Arizona, Pre-
Design Program. United States Government, General Services Administration, Region 9, schematic design, but for design development as well (Fig. 7-12).
San Francisco, Project Number: NAZ01000-Am. Permission: Jay Farbstein and Associates • Environmental (site and cli-
mate)
 378 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Program Preparation 379

It is also possible to stated so the designer can

condense some of the fac- acquire a better under-
tual information onto standing of the design
charts or graphs to make it constraints and opportu-
easier to understand and nities relating to the hu-
compare (Fig. 7-13) . man content of the facility
It makes sense to pre- (Fig. 7-14).
sent the facts that should
impact design in a format Environmental (site and
similar to the matrix of climate)
values developed earlier in
the programming process. The development of a
Typically there will be good understanding of the
facts (constraints and environmental context of a
opportunities) relating to design problem typically
each of the value areas or logically begins with a Figure 7-14 Human Fact Statements.
identified . description and Credit: Carmelita Apodaca, Elaine Cesta, Linda Congreve, Marley Porter, Bob Krikac, and John Jakob,

Human (activities and appropriate visual il- Associate Professor, 1980. Program for Sechet: Senior Adult Community for a Higher Education
Lifestyle, Tempe, Arizona. Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona State University
lustrations of the location
characteristics)
of the project: the city or
Often something needs to region in which the site is Views from the Site
be said about the particular located, its immediate
nature of the organization environmental context, the
and its activities before characteristics of the site,
specific requirements for the climate and
spaces and relationships microclimate, and any
are set forth. It is most other information on sues
helpful for the designer to of the design problem.
know the organizational Typically, information
structure as well as the ma- about a site is overlaid and
jor human functions that annotated on a plan of the
Figure 7-13 Summary Zoning/Issue Chart. the existing and future fa- site (Fig. 7-15).
Credit: Zachary Burns, Roger Dong, Stacy Kluck, Kean Ong, and Marc Soloway, 1995. Open-Inn cilities will accommodate. Factual information
Runaway Center Program. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona
Information about the or- about local climate con-
ganization's mission and ditions can be obtained
goals is also useful. If particular social relationships are encour- from the United States
aged or discouraged, this should also be pointed out. Special needs Weather Bureau publica-
of the current and prospective users may also be included. tions. It is often repre-
Are very old, very young, handicapped, or other non-typical people sented in charts and
Figure 7-16 Site Information.
frequent users of the building? If so, what are their particular diagrams (Fig. 7 -16).
Credit: Fourth Year Design Studio, Professor Poster, 1990. Salvation Army Homeless Facility, Program
characteristics and physical needs? All of these facts should be and Site Analysis. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona
 380 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 381

Cultural (traditions, laws, codes, and finishes used in order to meet the requirements of occupants or
ordinances) maintenance objectives of the organization? This type of information
<, should be included if it is likely to impact upon design decisions.
An explanation of the cultural context
"The programmer must be careful when presenting facts. There is
of the problem is also important. What
a danger of implying that the future solution must be similar to the
are the community traditions? Are
existing when, in fact, the owner would like to entertain alternative
There particular expectations re1ative
approaches. It should be made clear to what extent the included
to the building type to be designed? Is
information relates to the existing facility, to characteristics of other
there a community fabric to which the
similar facilities, or even to historical prototypes. These are not
designer should be sensitive? Can the
facts about the facility that has yet to be designed. If there' are
project help the community achieve
physical or technical requirements for the future facility, they
some of its urban design objectives? If
should be set forth in the section on project requirements.
so, these facts should be pointed out to
give the designer an opportunity to fit Other
the design within this larger
framework. This section should also There could, of course, be design considerations relating to any of
point out whether the community has the other HECTTEAS areas or to any other value areas agreed on
Figure 7-16 Climate Information.
adopted ordinances or special review during programming. There could be facts relating to the image of
Credit: Fourth Year Design Studio, Professor Poster, 1990. Salvation Army Homeless the facility, to signage, even to form or color. There may be facts
Facility, Program and Site Analysis. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona procedures relating to site, building, or
landscape appearance. A description relating to energy conservation and other _similar concerns which
of how and where the designer can arise during programming. There could be facts relating to safety,
obtain the ordinances and review accessibility, or to any other value area discovered in the pro-
procedures should be included in this gramming process that constrain or provide opportunities for de-
section along with information about sign. The above sections on human, environmental, cultural, and
key or unusual provisions of the technical design considerations are only examples of the types of
ordinances or procedures. For in- information typically covered in the design considerations section
of the program.
stance, some communities and institu-
It is also appropriate to set -forth facts about budget and time
tions have restrictive sign control and
constraints in the section on design considerations. Many pro-
landscaping requirements while others
grammers, however, prefer to discuss facts about budget and
have few or minimal restrictions. The
schedule in separate sections of the program, because these areas
designer needs to know what the
are of such great importance for the successful completion of a
requirements are before commencing
project. There is also a problem of deciding if such information
design (Fig. 7-1 7).
should be a design consideration (fact) or a requirement (need). The
Technical client's budget is a fact with the designer must be familiar because
it sets limits or constraints on what can' be done. It is also a
There may also be facts about requirement in the sense that design decisions must. be made that
physical or technical aspects of the will keep the cost of the facility within the stated limits.
facility which should be pointed out in The same is true for project schedule. There may be a specific
the program. Do the occupants or
_data when the client must vacate existing facilities. This is a fact.
equipment for this type of facility But the schedule to vacate may also set a requirement for when the
Figure 7-17 Screening Requirements.
typically need closely controlled new facility must be ready for occupancy. For these reasons it is
Credit: Comprehensive Campus Plan, 1988. The University of Arizona, and the temperature or humidity? Are
Arizona Board of Regents. Permission: The University of Arizona best to include information about budget and schedule in separate
particular materials or
382 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 383

sections of the program to highlight their crucial importance to the document. For instance, if the master planning has already been ac-
successful completion of the project. complished, perhaps by another design firm, then the program
could focus only on the specific building to be designed.
7.7 Project Requirements Elimination of material from earlier or later sections of the program
would be appropriate if the purposes of the program were so
• Needs limited.
• Performance Requirements (PRs) Needs

• Design Requirements (DRs) In many poorly developed programs, a simple listing of the required
spaces is the program. The client or novice programmers set forth
Project requirements will vary considerably depending on the nature what space they think is needed, without any systematic
of the project under consideration. If the program includes master consideration of the institutional purposes to be served, values to be
planning for the entire site, then there will be a section on master expressed, project goals and objectives to be met, environmental or
plan requirements. If it includes programming for a specific building cultural context, special users, client/user design ideas, or any other
project, the program will list requirements appropriate for schematic such considerations. They fail to develop the context of values,
design including tabular information on space allocation, room goals, and facts from which needs should be derived. This is
relationships, relationship diagrams, project schedule, and project unfortunate and confusing to the designer, and tends to reduce
cost analysis. If it is a comprehensive architectural program design to a puzzle-solving exercise, rather than a creative endeavor
involving design development, the program will also include in which design solutions are the result of keen insight into the
requirements for individual spaces and for building systems. nature of the design problem.
Requirement statements will be developed from the needs cards or On the other hand, when the ·preliminary sections of the ar-
short phrases of the programming matrix. They will be refined into chitectural program contain complete information on the client's
performance requirements or design requirements, or distilled into and user's values, goals, and objectives as well as on factual
tabular form showing required space allocations, space constraints and opportunities, the project requirements (or needs)
relationships, project schedule, and project costs: section of the program will
• Master Planning Requirements be easy to develop and can be lean and
- Site Design (circulation, parking, drainage, retention, utilities) straightforward. It can focus on the re-
- Building Layout (overall building relationships, sizes, loca- quired performance and facility needs
tion, orientation, future expansion) without further discussion of the key
issues, explanation of important facts, or
• Schematic Design Requirements
other considerations, because they will
- Building Design (building organization, size, orientation, image, already have been covered.
Plan for com11unltv event p11rkln11 nccd:o plu'
de,ronotcd overflow nr ea ,
Rcloc11tc certt er e s to 11cco11moll'atc future
ls:ipro.,emcnts.

growth, change)
The space needs developed in the
- Interior Design (user needs, activities, sizes, relationships, value-based programming matrix are pre-
conditions)
sented in much the same way as for goals
- Space Identification and Square Footage Allocation
and facts. Programmers using cards in the
- Relationship Matrices and Diagrams programming matrix will often group the
• Design Development Requirements cards on pages of the program and
Provide covered wnlkwoys for pcdcstr1.an comfort. Pro¥1de site llgntlng fnr security and cc11fnrt.
- Space Program Sheets augment them with verbal descriptions
- Building Systems Requirements (materials, systems, pro- (Fig. 7-18). Those using verbal cards or .
cesses) grid paper are more likely to accumulate Figure 7-18 Space Needs Page: Cards.
If a program is intended to serve only one of these design the needs into lists relating to each of the Credit: Brooks & Associates AIA. Architects and Planners, 1988. Vail Middle
School Master Plan & Program. Vail School District No. 20. Vail, Arizona.
phases, then information relating to the other phases might be left respective value areas (Fig. 7-19). Permission: Albanese-Brooks Assoc. PC
out of the
 384 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 385

It is worthwhile to consider how The following are examples of goal statements followed by per-
need statements can be reformu- formance requirements:
lated after the work sessions, be- 1. Goal: To have excellent seating for theatrical performances.
. cause how needs are stated can
have an important effect on design. PR: Provide an unobstructed view of at least three-quarters of
There are two kinds of needs state- the stage from all seats.
ments included in an architectural PR: Provide sound to each seat at the same level and quality
program: performance require- as if the seat were 20 feet from the stage.
ments and design requirements
2. Goal: To utilize daylighting strategies to reduce energy con-
(Duerk 1993).
sumption.
PR: Provide 75% of the daytime lighting load with day-
lighting.
Performance Requirements
(PRs) 3. Goal: To have safe access from parking and residential units
to a commons room.
Performance requirements are
statements of how some aspect of PR: Provide a minimum illumination level of two foot-can-
the organization or design should dles on the walking surface at exterior circulation ways.
perform. They are a small step PR: Circulation ways must at all points be visible from at
below goals, and in traditional least two adjacent living units.
terms could be referred to as ob- 4. Goal: To communicate the bank's purposes to the public.
jectives-specific ways that a goal
can be met. Performance re- PR: 95% of passing motorists must be able to recognize the
quirements can relate to the building as the First Service Bank.
building occupants, spaces, sys- PR: Access points to parking, drive-through teller, and au-
tems, and materials, and typically tomatic teller must be evident to passing motorists.
are stated in such a way that it is
possible to measure their Achievement of each of the above performance requirements
accomplishment. The measurement can be measured or estimated. In the first example, it is possible to
can be: draw sight lines from every seat to determine whether or not three-
quarters of the stage can be seen. It is also possible with a sound
Figure 7-19 Space Needs Page: Text. system to calculate and to measure (when completed) if the same
1. A simple binary or dichoto-
level of sound is being provided at every seat as that provided to
rshberqer Kim Architects, 1982. Valley Unitarian Universalist Church, Ar- 11 mous judgment by the de-
Program and Master Plan Study. Chandler, Arizona. seats 20 feet from the stage. If a certain level of illumination is
signer, owner, or expertsyes
or no, accomplished or not required, the foot-candles or lumens can be calculated during
accomplished. design using performance data for expected daylighting conditions
as well as for specific lighting fixtures. The same is true for
2. An acceptable range of values that can be physically mea- ventilation, heating, cooling, and acoustical performance.
sured, such as in inches, decibels, lumens, or degrees. The Expected levels of human performance can also be estimated
achievement of a goal may require accomplishment of one or during design (and measured after occupancy). If a person must be
several performance requirements. able to reach a certain control switch, dnthropometric data can
 Program Preparation 387
386 architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

be used to determine if this will be possible. If a person must be Design requirements for the goal statements listed above illus-
able to exit from a room in two alternative directions, this can be trate the difference between performance and design requirements.
observed by inspecting the drawings. A required image or quality of The part of the sentence in parentheses indicates the related
space or form, on the other hand, may require professional performance requirement.
judgment to determine if the need will be met. While not as precise 1. Goal: To have excellent seating for theatrical performances.
as other measures, this still allows appropriate evaluation before DR: Offset and vary the width of seating (to allow persons to
proceeding to build a project. see between persons seated in front of them).
Note that measured accomplishment of the performance re-
quirements does not ensure that a goal will be achieved at the DR: Provide a minimum three-inch rise between rows of
highest level. It only helps to ensure that the goal will be accom- seats, and raise the stage three feet above first row (to allow
plished, perhaps at a minimum level. For instance, achieving a goal people to see over the people seated in front of them).
of "excellent seating" certainly requires unobstructed sight lines and DR: Provide a distributed electronic sound reinforcement
proper acoustics. But it also requires comfortable seating and system (to provide the same level and quality of sound at
adequate leg room, good accessibility to the seats, proper ven- each seat).
tilation and air conditioning, and acoustical and lighting separation
DR: Provide a minimum of 6,000 square feet for the seating
from other parts of the building. An almost endless list of
area (to provide ample seating for 600 people).
performance requirements would have to be developed for each and
every space to ensure a high level of goal achievement. It is best to 2. Goal: To utilize daylighting strategies to reduce energy con-
state only those performance requirements that are considered to be sumption.
unique or crucial to the proper functioning of a facility. DR: Provide a clerestory lighting system (to provide 75% of
daytime lighting load).
Design Requirements (DRs) 3. Goal: To have safe access from parking and residential units
Design requirements, like performance requirements, are more spe- to a commons room.
cific and measurable than goal statements. However, they refer di- DR: Provide walk lights at 20 to 30 feet on center (to provide
rectly to the physical characteristics of the building to be designed, no less than two foot-candles of light at the walking surface).
rather than to the performance of the occupants, spaces, systems, or
DR: Design kitchen window in housing units to overlook all
materials. All statements, numbers, or diagrams specifying the size,
pathways (to be certain that circulation ways are visible from
shape, physical characteristics, and relationships of various spaces
no less than two adjacent living units).
are design requirements. Specifications of particular furnishings,
equipment, materials, and finishes are also design requirements. 4. Goal: To communicate the bank's purposes to the public.
In value-based programming, all needs should be given in terms DR: Provide free-standing, lighted signs with minimum four-
that allow accomplishment in the design to be measured in some inch-high letters with name and logo of the bank at each
way. This is usually easy to do if a certain product is specified. It is street frontage and at street faces of the building (to be
either provided or it is not. A binary measure (yes, no) or a simple certain that 95% of passing motorists can recognize the
count can be used to determine if the required number of spaces or building as a branch of First Service Bank).
pieces of furnishing or equipment have been provided. It may be
DR: Provide same color brick, covered teller canopy, and
necessary to read a label on the drawing or in the specifications to
entrance canopy as currently exist on all other branch banks
determine if a particular piece of equipment has been provided.
(to be certain that 95% of passing motorists can recognize the
Square footage requirements can be verified by measurement and
building as a First Service\ Bank, even if they do
calculation. Accomplishment of required relationships can be veri-
fied by observation and even measurement of the drawings. not see the signs).
 Program Preparation 389
388 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

It is easily seen from the above illustra- design for guidance

tions that design requirements are actually when requirements are
second order requirements. A performance not included in the pro-
requirement is almost always used (explicitly gram (Fig. 7-21).
or implicitly) to arrive at the design re- It is generally best to
AUDITORIUM quirement. For example, a performance provide a combination
requirement to meet the goal "to produce an of goals, performance
excellent auditorium" might be "that no light requirements, and design
or sound should be introduced into the requirements in a
auditorium from any adjacent public circu- program. This allows the
lation area." If left at this level, the designer client, programmer, and
would be free to devise any system that designer to obtain a
FOYER would ensure that this performance require- better understanding of
ment would be satisfied. On the other hand, the design problem. The
experience with numerous theaters and au- goals allow everyone to SEATING AND AISLE ARRANGEMENTS: Heavily shaded areas represent dage and seatin~ area losses from comparative

Figure 7-20 Vestibules as Light/Sound Locks. ditoriums has led to the repeated use of see what the organiza- visual position in various systems.

vestibules as light and sound locks between tion hopes to achieve.

the auditorium and the surrounding circula- The performance re- Figure 7-21 Auditorium Sight Lines.
quirements provide an Credit: Joseph De Chiara and John Hancock Callendar, 1973. Time Saver Standards for Building Types.
tion ways (Fig. 7-20). It may be more likely, therefore, to require
understanding of how McGraw Hill Book Co., NY, NY, p. 677. Permission: McGraw-Hill
that vestibules be provided (to ensure that light and sound not
penetrate into the auditorium). important aspects of a
Another design requirement for an auditorium might be that the facility must work. Design requirements ensure that certain min-
seating be "fully upholstered theater type seating" or even that the imum needs are satisfied in crucial areas. Together they help the
seating be "fully upholstered theater seating by Theater Seating programmer make projections of the overall size of the facility and
Company A." This might relate to acoustical performance, audience estimate the probable construction cost.
comfort, accessibility to interior seats, or to maintenance require- The programmer should not seek or develop requirements where
ments. A client may want a specific seat by a particular company they really do not exist. If the client and users are looking to the
and will settle for nothing less, because in lengthy experience the architect for a creative new way to achieve a goal, it makes little
client has found no other satisfactory seat and does not want to take sense to set forth a number of strict requirements. However, if a
a chance on poor quality seating! This approach may seem unduly particular performance is required, it should be stated in the
restrictive to a designer who wishes to select or even to design the program. If a particular design feature is required, it also should be
seating, but if an owner group has had previous negative experience stated in the program.
with many seating systems and positive results with only one Requirements for a project can also be expressed in tables con-
model, they may not be willing to consider performance require- sisting of lists, associated numbers, and diagrams. These are effi-
ments. They will want a design requirement-the specification of a cient ways of stating needs, but unlike typical needs statements,
particular product. Sometimes, however, it is possible for the pro- performance requirements, and design requirements, do not provide
grammer to convince a client to define the performance desired and, any amplification or justification as to why something should be
thus, to allow a more creative design or selection procedure. done. They are simply efficient ways to show the overall size of
In some cases the client may wish to state only the goal, and let spaces and cost of the facility to be designed. The primary uses of
the designer try to meet it by her/his own creativity, knowledge, and
tabular presentation of needs are covered in sections 7. 8, 7. 9,
experience. The architect can always refer to recognized
7.11, and 7.12.
 Program Preparation 391
Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

7.8 Space Identification and Allocation Iconic Representation

An effective adjunct to listing the square footage of each required
• Tabular Presentation
space with numbers is to illustrate it with small rectangular figures
• Leadership at the same scale, i.e., at 1/16" = 1'0". This system is effective in
showing laypersons the comparative size of spaces. It can also
• Iconic Representation
be helpful to the designer
• Building Efficiency during initial analysis of the
design problem. The num-
bers may not be as effective
Tabular Presentation as the illustrations, since
In the work session, the spaces identified as required in the pro- most client/users have little
gramming matrix are listed in tabular form on brown sheets, grid or no understanding of the
sheets, or another format for everyone to see. This promotes fo- numerical sizes of the spaces
cused group consideration and discussion of the number of re- in which they live or operate,
quired spaces and the appropriate size for each space. Thus, the but they can see the relative
square footages are listed to the right of each of the listed spaces to differences in the sizes of
form a simple table. The same form is carried into the program various spaces in the graphic
document for the convenience of the designer. illustrations. Similarly,
designers are often more
Leadership comfortable with iconic
rather than numeric imagery.
It is common for the programmer to lead lengthy work session If one space looks exces-
discussions regarding the number of persons who will be using sively large relative to an-
various spaces, the activities in which they are likely to engage, other space, the participants
and the type and amount of furnishings and equipment that will be will be quick to point this out
needed. The programmer will also point out norms or standards for to the programmer.
space sizes as found in the literature, in comparable facilities, and Because this information
for existing spaces in facilities of the client/user group. This is is generally developed in a
done to help the client/user group come to an understanding and tabular form during the work
agreement as to what size each space must be to accomplish the session(s), as discussed in
purposes of the organization. Clients and users generally have little Chapter 6, it is necessary
or no idea how big the spaces are that they use or will need in the only to upgrade the presen-
future. The programmer must be the expert in this area. tation of the material for the
All of the information gathered during the work session should program document. Simple
be recorded by a member of the programming group as it is word processing combined
brought forth, because it will be useful in developing the space with the use of presentation
program sheets discussed in section 7.10. At this point, however, it software will allow the pro-
is important to list all of the required spaces and to record their grammer to develop a qual-
respective sizes, so that an assessment can be made of the overall ity presentation of this vital Figure 7-22 Space Allocation Table.
scope of the proj_ect. information (Fig. 7-22). Credit: Architecture 202, Section 3, Professor Hershberger, 1998. A Program for A Senior Center.
Permission: College 6.1 Architecture, The University of Arizona
 392 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 393

This information can also footages assigned, it is necessary to estimate the amount of addi-
be presented in a more tional square footage that will be required to account for unpro-
diagrammatic form, rather than grammed space, including circulation spaces, walls, mechanical
in a list with the areas shown to and electrical rooms and chases, janitor's closets, rest rooms, and / ..
scale as in the above miscellaneous storage. This amounts to a very substantial percent
illustration. The following of the building area, and must be figured into the overall size of
illustration shows the effect of the facility and subsequently to its cost. This is referred to in
a carefully drawn diagram as programming as the "net-to-gross ratio" or "building efficiency"
an alternative method of and varies significantly for different building types. If it is
presenting the space allocation accounted for incorrectly, particularly on the low side, it can have
information in the program a significant negative impact on building quality.
document (Fig. 7-23). So, what are some expected net-to-gross ratios? A warehouse
Using either of the above or simple storage building may have a very high net-to-gross ra-
approaches, the initial space al- tio. The assignable area would be the warehouse or storage space.
, location sheets from the work The unassigned area would include only the exterior walls,
sessions can be reorganized in assuming that mechanical equipment could be placed on the roof,
the quiet of the programmer's electrical service placed on outside walls, and janitorial equipment
Figure 7-23 Space Allocation Table.
office. Logical groupings of simply placed within the warehouse area. Even so, a 50' x 100'
Credit: Brooks & Associates AIA, Architects and Planners, 1985. Design Program and Site
spaces can be made and tabu- building of this type would not have 100 percent -efficiency
Analysis for Morris K. Udall Regional Park and Recreational Center. Tucson, Arizona. Permission: lations of subtotals, efficiency because the exterior walls would take up unassigned space.
Albanese-Brooks Assoc. PC factors, and totals can be pre- Assume for simplicity that the walls were one foot thick and that
pared. the exterior was exactly 50' x 100'-then the net-to-gross ratio
It is also possible to develop would be 4, 704 net square feet divided by 5,000 gross square
more detailed illustrations of feet, a building efficiency of 94 percent. If the building were
some of the required spaces. larger or the walls thinner the efficiency would be even higher,
This is sometimes done for perhaps 95 percent. The "grossing factor"-the percentage
offices, with size variations and difference between the net and gross square feet-in this case
furnishing differences for would be 5 or 6 percent (Fig. 7-25).
various personnel, from the In fact, most simple
chief executives to the secre- warehouses will in-
tarial staff. If used, the prelim- clude an office or two,
inary standards developed by at least one restroom, a
the programming group will janitor's closet, some
need to be reviewed in an exec- office storage, a recep-
utive work session to be certain tion area, and a short
that they are acceptable before hallway to connect
being incorporated into the them to the warehouse.
programming document (Fig. 7- Interior partitions will
24). be required
Figure 7-24 Typical Office Standards. Building Efficiency to create these separa
Credit: Martha O'Mara, 1985. The Programming of Office Interiors in Programming the Built tions. As a result, the
Environment. Ed. W. F. E. Preiser. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Permission: Wolfgang F. E.
When all of the required
spaces have been identified expected efficiency of Figure 7-25 Basic Warehouse.
Preiser
and square
 394 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Program Preparation 395

most simple ware- based on experience. It is of great importance to educate the client
houses would be closer of its reality and importance. As a programmer, it is better to err
to 85 or 90 percent toward the less efficient so that the associated costs can be built
(Fig. 7-26). into the preliminary cost analysis. Clearly, the cost of a building
For most building can vary 10 to 30 percent or even more based on unassigned
types, the efficiency is space. It is better, therefore, to estimate on the low side of
not nearly as high as efficiency and try to determine the relative importance or priority
for a warehouse. Acad- of some program requirements, so that if something must be
emic buildings, for in- eliminated or reduced in size. to achieve a satisfactory design
stance, will often have solution, no one will be needlessly surprised or the design quality
an efficiency of be- unnecessarily compromised.
tween 60 and 70 per- Calculation of efficiency during programming is rather simple:
cent, and this does not net square feet divided by expected efficiency equals gross square
Figure 7-26 Warehouse with Office Space. allow for spacious en- feet:
tryways, corridors, or,
especially, two- or
three-story interior spaces. Two-story spaces
1.Circulation 15-25%
2.Mechanical 05-10%
are less efficient than one-story spaces. Not
3.Walls, Partitions, Structure 07-10% very surprising, perhaps, but often forgotten by
4.Toilets (public) 1.5-2.5% beginning programmers and designers, who try
Detailed discussions of this topic are contained in Pefia et al.
5.Janitor Closets 0.2-1.0% to ignore that such spaces require higher walls,
6.Unassigned Storage 0.3-1.5% (1987) and Kumlin (1995). This author would recommend both
use space from the level above, and often sources as essential reading to programming· practitioners who
Total 30-50%
require greater circulation and wall space at the need to be aware of the differing ways of counting efficiency used
Figure 7-27 Unassigned Space Variations upper level. Arizona State University, for throughout the building industry.
Adapted from: (Pena et al., 1987), 109. Permission: American In-
instance, requires that all two-story volumes be
stitute of Architects and HOK counted as one and one half times their actual 7.9 Relationship Matrices and Diagrams
assignable square foot area to account for the
added costs related to the decrease in building • Relationship Matrices
efficiency. • Relationship Diagrams
Administration 55% A major public building such as a civic au-
Student Center 60%
ditorium or city hall may have an efficiency as Understanding relationships is a very basic and important part
Science Building 60% of architectural programming.
Dormitory 60%
low as 50 percent to allow for development of
major circulation areas, multiple-story halls, There are at least three distinct levels at which relationships are
Auditorium 60%
Museum 65% major atriums, or other similarly grand spaces. important. The first is the relationship of activities within an
Library 65% The following charts indicate the probable organization. The second is the relationship of activities to objects
Academic 65% range of unassigned space and efficiencies for or places. The third is the relationship between different objects
Physical Education 70% various building types (Figs. 7-27 and 7-28). and/ or places. All three types of relationships are important to the
Building Services 75% architectural designer. They will be discussed briefly before
It should be clear at this point that the
grossing factor is, in fact, an educated guess showing how such relationships can be described through the use
Figure 7-28 Typical Building Efficiencies of matrices and diagrams.
Adapted from: (Pena et al., 1987), 110. Permission: American In-
stitute of Architects and HOK
Does food preparation normally have a close/essential rela-
tionship with eating? What about eating with food preparation?
396 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 397

In most household situations, A final type of relation

the obvious answer would be ship would be the relation-
"yes" to both questions. What ship between the different
about in a restaurant? Or what objects or places. Does the
about for a picnic? Or for dining room relate to the
vending machines? The an- kitchen? Does the kitchen
swers to these questions are relate equally or identically
less clear. Does food prepara- to the dining room? Does
tion have a close/ essential re- the dining room relate to the
lationship with sleeping or bedroom? Does the bed-
bathing? Probably not. What room relate to the kitchen?
about breakfast in bed? Some These rooms do or do not
people look forward to this relate to each other based on
luxury. Some hotels advertise the activities they contain. A
it as a special service to attract programmer can make rela-
visitors. People in hospitals tionship diagrams by un-
often eat in bed. However, derstanding their individual
they usually do not eat while relationships (Fig. 7-31).
they sleep-unless they are Important relationships
being fed intravenously. In between defined spaces or Figure 7-31 Kitchen Relationship Diagram.
Figure 7-29 Person Eating in Bed.
every case there is a different areas are initially shown on
Credit: Carl Okazaki
relationship between food brown sheets or grid paper during work sessions, as described in
preparation and the point of Chapter 6. However, it is the underlying activity to place relation-
consumption. The program- ships that must be understood to define the space relationships.
mer must discover the actual In fact, the programmer needs to have a good understanding of
relationships and not make all of the relationships between activities, objects, and places in
assumptions based on limited order to know which activities and objects can and should be sep-
past experience (Fig. 7-29). arated into distinct spaces or rooms, and which will work better in
Maybe a better question is: one common area. For example, the arguments continue between
"Where are all the places that the merits of open office arrangements and offices in separate
a person in this organization rooms. The fact is that some office activities can occur in the same
eats?" This would be the space, while other activities must be separated to be most effective.
second important level of re- What is the nature of separation needed? Visual? Aural?
lationship that should be un- Olfactory? Thermal? Perhaps the secretary or even a whole group
derstood by the designer-the of secretaries and their furnishings and equipment need only be
relationship of activities to visually separated from the circulation space to avoid distraction
Figure 7-30 Plan of Kitchen Triangle. objects or places. A particu- by passersby.
Credit: See (Green et al 1975), 74. Permission: Michigan State Housing Development Authority
larly good example of the im- Someone who needs to concentrate on a difficult mental task,
portance of the relationship however, may need acoustical separation from everyone else, to be
of activities to objects is found in the kitchen, where most cooks able "to hear oneself think!" An officer or manager who deals with
like to have a logical, efficient, and timesaving arrangement in or- personnel matters may need both visual and acoustical separation
der to .conserve effort (Fig. 7-30). to provide a higher degree of privacy. Heat generated by
 398 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 399

some computing equipment or to see how each space relates to every other space.
perhaps by groups of people If large numbers of spaces have no essential
in meetings may necessitate relationship with most other spaces, the matrix
separate spaces in order to may reveal some important overall patterns of
maintain adequate thermal relationships when completed. For instance,
control. Noise generated by logical departments or work units might be
copy machines, and the revealed by obvious clusters of related spaces or
people that use them, may rooms. However, if the building has a very large
dictate separation for acousti- number of individual spaces, use of the matrix can
cal reasons. Whoever decides be mind boggling. It may require following along
spatial relationships must un- with a finger or ruler so as not to jump from one
derstand the relationships of cell to another, and the overall effect can be
the activities and objects to be disorienting, owing to the large number of
housed in each of the spaces relationships shown (Figs. 7-34 and 7-35). Figure 7-34 Simple Relationship Matrix.
in order to make appropriate The author has found that most clients find this Credit: Fourth Year Design Studio with Professor Hershberger,
decisions (Fig. 7-32). type of relationship indicator to be confusing. 1986. Gilbert Municipal Complex Program. Gilbert, Arizona.
School of Architecture, Arizona State University
These indicators actually work best if developed
in the programmer's office as a systematic way of
Figure 7-32 Annotated Plan of an Office. Relationship Matrices making certain that every possible spatial
relationship has been considered. The matrices
Credit: Arquitectura, 1990. Program for Tucson Water Eatside Water Satellite Operations Facility. A system frequently used to
Tucson, Arizona. Permission: Arquitectura, Ltd. can then be useful as a step toward developing
develop and show how vari-
individual space relationship diagrams that
ous spaces relate is the rela-
visually show how each space relates to other
tionship matrix. In this case,
every identified space is lo- spaces.
RELATIONSHIP MATRIX
cated vertically along one side
Gallery of the matrix. Lines at a 45-
Studio degree angle to the end of
each identified space extend
Relationship Diagrams
Office
Computer
to provide one cell connecting The basic relationship diagram employs small cir-
each space to every other cles or "bubbles," each of which contains the
Storage
Bathroom space. A simple distinguish- name of one of the identified spaces. The bubble
Mechanical able code can be used to show representing the space under consideration is
the nature of the relationship drawn first, then other spaces relating to it are
• Negative relationship 0 between the spaces (Fig. 7- indicated in additional bubbles placed near the
Positive relationship none
Relationship arbitrary
33). first bubble. Typically, only those spaces that
Preparation of such a ma- have an important relationship to the first space
A Studio and Art Gallery Program Page 14 trix can be even more helpful are included in the diagram. For instance, in a
if there are a large number of house, the living room may not have an essential
Figure 7-33 Simple Relationship Matrix. individual spaces and/ or relationship to the sleeping areas, kitchen, or Figure 7-35 Complex Relationship Matrix.
Credit: Chris Barta, Kevin Camp, Dan Clavin, and Shauna Herminghouse, 1992. A Program for complex relationships. Each garage, so these spaces would not be included in a Credit: Fourth Year Design Studio with Professor Hershberger,
the Design of an Artist's Studio and Art Gallery. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona diagram showing relationships \to the living
line of cells can be followed 1986. Gilbert Municipal Complex Program. Gilbert, Arizona.
School of Architecture, Arizona State University
400 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 401

room (Fig. 7-36). Each of the non-dimensional ships with circumstantial ones. This
bubbles represents a space identified in the program. can be ensured if the initial
The center bubble is the one to which the other diagrams are developed for one
spaces are being related. The relationships between space at a time and do not go be-
the spaces are indicated by simple lines. They could yond its relationships with other
also be shown with different line weights, colors, or spaces. In other words, the pro-
other characteristics to indicate the nature of the grammer should not begin with one
relationships. This more elaborate system works large diagram in which every
well for buildings for which there may be a number activity/space is related to every
of different kinds of relationships to express. The other activity. Unlike the relation-
lower diagram shows two types of relationships (Fig. ship matrix, this will distort rela-
7-3 7). tionships, because bubbles placed
For simple buildings, it may also be possible to in close proximity to other bubbles
prepare a diagram which, like the relationship ma- may appear to be more related
trix, shows the interrelationships of all interior and when they actually are only Figure 7-38 Overall Relationship Diagram.
exterior spaces (Fig. 7-38). artifacts of a spatially organized Credit: Sing Kuai Ng, 1987. Program for a Blue Print Shop. Permission: School of Archi-
tecture, Arizona State University
However, as the building becomes more com- diagramming system (Fig. 7-40).
plex, it is difficult to prepare such a diagram without
Figure 7-36 Simple Relationship Diagram.
implying some relationships that
may not exist. In this case, it may
be necessary to relate
only the established major zones
of the building (Figs. 7-39) .
When the bubbles are kept
separate, heavy-, medium-, and
light-weight lines can be used as a
code to indicate strong, moderate,
and weak relationships. Or the
code can be more specific and
even indicate visual, auditory,
olfactory, and thermal rela-
tionships. The code should be
clearly indicated and relate to
what the designer needs to know
to provide an adequate en-
vironment for the activities to
be accommodated.
For purposes of architectural
programming, relationship dia Figure 7-40 Complex Relationship Diagram.
Figure 7-37 Simple Relationship Diagram. Figure 7-39 Zoning Diagram.
grams should be kept very simple Credit: Anderson DeBartolo Pan, Inc, 1986. City of Tucson Main Library Program.
Credit: Mark Poppe, Dave Truman, and Ed Binkley, 1985. Ar-
Credit: Tim Bjella, Randy Jones, and Neil Urban, 1986. Program for the New Architecture chitectural Program for a Real Estate Office. Permission:
Building. Permission: School of Architecture, Arizona State University
so as not to confuse real relation- Tucson, Arizona. Permission: ADP Marshall School of Architecture, Arizona State University
402 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Program Preparation 403

LOCATION CRITERIA:
With a large or highly inter- It may be possible and
related facility, there could be desirable to develop rela-
FIRST LEVEL
so many overlapping lines be- tionship diagrams in
space entry street campus service daylight view outdoor hours
tween related bubbles that the which whole groups of
Atrium
• • • •0 0 24 24
diagram would become very spaces are combined, as
complex and confusing. Efforts
Hearth
• 0• • 0 to reorganize the diagram to
with the distinct depart-
Copy Center

Newsstand
• 14

14 make it less confusing could

ments of a large organiza-
• x x 24 embody preconceptions about
tion. It is important,
•
Student Lockers 0

however, not to make

24 the final design. Thus, it may be
Student Mailboxes
• •
0
such diagrams until it is
Super Bathrooms x x 24 more helpful to the designer to clear from earlier rela-
0 8 use a separate diagram for each
Student Development

Center Management
• • • 14 space, department, or zone.
tionship analysis that the
•
• • •
0

departments or activities
Facilities/Event Planning 8 Sometimes the use of a chart is
• • •
0

actually exist and should

0 14 more effective in conveying
•
CAC Desk
be maintained as distinct
Callegium 5 & 6 0 0 24 complex zoning information
Conversation Nooks
• • • 24 (Fig. 7-41) .
spatial units. For instance,
• • • •
0

every organizational
0 0 0 8 It is actually quite difficult
•
Center far Leadership
department of a major
Pathways & Wellness Ctr 0 0 0 8 to devise a clear and easily un-
Meeting Room 0 •0 0 0 24 derstood system of diagrams,
office building may
indicate a need for good
Poster Area 0 0 0 24 codes, and charts to explain all access to photocopying
0 0 24 the kinds of relationships which
ASSU

Student Clubs 0
• •
0 0 0 24 should be accommodated in
equipment. Does this
mean that every depart-
design. Thus, a combination of
Vending Machine Area

Cade
•
Hours
24
diagrams, charts, and text is
ment will need to have its
own reproduction space,
often required. Basic proximate
•0 =VeryExtremely Important =
Important
8
14
= Bam-5 pm =
Bam-10 pm = all
relations can be illustrated in a
or that a single reproduc-
=Important 24 day tion space should be con-
x
= No Relationship
= Negative Relationship
relationship diagram and the veniently located to all
specific types of sensory departments? A good un-
Figure 7-41 Locational Criteria. separations or connections can derstanding of the orga-
Credit and Permission: Walter Moleski, ERG, 1998, Spatial Organization, University Center, be covered beneath the diagram nization is necessary to
Seattle University using short de- make such decisions. Figure 7-42 Zoning Relationship Diagram.
scriptive phrases. Similarly, would a client Credit: Corky Poster, W. Kirby Lockard, Chris Evans, Kim Kuykendall, Scott Pask, and Donna Sink, 1988.
The programmer should avoid initiating diagrams that have want to organize the ad- University of Arizona Poetry Center, Building Program and Site analysis. Permission: Architecture Laboratory,
Inc.
design preconceptions built into them. However, if a client group ministrative offices in a
insists that a particular design idea or approach is mandatory, it separate department, or
certainly makes sense to communicate this to the designer, so that distribute these offices among the various departments? Only when
he/she will at least consider the preconception during design. The activity areas or organizational units are known to be spatially dis-
designer always has the prerogative of challenging such precon- tinct should overall diagrams be utilized. When such information is
ceptions and of trying to convince the client to accept a different known, diagrams can be useful in revealing the overall conceptual
design resolution. organization appropriate for design\(Fig. 7-42).
 404 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 405

7.10 Space
Program Sheets
A very effective way to il-
lustrate specific design re-
quirements for a building is
to include a space program
sheet for each identified
space. These sheets
typically include statements
regarding the purpose, the
square foot allocations, and
the important relationships
for each space. They also
include information about
the types and numbers of
people who will use the
Figure 7-43 Space Program Sheet. space; the activities in
Credit: Chris Barta, Kevin Camp, Dan Clavin, and Shauna Herminghouse, 1992. A Program for the which people will be en-
Design of an Artists Studio and Art Gallery. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona
gaged at various times of
the day, week, and year;
furnishing and equipment
needs; and any other re-
quirements that can help the
designer make decisions
about configuration and Figure 7-45 Space Program Sheet. Figure 7-46 Space Program Sheet.
layout of the particular Credit: Kevin Burson and Nicole Halfen, Arch. 202, Section 1, 1998. Credit: Michael Feerer, 1977. Family Services Ward Environmental/Ar-
chitectural Programming for Atascadero State Mental Hospital, Atas-
space. Figures 7-43 through Catalina United Methodist Day School program. College of Architecture,
cadero, California. Permission: Michael Feerer
The University of Arizona
7-46 show space program
sheets from several
programming firm and pared in the programmer's office, based on all of the information
student projects. gathering activities including the client/user work sessions. The
As can be seen from the sheets are then included in the final draft copy of the program
previous illustrations, space document, which can be circulated throughout the client's orga-
program sheets can have a nization for review, comment, and correction. The space program
great deal of variability in sheets will be of greatest interest to those most likely to use the
format and content. But space, and will be subject to their scrutiny. The results of review
their purpose remains es- can be an important fine tuning of project requirements, which may
sentially the same-to pro- save considerable designer time and energy. It is important that the
Figure 7-44 Space Program Sheet. vide a complete miniature designer know about the particular requirements of each space
Credit: Arquitectura, 1990. Program for Tucson Water Eastside Water Satellite Operations Facility. program for the space cov- even during schematic designs A careful programming effort is
Tucson, Arizona. Permission: Arquitectura Ltd. ered. They are usually pre- likely to turn up all of the needed information.
 406 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 407

After receiving the marked-up space program sheets, it may be financial implications of what they are trying to achieve. What
necessary to have another work session to sort out the importance clients likely will not understand is how much building they can get
of various suggestions. Here again the decision makers within the for their money. If they are interested in building a new house, they
client's organization will need to listen to the arguments for addi- probably have been talking with others who have built new houses
tional space, equipment, furnishings, and the like from various di- in recent years, or have been looking at prices of developer houses
visions of the organization and decide what they can support or not in their locality. Unfortunately, this cost information may have little
support, based on the budget and various other important issues set relationship with the actual cost of constructing a new, custom-
forth in the program. designed house. The owner's figures for custom housing may be
several years out-of-date and not account for inflation, while the
figures for developer housing will reflect cost savings attributable to
7.11 Budget and Cost Analysis size of operation. In the Tucson metropolitan area, for instance,
most developer houses were being built for between
• Owner's Budget
$60 and $70 per square foot in
• Construction Costs 1995, but custom houses by
architects were running from $90
• Project Costs
to over $200 per square foot,
• Life Cycle Costs depending on the quality of
materials and treatments
Owner's Budget specified. The costs of custom
If the construction budget is fixed, this should be stated clearly in houses also appeared to be in-
the program. If it can vary depending on the quality and character flating at a greater rate than de-
of the design, this should also be made known. If market conditions veloper housing. Similarly,
or specifics of financing are crucial areas of concern, then these speculative industrial buildings
should be covered in the program or in a companion document could not exceed $25 to $30 per
prepared by specialists in these areas. This should be an integral square foot, or they would price
part of programming, so that the stated requirements will be for a themselves out of the market. It
facility that the client can afford to build. It makes little was possible to use only a few
sense to prepare a program ignoring highly competitive building
the realities of the client's budget. systems and configurations to
The budget will almost always be an keep the cost in this range. The
area of client concern and will be same financial reality impacts
included as a primary value area nearly every kind of building
(Fig. 7-4 7). construction activity.
Construction cost data for ""'
Construction Costs buildings in the United States is "''"
readily available for most build-
Clients generally have a good idea "'"
ing types. The current versions
of what they can afford to spend on "
of the Means Square Foot Costs
the construction of a new facility. If
and Marshall Valuation Service
Figure 7-47 Budget Card from Matrix. not, they will develop this informa-
are good examples (Fig. 7-48
Credit: Arquitectura, 1988. Pre-Design Workbook, Verde Meadows Recreation Center. tion early in the programming
through 7-50). These sources Figure 7-48 Means Construction Cost Sheet.
Tucson, Arizona. Permission: Arquitectura Ltd. process as they begin to realize the
 408 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

Program Preparation 409

can be very useful in architectural

programming because they con- and sometimes bitter and costly
tain average costs for various process which may include costs
building types. The most useful ones for extensive redesign and even
for programming separate the costs of litigation to establish who is
into high, medium, and low responsible for underestimating
averages; show the kinds of costs. All such situations can be
construction systems that lead to avoided by early recognition and
these various averages; and provide resolution of potential budgetary
factors to modify the costs for problems).
particular regions of the country. The LMRector Corporation
The programmer can use this publishes a bimonthly magazine,
information to project a probable Design Cost Data, that contains
range of construction costs for the similar current information (Fig.
facility even before any design 7-51).
studies have begun, based on the Sources such as the ones dis-
projected square footage and de- cussed above can be obtained in
Figure 7-49 Means Construction Cost Contents. sired quality of materials and sys- some public and university li-
From Means Square Foot Costs 1996. Copyright R.S. Means Co., lnc., Kingston, MA, 617- tems. The ability to do this with braries, and in the offices of ar-
585-7880, all rights reserved. chitects, contractors, and real
reasonable accuracy is very im-
portant. If it appears that the costs estate professionals who use
will be too high, then the program them on a daily basis to estimate
can be modified in terms of size, the costs of projects. They should
quality, or both. be obtained and utilized by the
architectural programmer to
It is better to confront budgetary
estimate the range of possible
problems at this early stage of the
costs for the buildings being
building development process than
programmed.
to keep the client happy for the
moment, suggesting that he/she can
have everything desired, when, in
fact, it is evident that the budget is Project Costs
not sufficient to construct the Figure 7-51 LMRector Design Cost Data Sheet.
Many owners and architects get
LMRector Corporation. Jan/Feb 1997. Design Cost Data. Volume 41, Number 1.
building. When this happens no one into trouble by thinking that the Credit:
Permission: LMRector Corporation.
wins. The programmer appears construction cost is the bottom
incompetent, the designer appears line for a building project.
inadequate, and the owner, belatedly, In reality there are other costs which increase the overall or project
has to find additional money or budget well beyond the construction cost. These costs include the
reevaluate the program and decide cost of the land, taxes, and debt retirement during construction, and
Figure 7-50 Marshall Evaluator Cost Data Sheet. which requirements are really fees for architectural programming, financial feasibility studies,
Credit: Marshall & Swift, LP., 1995. Marshall Valuation Service. Los Angeles, California: important. This is a difficult architectural and engineering services, governmental approvals,
Marshall & Swift, LP. Permission: Marshall & Swift, LP.
and permits. They also include costs for site surveys and soils tests,
archeological surveys where required, landscape
 41 O Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 411

and interior design services, ready been acquired, only local realtors and
• Building Cost (gross sq. ft. ¥sq. ft. cost)
site and off-site develop- appraisers will be able to predict the cost of
• Fixed Equipment (5% to 25% of A) ment, moveable furnishings acquisition. Even then, a property owner may
• Site Development (5% to 25% of A) and equipment, additional want considerably more (or less) than market
staff to monitor the project, value for the desired land parcel. Administra-
• Total Construction Cost (A+ B + C)
and the financing costs to tive costs, while normally one to two percent
• Site Acquisition/Preparation (check with appraiser/contractor) secure a mortgage. of the cost of the project, may reach as high as
• Moveable Equipment (5% to 25% of A) These and all other costs 15 percent in some institutional settings where
• Professional Fees (5% to 15% of D)
associated with the project elaborate facilities planning, construction, and
can add up to an amount management programs are partially supported
• Contingencies (5% to 15% of D) substantially greater than the by building projects.
• Administrative Costs (1 % to 10% of D) construction cost. They The percentage factors for site
• Total Project Cost (Add D through J) must be factored into the development, equipment and furnishings,
cost picture, or the client architectural fees, and contingency are likely to
could end up with a project vary from one locality to another, with the size
Figure 7-52 Project Cost Estimating Categories
costing well beyond the of the site, from one building type to another,
Adapted from: (Pefia et al., 1987), 115. Permission: American Institute of Architects and HOK
available funds. It is neces- and from one architect to another. At the Figure 7-53 Project Cost Estimating Form
sary, therefore, to include programming stage it is possible at least to Adapted from: (Pefia et al., 1987), 115. Permission: American Institute
of Architects and HOK
all such costs in the archi- develop a realistic range of these costs (Fig. 7-
tectural program. If the total 53).
project cost exceeds the The following is an estimate BUILDING SQUARE FOOTAGE Net
Square Footage= 6,235
funds available, it will be necessary to reassess the program to de- prepared during programming for 95% Efficient
Gross Square Footage = 6,547
termine what can be reduced to bring the project within budget. A a small high-bay workshop
project cost estimate can be developed using the categories shown addition to the College of Archi-
in Fig. 7-52. tecture at The University of Ari- LOW AVERAGE MED AVERAGE HIGH AVERAGE

The question, then, is how does the programmer determine each zona utilizing the above system of Building $229,145 $294,615 $392,820
Cost
of the above costs? It is not simple or automatic. Some of the cost cost estimating. Note the con- 5% 6% 7%
Fixed
figures are contained in the aforementioned estimating guides and siderable differences between the Equipment $11,457 $17,677 $27,497

in the R. S. Means Company's Means Estimating Handbook ( 19 90). low, medium, and high estimates Site 5% 10% 20%
Development $11,457 $29,462 $78,564
Others can be found in Pefia et al.' s book Problem Seeking (1987) (Fig. 7-54).
Total $252,059 $341,754 $498,881
and Kumlin's book Architectural Programming (1995). Most other Providing for a range of costs Construction
books on construction cost estimating contain the more detailed will allow the client to set the Movable
10% 10% 10%
Equipment
estimating done by contractors and are not usable at this early stage project budget at the level needed $22,915 $29,462 $39,282
8% 10% 12%
of the project. to obtain the quality of building Professional
Fees $20,165 $34,175 $59,866
It is advisable to provide a range of estimated costs because materials, systems, site Contingencies 5% 10% 15%
many of the areas of cost are not known at this early stage of a development, furnishings, and $12,646 $34,175 $74,832

project. The architect/ engineer fees may not have been established. equipment desired. It is very im- Administrativ 1% 2% 3%
e Costs
The building configuration, materials, and systems have not been portant that the cost estimate be $2,521 $6,835 $14,966

established. Where the building is sited and how it is configured realistic, and especially not un- $310,306 $446,401 $687,827
Total
will have a major impact on site development costs. Costs of fixed reasonably low, so that the de- Budget
Required
and moveable equipment vary considerably based on quality and signer can produce a design of
quantity of items purchased. If the site has not al- suitable quality within the budget.
In this regard, the program Figure 7-54 Small Project Cost Estimate.
412 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 413

might state some caveats

A. Building Cost Secondary School 20%
explaining that actual de- Net Area « Efficiency Ratio= Gross Area Special Conditions 30%
sign configuration, building Gross Area x Unit Cost = Building cost (rock excavation, steep slopes, etc.)
efficiency, material and
Example:
system selection, inflation, D. Total Construction Cost
and the like will have a sig- 12,000 Net SF -i- .60 = 20,000 Gross SF
nificant impact on costs, so 20,000 Gross SF x $140/SF = $2,800,000 Sum of A+ B + C
that the final costs to build E. Site Acquisition and Preparation (real
the facility may differ from B. Fixed Equipment estate appraiser, contractor)
the estimate provided in the Percentage of Line A
program document. A 5% 10- F. Movable Equipment
Low
contingency allowance of 5 Medium
15% Percentage of Line A
to 10 per- 20% Low 5%
High
30%
cent of the construction Very High Medium 10-15%
estimate is also advisable Commercial Office .5-7% High 20%
and usual in most sophis- Sports Center 5% 6- Elementary School 6-10%
Elementary School 10%
ticated programming doc- Secondary School 8-12%
Secondary School 8-12%
uments to account for University Academic Bldg. 7%
College 10-15%
Figure 7-55 Small Project Cost Esimate.
unexpected cost increases Civic Center 8% Library 15%
Credit: Chris Barta, Kevin Camp, Dan Clavin, and Shauna Herminghouse, 1992. Program for a Studio and
Art Gallery. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona (Fig. 7-55). Medical Office Bldg. 15%
The ranges for construction costs can be found in the Means and Housing Project 7-10%
University Average Building Hospital 18-20%
Marshall estimating literature. The estimates for the other items are 14%
Jail Vocational School 20%
12-15%
generally based on firm experience. In this text we will use the School of Medicine 15%
Church/Synagogue 5-10%
experience of CRS as contained in Pena et al. (1987) to arrive at Hospital 18-20%
the possible range of project costs (Fig. 7-56). University Science Bldg 20% G. Professional Fees (including consultants)
Civic Auditorium 20-25%
In addition to the costs shown in Fig. 7-56, it may be necessary Percentage of Line D
Heavy Industrial Arts 30%
to consider the costs for interim and permanent financing of the Teaching Dental Laboratory Varies from 5% to 15% (See Figure 7-71)
30% 5-
project and for cost escalation should the project schedule cover a Church/Synagogue
15% H. Contingencies (Percentage of Line D)
lengthy time period. These can be added as separate categories
following category "K." They will be somewhat like those shown Low 5
C. Site Development Medium %
in Fig. 7-57 on the following page. High 10
Still other costs are shown in a project cost budget included in Percentage of Line A
%
the competition program for the new architecture building at Ari- 5% 10- J. Administrative Costs 15
Low
15% %
zona State University (Fig. 7-58). Note that this estimate contains a Medium
20% Percentage of Line D varies from 1 % to 10%
number of the project costs noted above as well as a number not High
Very High 30%
mentioned. This is to be expected. Every project will have its par- K. Total Budget Required
Urban Site 5%
ticular environment and associated costs. The programmer must 6-12% Sum of D + E + F + G + H + J = K
Elementary School
make certain that all of the anticipated costs are included in the 10-15%
Secondary School
project budget/ cost estimate. Suburban Site 14-15%
Hospital 10-15%

Figure 7-56 Calculation of Project Costs

Adapted from: (Pena et al., 1987), 104-105. Permission: American Institute of Architects and HOK
414 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 415

Similarly, a plan in Some owners are willing to pay more for the NORTHMINSTER PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH TUCSON ARIZONA
L. Interim Financing Cost volving major additions building initially, if it means that the continuing Consultation by Robert Hershberger, Ph.D., FAIA October 1, 1995
Percentage of Amount Borrowed (1.5% to 2.5% above prime per year of
and renovations to an costs of operations and maintenance can be PROJECT PHASING RECOMMENDATION
construction)
existing church facility reduced. In fact, nearly all construction costs are PHASE #1

M. Permanent Financing Cost required two separate financed over a period of years, so that they are 1.
2.
Chancel Addition/Case Organ
Equipment Yard
695,000
10,000
3. Rowley Fellowship Hall 600,000
Percentage of Amount Borrowed (varies from 1 % to 2.5% above prime) estimates, because con- covered by the continuing receipts of the 4. Adm in Renovation 72,000
5. Drive Through 5,000
5,000
struction was to be organization. These costs, which are often fixed, 6. Drop~off/ Fountain
s
N. Cost Escalation 7. Phase #1 Construction Total $1,387,000

Percentage of Line K (has varied from under 3% to over 10%) phased over several are accompanied for the life of the building with 9. Prof. Fees (10% of 117)
138,700
69,350
s
s
1 O. Moveable Equip/Furnish (5% of #7)
operations and maintenance costs, which are not s
years. In this case, the 11. Admln Costs (1% of #7)
12. Contingencies (10% of #7)
13,870
138,700

Figure 7-57 Additional Project Costs. systems and materials of fixed. In recent years the operations and 13. Phase #1 Total Project Cost $1,747,620

the new work were well maintenance costs have escalated rapidly to the PHASE #2

1. Youth and Choir Building 576,000

defined during the point where they often exceed the mortgage 2. Elementary Classroom Renovations 92,000
108,00
3. Preschool Renovations
consultation so that the construc- costs. If this is an area of concern, the owner may 4.
5.
Adult Classroom Renovations
Balcony Renovations
0
100,00
6. New Parking 0

tion cost and other project costs wish to spell out a strategy whereby the initial 7. Landscaping
B. Covered Walks 9. New
57,000
10,000
30,000
could be accurately estimated (Fig. costs are increased in order to reduce the Signs
1 0. Gate System
50,000
10,000
11. Memorial Courtyard

7-59). potentially high costs later on. This activity is 12. Phase 112 Construction Total
5,000
50,000

Note that it is possible to be referred to as life cycle costing, and can be a very 13.
14.
Prof. Fees {10% of #12)
Moveable Equip/Furnish (5% of #12)
$1,088,000
108,800

more precise in a number of areas, important consideration in programming. 15.

16.
Admin Costs (1% of #12)
Contingencies (10% of #12)
60,400
10,880
17. Purchase Residence 108,800
as the particular nature of a project 18. Phase #2 Total Project Cost
200,000

becomes. evident. For example, the TOTAL PROJECT COST

$1,576,BBD

$3,324,500
Means Estimating Handbook has
charts showing the average costs Figure 7-59 Project Phasing Cost Estimate.
for architectural and engineering
fees for a variety of project types 7.12 Project Schedule
(Figs. 7-60 and 7-61). When time is of the essence, a project schedule is
included as a brief separate section of the
program, so that it will not be lost in the text and
possibly be seen as unimportant by the designer.
This schedule should address every phase of the Figure 7-60 Architectural Fees for Small Projects.
Life Cycle Costs Permission: From Means Estimating Handbook. Copyright R.S.
project to be most effective-programming,
Means Co., Inc., Kingston, MA, 617-585-7880, all rights reserved.
If operating or maintenance costs design, construction, and occupancy. If the owner
are important considerations, and must vacate present facilities on a specific date,
they are with most clients, then or the building must be completed by a certain
performance requirements relating time to meet bonding or other financial
to energy consumption of the requirements, an achievable schedule should be
various mechanical and electrical set forth indicating what the client and architect
systems, as well as heat loss and must accomplish by a certain time to complete
Figure 7-58 Preliminary Construction Budget. gain from the building systems, the design and construction documents on sched-
Credit: Competition Program, 1986. ASU Project #125-2E. Permission: College of Ar- may need to be spelled out. ule. A similar schedule should indicate when
chitecture and Environmental Design, Arizona State University
Likewise, the costs to main- various phases of construction must be complete
tain the building and systems in to allow the scheduled occupancy to take place
Figure 7-61 Architectural Fees for Larger Projects .
proper working order and projections of their useful lives (how (Figs. 7-62 and 7-63). Permission: From Means Estimating Handbook. Copyright R.S.
often they will have to be replaced) may also be important. Means Co., lnc., Kingston, MA, 617-585-7880, all rights reserved.
 416 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Program Preparation 417

As can be seen from the and construction of the in-

above two examples, a pro- frastructure of roads, utili-
ject schedule can be shown ties, and landscaping of a
in different ways. Probably major project; leaving only
the most common way is the undeveloped sites for con-
bar chart as shown above. struction of specific build-
If the schedule is very ings. While the design of the
tight, it may be necessary to master plan is proceeding,
prepare a crucial path the programming for
schedule to ensure that schematic design of specific
everything can be accom- facilities will begin. While
plished by a certain dead the foundations are being
Figure 7-62 Project Schedule. line. In this case, items that built, the schematic design
Credit: Larry Medlin and NBBJ Gresham Larson, 1988. Program far The Arizona Solar Oasis at the
simply must be accom- of the buildings will be tak- Figure 7-64 Crucial Path Schedule.
Phoenix Civic Plaza. Phoenix, Arizona. Permission: Richard Larry Medlin, Architect plished before others can ing place. If the deadline for Credit: Richard C. Maxwell and David J. Wyckoff, 1993. Interior Programming, Stacking, and Blocking
proceed are placed on the completion is tight, con- for Society National Bank. Professional Practice in Facility Programming. Wolfgang F.E. Preiser, Ed,
crucial path. Other items that struction documents for the
NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Permission: Van Nostrand Reinhold

can take place at several foundations and utility ser-

different times or throughout vices to the building will be
one phase of the project fall prepared, even before the
out of the crucial path (Fig. design of the superstructure
7-64). is complete. Similarly, the
Such a tight schedule can shell of the building may be
have a profound effect not under construction even
only on how the work is before design development
processed, but also on the programming and detailed
final design character of the design of the interior are
building itself. The designer complete (Fig. 7-65).
must carefully choose sys- The above theoretical ex-
tems that can be placed in a ample indicates how the
very systematic way to avoid foundations could be fast
unplanned delays in tracked such that when the
construction. rest of construction is bid , Figure 7-65 Fast-Track Schedule.
Figure 7-63 Project Schedule. It may be necessary to the foundations would al-
Credit: Arquitectura, 1988. Pre-Design Workbook, Verde Meadows Recreation Center. Tucson, Arizona. fast track a project in order ready be in place and ready
Permission: Arquitectura Ltd.
to reduce the time from be- to receive the superstruc-
ginning to completion. This ture of the building.
process involves major overlaps of what are normally discrete Clearly, when such a collapsed process is undertaken, assump-
phases of the work. For example, it might require initial develop- tions must be made about the probable character of yet unpro-
ment of a master plan program followed by design, development, grammed or designed facilities. In. the master plan, enough room
I
must be left and services provided for the anticipated buildings.
418 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager • Program Preparation 419

When footings are constructed • Design Concepts

Table at left is average construction time in months for different types of building projects. Table at right is the
construction time in months for different size projects. Design time runs 25ct. to 40% of construction time. before design is complete for • Design Exploration
the building, the designers must
Type Building Construction Time Project varue Construction Time
correctly anticipate the configu- There may also be ideas about an appropriate design solution
Industrial Burldmgs 12 Months Under Sl,400,000 10 Months
Commercial Buildings 15 Months Up to S3,BOO.OOO 15 Months ration and loads of the super- that the client, user, or programmer wants the architect to consider
Research & Development 18 Months Up to $19,000.000 21 Months
structure. Almost inevitably, when designing the project. These are not usually considered
tnstitunonat Buildings 20 Months Over Sl9.000.000 28 Months
In order to estimate the General Requirements of a construction project. it is necessary to have an approximate this leads to master plans with requirements for design, simply ideas which have come up in the
project duration time. Duration must be determined because many items. such as supervision and temporary
facilities. are directly time variable The average durations presented in this chart will vary depending on such locations for discrete building course of the diagnostic interviewing or work sessions. If they
factors as location. complexity time of year started. local economic conditions. materials required. or rhe need
for the completed project. units and to simple buildings seem to be good ideas to the client and programmer, they are
with open, free-span floor areas, probably worth including in the program, not as design require-
Figure 7-66 Design and Construction lime. which will allow any of the an- ments, but as possible directions for the designer to explore when
Permission: From Means Estimating Handbook. Copyright R.S. Means Co., Inc., Kingston, MA, 617- ticipated but yet unprogrammed formulating the design solution.
585-7880, all rights reserved.
uses to fit reasonably well. Typ- The ideas about design should be kept in a separate concluding
ically this involves both simpli- section of the program or in the appendix, for they are a beginning
fication of form and over-sizing of spaces and services. Thus, it of the architectural design process rather than an integral part of
becomes an important influence on the design, having a profound architectural programming. The fact that design ideas come for-
effect on building form. It also may have an effect on the project ward while people are considering the nature of a problem should
budget, increasing design costs, but possibly reducing construction not seem unusual. It is human nature to consider solutions when
and financing costs. If such a tight schedule is mandatory, all of the defining problems. It should be recognized, however, that these
potential costs and savings should be given careful attention, to ideas are preconceptions, not design concepts or solutions. Indeed,
make certain that the job will remain within the project budget. as the design problem is explored, it will be found that some of the
Relative to construction time requirements, Means has some ideas are not at all appropriate and must be discarded, while other
helpful guidelines related to the time it takes to construct several ideas are very good and can be incorporated into the overall design.
different types of buildings. It also indicates that design time typ- In any case, ideas that are set forth at- any time during the
ically runs 25 to 40 percent of construction time (Fig. 7-66). programming process should be recorded and summarized in this
Programmers should develop an accurate record of time spent section of the program document.
on the various phases of the design and construction process on
every commission so that over a period of time they will be able to Client Ideas
make reasonably accurate predictions as to the time (and personnel
The classic case of design ideas being offered during programming,
resources) that will be necessary to accomplish each phase of the
work. This can be of great help to the client and architect as they perhaps, is that of the couple who has collected a whole scrapbook
move forward with a project. of ideas from Better Homes and Gardens, Sunset, and other
magazines that they think are nice and could be incorporated into
the design of their new house. Clients in corporations, businesses,
and institutions may also have design ideas, perhaps based on trade
7.13 Design Analysis journals or on personal experience with particularly effective or
ineffective building arrangements. Some novice architects may
• Client Ideas prefer to ignore such ideas, feeling they are threats to the architect's
• Precedents need for personal design expression, but many experienced
designers and programmers will encourage the client to collect and
• Programmatic Concepts preserve this material as a data bank of design ideas. There is every
• Design Precepts reason to believe that the persons who use a
420 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 421

facility will have at least some good tural programming should be included in the
ideas about the solution to particular appendix. However, particularly relevant fea-
aspects of a design problem. The tures of these buildings or typological constants
question is how best to present these should be included in the ideas section of the
ideas and not have them become program for the designer to consider. The
design preconceptions with which programmer should try to ascertain from the
the designer is forced to work. The previous solutions if a cultural norm exists or if
author feels that to treat them simply a very logical arrangement has come to
as design ideas rather than design characterize the particular building type, and
concepts is the proper approach whether departures from the norm are likely to
(Fig. 7-67). compromise the effectiveness of the design so-
If the ideas are taken from maga- lution. In other words, if the logical solution for
zines or other published documents, a particular building type has already been
they can be photocopied and demonstrated, the architect's design task may
included with footnotes crediting the not be to rediscover this essential typology, but
source and indicating why the idea rather to adapt it to the particular problem and
was considered appropriate for the site at hand and in such a way as to meet the
design solution. goals and satisfy the requirements of the par-
ticular program.
If a client or user recognizes that
A contemporary example of this is the L- Figure 7-69 Design Ideas from Observation Study.
Figure 7-67 Magazine Clippings from a Client the programmer has accepted and
shaped comer shopping center that character- Credit: Robert Osier, Donald Kidder, and Blair Saville, 1985. Pro-
recorded their ideas, they are much gram for DAX Clothing Satre. Tempe, Arizona. Permission:
izes so many major intersections in developing
more likely to be sympa- School of Architecture, Arizona State University
areas of the United States. This pattern
thetic with the final design solution, even if
recurs ad nauseam, to the point where
(n.Vllpofu~hS'tuu11t)
some or even most of their ideas were not in-
Build1ng Area .LL rose e.a?hc' v ••
(\ -\6) /lunt: (Collt<j~ u ~ Yhol•, SthD<ll of .lr~hitPCllll'! . Ou~n Sh1dios) nearly everyone wishes something more
PROGRAMMIUG MATRIX: IDEAS
corporated into the design. unique or creative could be achieved.
1. Provide n lilrgo formnl entry fo:- v Ls Lt o r aypub Li c e nd an in!ormnl, efficient
aecee e , !or 11tudrmt/!nculty.
If the client or user suggestions are given Yet, when unique approaches are tried,
2. I! nnothcr elevator i!I required in the new exp ane Lcn fncility, it
11hould be o! adequate e i z e to accommodate lilr9c ec e re model::;, omd
verbally, they should be recorded and included they apparently fail to attract the same
h11v11 direct nccall:i !rem drop-off
in the programming matrix under the ideas intensity of use, so developers return
J. Create n hicrnrchy of otnlrwcllo dii:;tinqui:;hing miljcr ve r t Lca I
ciri;ulntlon !rorn erae r-qenc y er.it.a. (A good cxnmplc of thin t c Noble
Libi·nry.)
category. If they seem to be important ideas, the again and again to the same prototype
4. Locntc hand Lcupped 111:cc110 conveniently to e Icvu tor n ,
programmer should develop suitable sketches (Fig. 7-70).
S. j nn t.a l I Loclrab Le di11pl11y eaaec adjnccnt to. ntudior; !or

6.
viewing of current 11tudcnt vecn ,

College could rr.nt out upuce to m11.nu!ncturcro which would offnct

or precept diagrams to make the ideas more
the cont o! the add.L tionnl 11qu:1re !ootnge and po1111ibly create
revenue !or !ltudcnt activitco. clear (Fig. 7-68). The developers of a shopping center
7. pccureerrt; the be11.t atudent work Ln the form of 11Uden, eucrcr.rscn,
prints, or orii;iinalt>. no thilt it can be d.i cp Layed nnd e i.ae
referenced by 11tudcnt11/illculty. It could poonibly be incorporoted
Desired images observed by the program- in Tempe, Arizona, on the other hand,
n11 o brnnch of the libr11ry.

8. Provide l milin jnformatjon tnck wnll !or di:Jplny of ncholnr11hip11.

mers in the client's existing establishment are turned the typical "L'' around and cre-
competitions, job opportunitic.11. e Le sa nchedu Lea , etc.. Al:;o
provide eeccodar y taclt bonrd:i
throughout circulation pnths for ndvertioe111ent of
shown in Fig. 7-69. ated a successful shopping area with the
ac crvr e+ee , lecturc:i, and announccmentn.

9. Locate :ioft drinka ilnd vending mnchinc:i ndjilctmt to nec cnda r y

circulntion path.
parking behind the buildings rather than
in front of them. This ap-
Figure 7-68 Design Ideas from Program Matrix. Credit: Precedents proach seems to have worked in this
David Sandvig, Rob Darney, and Chris Caroselli, 1986. College of· Information about similar buildings collected situation; however, the arrangement
Architecture and Environmental Design Expansion. Permission:
during the literature review phase of architec- precludes having a back door service Figure 7-70 L-Shaped Shopping Center.
School of Architecture, Arizona State University
area for the shops, limiting the types of Credit: Anthony Amidei, Student Assignment, 1993. Permission: College of
Architecture, The University of Arizona
422 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 423

shops that can be located in the center versus "compartmentalized" as programmatic

(Fig. 7-71). concepts.
On the other hand, some architects Similar programmatic concept cards can be
and other urbanists long for the pedes- used effectively to visually explain many of
trian-oriented shopping streets and the programmatic ideas that are expressed
squares that typify cities and villages during the programming process (Fig. 7-74).
throughout Europe and some pre-auto- With many programmatic concepts there
mobile cities and communities in the are important form implications. For example, Figure 7-73 Integrated versus Compartmentalized.
United States. Murray Silverstein and in the programs for the expansion of the Col-
Max Jacobson (1985) make a cogent lege of Architecture and Environmental
argument for an alternative program for Design at Arizona State University and
IDENTIFICATION
a community market (Fig. 7-72). of the College of Architecture at The
Other contemporary architects and University of Arizona, a marked differ- The library's public functions
and services should be CLEARLY
planners advocating for a "new urban- ence in attitude about the nature of de- IDENTIFIABLE by the patron.

ism" have made similar pleas for sign education resulted in different
pedestrian-oriented streets and shopping programmatic concepts for the arrange-
areas (Kelbaugh 1989; Katz et al. ment of design studios. At Arizona
1994). State University, it was decided that
Figure 7-71 Reverse L-Shaped Shopping Center. Similar arguments for alternative each design studio should be separate
approaches to many building types are from the others to allow the students to CIRCULATION
presented in Alexander et al.' s Pattern secure their computers and other per- The library should have e as
Language (1977) and The Oregon sonal equipment in a locked room. At i 1 y IDENTIFIABLE
MOVEMENT PATHS.
Experiment (1975). Another book, The University of Arizona, the students
Precedents in Architecture by Roger and faculty indicated that they wanted
Clark (1985), shows diagrams of large, open, even multiple year and
various systems for numerous building multiple discipline studios to promote
types. In any case, a careful literature social interaction and collaboration be-
search should reveal some alternative tween faculty and students. Security of SERVICE

patterns or approaches that can be individual workstations and equipment The library should be accessi b 1 e
presented to both the client and the are of secondary importance. Trans- to a broad range of people.

designer for their consideration. portable and personally owned laptop

computers are encouraged to reduce the
potential for theft in an unsecured
Programmatic Concepts environment. The above differences Figure 7-74 Concept Cards Sheet.
are programmatic in nature, but have Credit Anderson De Bartolo Pan, Inc. Architects, 1986. Program for the City of
In Problem Seeking (1969, 1977, 1987) very strong formal implications. Tucson Main Library. Tucson, Arizona. Permission: ADP Marshall
William Pena et al. argued for including
Such "ideas" can be expressed in
programmatic concepts in the program
diagrams to make them more under-
document. He defined "programmatic
standable to the designer than if they were expressed only in words
concepts" as those concepts having
(Figs. 7-75 and 7-76). While such programmatic concept diagrams
primarily organizational or operational
Figure 7-72 Community Market Diagram. do not specifically show '1how" the studios are to be designed,
implications. Figure 7-73 illustrates
Credit: See Silverstein, Murray and Max Jacobson (1985). Permission: Wolfgang there are strong formal implications that, if responded to
F.E. Preiser "integrated"
424 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 425

by the designer, will produce very dif-

ferent designs (and studio activities). AQUARKUM EXHKBKT§

Design Precepts
Professor Edward T. White (1972) de- ~

Figure 7-75 Separated Studio Diagram.

veloped the idea of using precept dia-
grams of partial solutions to design
problems as a final step in program-
ming. When the designer is part of the
programming team, this is a
*--/:· C"'1:2J:

meaningful way to explore the design

UNDULATE WALL ALONG MAIN TRAFFIC ARTERIES
impact of various programmatic deci- AND INST ALL LANDSCAPING TO SCALE DOWN SITE
. sions before attempting to develop an ENCLOSURE AND PROVIDE INTEREST

overall design concept.

Three to six concept or precept Figure 7-78 Precept Drawing.
Credit: Arquitectura, 1990. Program Document for Pascua Neighborhood The Kelp Forest exhibit has two essential underlying requisites: the
cards can be reduced in size and shown Center Growth Master Plan, Tucson Parks and Recreation, Tucson, Arizona. surface must be open to receive direct sunlight and the water must
on one page of the program document Permission: Arquitectura, Ltd. be kept in constant motion.
(Fig. 7-77). Verbal explanations can be
added below or to one side. The re- ...............
:::::::::: .... :··:::::::···
duction is possible because the cards ··-
...............
·············
................
are drawn and lettered at a large scale
Figure 7-76 Integrated Studio Diagram. so as to be easily seen from 10 to 15 ··········
··
............
feet away in a work session.
Note how precepts can be diagram-
matic, physical, or even metaphorical
in nature and in how they are pre-
sented. This does not matter as long as
everyone understands that they are all
just ideas-preconceptions about how
the final design might respond to the
design problem. If they are included in
Aquarists will need to use catwalks to access and maintain most of
the program document in this way, the exhibits. Visitors should not have visual access to any of the
they give the design architect the bene- support areas.
fit of all of the ideas uncovered in the
programming process-ideas uncovered Figure 7-80 Precepts from Student Program.
in literature review, client and user Credit: Beri Varol, 1996. Undergraduate Senior Thesis, The Santa Monica
ideas, and programmer distillation of Aquarium. College of Architecture, The University of Arizona

all of these ideas. If everyone

understands that they are only sugges-
Figure 7-79 Precept from Student Program.
Figure 7-77 Precept Drawings. tions, not requirements, the designer
Credit Karin Rosenquist, 1990. Program for the Design ovhe Department of
Credit: Brooks & Associate AJA, Architects and Planners, 1985. Design Program and should benefit from the added insights Agriculture Bee Research Laboratory. College of Architecture, The
Site Analysis for Morris K. Udall Regfonal Park and Recreational Center. Permission:
Albanese-Brooks Assoc. PC (Figs. 7-78 through 7-80). University of Arizona
 426 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 427

Design Concepts The zoning relationship diagrams and the result- 108 S.E.

If the designer is a member of the programming ing initial design concepts show how effective such
team, it is also possible to begin the development diagramming can be in helping the architect
of design concept diagrams as a concluding part develop a design concept. The example shows that
Thefo ww 10 be a central eommunol ollldo11r
1pceeolvorylngwldH1,01on;i<pen:-:tocur
group1uNl'yhg 1nemc ccn uidl.io1in'J path !hot wl001 of the programming activity. This serves both as three distinctly different zoning decisions can be
!l'i'ovgn end oruonll!» lhe nnTiu1 rodOVQ!Qpmon!plcnJ. TI-
.!ICOIT'mi.nollpo::o WCl\lld bO U10d hll c~cUclk::n 01
wcl 01111aootl:;:n.
a way to confirm the efficacy of the program made from an identical overall relationship
information and as a way for the client to diagram, and that the impact of each approach on
evaluate if the concept is appropriate for the the design solution is likely to be very great. The
client's particular facilities problem. It can show, resulting plans are not at all similar in shape or
as in the adjacent illustration, how a strongly aesthetic potential.
held value can have a major impact on Grouping of functions in zones can also be
Figure 7-81 Climate-Based Design Concept. architectural form (Fig. 7-81). useful in programming for the reorganization of
Credit Elisabet Grajewski, 1992. Sixth Street Housing Develop- A process for creating design concepts has existing facilities, including related outdoor spaces.
ment, Tucson, Arizona. 5. College of Architecture, The University In the adjoining illustration, they were proposed by
of Arizona been well developed by Professor Edward T.
White of Florida A&M University (1990). This the programming/design consultant as a way to
analytic approach to developing design concepts solve programmatic problems (Fig. 7-83).
focuses on particular issues. The first approach Whether zoning relationships are appropriate to
begins with the functional concept diagram. include in a program document depends on whether J20'

SCALE: 1" = 48'

Here, a traditional relationship diagram is gen- they represent programmatic decisions by the SITE ZotHNG PLAH NORTH··-------t

erated for the entire building, recognizing from client/user, or are, in fact, conceptual ways of
Figure 7-83 Zoning Relationship Diagram.
the start that any holistic diagram will be based approaching the design. In the latter case, the di-
Credit Robert Hershberger, Architect, 1982. Consultation for
on certain organizational assumptions. Will one agram definitely should be left out of the require- Bellevue Christian Church, Bellevue, Washington.
entry serve as reception point for all divisions of ments section of the program. It could be included
the organization or will multiple entries be pro- in the ideas section of the program, where it can be
vided for easier/direct access to each division? evaluated by the designer as an idea rather than as a
Which will serve the client better? What are the requirement.
staffing implications? Should the program be Such analytic diagrams do not have to confine
changed to reflect the new requirements for themselves to functional matters. What if the dia-
staffing? Should all of the closed offices be gath- gram begins with site or context, rather than the
ered in one area and all of the open offices be functional program? Where would views, access,
placed together in another location? Will this slopes, special site features, and the like suggest
make functional sense? Will it save money in that building entrance, services, or principal spaces
terms of structural and or construction costs? be located? Is there another way that the site might
Very simple bubble diagrams are used to ex- better accommodate the facility? If climate,
plore the implications of functional arrangements especially solar access, were considered, how
in terms of operations, efficiencies, construction would it affect or influence the layout of the
costs, staffing costs, etc. First, White develops building? What if solar access was considered to be
the overall relationship diagram. He then decides the most important issue?
on alternative ways that the building could be White (1990) goes on to show other diagram-
zoned. Finally, he derives several design matic ways to develop design concepts that produce
Figure 7-82 Zoning Diagram/Design Concepts. Credit diagrams based on each of these zoning decisions different formal relationships than the ones Figure 7-84 Context Related Design Concepts.
Edward T. White, 1990. Concept Sketches for Graphics to see what their implications are for design (Fig. developed from the alternative zoning diagrams, Credit Edward T. White, 1990. Concept Sketches for
Workshop. Tucson, Arizona. Permission: Edward T. White and which require the designer to handle functional Graphics Workshop, Tucson, Arizona. Permission: Edward T.
7-82).
relationships in still other ways (Fig. 7-84). White
428 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 429

What if aesthetic values were to where the value of their extensive education comes into play in the
be considered first? What should resolution of difficult spatial problems.
such a building look like, in spite The second reason is that the design architect may see other
of any functional, site, and climate possibilities for problem solution which previous typologies, or the
constraints? This would require a client's, user's, or programmer's limited experience, would not
different diagram and a permit to come forward during programming. If the program is
corresponding change in functional based on narrower assumptions than are appropriate given the
layout and relationship to site and designer's range of abilities or repertoire of forms, then the pro-
climate. What if budget were the gram could become an obstruction to a creative solution to the
most important consideration-the problem-an impediment rather than an implement for the creation
client needs a large amount of of architecture.
space, but has very lit- Finally, even if the designer is involved in programming, the
. tle money to pay for it? This premature fixing of conceptual ways of solving the design problem
would have a very serious effect may hamper exploration of other alternatives. Indeed, it may
on form. Such diagrams can begin require the designer to return to the owner to explain why the ear-
from any of the primary values lier adopted design strategy is no longer operational. This is an
listed earlier in the program (Fig. awkward and sometimes difficult thing to do. The designer, in ef-
7-85). fect, must prove everyone else wrong.
The programmer should not limit options by imposing con-
straints which are not inherent in the problem. If the designer is
Figure 7-85 Image Related Design Concepts. Design Exploration not involved in the programming process, it is preferable to leave
Credit: Edward T. White, 1990. Concept Sketches for Graphics Workshop, Tucson, Arizona. all but the most basic design analysis to the designer, recognizing
Permission: Edward T. White Clearly, most of the above tech- that such analysis may, indeed, necessitate some deviation from
niques are part of the initial ex- the initial program. As long as the client understands and agrees
ploratory stages of design. If they that this is a possibility, it should not be considered a problem of
are accomplished during programming and the final program is programming, but rather an opportunity which comes from design.
modified to reflect these early design findings, it almost takes the
The fact is that programming and design analysis are not really
program through the initial schematic phase of design. But it also
complete until the building is constructed and occupied. Design
helps to avoid the problem of the architect having to explain to the
exploration, schematic design, design development, and even the
owner that certain assumptions of the program were either in error
ultimate occupancy of the building will uncover new ideas,
or were unrealistic relative to some of the expressed values and
opportunities, and constraints which will make some objectives of
goals.
the original program difficult to achieve, and often will cause
The author advocates including design exploration in program-
clients to change their minds as to the requirements of the
ming only when the designer is involved in the programming
program.
process, and even then with some reservations. There are several
In conclusion, the author would argue that design analysis is
very good reasons for this recommendation.
the responsibility of the designer and should be under his/her di-
The first reason is that confirmation of the client's program
rect supervision. On the other hand, it does not mean that the de-
typically is the first responsibility of the architect under the nor-
signer must accomplish the design analysis in a completely
mal owner/architect agreement. It is an activity that the architect is
singular way. Rather, it is highly desirable for the designer to so-
prepared to do by training and experience. It is what they expect
licit the participation of the clients, users, and programmers in a
to do at the beginning of a design problem. Indeed, it is
430 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 431

common pursuit, as they explore together the design implications 7.15 Exercises
of the entire program, including all of the design ideas that have
1. Utilize the information gained from earlier information
come forward during architectural programming.
gathering and work session exercises to develop a mock ar-
Responsibility for the quality of design resides with the de-
signer. Thus, the designer must have authority to make the design chitectural program:
decisions. a. Prepare a short "preliminaries" section including trans-
mittal, acknowledgment, directory, methods, and refer-
ences sections.
b. Reformulate the programming matrix developed earlier
7.14 Appendix into sections on values and goals, design considerations,
project requirements, and design ideas.
There is always some material which is of such importance that it
should not be lost, because it explains or amplifies some of the If you used cards to prepare the matrix, try to use the vi-
information distilled within the program. This information should sual materials (diagrams, charts, and sketches) in the
not be placed in the main sections of the program, but can be program to improve its information content.
placed in an appendix to the program for reference if the need If you used easel-sized grid sheets, either have them re-
arises. duced to 8Yz'' x 11" by photocopying or re-present them
The only information that should be placed in the body of the using a word processor. Note how much improvement
architectural program is that which will have a direct impact on you make with the grammar and format when you re-
design decisions. The programmer should keep the program short present them.
and to the point, with essential information relating to design c. Develop the tabular requirements for space allocation
clearly set forth and organized for easy retrieval. As stated previ- using your understanding of efficiency by providing two-
ously, "an ounce of explanation is worth a ton of description." Or, dimensional area representations as outlined in the text.
to put it another way, "understanding of the program by the de- d. Prepare a space relationship matrix including all of the
signer is inversely related to the amount of material presented." interior and exterior spaces. Then prepare space rela-
Think about these two sayings when considering the inclusion of tionship diagrams for every space outlined in the space
material in the program. allocation sheets.
The appendix should contain the information obtained from the e. Prepare space program sheets (including relationship di-
literature search, observation studies, interviewing, questionnaire/ agrams) for all of the spaces identified in the space allo-
survey, site analysis, and any other data developed during the cation sheets.
programming process. If the program is carefully developed, the f. Develop tabular requirements showing project costs us-
designer may not even need to refer to the appendix. However, if
ing the system and cost factors described in the text.
there is a need to look over this information at some point in the
g. Develop a project schedule showing duration of all pro-
design process, it should be available for reference.
ject phases from programming through construction, first
If the program is a large one, the author advocates putting the
for a standard schedule, then for a fast-track schedule.
appendix material in a separate loose-leaf document with tabs to
h. Prepare the executive summary following the guidelines
show where each type of material is located. It should be on BYz'' x
set forth in the text.
11" paper so that it can be stored or filed by the designer with the
i. Prepare a cover sheet and bind all of the above into a
other project materials for ready reference as needed.
program document with several copies. Assemble the ap-
propriate appendix material and place it in a three-ring
loose-leaf binder.
432 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Program Preparation 433

2. Have the earlier participants in the information gathering and Pena, William, and John Focke. 1969. Problem Seeking: New Di-
work sessions review the final product. rections in Architectural Programming. Houston, Tex.: Caudill
Rowlett Scott.
Have a meeting with them as a group to discuss the pro-
Pena, William, William Caudill, and John Focke. 1977. Problem
gramming process and product, including the contribution of
Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. Boston, Mass.:
each part of the process and product.
Cahners Books International.
3. Do a design exploration study to see if you have all of the Pena, William, Steven Parshall, and Kevin Kelly. 1987. Problem
information needed for design. Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. 3rd ed. Wash-
ington, D.C.: AIA Press.
Rector, Lee. 1997. Design Cost Data. Vol. 41, number 1. Tampa,
7.16 References Fla.: LMRector Corporation.
Alexander, Christopher. 1975. The Oregon Experiment. New York: Robinson, Julia, and J. Stephen Weeks. 1984. Programming as
Oxford University Press. Design. Minneapolis: Department of Architecture, University of
Alexander, Christopher, Sara Ishikawa, and Murray Silverstein. Minnesota.
1977. A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction. New R. S. Means Company. 1990. Means Estimating Handbook.
York: Oxford University Press. Kingston, Mass.: R. S. Means Company.
Clark, Roger H., and Michael Pause. 1985. Precedents in Archi- ____ . 1996. Means Square Foot Costs: Residential, Commercial,
tecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Industrial, Institutional. 17th ed. Kingston, Mass.: R. S. Means
Competition Program. 1986. ASU Project #125-2E. College of Ar- Company.
chitecture and Environmental Design, Arizona State University. R. S. Means Company. 1996. Means Square Foot Costs: Residential,
Duerk, Donna P. 1993. Architectural Programming: Information Commercial, Industrial, Institutional. 17th edition. Kingston,
Management for Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Mass.: R. S. Means Company.
Farbstein, Jay. Correctional Facility Planning and Design. 2nd ed. Silverstein, Murray, and Max Jacobson. 1985. "Restructuring the
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Hidden Program: Toward and Architecture of Social Change."
Green, Isaac, Bernard E. Fedewa, Charles Johnson, William Jack- In Programming the Built Environment, edited by Wolfgang F. E.
son, and Howard Deardorff. 1975. Housing for the Elderly: Preiser. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
The Development and Design Process. New York: Van Nostrand White, Edward T. III. 1972. Introduction to Architectural Pro-
Reinhold. gramming. Tucson, Ariz.: Architectural Media.
Katz, Peter, ed. 1994. The New Urbanism: Toward an Architecture of ____ . 1990. Workshop with Professor Kirby Lockard. College of
Community. New York: McGraw-Hill. Architecture, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.
Kelbaugh, Doug, ed. 1989. The Pedestrian Pocket Book: A New
Suburban Design Strategy. New York: Princeton Architectural
Press.
Kumlin, Robert R. 1995. Architectural Programming: Creative
Techniques for Design Professionals. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Marshall & Swift, L.P. 1997. Marshall Valuation Service. Los An-
geles, Calif.: Marshall & Swift, L.P.
Moleski, Walter. 197 4. "Behaviorai Analysis in Environmental
Programming for Offices." In Designing for Human Affairs, edited
by Jon Lang, Charles Burnette, Walter Moleski, and Steven
Vachon. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
 Methods of Evaluation

8.1 Program Evaluation

8.2 Design Evaluation
8.3 Building Evaluation
8.4 Body of Knowledge
8.5 The Next Commission
8. 6 Exercises
8. 7 References

A final question about almost any purposeful activity is one of

evaluation. How well did we do the job? Does something we

created work the way it was intended? Can people accomplish their
tasks better than before? Is the building energy efficient? Is it a
work of art? At every stage of the design process there is eval-
uation, as the programmer or designer decides if the work is of
sufficient merit to proceed to the next step. There are several key
points in the design process when a systematic evaluation should
take place:
1. At the conclusion of programming.
2. After each phase of design.
3. At the conclusion of construction.
4. Upon initial occupancy.
5. Sometime after occupancy of the building.
The purposes of each evaluation vary to some extent, but they
all tie together as essential elements of effective architectural

435
436 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Methods of Evaluation 437

programming and design. All are needed to advance the art and 1. Is the program plan comprehensive
science of the profession of architecture.
(Fig. 8-1 )? If we follow the plan will
we obtain all of the information re-
8.1 Program Evaluation quired to recognize client/user values,
accomplish their goals, satisfy their
• Process Evaluation
needs, and achieve architecture.
• Simulation Procedures
2. Will the information obtained be ac-
• Cost of Error curate? Are we using procedures of
sampling, data acquisition, and
How does one evaluate the architectural program? Is the program
analysis that will produce reliable and
simply a hypothesis that will be supported or not supported as the
valid results? Figure 8-1 Programming Plan.
design is developed and the building occupied? To some extent this
is true, but if the program is an accurate and complete statement of 3. Will the results help the designer un-
the design issue~ and problems, the design will not be a test of the derstand the nature of the design problem and related issues?
program but rather a response to the issues and problems outlined Is the planned program document one in which it will be
therein. So how should one evaluate a program? If the program easy to discover the big issues prior to confronting detail?
document is agreeable to the client, is that enough? The author
would agree that acceptance of the program by the client is the 4. Will the program result in architecture that can be designed
crucial test of the suitability of the program for its intended use, and built within the constraints of the client's budget and
because without this acceptance the project will not go forward. schedule? Will the monitoring procedures ensure that pro-
However, there are a number of other useful ways to evaluate the jections are achievable within known constraints?
program, both as it develops and after it is completed. The following 5. Will it be possible to produce the program document within
paragraphs explore some of the ways that evaluation of the program the programming budget? Is enough money available to ac-
is accomplished. complish the entire program plan?
Evaluation of the program begins with the very first decisions about
what to include in the program. Indeed, each decision that is made, These and similar questions should be asked early in the de-
whether procedural or substantive, is the result of an evaluative velopment of the program plan, to be certain that all of the pro-
process. The persons involved in programming must decide what gramming objectives can be achieved. Inevitably, such questions
needs to be done. What material should the program include? What cause a tightening of programming procedures, which is helpful in
procedures will be used to collect the needed information? How will producing a quality program. This type of evaluation relies pri-
the results be presented? These are matters of judgment on the part marily on the judgment of the participants. If, of course, there is
of the programmer, the client, and others involved in the very little experience within the programming group, then it might
programming activity. An awareness of the fact that judgments are be necessary to involve persons with greater experience.
being made throughout the programming and design process is In the actual collection and analysis of data, some of the stan-
essential to an informed evaluation of the program. Application of dards of research evaluation can be applied. If sampling is neces-
previously agreed upon procedures and criteria for evaluation should sary because of a very large number of respondents, then a
increase the program's effectiveness as a design tool. sampling plan conforming to standards set forth in the research lit-
erature would be appropriate. Similarly, is data collection being ac-
Process Evaluation complished by methods that have been validated in previous
research? Do projections for room sizes and building efficiency
Some criteria that can be applied judgments about the programming conform with known standards for similar facilities? Checking both
process are as follows:
438 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Methods of Evaluation 439

procedures and data against known criteria and standards is a useful are appropriate. A plan
evaluation technique throughout the programming process. Such for a room showing fur-
checking tends to challenge earlier assumptions and conclusions niture and equipment may
and usually results in refinement of both procedures and data. be drawn to scale to
determine if its size and
Simulation Procedures shape are adequate to
house all required uses.
Mental Circulation paths can be
• Iconic drawn with varying
• Symbolic widths to indicate volume
of use to see if the
• Experimental
required activities can
It is possible to utilize various forms of simulation as evaluative occur. If it appears that
tools during the programming process. the required equipment,
furnishings, and activities
MENTAL cannot be accommodated,
then it might be necessary
Mental simulation can be used on a regular basis. What will the ef-
to increase the size of
fect on traffic be if vehicular ingress and egress are allowed on a
space, to change its shape,
major street or near a busy intersection? What would the room size
or possibly to re-evaluate
implications be in a hotel if all double beds were to be king size
if all of the equipment,
rather than standard size? Will the recommended balcony size allow
furnishings,
a small group to sit at a table? Imagine any of these or similar situ-
or activities must really Figure 8-3 Annotated Room Evaluation.
ations. Would the result be acceptable? Virtually every room size
be accommodated in the Credit: Walter Moleski and Wallace Roberts and Todd, 1990. Analysis of Existing Housing Unit,
has furnishing, equipment, and activity implications. It may be pos space. In other words, Richard Allen Homes. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Permission: ERG/Environmental Research Group
sible simply to con-
pre-design iconic simula-
sider in one's mind if
tion may be helpful in determining if the initial programmed space
there will be enough
allocations are reasonable (Fig. 8-3).
room to accommodate
Two examples from the architectural building competition at
everything. What will
Arizona State University illustrate the need for pre-design evalua-
be the appearance of
tion, although in this case the evaluations occurred when the
the facility? Do we
competition designs were being reviewed by the client.
have the same image
in mind (Fig. 8-2)? First, the university's standard requiring that a 70 percent ef-
ficiency be maintained in acade-mic buildings could have been
challenged during programming, if most other architectural build-
ICONIC ings had been found to have lower efficiencies. This was not done,
It may be desirable to although everyone involved with the programming felt that the
conduct some type of required efficiency was unrealistic for an academic building of this
iconic (image) model- type. The competitors proved the point iconically. None of the
Figure 8-2 Persons not Sharing the Same Image.
ing to determine if design schemes came close to the required efficiency. The floor
Credit: Kitchell GEM, 1986. More for less: Jail Construction Cost Management Handbook. State of California,
Board of Construction Cost Management. Permission: Kitchell GEM program statements plan of the winning submissidn by Alan Chimacoff of the
440 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Methods of ·E1taluation 441

Hillier Group, second floor shown 29.commodate the required

below, was the most efficient at furnishings (Fig. 8-6).
about 60 percent, with walls, halls, 30.It is a debatable point
stairs, chases, toilets, janitors' as to how much iconic
closets, and the like accounting for simulation should take place
40 percent of the floor area. during the evaluation of an
Unassigned two- and even three- architectural program. At
story interior spaces also what point are decisions
contributed to a lower efficiency. about the sizes, shapes, and
Unprogrammed exterior spaces, relationships of the various
while not directly contributing to spaces, furnishings, and
efficiency calculations, also in- equipment going to restrict
creased the quality and cost of the the range of design opportu-
building (Figs. 8-4 and 8-5). nity? It is difficult to say. It
In order to meet the efficiency may be mandatory to de-
Figure 8-4 ASU Architecture Building Courtyard.
requirements, the interior hallways velop several alternative so-
Photo Credit: Jeff Goldberg, Esto. Permission: Alan Chimacoff, The Hillier Group
of the studio floors were re- lutions during programming
programmed as teaching spaces by in order to establish the Figure 8-6 ASU Studio Desk Arrangements.
locating glassed-in exhibit cases minimum size needed to ac- Credit: Tim McGinty, Chair College Building Committee. Permission: College of Architecture and
along the hallway walls. Other commodate certain complex Environmental Design, Arizona State University
previously unprogrammed spaces, program elements. If so, a
such as code required rest rooms, certain amount of study
were defined as programmed space should be done. But care
in order to meet the unrealistic should be taken not to de-
efficiency standards. velop some preconceived
Second, the design solution se- notion as to the actual de-
lected by the jury as the winner sign, because that clearly
had long, thin studio spaces. would be in conflict with the
Schematic design analysis con- designer's prerogatives to
ducted by the programmers, after 31.make design decisions.
the fact, indicated that an absolute 32.
minimum of a twenty-fourfeet 33.An example of
interior width would be needed to appropriate use of iconic
provide the required number of simulation was accomplished
work stations and circulation space in a programming study by
within the allocated square footage Jay Farbstein for converting
for the studios. This information an existing space into a day
was provided to the designer so 34.room. Several alternative
35. Figure 8-7 Dayroom Furnishing Variations.
that there would be no chance that 36.furnishing plans were ex- Credit: Adapted from Jay D. Farbstein, 1985. Dayroom Furnishing Vriations in "llsinqthe Program" in
the building would contain studios plored to determine if the Wolfgang F. E. Preiser, Ed. Programming the Built Environment. New York: Van Nostrand Reinold.
Permission: Wolfgang F. E. Preiser
of the specified square footage space would work for this
Figure 8-5 ASU Architecture Building Efficiency. size, but in a configuration that purpose (Fig. 8-7).
Credit: Adapted from the floor plan drawing by Alan Chimacoff of The Hillier Group. Per- would not ac-
mission: College of Architecture and Environmental Design, Arizona State University
37.If the programming team includes the designer or design
group, then the above question is perhaps moot. It would be
appropriate
 442 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Methods of Evaluation 443

to do as much analysis as necessary for the designers to understand

all of the constraints upon design. If the programming activity is space and materials in the expansion. This is not a good way to
being conducted without the participation of the designer, or quite achieve quality architecture. As a general rule, the programmer
possibly well before the designer has been selected, then some care would be wise to project the efficiency toward the lower range and
should be taken to keep the iconic simulations to the minimum nec- cost toward the upper range when programming for architecture.
essary to be certain that the projected space sizes will allow the re- There is a definite relationship that generally cannot be overcome.
quired functions to take place. Care should be taken so that
EXPERIMENTAL
assumptions are not made about the eventual design solution that
will restrict the range of creative opportunities for the designer. Typically, there is very little time or money available during ar-
chitectural programming to utilize the most precise evaluation
SYMBOLIC strategies. It is a rare instance when it is possible to mock up a
It is also possible to utilize. mathematical simulations as a basis of particular space, to have it occupied for a time, and to evaluate the
program evaluation. Construction cost and financial feasibility results before deciding how the space should be programmed. Yet,
analyses involve input of a variety of unit costs, which add up to a however rare, this kind of experimental evaluation does oc-
buildable or unbuildable project. The same is true for developing cur (Clipson and Wehrer 1973;
the total square footage of a project. These quantifiable items need Trites et al. 1970). It should occur
to be varied until a satisfac for large commissions when
tory overall size/cost projec- multiple rooms of the same kind
tion is obtained. Scheduling will be programmed and designed.
is another program activity For example, major hotel chains
that involves manipulation of would be wise to mock-up and use
symbols. The modified pre- new hotel rooms or suites that will
liminary cost estimate for a be replicated many times. The
proposed minor expansion to same is true for major dormitories,
the College of Architecture at special care units, and prison cells.
The University of Arizona il- This type of evaluation can save
lustrates the value of mathe- the client a great deal of money
matical simulation (Fig. 8-8). and exasperation in trying to
Note in the illustration that overcome problems easily detected
not only were the square by use (including make-up and
footages reduced in an cleaning).
attempt to bring the project Examination rooms and patient
within budget, but the room layouts in hospitals have
efficiency was increased from been mocked up, and in at least
65 percent to 69 percent and one case entirely new wing
the square foot cost was arrangements have been built in
reduced from the average existing hospital facilities, to
project cost to the low aver- explore the results prior to
age project cost for buildings preparing a program for major
on the campus. Both additions or reconstruction. So,
reductions imply a like re occasionally it is possible to
Figure 8-8 Marked-Up Cost Estimate. duction in the quality of conduct evaluations based on ac- Figure 8-9 Hospital Wing with Single Corridor.
tual experimental research (Figs. Credit: (Trites et al 1970), 303-334. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.
8-9 through 8-11).
 444 Architectural PrQgramming and Predesign Manager
Methods of Evaluation 445

In this experimental Cost of Error

evaluation by Trites et al. (1970),
it was found that the radial plan The expected cost of error is an excellent basis for deciding
with the nursing unit in the center whether experimental research is warranted during programming.
of the surrounding patient rooms In the case of very expensive and highly repeatable architectural
had many advantages over both elements, such as might be found in hotel, prison, hospital, or
the double and single corridor health care bedrooms, or the floor layout for multistory facilities,
plans. Specifically: the cost of error both in budgetary and human terms may be so
high as to justify the cost of this type of preliminary evaluation.
• The nursing personnel trav- The programmer should be constantly alert to this possibility and
eled significantly less. be prepared to request the additional funding and time necessary to
conduct these objective evaluations. However, the programmer
• Nurses spent more time should also be prepared to deal with the more typical situation in
with patients which the client, for whatever reasons, decides that the program
must be completed within a certain restrictive budget and time
• Nurses, doctors, and pa-
frame, and that the programmer will have to make decisions based
tients felt the unit enhanced
on reasoned inferences from studies of similar situations. This, of
Figure 8-10 Hospital Wing with Double Corridor. the quality of patient care
course, is one of the reasons to conduct a literature search during
Credit: (Trites et al 1970), 303-334. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.
• There was lower absen- architectural programming. It allows the programmer to utilize the
teeism and fewer accidents. authority, collective judgment, and actual experimental results of
others.
In a sense, housing developers use The assumption of the owner/client in many programming sit-
experimental simulation when they uations is that the costs of error of not conducting experimental re-
build their model homes. Once search is small enough to not warrant the extra time and expense.
built and furnished, the developer Whether or not they are correct in making this decision is beside
can evaluate the effectiveness of the point. The programmer's response should always be to err in
the various spaces, materials, and the direction where cost(s) of error are minimized. When it appears
systems and propose changes to that cost of error could be substantial, strategies to mitigate against
prospective buyers that would such costs should be built into the program.
overcome perceived problems. For example, require the designer to provide larger bay spacing
Developers utilizing repetitive and relocatable or easily reconstructed partitions in areas where
systems would be wise to do the organizational change is likely to occur, so that dysfunctional areas
same prior to designing a final can be remodeled inexpensively. Increase the space allocation for
product for the mass market. This departments where there is a great deal of uncertainty as to future
evaluation option should not be growth potential or equipment and furnishing requirements.
overlooked by the programmer. Require design solutions that show future expansion for facilities
When warranted, it should be with uncertain expectations for growth. In other words, when
included in the program plan and funding is not available to conduct needed simulations or
covered by the agreed upon cost experiments during programming, insist that the architect design a
for programming services. facility in which cost of program error will be minimized.
Figure 8-11 Hospital Wing with Radial Plan. The final program document will be subject to the collective
Credit: (Trites et al 1970), 303-334. Reprinted by perrnissron of Sage Publications, Inc. judgment of the programmer, the client, and others involved in
446 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Methods of Evaluation 447

the programming task (Kirk and Spreckelmeyer 1988). The pro- the client's to be a good neighbor? Does the design project the im-
gram, thus, will be the best projection of issues and concerns that age of a place of imagination and inquiry, communicating the
can be made by these people before design. It is a starting point, value of higher education? Will it allow all of the client's activities
not a finishing point-the basis for design, not a rigid prescription. to take place efficiently and effectively, recognizing the values of
There will be new realizations based on the specific formal productivity and return on investment? In other words, the pro-
character of the design. Some new opportunities will be created gram can be effective in reminding the designer of the major de-
that may mitigate some programmatic inadequacies. Give and take sign issues and goals for the project. Are the values being
may be necessary to obtain the best design solution. recognized, responded to, and expressed? Are the goals being ac-
complished? Are the most important goals being accomplished
very well, and the other goals at least to a satisfactory level? The
program can serve as both a guide and a control as the designer
8.2 Design Evaluation begins and continues the quest toward architecture.
One of the greatest benefits of the carefully conceived architectural The same is true for the design considerations and require-
program is its use to evaluate design (Spreckelmeyer 1982). How ments. Are the important conditions of site and climate being rec-
should we evaluate design? If it looks good, is it good? If it ognized and accommodated? Are code and zoning requirements
follows the most current formal or stylistic trends, is it good? If it being followed, or must exceptions be requested? Are special
is unusual, is it good? These are some of the questions that will be users being recognized and their needs accommodated? Is it going
asked and answered by architectural critics, art historians, clients, to be possible to meet the construction budget given all of the
users, designers, and other architects. The program, however, can other requirements that must be met? Are all of the space re-
serve as the basis for a more objective evaluation of the design. quirements being satisfied? The various sections of the program
What does the program request? Is it provided? What are the can be summarized and used as checklists to evaluate the design.
important values to be expressed? Are they expressed? What are The space allocation sheets can be used, not only to develop the
the goals to be reached? Were they reached? What are the specific square footage requirements, but also to check if the required
spatial and relational requirements? Have they been met? These number and sizes of spaces have been included in the design. They
are the questions that the program can contribute to the evaluation can also be used to determine if all of the required furnishings and
of design. The program can provide the criteria or standards of equipment have been provided. The relationship matrices and
evaluation for use by the designer, client, and programmer to judge diagrams can be used in a similar fashion to determine which
the design solution. relationships are most satisfactory and which are not. Have some
• Have the values been expressed? crucial relationships been ignored? Indeed, the entire program
becomes the criteria for evaluating the design, at least from
• Have the goals been achieved? programmer, client, and user perspectives.
• Have the needs been satisfied? If the designer(s) were not a part of the programming group,
and thus had no chance to insert personal values into the pro-
• Were any of the ideas utilized? If not, why not? gramming activity, it should be expected that the designer(s) may
First, having identified the broad issues for design in the pro- articulate personal or firm values, associated goals, and even pro-
gram-the values of the client, community, and designer and the ject requirements while confirming the program as outlined in
specific goals for the project-it should be possible to make judg- standard architectural services. This is most helpful in establishing
ments about whether the underlying values are being made man- if the values and goals of the designer and client are compatible,
ifest and the goals are being achieved in the design. Does the and may be a basis for modifying some of the program
design recognize the fabric of the existing community, satisfying requirements. For instance, if the client and programmer expect
too much building for the budget, higher quality materials than
448 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Methods of Evaluation 449

the budget will support, or expect the building to be more efficient Tuning the Building
than reasonably possible, the designer can point this out and insist
that adjustments be made to the program so that a satisfactory Clients often expect their buildings to work perfectly when first
building can be provided within the budget restrictions. It is occupied-forgetting that buildings are not mass produced objects.
desirable to document all such changes and to append them to the Indeed, few other design professionals expect the first prototype to
program document. This is, of course, essential for subsequent work. They use a prototype to experiment with, to test, to modify,
program-based design evaluation to be realistic and effective. and to change until it works better. They may even make several
more prototypes until everything seems to work well. Yet, we have
all purchased the so-called lemon on occasion. Given this reality, it
is amazing that most newly constructed buildings work as well as
8.3 Building Evaluation they do!
Buildings are so large, require such a major capital investment,
• Tuning the Building
sit on various sites in various climates, and respond to different
• User's Manual codes and ordinances, it is almost impossible to prepare a fullscale
working prototype before constructing the actual building. So the
• Post-Occupancy Evaluation
first prototype must work, at least well enough for the client/users
It is not the purpose of this book to focus on building evaluation, to move in and occupy the space. It is not often that a building is
either as the building satisfies the architectural critic in terms of "recalled" by the manufacturer because of some defect! But the
aesthetic qualities or as it fits into one stream of architectural chance of the initial analysis, the subsequent design, and the actual
thought or another. Nor is it a concern how well the building relates building construction being without flaw is very slim. There likely
to the plans and specifications prepared by the designer. These areas will be problems associated with all three.
of evaluation, while very important, are outside of what So what should be done? The client needs to be fully apprised
architectural programming typically encompasses, except in one in each of the documents prepared for his/her signature that the
very special way. The fact that important design issues have been finished building is likely to require a period of tuning, and that a
identified and articulated as values and goals in the program should contingency amount should be in the budget to allow this tuning to
lead the designer toward more tangible expression of the values and take place. Perhaps a space will turn out to be the wrong size or
achievement of the goals in the design. In the sense that shape once the furniture is moved in. Will the client replace the
identification of important values has helped such fine architects as furniture or change the space? Neither are without cost! Perhaps
Wright, Le Corbusier, Mies, Kahn, and Venturi to focus their own the lighting will be insufficient for some new specialized tasks that
design efforts, the identification in the program of institutional, have been instituted after the program was completed. Or the size
client, user, and community values may serve to focus the design of one department has increased while another has decreased
energy of other architects to similar accomplishment. during the construction interval, so that either people or equipment
A carefully and thoughtfully conceived program will produce or both need to be moved. What if the very handsome paint which
some of the raw material from which creative, thoughtful, indeed, the designer selected for the halls or offices was much more light
wonderful and poetic architecture can be formed. But it is up to the absorptive than the color on which the electrical engineer based
designer to understand the issues as presented and to respond to his/her calculations, so that the final result is hallways or offices
them in design. A fine programmatic analysis is an essential in- that are too dark? What changes, the paint tint or the illumination
gredient to achieve architecture, but it is not sufficient. An equally level? Or should the occupant simply suffer with the poor result?
fine and creative synthesis of the program elements as assimilated What if the open offices, which were expected to be quiet enough
into the architect's design philosophy is necessary to ensure the for successful operations, turn out to be too noisy for some
accomplishment of architecture. activities? Few of the necessary changes can be accomplished
without additional cost.
450 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Methods of Evaluation 451

The client should be informed that at least one to two percent of In fact, it may be appropriate for the programmer to obtain an
the contingency budget must be reserved for tuning the building, agreement with the client to continue in the client's employ:
and at least some portion of the programmer's commission should
be oriented toward discovering and monitoring the changes that 1. During design, to provide guidance as the designer attempts
need to be made. to satisfy program requirements within the broad outlines of
the value and goal statements and the constraints of site,
User's Manual climate, schedule, and budget.
It is also possible to develop a user's manual to help the client. Is it 2. During the client/user move-in, to instruct users on the in-
reasonable to expect the users to know how to use a building tended purposes of various building, space, furnishing, and
appropriately without providing some guidance to them? Probably equipment elements.
not, even when the users have been active in helping to develop the
3. Six months to one year after initial occupancy, to determine
architectural program and design. Just as instructions are provided
if the expectations of use (behavior and attitudes) are hold-
for the use and maintenance of a new car, washing machine, or
ing up, or if the building, furnishings, or equipment should
other mass-produced object, clients would benefit from instructions
as to the best use and maintenance of a new building. If provided, be modified to permit the users to operate successfully.
such a manual can help avoid both dissatisfaction with and It should be noted that in using the literature search and review,
unnecessary adjustments or alterations to the new facility. For interviewing, observation, questionnaire/survey, and group session
instance, if a new food preparation system were to be proposed for procedures covered in this text for architectural programming,
a commercial kitchen, it would be important to include instructions programmers are already using most of the methods, techniques,
on using the new equipment. Indeed, it would be necessary to train and tools needed to conduct post-occupancy evaluation. Indeed,
the cooks and kitchen help in the use of the new equipment to be programmers often conduct abbreviated post-occupancy
certain that it would be used effectively. The same is true of many evaluations of the facilities that the client/users currently occupy.
innovative systems that might be used in a new building. In some cases they do similar evaluations of other similar facilities.
Thus, a person who is fully capable of conducting the research
necessary to develop an outstanding architectural program will
Post-Occupancy Evaluation also be able to conduct a post-occupancy evaluation study.
Several books and a great number of articles have been written If statements of original intent from a previous program are still
about post-occupancy evaluation (Marans and Spreckelmeyer available, it is possible for the programmer to use them as a basis
1982; Bechtel et al. 1987; Preiser et al. 1988). Therefore, there will for these evaluations. It may also be possible to determine whether
be no effort in this text to duplicate these very thoughtful efforts. the same problems existed when the building(s) was first occupied,
However, it is important to point out that post-occupancy or are the result of a changing and growing institution for which
evaluation (the evaluation of buildings in use) can be greatly en- the original facilities are no longer adequate. Some design
hanced if the values to be expressed, the goals to be accomplished, principles for a particular type of institution may become evident
and the specific program requirements have been articulated in a as the result of a program-oriented post-occupancy evaluations.
program. In this case, the programmed values and goals can be
posed as hypotheses about the image, function, energy efficiency,
etc., that the designed and built facility should recognize and in- 8.4 Body of Knowledge
corporate. Evaluation can consist primarily of determining if the
Assume that programmers document not only the program, but also
design achieved the program stipulations, and if the intended at-
the changes made during design and initial building tuning.
titudes and behaviors resulted. In other words, the program can be
Assume also that they, or someone else, conduct a careful post-
the beginning point for a post-occupancy evaluation.
occupancy evaluation. Some important values will be found to
452 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Methods of Evaluation 453

be expressed. Others may not be expressed. Some goals will be evaluations are a defi
achieved, others will not. Some building areas are likely to be nite step ahead of the
found to work well as planned, others not so well, and perhaps competition in this re-
others not to work well at all. gard, because not only
If the successes and failures are noted and reported in the post- can they discover the
occupancy evaluation, and the more generalizable findings are background informa-
published in the environmental design research and architectural tion that relates to the
literature, then the next programming commission can benefit from project, but they can
the experience of others. In fact, all future programming and also discover unique
design activities can benefit from the published results. things about the pre-
This is an extremely important linkage that often has been sent and future that Figure 8-12 The Architectural Delivery System.
missing from the environmental design research area. Not enough will be appropriate for Credit: Kent Spreckelmeyer, 1986. Environmental Programming, Chapter 8. In Methods in Environmental
and Behavioral Research. Robert Bechtel, Robert Ma rans and William Michelson (eds.). New York: Van
of our experience is transferred to other professionals, hence, we the problem at hand. Nostrand Reinhold. Permission: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
all tend to re-invent the wheel every time we take on a new com- And they can sell their
mission. If only we had the knowledge of those who had tried be- services to clients on this basis. If they document the insights
fore us, we could be so much more effective. A distinct obligation gained from project to project and consistently share them with the
of both architectural programmers and designers is to document entire architectural community, later projects by their firm and by
the values, goals, and objectives to be achieved; to insist that other firms are likely to improve as they all repeat the good and
someone evaluate what has been accomplished; and to publish the avoid the bad. The chances are that such firms will have little
results for the architectural community so that all can learn and trouble obtaining the next commission because of their established
advance in their ability to create architecture. and documented expertise; and the entire architectural profession
will benefit from their efforts. A feedback loop will have been
established that allows continuing improvement of all phases of the
8.5 The Next Commission architectural design process (Fig. 8-12).
If an architect learned· from the last commission or the commis-
sions of other design professionals, then he/she should be able to
do a better job on the next commission. This is one reason why 8.6 Exercises
most clients look for architects who have done previous buildings 1. Take the program document that you have developed and
of the same type. They hope that these architects will know more evaluate it using the program evaluation procedures outlined
about their particular building type than architects who have not in the text. Was the process as rigorous as required for an
done similar buildings. At the same time, this is why some effective program? If not, how could it be improved?
thoughtful clients avoid employing architects who have previously
Use each of the simulation procedures in tum to test the in-
done similar buildings. These clients do not want to repeat the
formation presented in the program. Was something in-
failures of the past. They want architects who have a fresh outlook-
who will seek out the underlying and possibly unique values of the cluded in the document that would make the program
institution, client, and community as well as the goals that will be objectives difficult to achieve in design?
specific to their project. They want architects who will carefully 2. Take the design that you or your colleagues developed from
analyze the potential of the particular site and consider the needs of the program and use the program as a primary means to
the particular users. evaluate the solution. Does the design solution work excep-
Architectural or programming firms with the ability to do well tionally well for all of the identified values, goals, and re-
conceived and thorough architectural programs and post- quirements? Does it express the important values? Does it
occupancy
454 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Methods of Evaluation 455

achieve all of the goals, especially the most important ones? search Association, College Park, Maryland. Edited by Polly Bart,
Does it satisfy all of the stated requirements? If not, what is Alexander Chen, and Guido Francescato. Washington, D.C.:
missing? EDRA, 289-296.
3. Imagine that one of the design solutions was actually con- __ . 1986. "Environmental Programming," Chapter 8. In ethods
structed and ready for occupancy. What would you want to in Environmental and Behavioral Research, edited by Robert
tell the occupants in a user's guide? Could they occupy and Bechtel, Robert Marans, and William Michelson. New York:
use the building without any guidance? Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Trites, David, Frank Galbraith Jr., Madelyne Sturdavant, and John
If not, prepare a brief guide placing the use criteria in order of Leckwart. 1970. "Influence of Nursing-Unit Design on the
importance. Would the guide be effective? Would some of
Activities and Subjective Feelings of Nursing Personnel."
the guidelines be so obvious that they should not be stated?
Environment and Behavior. 2(3): 303-334.
Would there still be some areas in which the user might not
be able to utilize the facility properly?
4. Ask yourself and your associates if all of the careful proce-
dures outlined throughout the text are more or less likely to
help the designer in the quest for architecture. Which would
be the most important procedures to follow in this regard?
Which would be the least important, or would be actual
impediments to the designer in developing a creative
problem solution?

8. 7 References
Bechtel, Robert, Robert Marans, and William Michelson. 1987.
Methods in Environmental and Behavioral Research. New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Clipson, Colin, and Joseph J. Wehrer. 1973. Planning for Cardiac
Care: a Guide to the Planning and Design of Cardiac Care Facil-
ities. Ann Arbor: Health Administration Press.
Kirk, Stephen J., and Kent F. Spreckelmeyer. 1988. Creative Design
Decisions: A Systematic Approach to Problem Solving in Ar-
chitecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Marans, Robert, and Kent Spreckelmeyer. 1981. Evaluating Built
Environments: A Behavioral Approach. Ann Arbor: Survey Re-
search Center, University of Michigan. ·
Freiser, Wolfgang F. E., Harvey Z. Rabinowitz, and Edward T.
White. 1988. Post-Occupancy Evaluation. New York: Van Nos-
trand Reinhold.
Spreckelmeyer, Kent. 1982. ''Architectural Programming as an
Evaluation Tool." In Knowledge for Design: Proceedings of the
13th International Conference of the Environmental Design Re-
 Sample
Architectural Programs

A.1 The Planning Department, The University of Arizona A.

2 Mikvah for an Orthodox Jewish Congregation

A.1 The Planning Department,

The University of Arizona
This program was developed in the spring semester of 1997 by 11
students in the author's course on architectural programming and in
section three of the second year design studio of the College of
Architecture at The University of Arizona. The program was
accomplished during an intensive one-week programming charrette
conducted after the content of Chapters 1 through 7 of this text had
been covered in the programming class.' This program was done in
parallel with the other three design studio sections, which did similar
programs for the Department of Landscape Architecture, the
Graduate Program in Architecture, and the Undergraduate Program in
Architecture. Each of the other programs were of comparable size
and quality to the one presented here.
Note that the program, including covers and dividers, is shown in
full in this appendix. However, the appendix to the program, which
contains information uncovered using literature search, interviewing,
observation, questionnaires, and site analysis, is shown only in part.
The appendix contained 160 pages that were used as background
information in developing the architectural program. A typical page
or two from each section of the program

457
458 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Sample Architectural Programs 459
appendix is shown in this appendix in order to give the reader an
idea of the type(s) of information collected.
A combined space allocation matrix was developed after the
charretta for a design studio program of five weeks' duration in
which the students in all four sections prepared their individual
design proposals for the expansion of the College of Architecture.
The four departmental programs and their appendices are being
used by the college administration to develop a definitive program
for a major addition to the College of Architecture.
All four of the student programs were published on BW' x 11"
paper oriented vertically and plastic comb bound. The appendices
were in matching three-ring binders for ease of assembly and use.
 460 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Sample Architectural Programs 461

METHODS

Preparation of this document began on March 24, 1997. Three days were spent gathering
informaticn by means of interviews, observation of current facilities, analysis of the proposed
site, and a literature search. An interactive computerized work session was also conducted on
March 27, to clarify information gathered and to increase input from the planning program
members. Following the information gathering, a large matrix was produced with cards
representing information and ideas gathered in a large, easy to understand format. This matrix
was completed on March 28, 1997.
Using the Information displayed on the matrix, decisions were made regarding how to best
provide for the needs of the planning program and achieve the goals they have expressed for the
new facility. These decisions are expressed here in docurnem format lo provide information to
those working on the design and implemcntntion of this building project. Preparation of this
document was completed on March 31, 1997.

Executive Summary

The following program attempts to state the primnry goals med to develop the new facilities for the
Graduate Planning Dcp:inment/Program. The new facilities will be further incorporated into an
overall expansion including space for the undergraduate architecture program, graduate nrcbitecturc
program, nnd landscape architecture program. The space allotted for the planning department is
expected lo be approximately 5000 squnre feer.
The graduate program nt the University of Arizona is n two year program resulting in a Master of
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Science in Plnnning. The program currently houses npproximnte!y forty students.

We would like to extend our sincere thanks to all of those who took part in the
preparation of this document Meaningful information for a program of this type is The main values/goals of the program are as follows: to establish en identity, among the University
impossible to gather without the cooperntion ofmnny people. Those of you who have given and wnong other planning departments; 10 create n sense of unity between the College of
of your time to talk with us and share your thoughts, feelings, and ideas have enriched the Architecture, Landscape Architecture, nnd the Planning Department; to provide adequate facilities
information that will shape this project in the future. for advancing technology, to stay abreast with current and future technological developments; to
design n highly functional space which accommodates nil necessary activities.
Special thanks to Dean Richard Eribus for giving us this opportunity to be involved in this Some important facts include the existing facilities, which are: the Dmchrncn Institute, the plnnning
project, Kenneth Clark for taking the time to share his feelings and insights into the workings of annex, a library and library workroom, n computer lab, and J class/lecture rooms in the architecture
the planning program, Dan Middleman and Alex Lakey for conducting the interactive computer building. Most problems with these urea center around the fact that nil of the resources arc spread
out and none contain ndequnte space for growth. Several needs were nlso uncovered: the students
work session from which we received a wealth of useful need a planning studio, with sufficient space for tasks: a seminar room which seat between 20-25
Inforrnetion, and to everyone else that has helped in the preparation of this document. students; a classroom for 40: n lecture room for 150; exhibition space; offices for the Director.
As students, we would also like to thank our professors, with special thanks to Executive nssistnnt, nnd other edminlstrators. Other key needs include handicap access,
environmental controls. and plenty of storage space.
Professor Robert Hershberger, who has led us through each step of this process and
Important ideas include: conference room; n central outdoor area; northern views; student
provided us with the necessary guidance for success in this and future projects. mailboxes; lounge space; n common pin-up area within the studio; easy interaction among
students and faculty; and n dynamic entrance to the facility.

The proposed site for the new facilities will be IU1 expansion of the existing College of Architecture
at the University of Arizona in Tucson, Arizona. The expansion will extend off of the current
building eastward along Speedway Blvd. This proposed erea is currently u parking lot. his
surrounded by other University buildings and possibly a future fine ans library.
Space allocation for the new facilities nre 11!5 follows:
Reception JOOsq ft
Coordinator 360sq ft
Chair 200sqft
Confcrencc(sm) 200sq ft Faculty
offices 4@ 150sq ft en 2
Classrooms 850s11 fl
462 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Sample Architectural Programs 463
464 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Sample Architectural Programs 465
466 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Sample Architectural Programs 467
468 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Sample Architectural Programs 469
470 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager Sample Architectural Programs 471

A.2 Mikvah for an Orthodox

Jewish Congregation MIKVAH FOR AN ORTHODOX JEWISH CONGREGATION

This architectural program is typical of those done over the years by

the author of this text. It was selected for presentation in this
appendix both because it was formatted horizontally, in contrast to
the student generated program, and because it was for a very small,
but unique, facility that required nearly all of the information
gathering procedures to develop an understanding of the design
problem. Because of the small project size, it was possible to
reproduce the entire program and its appendices in this appendix.
The reader should understand that most programs and appendix
information required for unique projects will be considerably larger
than shown here. But the difference will be one of size, not of kind.
There will be more people to interview, more spaces to observe, a
larger site to analyze, and perhaps so many occupants that
questionnaires will be required to obtain the needed information.
There may also be more literature resources to find and review. by Robert G. Hershberger, Ph.D., FAIA, Architect 6/6/97
And there will be many more space program sheets to develop. In
other words, this is one of the smallest complete architectural
programs that could be presented. The only parts of the program
not included in this appendix were the very simple divider sheets
used to make it easier for the reader to find the respective parts of MIKVAH FOR AN ORTHODOX JEWISH CONGREGATION by
the program. Robert Hershberger, Ph.D., FAIA, Architect
The program was printed in the architect's office on white 8W' x
11" laser paper in order to ensure that the quality of the small Contents
photographs would not be lost. The dividers and covers were AcknowledgmenVDirectory/Methods
printed on the same weight gray bond paper. The program was
Executive Summary
bound on the left side with a black plastic comb binding so that it
would lay flat during use. The front and back covers were covered Values, Goals, Facts, Needs Summary

by a clear plastic film to protect the document from heavy use Space Program Sheets

during design. Space Allocation

Relationship Diagrams

Mikvah, Ber, Pump and Tank Relationships

Project Cost Analysis

Site Analysis

Ideas Exploration

Appendix

Literature Review

Observation of Mikvahs
 Sample Architectural Programs 473
472 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
 Sample Architectural Programs 475
474 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
 Sample Architectural Programs 477
476 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager

••
478 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Sample Architectural Programs 479
480 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Sample Architectural Programs 481
482 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Sample Architectural Programs 483
484 Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager
Sample Architectural Programs 485

A!1ondantlocksdoort0Mikv11h,.so1hatnoxt
personcannotlookorgetin. Shcdoosnotfiko WAITING ROOM ·-STORAGE, MONITORS
DRESSING ROOM COUNTER
goingintodrossingroom,bocausoolprivacy. There arc
doom evervwhero, hying to maintain privacy. MIKVAH FOR CONGREGATION CHOFETZ CHAYIM-ORTHODOX by WALK-THROUGH OBSERVATION
Robert G. Hershberger, Ph.D., FAIA, Architect
Nocdsomo!lhlllvostoplacopC?roonalbolonglngs 2. Mikvah Number 2 CURTAIN AND HIGH WINDOW SLIPPERY SIGNS AND TACKY DETAILING
lorlinalp1opa1a1iomi.

Altondant wens wilh peopju in 1ho wniting room

whonnoonoin1hoMikvah.

Thayhavodoubl!l:;ecu1ilyotthodoorway,wilh
vldoo!lurvclllarn:obothdlrccllons. Soomstoboa
rnalp1oblomtomaintoinprivacyondsocuri1ynt!IH1
snmotimo.

Coun!ortopsaroundsinkilaronotlargoonough. Got
very clu!torud. Need mcro space. Draworo.
Evcry1hingnhouldbohiddon.

Coun1orno!.ld!lloboc!oananddry-.notlila.
FormicaoramonoUthk:!lurlaco.
WAITING ROOM·- STORAGE, SALES
DRESSING ROOM COUNTER/TOILET
Hon! lamp in dni:l!ling room ill Important. Ono
eepomte ewttcn,

TheyuseUa1h::;hco1:i--voryr11rgo1owols. Havoa Mlkv:ihroomlsg1110Uyonhancodbyhighopmnbl11 DISCONTINUOUS HANDRAILS

sotollour.t.blgba!hshool,2.lloorrug,J. window,bocaus11ol/ight11ndv11ntil11lion. Doosnot
rogularlowol,4.wll!lhc!oth. Tho:;o;iroch!lngod h11v11thomustysm11llo!U10windowl11s!lMikvohs.
foroachusor. How11v11r,hlghwindowl:iverydillicul1toopon;ll
roquiresn!ndder.
Aclo11ninggllldoo!llhowll!lh1t10no:dd11y. Wnilingroomispleasnntnndnicelyfumished.
Cut1alnwasanaHorthoughtwhcnlhoyroa!ized
Should boa rest room tor lho waiting women and Twootlh11dressingrooms11readequol11!nsiz11, tha1thepor?lonin1h0Mikvnhwns!ncompl11levi11w
attendant, bulthocountor.icouldb11longer,andcn!ryand o!Jhawnilingroom.
11xillnckprivac:yfromwoi!ingroorn. Thoolhor
drcssingroomlspoorlyo.rmngtl'd.
Thoychango1hoMikvahrninwa1oronlyabout Arti!iciolplnnlsgivoa.nic;otouchofcolor,butam
oncooachycar. DISOlncky.
ThoMikvnhroomlsolo.dequn!osize,butlock!;
privacy. Exposed pipes and conduit as Colorol1hotilco1blu!!lg1ocnismuchmoro
ThosoJarwa!orhoatingJsvoryolll'.M;Uvo, and
111torthoughtsgtvoitalnckylc10k. succossfullh11n lhey0Uow/goldtil1111tthcfirsl
reduces walorhoatingoxpon:;o:;con:;idorably.
Mikvah.
Thcwnshcronddrycr,notshown,11roodequ11loln
Tt1es1orag11. washinganddryinglacrntios111e
sizcnndlocatedcl11soonoughforllspu1po:ios. Signs11vorywh11roindicato1h11tth11solcc!lonof
complot11Jyinad11qu11to11!pmsent. No1orowholghtofst01ngodoo111ndwirestoallol thotilewasnolcarelullyconsidor11d. nts
thete/ephon1111ndmoniloringequipmcn1 No1oallol1hodillcrentrequlrodparaphernalia S1or11911seomsndcqunt11indressingrooms.but obviouslyquit11s!ipp11rywhonwo!,11nd1he
notlnwoitingnrca. dlscon!inuoushandr11ilsdonothalp.

UNDER COUNTER SUPPLIES

MIKVAH LANOINGfSTOAAGE
MJKVAH LOWER POOL AND RETURN

EXPOSED PIPES AT MJKVAH

ADEQUATE STORAGE IN DRESSING ROOM ELECTRICAL CONTROLS IN BASEMENT

SOLAR COLLECTOR AT ROOF EXPOSED PIPES ANO CONDUIT

MIKVAH CE/UNG

UNSIGHTLY UTENSIL MIKVAH PIPES AND FIL TEA JN BASEMENT

CooklngutensilMikvalllookslikoaweokcnd pro/act.
Noloinoflicien1storag11unde1coun!o1andsolai, EJposodpipesandc11nduitov11/}'l'ih11rcindic11111a Udisnottight,soitcol!cclsdirt,scum
andw11torcolloction1orainloadt>ratS.E. comer. Nolothoclu11oronlllolandlngand1h11sign1h111 l11ckofinitialp!anning. 11ndlnsoctsonthotop0Jtllowa111r. Setting Ina
Noteclutteronccilingnndmessylookolmulliplo
indicateslallingh11zard111mikv11h utilitycourtondlh11lockotadoquatop11inting
1yposo1yollow/gold1rl11onunov11nsurfaco:;
Tho ama!I sizo o! tho lowor landing and Icweet m11kosthisaso11owlulsighl,andp1ob11bly11n
sccuen cl pool up ne~t lo tho pfpee mu~! mako unde:ilrob!ooc!ivilylornowlywedssculng up their Roodily11cc11ssiblopipin9011dcontrol5m11k11:i
cmeroionquitodi!Hcu!I. household \ moinlonancol11irlyc115y,
 Index

A disadvantages, 23-24
Aalto, A., 47, 77, 77,78 abstraction energy category, 23-24
in design, 50-51, 50 acceptance of goals, 20
interviewee's position, Indiana Bell as example, 23, 23
238-239 Irwin Union Bank as example, 23,
accessibility guidelines, 207, 208 24 needs, 20
acknowledgment, in program, 371, problem seeking programming
371 matrix, 19-22, 19, 21, 22
Ackoff, R., 248, 303 pros and cons, 25
acoustics, 85 value categories, areas, 20, 23
active listening skills, 237, 324 work sessions, 18, 18, 20
administrative costs, 411 AIA Standard Form of Agreement
adobe, 97, 97, 103 between Owner and Architect (AIA
adversarial/reactionary relationship Document B141), 6
between architect/ client, 8-10 air pollution, 108
Aerospace and Mechanical airport design, 78, 79
Engineering Building, Univ. of Alexander, 426
Arizona, 55, 55 Alleluia Lutheran Church, x, 52, 53,
aesthetic factors, 12, 48-53, 56, 57-60, 57-60
60-61, 73, 145-161, 175,338 Altman, I., 15
color, 146 American Institute of Architects
form, 146-150 (AIA), x,201,202
industrial building design, 148-150, American National Standards Institute
148, 149 interviewing (ANSI), 206
skills, 221 meaning, American Pavilion, Montreal World's
154-161 space as form, Fair, 124, 125
150-154 American Society for Testing
agreement-based programming, and Materials (ASTM), 207
17-25 Americans with Disabilities Act
committees, 18 (ADA) guidelines, 208
context category, 23 amplification of interviewee's
cost savings, 22 position, 237, 243

Note: Boldface numbers indicate illustrations. 487

488 Index Index 489

analyzing data, 194-195, 303-304, value-based programming, 25-34 values, behavioral mapping, 260-262, Humanscale, 85
303 goals, facts, and needs in, 5 Architectural 260-262 National Building Code, 207
Anderson DeBartolo Pan (ADP), Programming, Creative Techniques for criminal safety and design, 166 Occupational Safety and Health Act
23-24 Design Professionals, 195,415 gathering information, 204 (OSHA), 206
appendix of program, 430 Architectural Record magazine, 129, psychological issues of design, 88 ordinances, 206-207
archaeological sites, 96 200,205,206 social implications of design, 54 site selection, 307
Architects' First Source web site, 210, Architectural Review magazine, 205 Berdie, 274 special (physical) needs, 84
210 Architecture magazine, 200, 205 Best Co. building, broken facade, Time-Saver Standards for
Architect's Guide to Facility architectural delivery process, 5, 5 154, 154 Architectural Design, 198 Uniform
Programming, The, 54, 195 archival materials, 202-203, 203 bias, questionnaires and surveys, Building Code, 122, 122, 207,207
Architectural Database of the Royal Arizona Inn, traditional cultural 299-301 Urban Code design guidelines, 146,
Institute to British Architects, 214 influence, 110, 110 Big Court, Jefferson Park, 260, 262 148
Architectural Graphic Standards, 85, Arizona State University, 258, 427 Big Sky Montana outdoor concert, tent building evaluation (see also
201,202 Arroyo House, preserving existing structure, 138, 138 Blalock, 269, evaluation methods), 448-451
Architectural Index, 213 topography, 91-92,.91, 92 274, 292 building layout, 386
architectural programming, 1-39, art (see aesthetics of design) Board of Church Extension, Disciples building materials (see materials)
180-181 Art Annex, Arizona State Univ., 126, of Christ, 197 building programming, 4
agreement-based programming, 127 body of knowledge, adding to from building standards publications, 202
17-25 approaches art in design, 5 evaluation, 451-452 Boston Burgee, 154, 154
to, 6-7 Art Literature International (RILA), City Hall, 11 7, 11 7 boundaries,
architectural delivery process, 5, 5 214 site selection, 309 Bradburn,
behavioral science & building design, ASU Architecture Building, 440, 441 292 c
6-7 AT&T headquarters, Chippendale Bradfield, V. J., 213 Callender, 198, 202, 343
behavioral/social science & building architecture, 154, 154 bridge design, 162 Cambridge Seven, 124
design, 14-1 7 authority of architect, 8-9 brief, client brief, 6, 7-8 Canter, 44
budgetary constraints vs. design, 3 Avery Index to Architectural Brill, M., 15 car wash, 1, 2
client-based approach to design, 6-10 Periodicals, 213 brown sheets, in presentations, Carson, 264
definitions of, 4-5 . ,. 360-361, 360 Castillo, 49
Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals
design-based architecture Bruder DWL Architects, 74-75, 74 castle fortifications, 109, 109 catalogs
On-Line, 214
programming, 7-::-1 ~ Bruder, W., 3, 29, 30 as information sources, 215 cave
essential elements of architectural budget limitations (see economic paintings as aesthetic values, 48
programming, Horowitz, 7 function factors) centralized vs. decentralized space,
vs. design, 3 knowledge-based B budgeting section, in program (see also 344
programming, 14-17 Bacon, H., 76, 76 Cerna and Garza, Architects, 131, 132
economic factors), 406-415, 407
literature search during programming Baker House dormitory, MIT, 77-78, Chafee, J., 97
Buff, Straub and Bensman, value-based
phase, 198-200 77,78 ' chalk and whiteboards, in
programming, 2 7, 28 building codes,
nature of, 1-4 bar chart, 184, 184 presentations, 358 change
121-122, 206-207, 207
problematic approach to design, 3, 4, Bardens, 247 of use, 134-138 Charte
accessibility guidelines, 207, 208
5 Barker, 264 Cathedral, 49, 49 checklist
American National Standards
programming as definitional stage of beauty (see aesthetics of design) type questionnaire,
Institute (ANSI), 206
design, 1 Bechtel, R., 15, 19$, 304, 454 276-277,276,293-294
American Society for Testing and
site constraints vs. design, 3 social Becker, N., 4, 6 ··· chemical/pollutant safety, 163-165
Materials (ASTM), 207 Architectural
sciences & building design, 6-7 Behavioral Issues in Office Design, 8 8 children (see special needs) Chimacoff,
Graphic Standards, 85 gathering
stages of architectural delivery behavioral mapping, 260-262, A., ix, 439-440
process, 5 information, 199, 206-207
260-262 Church of the Palms, Sun City, Ariz.,
behavioral/social science & building 86,86,87, 157, 158, 159, 159,
design, xiii-xiv, 6-7, 14-17 332
 490 Index Index 491

rch planning guide, 197 compact versus dispersed, 346 deed restrictions, site selection, 307 E
irchill, W., 247 computer generated images, 129-130 Defensible Space, 88 earthquake zones, 95, 95, 161
corp Center, Manhattan, computer presentations, in Demoll, L., 4, 6 Eclectic period, 49
xpandable use space, 134, 134, presentations, 356-358, 362 Desert House, environmental diagram, economic factors, 8, 54, 56, 61, 73,
L35 concept diagram, 345 346 140-145, 181-182, 185-199, 338,406-
ification of interviewee's position, concepts in design, 422-428, 426, 428 design analysis, 386, 418-430 415,407 administrative costs, 411
l37, 241-242 Conklin, W., 82, 82, 83 construction client ideas, 419-420 agreement-based programming, 22
·k, R., 200, 422 costs, 142-143, 143, budget limitations, 141
concepts in design, 422-428, 426, 428
sical Greece/Rome, 49 406-409,407,409 construction budget presentation, client/user
exploration through design,
rt ideas, 194, 419-420, 421 documents, 179-180 construction work session, 326
428-430
at vs. designer interests, 54 it/user methods, x-xi, 131 contemporary budget section in program, 381
precedents in design, 420-422
work sessions, 323-331 .eernent values of architecture, calculation of project costs, 412
precepts in design, 424-428, 424, 425
between parties, 330 dget 53-55 construction costs, 142-143, 143,
programmatic concepts, 422-423, 423
presentation, 325 nposition of context (use) factors, 23, 54, 409-413, 410, 411
persons in session, 123-324 tuning a building design, 449-450
100-103 cost breakdown, 187-188, 188, 189 cost
context category, agreement-based design considerations section, in
eractions among participants, of error, 181-182, 218, 445-446
126-328 programming, 23 program, 376-382, 377
Design Cost Data, 409 Design Cost Data, 409
ding a work session, 327-329 Conway, 14 efficient use of space vs. cost,
trix development session, :25- cost of error, 181-182, 218, design development, 178-179 design
392-395,393,394
326, 325, 326 445-446 evaluation (see also evaluation
methods), 446-448 energy efficiency, 144-145
ssion statement of group, 323 courtyards to create shade, 103 estimating costs, 185-190, 188,
;otiation of issues, 328-330 Covenant Baptist Church, allowing for design processes factors, tools and
processes influence design, 128- 189,412
.sentation of project purpose, growth, 133-134, 133, 176, 176 executive work sessions, 333-336
:24-326, 325, 326 cover sheet, in program, 370-371 covers 131
design programming, 4 financial feasibility study, 172-174,
iedule presentation, 324-325 ip-up for program, 370, 370 Creative Design
design requirements (DR), 382-389 173, 181
of session, 330-331 it-based Decisions, 195 Creighton, J., 104, 104 financing availability I cost,
approach to design, 6-10 criminal safety (see also safety Design with Nature, 46 design-based
141-142,411
rersarial/reactionary relationship factors), 165-167 architecture
form for estimating costs, 411
etween architect/client, 8-10 CRS of Houston, 19 programming, 7-14
interviewing skills, 221
hority of architect, 8-9 Cuadill Rowlett Scott (CRS), 3-4 diagnostic interviewing (see
life cycle costs, 414-415 maintenance
efs, 6 cultural factors, 56, 73, 108-122, interviewing), 219
costs, 143-144, 415 Marshall
ence of a building, 9 stence 175,338 dichotomous (true/false) questions,
Evaluator, 407, 408, 408 Means
will of a building, 9 eractive historical factors influencing design, 292-293
Square Foot Costs, 407 operating
process between 109-113 dimensioned plans, in observation,
costs, 143
rchitect/client, 12 institutional design, 113-120 253
owner's budget, 406
port between client and architect, interviewing skills, 221 directory, in program, 371-372, 372 phasing cost estimate, 415, 415
legal issues in design, 121-122 disabled (see special needs) Discovery project costs, 409-415 questionnaires
political issues in design, 120 in Park Multi-Tenant Facility, and surveys, cost of
ate (see also environmental program, 3 80 Vancouver, 126, 127 error, 304-306
ictors), x-xi, 4, 89, 96-99, 310 ed- DMG Newsletter, 200 R.S. Means Company's Means
building syndrome, 165 Daber, 175 Estimating Handbook, 410
r, 146 Downs, 261 ranges of costs, 16-1 7, 411
fort and physiological needs, D drainage, 89 safety features, 182
6-48, 85-87 Daly, L.E., 163, 163, 164 database Duany, A., 146 site development costs, 15-16, 411
rnittee-based programming (see (computerized) literature Du~~4,74,338,368 Dulles Einstein Tower, Potsdam, 129, 129
greement-based programming) searches, 214 Airport, 78, 79 elderly (see special needs),
munity market design, 421, 422 Davis, G., 4, 15 electrical loads, 44
munity Mental Health and De Chiara, 343
etardation Center, 347 Deasy, 81, 247
? Index Index 493

trical systems, 125, 178 cost of error, 445-446 fire/emergency exits, 44, 162-163, matrix development, 335-337, 337
.ations, 8, 253 design evaluation, 446-448 175 program preparation, goals section,
:rgency exits, 44, 162-163 experimental simulation, 443-444, firmitas, utilitas, et venustas, 42-43 375-376,376
uring values of architecture, 42-53 443,444 First Presbyterian Church, Sun City, questionnaires and surveys,
rgy category, agreement-based future commissions improved by, Arizona, 241, 245 floodplains, 273-274
irogramming, 23-24 452-453 89, 90, 90, 91, 308 Focke, 221, value-based programming, 31
rgy efficiency, 104-105, 144-145 iconic simulation, 438-442 324, 333 Goldman, 184
ironment and Behavior, 88, 204 mental simulation, 438 post-occupancy Fodera School, Columbus, Indiana, Golledge, 265
evaluation, 450-451 process Goodwin, K. & M., 117, 118
ironmental Design Research 153, 153
evaluation, 436-438 program
sssociation (EDRA), 14, 88, 204 evaluation, 436-446, 437 simulation form, x, 54, 146-150 Gothic cathedrals, 49, 49
ironmental factors (see also procedures, 438-444 symbolic formal/spatial relationships in design government buildings, 11 7, 11 7, 140
iehavioralz'social science & simulation, 442-443 tuning a building process, 13-14 government documents/
iuilding design; climate), 4, 14, design, 449-450 user's manual for fortified government building, 45, 45 publications, 208, 214
i4, 56, 60, 61, 73, 89-108, building, 450 when to evaluate, 435 Foster, N., 124 Grady Gammadge Memorial
.75, 338 Evans & Wheeler, 4 France, 237 Auditorium, Arizona State Univ.,
program, 379, 379 executive summary, in program, Franklin Court Bicentennial Exhibit, 162, 162
:haeological sites, 96 372-375,373,374 156,157 graph of statistics, 269
nate factors, x-xi, 4, 89, 96-99, executive work sessions, 333-336 French Assembly, floor plan, 248 Graphic Survey of Perception and
~06-314 existence will of a building, 9 existing Frisch, D., 201 Behavior for the Design Professions,
itext (use) factors, 100-103 buildings, site selection, 309 Frisch, S., 201 A, 88, 204
tinage, 89 experimental simulation, 443-444, Fuller, R. B., 124, 125 Greenberg, 44
thquake zones, 95, 95 443,444 function in design, 3, 4, 50, 54, 75- greenhouses, 105
sting vegetation, 91 expert advice, gathering information, 80 Greenwood Nursery, material use,
odplains, 89, 90, 90, 91 194 functional relationship diagram, 80, 124
ilogical concerns, 95 exploration through design, 428-430 80 grid-paper based presentations,
Irological concerns, 95 exposure, site selection, 307 functional programming, 4 352-354,361-362,363 growth,
erviewing skills, 221 external factors, 54 furnishings, 1 78 allowing for growth, 132-134
dfills, dump sites, 96 future commissions improved by GSA,x,4
ource use factors, 103-106 e evaluation, 452-453 Guggenheim Museum, 150-151, 151
selection, 89, 90-96 .ography,
91 G
ws, 92, 94-95, 94 F gas station success/failure based on
ste disposal, 89, 106-108, 107 facilitator role of architect, 12 site, 100-103, 101, 102
H
ironmental Research Laboratory facility programming, 4 Facility Geddes, R., 11 7 Habitat Housing project, Montreal,
ERL), Univ. of Arizona, 105, 105 Programming, 195 Gehry, F., 150 131, 132
VEnvironmental Research Group, facts for design matrix, 5, 340-342, Hall, E., 15, 88, 92, 110, 331
General Motors Technical Center, 154
66 342 Halprin, L., 97
general observations, 249-250 geodesic
Owen Moss Architects, 129, Falling Water, 26, 240 Hamlin, T., 43, 49
dome, 124, 125
31,131 Farbstein, J., 4, 15, 185 geological concerns, 95, 307
Hardy, 126
erick, J., 10 Federal Register, 208 Harris, D. A., 204
German Trade Union Federation
nee of a building, 9 Feerer, 74 health and safety issues (see also
School, 50
nating costs, 185-190, 188, financial feasibility study, 172-174, comfort; safety factors), 47-48
Giurgola, A., 125-126, 126
89,412 173, 181 heating/cooling, 86, 87, 103-106,
glare, 85
uation methods, 436-452 iy financing availability/cost (see also 144-145, 178 HECTTEAS/TEST
goals and objectives, 5 agreement-based
of knowledge, adding to, economic factors), 141-142, 411 Fire EACH checklist, 56-57, 56, 73, 336
programming, 20 interviewing clients to
51-452 Station 4, Columbus, Indiana, 157, height restrictions, 120, 146, 175
identify goals, 220-221
lding evaluation, 448-451 158
 Index 495
494 Index
institutional design (see also hospital individual vs. group interviews,
srshberger Kim Architects, 133-134, in program, 382-383, 383 design), 88, 113-120, 152-153, 199 223-225,224
133, 148,148, 176,176 ; ershberger interviewing skills, 221 custody institutions, 115-116 interpretation of interviewee's
residence, values and architecture, 42, privacy, 81 government buildings, 11 7, 117 opinion, 237, 244
42, 60-69, 61-70 psychological needs, 88 Louis Kahn research in, 113-114 introduction to interviewee, 233
ershberger, R., ix, xi, 4, 15, 86, 86, 87, social activities, 80-82 punishment institutions, 115-116 logistics of interviewing, 225-226
135, 154, 157, 159, 158, 159, 159- special (physical) needs, 83-85, 85 special needs, 117-119, 119 therapy management skills, 237
160, 160 Humanscale, 85 institutions, 115-116 natural categories of values,
ester, R.T. Jr., 260 hydrological concerns, 95, 307, 310 integrated-interactive approach to 221-222
'dden Dimension, The, 88 Hyman, 49 design, 13 observation vs., 246-247
illier Group, ix, 444 interactions among participants, open ending of interview, 236-237
.lton Palacio Del Rio Hotel, San I client/user work sessions, 326- organizational chart, 222, 222
Antonio, Texas, 131, 132 I-3 Industrial Building/Rollo 329 planning the interview, 220-221
stogram of statistics, 267 Industrial Building, 148, 148, interactive approach to design, 13 posture, body language, 238 priming
storic districts, 199, 200 149, 150 interactive process between the interviewee, 226-227 problem
storical documents, archival iconic simulation, 438-442 architect/client, 12 definition, 221 questionnaires vs., 2 7
materials, 202-203, 203 storical ideas in matrix development,. interior design, 386 5
factors influencing design, Interior Graphic and Design recording the interview, 234-236
344-346,345,346
109-113 Standards, 202 redirection of interviewee's position,
igloo, 96, 96
oag, 151 interior view, house, 12 International 237,242-244
IIT Architecture Building, 50 Imagina
olzman, 126 Conference of Building Officials, 207 reflection on interviewee's position,
Exhibition Hall, 129, 131,
ong Kong and Shanghai Bank, 124, 237,239-241
131 interpretation of interviewee's
125 opinion, 237, 244 reviewing the interview, 236
index searches, 213, 214
oover Berg Desmond Architects, 55 interviewing to gather information, sampling plan, 222-225
Indiana Bell, agreement-based
oover, G., 55 skills needed for interviewing, 23 7
programming example, 23, 23 industrial 194, 219-246
>p factory, S.C., function in design, summary of interview, 237, 236,
building design, 148-150, 148, 149 acceptance of interviewee's position, 237,
76 236,244-245
information gathering, 180-181, 238-239
orowitz, H., 4, 6 time allotted to interview, 225-226 tone
193-321 active listening skills, 237
orton Plaza, San Diego, 136-137, 137 of voice, 238
analyzing data, 194-195 amplification of interviewee's
ispital design, 88, 115-116, unstructured interviewing, 219 value
bar chart, 184, 184 bias, position, 237, 242
443-444,443,444 ouse and goal seeking, 220-221 work
299-301 analyzing the interview, 229-232
Beautiful, 90 sessions similarities, 324
client input, 194 appraisal of topic to interviewee,
ouse Form and Culture, x Irwin Union Bank, agreement-based
expert advice, 194 233-234
ouse of Commons, floor plan, 248 programming example, 23, 24 issues in
interviewing, 194 clarification of interviewee's
irnan ecology (see behavioral/ architectural design, 73-170
literature search and review, 194, position, 237, 241-242
social science & building design)
195-218 coding sheets for analyzing
rman factors (see also special
needs), 54, 56, 61, 73, 75-88,
observation, 194, 246-2 7 4
questionnaires and surveys, 194,
responses, 230-232, 230, 231
diagnosis of interviewee's opinion,
J
175,336 Jacobson, M., 422
273-305, 305 234 Jerde, J., 136
iomfort and physiological needs,
research diagram, 182, 183 diagnostic interviewing, 219 John C. Ross-William C. Blakely Law
85-87
sampling plan, 194, 217-218 site documenting the interview, Library, 162-163, 163, 164 Johnson,
mergy efficiency, 104-105
analysis, 306-313 227-229,228,229
'unction, 75-80, 75 154, 154
user input, 194 facial expressions, 238
unctional relationship diagram, 80, 80 Journal of Architectural and Planning
Information Sources in Architecture, HETTEAST/TEST EACH factors to
ieating/cooling, 103-106 Research, The, 88, 204
213 consider, 221
Journal of Environmental Psychology,
Inquiry by Design, 195, 215 The, 204
496 Index
Index 497
building standards publications, world wide web sites, 210, 210, Sweet's Catalog File, 179, 180, 201,
ahn, L. I., xi, 3, 4, 9, 26, 113-114, 202 214 208-209,209
125, 126 card catalog searches, 212 zoning, 199 Time-Saver Standards for Architectural
allman, McKinnell, Knowles, 117, catalogs, 215 LMRector Corp., 413 Design, 198, 202 matrix development,
117 conference proceedings, 204 loads, 44, 161 19-22, 19, 21, 22,325-
atz, 426 database (computerized) searches,
Lutheran Theological Seminary, 16 326,325,326, 335-346
aufrnan House (Falling Water), 26, 214
Lynch, 174 facts, 340-342, 342
240 deciding what information to search,
211 goals and objectives, 338-340, 339
elbaugh, 422
rk, S. J., 195 design phase, 200-201 M ideas, 344-346, 345, 346
follow-up for special sources, 212 needs and requirements, 342-344, 343
sh, 237 macro/microclimates, site selection,
values, 335-338, 337
towledge-based programming, getting the best sources, 214 307
literature searches, 216-217, 217
14-17 government documents, 208, 214 magazines, gathering information, McGinty, T., ix
istof, 49 historic districts, 199, 200 historical 204, 209-210
documents, archival McGraw Hill Construction
'esge Residential College, Univ. Maillart, R., 162
materials, 202-203, 203. Information Group, 201, 208
Calif., Santa Cruz, 82, 82 maintenance costs, 143-144, 414
index searches, 213, 214 _ McHarg, I., 46, 308 McLaughlin,
rmlin, R., 4, 195, 360, 395, 410 management skills, 237
Information Sources in Architecture, K., 44
manufacturer's literature, 201,
213 meaning in aesthetics, 154-161
208-209
institutional values and Means Square Foot Costs, 412
Manzanares Real Castle, Spain, 109 mechanical loads, 44 mechanical
ke Anne Village Center, Reston, VA, requirements, 199
Marans, R., 24, 195, 450 systems, 125, 126 · Medlin, R.
82,82,83 librarian help for special sources, Marcus, Clare C., 15 L., 138
idfills, dump areas, 96, 107-108 211-212
1dscaping, 146 marketplace, Brazil, 111 Mendelsohn, E., 129, 129
Library of Congress Subject
ng, 4 Headings, 212 Marshall Evaluator, 407, 408, 408 mental simulation, 438
ngdon Wilson Architecture Planning Marti, 4 Metal Design and Fabrication, 201
library search procedures, 210-214
Interiors, 144-145, 144 manufacturer's literature, 201, Martin Luther King Square public Methods in Environmental and
sswell, 247 housing project, 44, 45 Maslow, Behavioral Research, 195, 304
208-209
A., 43, 43 methods list for program, 376, 377
wrence Hall of Science, Berkeley, matrix summary, 216-217, 217 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
92,93 monographs, 206 Methods of Architectural Programming,
(MIT), 77 195
wton, P., 15, 44, 88 newsletters, 204
master plan, 175-176, 176, 181, Meunier, J., xi
Corbusier, 47, 151, 152 newspapers, periodicals, 202-203 386 Meyer, H., 49-50
ming Tower of Pisa, 43 ver non-library searches, 215 ordinances,
material selection, availability, x-xi, Michelson, W., 195
House, 154 206-207
106, 123-124 Mikvah for Orthodox Jewish
irary of Congress Subject Headings, phases of greatest values in, 196
212 planning standards publications, American National Standards Congregation, sample architectural
Institute (ANSI), 206 American program, xi, 470-485
rary search procedures (see also 202,202
Society for Testing and Materials
literature search), 210-214 popular literature, 209-210 (ASTM), 207 Architectural Minnesota College of Architecture, 12
: cycle costs, 414-415 precommission phase literature Graphic Standards, mission statement of group,
hting, 125, 166, 178 search, 196-198 201,202 client/user work sessions, 324
professional publications, 205-206, availability, 106 Mitchell/Giurgola Architects, 125-126
i, M.Y., 156
206 modeling, 129
icoln Memorial, 75-76, 76 catalogs as information sources, 215
Modem period, 49
idheim, R., 264 programming phase, 198-200 construction documents, 179-180
reviewing the literature, 215-216 Interior Graphic and Design Moleski, W., 15, 166, 182, 185
irature search and review, 194,
sampling plan, 217-218 Standards, 202 manufacturer's monographs, 206
195-218
site requirements, 199, 310-311 literature, 201, Monorail, Seattle, 139, 139
rchitecturaj Index, 213 ~ery
sources of literature for, 201-210 208-209 Moore Lyndon, Turnbull and Whitiker
Index to Architectural
trade publications, 204, 215 Metal Design and Fabrication, 201 (MLTW), 82, 82
Periodicals, 213
vocabulary, terms associated with site selection, 307 Moore Ruble Yudell Architects, 12
shavioral research, 204 particular buildings, 197-198 specifications, 179-180, 180
iilding codes, 199, 206-207, 207
498 Index
Index 499

'e, C., 97, 263 recording observations/comments, performance requirements (PR), political issues in design, 120
'e, G., 15 ble/temporary 251,252 384-389 pollution, site selection, 307 popular
facilities, 15-136, 138 space inventories, 252-257, permanence, 138-140 literature, 209-210 post-occupancy
-focused observation, 262-263 253-256 personal safety factors, 165 personal evaluation, 450-451 pre-design
ple choice type questionnaires, spatial systems, uncoupling, 263, 263 space and territoriality, 15 Personal services, 171-180 precedents in
>3-294 statistical analysis, 267-270, Space, 8 8 design, 420-422 Precendents in
s, B., 54 267-270 perspective drawings, in observation, Architecture, 200, 422 precepts in
systematic observation, 261-270 253 design, 346, 424, 424,
tasks as focus of observation, Pfeiffer, 126 425
263-264 phasing cost estimate, 414, 415 precommission phase literature
time/scale sampling, 264-267 trace Philadelphia Orchestra Hall Project, search, 196-198
nal Building Code, 207 research diagram, 182, 183
observation, 256-258, 256 traffic Preiser, W.F.E., x, 4, 15, 185,
al categories of values, 221-222 Phoenix Central Library, 74-75, 74
pattern mapping, 257, 258 187-188, 195,454 presentation
analysis, 5, 20, 383, 384-386 Phoenix City Hall, 144-145, 144
"ix development, 342-344, 343 understanding your observation, methods, 324-325,
247-249 photographs 346-358
iation of issues, client/user work
walk-throughs, 250-251, 252 · in observation, 253, 271-273, 272 brown sheets, 360-361, 360 card-
rsions, 326-328
Occupational Safety and Health Act site survey, 310-311, 310, 311 based presentations, 346-351 chalk
ran, 0., 44, 88, 166
(OSHA), 206 physical factors, 54 and whiteboards, 355 computer
etters, gathering information,
office design, 81, 81, 88, 89, 152 Old physiological needs (see comfort and presentations, 361-362 grid-paper
7, 158, 159,204
Main, Univ. of Arizona, 104, 104 Old physiological needs) based presentations,
ls, E., 112, 135, 157, 159,
Town Tempe/Mill Avenue pie chart of statistics, 268 352-354,352,353,354,
8, 159, 159-160, 160
restoration, Tempe, Arizona, Pima County Court House, archival 361-362,361
ial (single word, checklist,
112-113, 113,121 open-ended drawing, 203, 203 projectors and transparencies, 356
tltiple choice) questions, 4-
questions, 297 operating costs, planning, 172-176 presentation of project purpose,
295
143 Oppositions newsletter, 200 architectural programming, 180-181 client/user work sessions, 324-325,
·rg-Schulz, C., 43
n Residence, Venice, Calif., 150, 0 ordinal (rank ordering) questions, 294 bar chart for information, 184, 184 325, 326
ordinances, 206-207 crucial issue discovery, 181-182 prisons, 115-116
Oregon Experiment, The, 422 financial feasibility study, 172-174, privacy needs, 15, 81
organizational chart, 222, 222 173, 181 Problem Seeking, 195, 415, 427
owner's budget, 406 information gathering, 180-181, problem seeking programming matrix,
182 19-22, 19,21,22 problem-oriented
ration, 246-274 master plan, 175-176, 176, 181
vioral mapping, 260-262, observation, 263 problematic approach
program planning, 182-190 to design, 3, 4, 5, 13
D-262
research diagram, 182, 183 process evaluation (see also evaluation
tl relationships, 247-249 p scheduling, 184-185, 185
nsioned plans, 253 Palmer, M., x, 4, 54, 195, 221 methods), 436-438
site selection, 174, 174, 181
tions or perspectives, 253 Pan, A. D., 24, 185 processes factors, 128-131
Planning and Designing the Office professional publications, 205-206,
its for observation, 270-271, ), Par 3 Studio, 135, 157, 158, 159,
271 159
Environment, 204 206
ring information, 194 parking areas, 146, 175 Planning and Managing Housing for program evaluation (see also
al observations, 249-250 Pastalan, 263 the Elderly, 8 8 evaluation methods), 436-446,
riewing vs., 246-247 planning standards publications, 202,
Pattern Language, 422 437
-focused observation, 262-264 202
Pause, 200 program planning (see also planning),
ts as focus of observation, 264 e Peatross, 184 plans, house plan from sketch, 11
182-190
as focus of observation, 262 pedestrian path system, 309 Pena, x, Plater-Zyberk, E., 146
program preparation, 367-433
•graphs, 253, 271-273, 272 3-4, 19, 185, 195, 221, Platt residence, value-based
acknowledgment, 371, 371
s as focus of observation, 263 322,325,331,339,344,345, programming, 30
appendix of program, 430 budgeting
em-oriented observation, 262 346,350,360,366,377,395, Plazzetto Zuccari, entrance, 155
section, 406-415, 406
ionnaires vs., 273 410, 422 plumbing systems, 1 78
500 Index
Index 501

m preparation, continued square footage allocation, 383, checklist type questionnaire, 277, when to use questionnaires,
ing layout, 382 391-392,391,392 systems, 383 277,294-295 275-276
.pts in design, 426-428, 426, table of content for program, 369, combining questions, 282 conducting queuing studies, 15, 15
r, 428 369 the questionnaire/survey,
nt of program, 369-370 technical factors, 382-383
sheet, 370-371 transmittal form, 371, 371
301-303 R
cost of error, 304-306 demographic Rae, 237
s for program, 370, 370 University of Arizona, Planning information, 287-289 dichotomous
:al factors, 380 Department, sample architectural Ramsey, 343
(true/false) questions, Rapoport, A., x, xi
1 analysis, 418-430 program, 457-469 293-294
values and goals section, 375-376, rapport between client and architect, 8
1 considerations section,
explanatory information, allowing room rating scale type questionnaires, 2 81,
i-382 376 for, 291-292 general-to-specific order
zoning issue chart, 378 281,295-296
1 requirements (DR), 382, of questions, 290
programmatic concepts, 422-424, Rawlinson, 331
i-389 goals and objects of questionnaire,
424 redirection of interviewee's position,
ory, 371-372, 372 279-280
programming, 176-180 construction 237,242-244
mt use of space vs. cost, interesting the respondent, 287
documents, 179-180 design references, in program, 372, 373
~-395, 393, 394 multiple choice type questionnaires,
development, 178-179 schematic reflection on interviewee's position,
mmental (site) factors, 379, 294-295
design, 177-178, 178 space 237,239-241
I, nominal (single word, checklist,
program sheets, 178-179, relationship matrices and diagrams,
tive summary, 372-375, 373, multiple choice) questions,
~ 179 382,395-399
294-295 relocatable church design, 135-136,
·ation through design, 428-430 programming as definitional stage of
open-ended questions, 297 136
Jr format for program, design, 1
order of questions, 280, 281,
i-375 Programming the Built Environment, Renaissance architecture, 49
286-292
n factors section, 378-379, I 195 Renznikoff, 202
ordinal (rank ordering) questions,
or design, 382 Programming the Third Dimension, requirement sheets, 359-363
295
r planning requirements, 382 184 research diagram, 182, 183
personal information, 287-289, research-based programming (see
ids list for program, 372, 372 project costs, 409-414
290-291 knowledge-based programming)
th for Orthodox Jewish project requirements, 384-389
planning the questionnaire, resource use factors, 103-106
gregation, sample architectural projectors and transparencies, in
~ram, 470-485 presentations, 355-356 276-277 reviewing literature, literature
analysis, 383-384, 384 proposals, precommission phase pre-testing the questionnaire, searches, 215-216
mance requirements (PR), - literature search, 196-198 284-286 Revival period, 49
386 Pruitt Igoe public housing project, 48, preparing the questionnaire, 278-279 Richard Allan Homes Site Safety and
ients in design, 420-422 48 rating scale type questions, 281, Security Analysis, 166
rts in design, 424-425, 424, psychological issues of design, 88 281, 295-296 Richards Building, value-based
public facilities, behavioral/social relationship to other methods, 275 programming, Univ. of Penn.,
revising questions for clarity, 283 26-27,27, 125, 126
science studies and, 15-16
sampling methods, 297-299 Ripley, 233, 237
unmatic concepts, 422-424,
short answer questions, 296-297 Roberts, Wallace and Todd, 166
t requirements, 382-389
specific questions for each part of Robinson, J., 12-13
noes, 372, 373 Q questionnaire, 281 Ronchamp cloister, 151, 152, 153
quality of life issues, 47-48 submitting the completed rooftop systems equipment, 126, 127
mship matrices and diagrams, ,
395-403, 398, 399 questionnaires and surveys, 194, questionnaire, 292 Rosenbaum, 269
atic design requirements, 383 274-306, 306 summarizing answers, 284 Roth, 49
ssign, 383 analyzing data from questionnaires, surveys, 301-303, 300 Rubenstein, 175
identification, 383, 392-397 303-304,303 tabulating answers, 284 understanding Russell Vandiver Architects
program sheets, 383, - answering the questions, 282-283 data gathered through Partnership, 126, 127
406,404,405 bias, 299-301 questionnaires, 278
502 Index Index 503
Sheydayi, 122
shopping center design, 421-422, sketches, 7-8, 19, 129, 130, square footage allocation, 383,
en, E., 46, 78, 79, 154, 155,
422 345-346 391-395,391,392
;, 156
M., 131, 132 short answer questions, 296-297 Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, 154 St. Matthew's Episcopal Church, 12, 12
factors, 44, 56, 73, 88, 121, .- Siegel, 269 Sleeper, 341 Stahl, 44
167, 221, 338 ical/pollutant Small Business Administration (SBA), standards (see also building codes)
sign requirements, 120, 120, 146
safety, 163-165 ial safety, 165- 208 American National Standards Institute
Silverstein, M., 426
167 simulation procedures (see also snow loads, 161 (ANSI), 206
mic factors, 182 evaluation methods), 438-442 social activities, 80-82 American Society for Testing and
mergency exits, 44, 162-163, SITE Architects, 154, 154 social implications (see Materials (ASTM), 207
site design, 382 behavioral/social science & Architectural Graphic Standards,
site selection (see also environmental building design) 201,202
iational Safety and Health Act Social Life of Small Urban Spaces, The,
factors), 3, 89, 90-96, 307-314 building standards publications, 202
f!A), 206 260
boundaries, 309 Interior Graphic and Design
ial safety, 165 building codes, 307 social sciences & building design (see Standards, 202
ural safety, 161-162 mter, climate, 310 behavioral/social science & building manufacturer's publications,
institutional design, -115, context (use) factors, 100-103 design) 208-209
114, 115, 125 deed restrictions, 307 socio-cultural design factors, x-xi National Building Code, 207
architectural programs, - existing buildings, 309 Sodao, S., 124, 125 planning standards publications,
485 exposures, 307 solar energy, 105 202,202
tg methods, questionnaires and floodplains, 308 Solar Oasis, Phoenix, Arizona, 260, Time-Sauer Standards for
eys, 297-299 gathering information to determine, 261 Architectural Design, 198, 202
1g plan, gathering information, 199 Solomon House, 97, 98 Time-Sauer Standards for Building
'217-218 geology, 307 Sommer, R., 15, 81, 88, 115, 204 'Iupes, 341
H., x, 4, 12, 15, 195 me/scale hydrology, 307, 310 space as form, 150-154 Uniform Building Code, 122, 122,
sampling, 265-268 '50, 50 in program, 383, 383 universal spaces, 151-152 207,207 Starkweather,
ing, 184-185, 185, 325, - literature search, 310-311 space identification, 383, 392-395 M. H., 110 Stea, 260
383, 415-418, 416, 417, local conditions, 309 space inventories, 252-257, 253-256 Steinfeld, 44
macro/microclimates, 307 material Space Needle, Monorail, Seattle, 139, stilt house for hot climates, 96, 97
availability, 307 photographic 139 storm water disposal, 175 Strategic
documentation, 312, space program sheets, 178-179,
:ic design, 177-178, 178, Planning and Building
312,313 179,383,383,404-406,405, Planning for New Congregations,
pollution, 308 406
D., ix 197
regional conditions, 308 space/environment (see environmental Straub, Calvin S., 3, 27, 28, 97
Elam and Bray, 163, 163,
safety factors, 165 factors) structural factors, 124-128 structural
site analysis, 307-314 spatial systems, uncoupling, 264, safety, 161-16 2 Stubbins Associates
own and Associates, 156,
site development costs, 15-16, 410 264 Inc., The (TSA),
sketch of site, 313, 313 special needs, 15, 44, 83-85, 85, 134, 134, 135
ch, 97, 98, 99
suitability study, 174, 174, 181 117-119, 119 Sullivan, L., 247
Building, 54, 154
surveying, 310-311, 311 accessibility guidelines, 207, 208 surveying the site, 310-311, 311
community, Florida, 146,
topography, 306, 307, 309 Americans with Disabilities Act surveys (see questionnaires and
148
traffic and roadways, 308 (ADA) guidelines, 208 surveys)
issues (see also safety
utilities present, 308, 310, 310 Architectural Graphic Standards, 85 Sweet's Catalog File, 179, 180, 201,
.s), 44-46, 88
variances, 308 code and standards, 84 Humanscale , 208-209,209
~etreat Center, showing vegetation, 306
olain, 90 85 Swinbome, H., 6
views, 90, 92, 94-95, 94, 306 psychological issues of design, 88 symbolic simulation, 442-443
ed approach to design, 13
winds, air-current diagram, 310, Spencer, 92 systematic observation, 262-271
stems, 108
310 Spreckelmeyer, K., 4, 15, 24, 195, systems factors, 124-128, 383
s, 175
zoning, 306, 308 454
.om elements, 43-46
 Index 505
504 Index
traffic pattern mapping, 260, 262 important design issues in natural categories of values,
ontent for program, 369, transmittal form, in program, 371, programming document, 31 221-222
371 information gathering, 32 physical factors, 54
Trombe wall, 105-106, 106 Louis I. Kahn as proponent of, 26 program preparation, values section,
tatistics, 270 matrix development, 335-338, 337
1, 1, 2 Tuberculosis Sanitarium, 47 375-376, 376
Tucson Historic Districts, Criteria for problem definition, 34 safety factors, 56, 73, 161-167,
factors, 54, 56, 73, researching values, goals, needs, 31,
Preservation and Development, 199 337
31,336 tuning a building design, 449-450 TWA 33-34 social implications, 54
ition processes, 131 rocesses Terminal, La Guardia Airport, NY., schematic designs, 34
space/environment, 54
factors, 128-131 am, 380- 155, 155, 156 using aspects of other programming
survival, shelter, protection, 43-46
381 Two INA Plaza, Philadelphia, 126, methods in, 29, 31
technological factors, 54, 56, 73,
ving skills, 221 126 Will Bruder as proponent of, 29, 30
selection, availability, 123-131,337 temporal/change
values and architecture, 5, 41-72
24 factors, 56, 61,
aesthetic factors, 56, 60-61, 73, 145-
factors, 124-128
y and tools for design, x-xi
u 161,337
73, 132-140, 337
time, 54
Uniform Building Code, 122, 122, agreement-based programming, 20,
.nter for the tradition, 54
207,207 23
:apped,119 value-based programming, 25-34, 31
Unitarian Church, Madison, Wis., Alleluia Lutheran Church case study,
ty Hall, 117, 118 work sessions, 324
'change factors, 56, 61, 73, 128, 128 57-60, 57-60
van der Rohe, L., 50-51, 50, 151,
40,336 United States Capitol building, art, aesthetics, and beauty, 48-53 154, 156
if use, 134-138 permanence of design, 139-140, client vs. designer interests, 54 Vanna Venturi House, 51, 51, 52
132-134 140 climate, 54
variances, site selection, 308
ving skills, 221 universal spaces, 151-152 University contemporary values of architecture, vegetation, preserving existing
/temporary facilities, of Arizona, ix, 427 Planning 53-55
vegetation, 91, 306
context, 54
36, 138 Department, sample architectural Ventana Canyon Resort, preserving
.nce, 138-140 cultural factors, 56, 73, 108-122, 338
program, 457-485 University of existing topography, 92, 93
'I facilities, 135-136, 138 California, Berkeley, 10 University of economic factors, 54, 56, 61, 73,
ventilation, 125, 165
ture, 138, 138 Pennsylvania, women's dormitories, 140-145,336
Venturi, R., 51, 51, 52, 150, 156-
arth Museum, 94-95, 94, ~9, 46 enduring values of architecture,
157, 158,330 verbal/numerical
130, 1 78, 178 Residence, S. unstructured interviewing (see 42-53
environmental factors, 56, 60, 61, relationships in design process,
Cal., 28, 29, interviewing) 13-14
73, 89-108,336
'ces, 204 Urban Code design guidelines, 146,
148
external factors, 54
Vietnam War memorial, 156, 156
views (see also site selection), 90, 92,
>4 firmitas, utilitas, et venustas, 42-43 94-95,94, 306
user input, gathering information,
e sampling, 265-268 form, 54 Vitruvius, values and architecture,
194 function, 50, 54
er Standards for Architectural , user's manual for building, 450 firmitas, utilitas, et venustas, 42-
good life, nurturing, comfort, 46-48
198, 202 utilities present, site selection, 308, 43, 53
HECTTEAS/TEST EACH checklist,
sr Standards for Building 310, 310 56-57, 56, 73, 336 Hershberger vocabulary, terms associated with
341 particular buildings, 197-198
residence case study, 42,42,60-
processes influence design,
31
v 69,61-70
value-based programming, 25-34 human factors, 54, 56, 61, 73, 75-
1~91,306,307, 309
agreement among all parties, 32-34 88,336
srvation, 257-260, ,60
ierg, 49
Calvin S. Straub as proponent of, 27, 28
client input, 33
importance of values, 41-42 w
interviewing clients to identify Waddell art studio, 159-160,
lications, 204, 215 Frank Lloyd Wright as proponent of, values, 220-221 160
54 25-26 Maslow's pyramid of values, 43, 43 walk-throughs, 250-251, 252 waste
:I roadways, site selection, function, form, economy, time matrix development, 335-338, 337 disposal, 89, 106-108, 107, 163-165
matrix, 32
water systems, 108
 .:'

506 Index

interviewing similarities, 322 matrix

development, 335-346 needs and
requirements, 342-344,
2-13
343
"274
tr Wash, 2, 3 presentation methods, 322-323,
ol, context factors 346-349
DO projectors and transparencies,
,345,424,426 10 355-356
'204 requirement sheets, 359-363 setting
son buildings, 103 for work session, 335-336, 335
51 values and goals, 322, 335-340,
5 339
rent diagram, 310, 310 ri, world wide web sites, 210, 210, 214
88 Wotton, Henry, 43
t, function in design, Wright, F.L., 25-26, 90, 128, 128,
150-151, 151, 162,162

'18, 18,20,321-366 ng
skills, 323
s, 360-361, 360
z
Zeisel, J., 4, 195, 215, 257
resentations, 346-351 Zevi, B., 150
zork sessions, 323-331 zoning, 121, 121, 175 gathering
irk sessions, 331-335 information, 199 height
>42, 342 restrictions, 120 political issues
jectives, 338-340, 338 in design, 120 site selection,
307, 309 zoning issue chart,
ased presentations,
378
352,353,354
346,345,346