OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS

DEFINITION OF AN OPEN CHANNEL

An open channel may be defined as a passage in which liquid flows with its upper surface exposed to
atmosphere.

KINDS OF CHANNELS

Two categories of channels are to be distinguished:

(i) Natural channels

(ii) Artificial channels

NATURAL CHANNELS

These are watercourses, which exist naturally on (or under) the earth, such as gullies, brooks,
torrents, rivers, streams and estuaries.

The geometric and hydraulic properties of such channels are generally irregular. The application of
hydraulic theory gives only approximate results, since numerous assumptions are to be made.

ARTIFICIAL CHANNELS

These are watercourses developed by man on (or under) the earth, such as open channels
(navigation channels, power canals, irrigation and drainage channels) or closed channels where flow
does not fill the entire section (hydraulic tunnels, aqueducts, drains, sewage canals).

The geometric and hydraulic properties of such channels are generally rather regular. The
application of the hydraulic theory gives reasonably realistic results.

Artificial channels

1
GEOMETRY OF CHANNELS

1. The wetted surface, A, is the portion of the cross-section occupied by the liquid.
2. The wetted perimeter, P, of the channel, being formed by the length of the line of contact
between the wetted surface and the bed and the side walls, but does not include the free-
water surface.
3. The hydraulic radius, R, being the ratio of wetted surface, A, to its wetted perimeter, P, or:

A

P

4. The top width, B, of the channel being the width at the free surface.
5. The hydraulic depth, Dh, of the channel being defined as the ratio of the wetted area, A, to
the top width, B.
A
Dh 
B
6. The flow depth, h, or the water height, being the vertical distance from the lowest point of
the channel section to the free surface.

2
GEOMETRIC ELEMENTS OF CHANNEL SECTIONS

B B
B

B
h 1 D
h
1 h h
θ
m
b
b
RECTANGULAR TRAPEZOIDAL TRIANGULAR CIRCULAR

b  mhh
Area
A bh mh 2
1
  sin  D 2
8
Wetted
1
Perimeter b  2h b  2h 1  m2 2h 1  m 2 D
P 2
Hydraulic
bh b  mhh mh 1  sin  
radius 1  D
 b  2h b  2h 1  m 2
2 1 m 2
4  
Top width
B
b b  2mh 2mh sin  2 D
1   sin  
Hydraulic
depth b  mhh h
D
h
Dh b  2mh 2 8  sin 1  
 2 

3
 7. Besides the geometric elements, the longitudinal slopes are also to be considered, namely
the:
(i) Slope of the bed (bottom or floor), sf or so
(ii) Slope of the water surface (piezometric), sw

The value of the bottom slope depends essentially on the topography of the terrain; it is generally
weak, thus may be expressed by:

𝑠𝑓 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

TYPES OF FLOW

A classification of open channel flow may be done according to the change of the flow depth, h, with
respect to time and space. Flow in channels is classified into the following types:

STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW: TIME VARIATION

Flow is said to be steady when the flow characteristics (such as depth of flow, flow velocity and the
flow rate at any section) do not change with respect to time.

Mathematically,

h v Q
 0, 0, 0
t t t

The flow is unsteady when the flow parameters change with time. That is

h v Q
 0,  0, 0
t t t

Strictly speaking, open channel flow is rarely steady.

UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM (OR VARIED) FLOW: SPACE VARIATION

Flow is uniform if the flow depth, h, as well as the other parameters, remain unchanged at every
section of the channel. The line of the bottom slope is thus parallel to the one of the free-water
surface, or sf = sw.

Flow is non-uniform or varied if the depth, h, as well as the other parameters, vary along the length
of the channel. The bottom slope is thus different from the slope of the water surface, or s f  s w .

Non-uniform flow may be further classified as:

(a) Rapidly varied flow (RVF): in this type of flow, depth of flow changes abruptly over a small
length of channel. Examples are hydraulic jumps and hydraulic drops.
(b) Gradually varied flow (GVF): in this type the change in depth of flow takes place gradually in
a long length of the channel.

4
STEADY UNIFORM FLOW

This is the fundamental type of flow treated in open channel hydraulics. The depth of the flow does
not change during the time interval under consideration. This is called normal flow and the depth of
flow is called the normal depth.

UNSTEADY NON-UNIFORM FLOW

The depth varies with both time and space. This is the most common type of flow and requires the
solution of the energy, momentum and friction equations with time.

FLOW REGIMES

The physics of open-channel flow is governed basically by the interplay of the:

(i) Inertia forces

(ii) Gravity forces
(iii) Friction (viscosity and roughness) forces

The equations of motion involve the following dimensionless numbers:

5
 (i) Froude number, being the ratio of gravity to inertia forces, or:
uc
Fr 
gLc
(ii) Reynolds number, being the ratio of friction to inertia forces, or:
u c Lc
Re 

Added to these two numbers is still:
(iii) The relative roughness, being the ratio of the roughness height, ks, to a characteristic
length, or:
ks
Lc
uc and Lc are characteristic velocity and length; one takes uc = u or v and Lc = R or Lc = Dh.

In the hydraulics of open-channel flow, one generally defines these dimensionless numbers as:

u u ks
Fr  ; Re  ;
gDh  Dh

The Reynolds number is used to classify the flow as follows:

(i) Laminar flow Re < 500

(ii) Turbulent flow Re > 2000
(iii) Transition flow 500 < Re < 2000

The Froude number is used to classify the flow as follows:

(i) Subcritical flow Fr < 1

(ii) Supercritical flow Fr > 1
(iii) Critical flow Fr = Frc = 1

OPEN CHANNEL FORMULAE FOR UNIFORM FLOW

THE DARCY-WEISBACH EQUATION

The nature of the boundary resistance is identical with that of full pipe flow and the Darcy-Weisbach
equations for non-circular sections may be applied.

Noting that the energy gradient sf is equal to the bed slope so in uniform flow:

hf u 2
Darcy-Weisbach,  s f  so 
L 8g

1  k 2.51 
Colebrook-White,  2 log  s  
 14.8 4u  

6
THE CHEZY EQUATION

The Chezy equation takes the following form:

u  C S o

Where, u = velocity of flow

C = Chezy’s coefficient

 = hydraulic radius

So = bed slope of the channel

In terms of discharge

Q  Au  AC S o

THE MANNING EQUATION

Although Chezy’s equation is quite simple, the selection of a correct value of C is rather difficult.
Many studies have been made to evaluate C for natural and man made channels. Manning gave the
following empirical relation for determination of Chezy C:

1 1/ 6
C 
n

Where n is the Manning’s constant whose value depends on the channel surface. Approximate
values of Manning’s roughness coefficient are given in the table below:

Smooth cement, planed timber 0.010

Rough timber, canvas 0.012
Cast iron, good ashlar masonry, brickwork 0.013
Vitrified clay, asphalt, good concrete 0.015
Rubble masonry 0.018
Firm gravel 0.020
Canals and rivers in good condition 0.025
Canals and rivers in bad condition 0.035

Substituting the Manning formula into the Chezy formula, we get

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
u  So
n

Or in terms of discharge

1
Q A 2 / 3 S o1 / 2
n

7
UNIFORM FLOW COMPUTATION

For channel cross-sections whose top width is constant (e.g. rectangular) or increases with depth
(e.g. triangular, trapezoidal, parabolic) there is only one depth at which a given discharge will flow as
uniform flow in a channel of known slope, So. Such a depth is known as normal depth, ho. This is a
very important parameter in all open channel computations.

Uniform flow computations involve the use of the following relations:

(a) Darcy’s, Manning’s or Chezy’s formulae

(b) Continuity equation
(c) Geometry of the channel

The following five types of basic problems can arise:

Problem type Given Required Method of solution

1 ho, n, So, Geometric Q and u Direct (Explicit)
elements (GE)
2 Q, ho, n, GE So Direct
3 Q, ho, So, GE n Direct
4 Q, n, So, GE ho Trial and error
5 Q, n, So, ho GE Trial and error

Example (type 1 problem)

A trapezoidal channel has a bed width of 2 m and side slopes of 1.5 horizontal : 1 vertical. The
channel has a longitudinal slope of 1/4000. If the Manning’s coefficient of the channel boundary is
0.018, calculate the mean velocity and discharge in the channel for a depth of 1.4 m.

Example (type 2 problem)

A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 10 m and a side slope of 1.5 horizontal : 1 vertical. The
Manning’s n can be taken as 0.015. What bottom slope is necessary to pass 100 m 3/s of discharge in
this channel at a depth of 3 m?

Example (type 3 problem)

A trapezoidal channel has a bed width of 3 m and side slopes 1:1. The bottom slope of the channel is
0.0036. If a discharge of 15 m3/s passes in this channel at a depth of 1.25 m, estimate the value of
Chezy coefficient C.

Example (type 4 problem)

A rectangular channel 3.5 m wide is laid on a slope of 0.0005. Calculate the normal depth of flow for
a discharge of 5 m3/s in this channel. The Manning’s coefficient n can be taken as 0.02.

Example

8
Measurements carried out on the uniform flow of water in a long rectangular channel 3.0 m wide
and of bed slope 0.001, revealed that at a depth of flow of 0.8 m the discharge of water was 3.6
m3/s. Estimate the discharge of water when the depth is 1.5 m using

a) Manning equation, and

b) The Darcy equation, (ks = 1.46 mm, υ = 1 x 10-6 m2/s)

OPTIMUM DESIGN FOR CHANNEL SECTION

The optimum section (also called most economical, best section or most efficient section) is one
which gives the maximum discharge for a given amount of excavation.

From continuity equation it is evident that discharge is maximum when velocity is maximum, the
area of cross-section of channel remaining constant. From Chezy’s formula and Manning’s formula it
is seen that for a given value of slope and surface roughness the velocity of flow will be maximum if
hydraulic radius R is maximum. Further the area being constant hydraulic radius is maximum if the
wetted perimeter is minimum. This condition is used to determine the dimensions of economical
sections of different forms of channels.

The semicircle has the least perimeter among all sections with the same area; hence it is the most
hydraulically efficient of all sections. A minimum wetted perimeter requires a minimum of lining
material and tends to be less expensive.

BEST SECTION FOR RECTANGULAR CHANNEL

Consider a rectangular channel of width b and depth h. The wetted perimeter, P = b + 2h and the
cross-sectional area of flow, A = bh so b = A/h. Hence P can be written as:

A
P  2h
h

For a given value of A, surface roughness and channel slope, P will be a minimum when dP  0,
dh
thus:

dP A
 2 20
dh h

A
 2 or A  2h 2
h2

But A  bh , so

bh  2h 2 giving

b  2h

So for maximum discharge the width b should be twice the depth h. This is the shape of a
rectangular channel into which a semicircle would fit.

9
 h
Under these conditions the hydraulic radius is i.e.
2

A bh
 
P b  2h

But b  2h

2h  h 2h 2 h
  
2h  2 h 4 h 2

BEST SECTION FOR TRAPEZOIDAL CHANNEL

The same arguments that were applied to a rectangular channel can also be applied to a trapezoidal
one. In this case let the sides slope at an angle of 1 vertical to m horizontal.

Thus if the depth of flow is h then by simple geometry the horizontal width of the side slopes on
each of the channel is mh. The width of the water surface, B is:

B  b  2mh

A  b  mhh

A
 b  mh
h

The wetted perimeter is given by

P  b  2h 1  m 2

Substituting the expression for b gives

A
P  mh  2h 1  m 2
h

For a given value of A, surface roughness and channel slope, the discharge will be a maximum when
dP  0 , that is
dh

dP A
  2  m  2 1  m2  0
dh h

A
 2
 m  2 1  m2
h

Substituting A  b  mhh and rearranging gives

b  mhh  m  2 1  m2
2
h

10
Thus the optimum hydraulic section is when:

b  2mh  2h 1  m 2

Thus the most efficient hydraulic section is when the top width ( b  2mh) is twice the wetted slope

length h 1  m 2 . This is a property of one half of a hexagon. Under these conditions the hydraulic
h
radius,   , as it did for the optimum rectangular channel. Again the optimum hydraulic section is
2
the one that most closely resembles a semicircle.

Example

A rectangular, concrete lined channel is to be constructed to carry floodwater. The slope of the
ground surface is 1 in 500. The design discharge is 10 m3/s.

(a) Calculate the proportions of the rectangular channel that will minimise excavation and result
in the optimum hydraulic section.
(b) If the cross-sectional area of flow is kept the same as in part (a) but for safety reasons the
depth of flow in the channel is limited to 1.0 m, what will be the discharge now? Take
Manning’s n = 0.015 s/m1/3.

If the conditions were described as in the example above, but a trapezoidal channel was used
instead of a rectangular one:

(a) What would be the dimensions of the optimum hydraulic section?

(b) Would the cross-sectional area of flow be more or less than that for the equivalent
rectangular channel?

ENERGY METHODS, FLOW TRANSITION, CRITICAL FLOW

ENERGY METHODS

Consideration of energy in open-channel flow usually involves a determination of the energy

possessed by the fluid at a particular section of interest. The total energy is measured relative to the
channel bottom and is composed of potential energy due to the depth of the fluid plus kinetic
energy due to its velocity.

Letting Es denote the total energy, then

u2
Es  h 
2g

Where h is the depth and u is the average velocity of flow. As with the Bernoulli equation, the terms
in the equation have the units of energy per unit weight of fluid flowing. In open-channel flow
analysis, Es is usually referred to as the specific energy.

In uniform flow the specific energy is constant and the energy grade line is parallel to the bed. In
non-uniform flow, whereas the energy grade line must always slope downwards in the direction of

11
flow, the specific energy may increase or decrease from section to section if the bed elevation
changes.

Considering a wide rectangular channel, width b, cross-sectional area A, through which there is a
volume rate of flow Q,

Q Q q
Velocity of flow, u  
A bh h

Q
Where q  discharge per unit width
b

q2
 Specific energy, E s  h 
2gh 2

The specific energy equation can be represented graphically as a plot of specific energy, Es against
the depth of flow, h. Such a plot is known as flow depth-specific energy curve. This curve helps to
visualise the possible regimes of flow in a channel.

The specific energy plot entails the following information:

(i) The curve for potential energy (i.e. Es = h) is a straight line passing through the origin,
making an angle of 45o with each of the two axes. For any point on the curve, the
horizontal distance to this line from the h axis represents the potential energy, h. The
2
remaining distance to the specific energy curve is the kinetic energy u .
2g

12
 (ii) Specific energy is asymptotic to the horizontal axis for small values of h and asymptotic
to 45o line for high values of h.
(iii) At a certain depth hc, called critical depth, the specific energy curve has a point of
minimum specific energy.
(iv) For every value of specific energy other than minimum there are two possible depths of
flow (h1 and h2), one above and the other below the critical depth, and known as high
stage and low stage respectively. These corresponding depths are referred to as
alternate depths.

Thus, the depth corresponding to the minimum specific energy is called the critical depth, hc. For any
depth greater than hc, the flow is subcritical. Conversely, for any depth lower than hc, the flow is
supercritical.

CRITICAL DEPTH IN RECTANGULAR CHANNELS, hc

Since the critical depth corresponds to minimum specific energy, the conditions for h = hc, may be
determined by differentiating the specific energy expression and equating to zero.

q2
Since Es  h 
2gh 2

dE s d  q2 
Then   h  0
dh dh  2 gh 2 

q2  2 
Or 1    0
2g  h3 
1/ 3
 q2 
Therefore h   
 g 

When the specific energy is minimum the depth of flow is critical:

1/ 3
 q2 
hc   
 g 

CRITICAL VELOCITY

The velocity of flow corresponding to critical depth is known as critical velocity. Its value is obtained
as follows:

Q Q q
u  
A bh h

q
 uc 
hc

13
 1/ 3
 q2 
But hc    , then u c  q1 / 3 g 1 / 3
 g 

Or u c3  qg

Also q  u c  hc

 u c3  u c  hc  g

u c  ghc

SPECIFIC ENERGY IN TERMS OF CRITICAL DEPTH

Since specific energy is minimum when depth is critical, then

q2
E min  hc 
2 ghc2

1/ 3
 q2  q2
But hc    or hc3 
 g  g

hc3 h 3
 E min  hc  2 h c  c  hc
2hc 2 2

CRITICAL DEPTH IN NON-RECTANGULAR CHANNELS

For a channel of any shape and cross-sectional area, A, the specific energy for any depth h is

1 Q2
Es  h  
2 g A2

dEs
For minimum specific energy, 0
dh

dEs Q 2 d  1  dA
  1    0
dh 2 g dA  A2  dh

14
Referring to the figure above, a change of depth dh will produce a change in cross-sectional area of
dA  Bdh or dA dh  B , where B is the top width of the channel, so that

Q2 2
1  B0
2 g A3

Q2B
Or 1
gA 3

This is the general expression which, for the depth to be critical, must be satisfied irrespective of
channel shape. Since both A and B will have the values corresponding to hc, we can write:

Q 2 Bc
1
gAc3

The critical velocity uc is given by

Q gAc
uc  
Ac Bc

Example

Calculate the critical depth corresponding to a discharge of 6 m3/s in:

(a) Rectangular channel of width 3m

(b) Triangular channel of side 1.5H:1V
(c) Trapezoidal channel of bottom width 2m and side slope 1:1

CRITICAL SLOPE, sc

The bed slope required to produce uniform flow in a channel operating at the critical depth is called
the critical slope, sc. An expression for the critical slope may be derived from the Manning formula,
i.e.

15
 1 2 / 3 1/ 2
u  Sc
n

Where sc is the critical slope.

If uniform flow occurs in a channel with bed slope less than the critical (so < sc), the nature of the
flow must be subcritical, the bed slope being termed subcritical or, more commonly, mild. Likewise
with a bed slope greater than the critical (so > sc), the flow is supercritical and the bed slope is
termed supercritical, or steep.

TRANSITION THROUGH CRITICAL DEPTH

Subcritical to supercritical flow

If subcritical flow exists in a channel of a mild slope (i.e. so < sc) and this channel meets with a steep
channel (i.e. so > sc) in which the normal depth is supercritical there must be some change of surface
level between the two. The flow in the joining region is known as gradually varied flow.

This situation is shown in the figure below.

Subcritical
Supercritical

hc

so < sc

so > sc

The transition from subcritical to supercritical flow is often smooth and is accompanied by little loss
of energy or turbulence. Specific energy is lost in moving to the critical depth, but afterwards there is
gain brought about by the external addition of energy derived from the steepening slope.

Supercritical to subcritical flow

If the situation is reversed and the upstream slope is steep, supercritical flow, and the downstream
mild, subcritical, then there must occur a hydraulic jump to join the two. There may occur a short
length of gradually varied flow between the channel junction and the jump. The figure below shows
this situation.

Supercritical Subcritical

so > s c

16 hc

so < s c
 Unlike the transition from subcritical to supercritical flow, the reverse process is far from smooth.
What happens is that on entering the mild slope the high velocity of the flow is retarded by frictional
resistance, resulting in an increase of depth and a loss of specific energy.

COMPUTATION OF NON-UNIFORM FLOW

RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW - HYDRAULIC JUMP

In an open channel when rapidly flowing stream abruptly changes to slowly flowing stream, a
distinct rise or jump in the elevation of liquid surface takes place. This phenomenon is known as
hydraulic jump. At the hydraulic jump, kinetic energy of rapidly flowing stream is converted to
potential energy. This occurs frequently in a canal below a regulating sluice, at the foot of a spillway,
or at the place where a steep channel slope suddenly turns flat.

Due to the hydraulic jump, there is a loss of kinetic energy.

h2
F2
F1 h1

APPLICATION OF THE MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW

Because of the large energy losses caused by an hydraulic jump, the energy equation or specific
energy equation cannot be used in analysis but instead the momentum equation is used.

For the diagram of hydraulic jump,

Resultant force in x-direction = F1 – F2

Momentum change = M2 – M1

Equating

F1 – F2 = M2 – M1

For constant discharge

F1 + M1 = F2 + M2

17
For a rectangular channel this may be evaluated using

h1 h2
F1  P1 A1  g h1b and F2  P2 A2  g h2 b
2 2

Q Q
M 1  Qu1  Q and M 2  Qu 2  Q
h1b h2 b

Substituting for these and rearranging gives

h2 
h1
2
 1  8Fr  1
1
2
or h1 
h2
2
 1  8Fr  1
2
2

So knowing the discharge and either one of the depths, on the upstream or downstream side of the
jump, the other – or conjugate depth – may be easily computed.

Therefore,

Height of hydraulic jump, Hj = h2 – h1

LOSS OF ENERGY DUE TO HYDRAULIC JUMP

The loss of energy due to hydraulic jump is equal to the difference of specific energies at the
upstream and downstream sections

E  E1  E 2 
h2  h1 
3

4h1 h2

Example

A sluice gate discharges water into horizontal rectangular channel with a velocity of 10 m/s and
depth of flow of 1 m. Determine the depth of flow of water after the jump and subsequent loss in
total head. Determine also the velocity of flow after the jump.

GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW

An expression for the surface slope in gradually varied flow may be derived from a consideration of
the rate of change of energy heads along a channel. The figure below shows a non-uniform flow
profile for an open channel system.

18
The total energy head is given by:

V2
H  zh
2g

Differentiating with respect to L, the distance along the channel in the direction of flow

dH dz dh d  V 2 
    
dL dL dL dL  2 g 

dH
Where  the energy or friction slope, sf
dL

dz
 the bed slope, so
dL

dh
 the surface slope relative to the horizontal datum plane, sw = hydraulic
dL
gradient

Substituting and rearranging

dh d V 2 
 so  s f   
dL dL  2 g 

d  V 2  d  Q 2  dA dA dh Q 2 dh Q 2 B
But            
dL  2 g  dA  2 gA 2  dL dh dL gA3 dL gA3

dh dh Q 2 B
  so  s f  
dL dL gA3

dh  Q 2 B 
 1    so  s f
dL  gA3 

19
 dh so  s f
Thus 
dL 1  Q 2 B
gA 3

dh so  s f
Or 
dL 1  Fr 2

This is the general equation of gradually varied flow and is of fundamental importance in water
surface profile analysis. Positive values of dh indicate increasing depths and negative values
dL
decreasing depths.

At any section of a channel, the Manning or the Chezy equations are used to calculate sf. Thus

V2
sf  (according to Chezy)
C 2

V 2n2
s f  4/3 (according to Manning)


CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACE PROFILES

The surface slope equation is utilised in establishing the various forms of surface profile that may be
encountered in non-uniform flow. A total of twelve (12) water surface profiles can be sketched using
this equation. These water surface profiles are denoted by a combination of a letter and a number.
There are five letters, which indicate the bed slope of the channel (so) relative to the critical slope
(sc):

M – mild bed slope with so  sc

S – steep slope with so  sc

C – critical bed slope with so  sc

H – horizontal bed

A – adverse bed slope, i.e. sloping upwards in the direction of flow

The number which is attached to the letter indicates in which of three vertical zones the surface
profile is located. In most situations the normal depth (ho) is larger than the critical depth (hc), so
drawing the normal depth line, critical depth line and the channel bed gives the three zones, 1, 2, 3,
shown in the figure below.

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Thus, the flows are treated to be in three zones

(i) Zone 1, above the normal depth

(ii) Zone 2, between normal and critical depth
(iii) Zone 3, below critical depth

The direction of the surface inclination may thus be determined

Zone 1

dh
h  ho  hc s f  so Fr 2  1 is positive, surface rising
dL

Zone 2

dh
ho  h  hc s f  so Fr 2  1 is negative, surface falling
dL

Zone 3

dh
ho  hc  h s f  so Fr 2  1 is positive, surface rising
dL

In general, normal depth is approached asymptotically and critical depth at right angles. Above
normal depth ( h  ho ), the backwater curve tends to become asymptotic to a horizontal water
surface line, such as a reservoir surface. Below the critical depth ( h  hc ), the channel bed is
approached at right angles.

21
The possible surface profiles within each zone can be drawn from the above considerations. These
are shown for the mild sloped channel below.

The surface profile in zone 1 of a mild slope is called an M1 curve, in zone 2 an M2 curve and in
zone 3 an M3 curve.

All possible surface profiles for all possible slopes of channel are shown in the figure below.

22
 Critical slope Steep slope Mild slope

So = sc So > sc So < sc
Zone 1

23
Zone 2
Zone 3
 Adverse slope Horizontal slope

So = 0 


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DETERMINATION OF SURFACE PROFILES

Before one of the profiles discussed above can be decided upon, two things must be determined for
the channel and flow:

(a) Whether the slope is mild, critical or steep. The normal and critical depths must be
calculated for the design discharge.
(b) The positions of any control points must be established. Control points are points of known
depth or relationship between depth and discharge. Examples are weirs, flumes, gates or
points where it is known critical flow occurs like at free outfalls, or that the flow is normal
depth at some far distance downstream.

Once these control points and depth position have been established the surface profiles can be
drawn to join the control points with the insertion of hydraulic jumps where it is necessary, to join
subcritical and supercritical flows that don’t meet at a critical depth.

Below are two examples:

This shows the control point (CP) just upstream of a broad crested weir in a channel of mild slope.
The resulting curve is an M1.

This shows how a bridge may act as a control – particularly under flood conditions. Upstream there
is an M1 curve, then flow through the bridge is rapidly varied and the depth drops below critical
depth so on exit is supercritical. A short M3 curve occurs before a hydraulic jump takes the depth
back to a subcritical level.

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COMPUTATION OF WATER SURFACE PROFILES

The general equation of gradually varied flow is the basis of all methods of surface profile analysis. In
the past direct and graphical solutions have been used to solve this equation. However, these
methods have been superseded by numerical methods which are now the only methods used.

NUMERICAL METHODS

All of the gradually varied flow profiles may be quickly solved by simple numerical techniques. There
are two basic numerical methods that can be used:

(i) Direct step – distance from depth

(ii) Standard step method – depth from distance

DIRECT STEP METHOD

With the direct step method, the distances (dL) required for the water depth to change by a fixed
amount (dh) are calculated.

The direct step method is based on the following gradually varied equation:

dh so  s f

dL 1  Fr 2

This equation can be written in the form of finite difference (Δh, ΔL) and rearranging it, solves for the
distance (ΔL) required for a change in depth (Δh). Thus

 1  Fr 2 
L  h 
s s 
 o f  average


Where 1 Fr 2 
average and s o  sf 
average
are the average of the values at the two ends of the reach.
Since so is known and Fr and sf can be calculated, by giving Δh a suitable value the equation can be
solved to find the distance ΔL. Solving for successive intervals allows the surface water profile to be
determined.

The steps in solution are:

1. Determine the control depth as the starting point

2. Decide on the expected curve and depth change if possible
3. Choose a suitable depth step Δh
4. Calculate the term in brackets at the mean depth
5. Calculate ΔL
6. Repeat 4 and 5 until the appropriate distance or depth change is reached.

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Example

A trapezoidal channel with b = 6.1 m, n = 0.025, m = 2 and so = 0.001 carries a discharge of 28 m 3/s.
If this channel terminates in a free overfall, determine the gradually varied flow profile by the direct
step method.

Solution

The flow profile will be a drawdown curve, and the first step in solving the problem is to establish
the depth of flow at the upstream and downstream boundaries.

1. Upstream boundary: at the upstream boundary, the depth of flow will be ho (normal depth).
Thus, ho = 1.894 m
Since at this boundary the depth of flow approaches ho asymptotically, a reasonable
definition of convergence must be established; e.g. computations will proceed until the
depth of flow is 0.99ho or 1.875 m
2. Downstream boundary: at the downstream boundary, the depth of flow will be hc. Thus
hc = 1.132 m
3. Calculate critical slope i.e.
2
 Qn 
sc   2 / 3   0.0068
  c Ac 
4. Determine type of slope. Since so  sc  mild slope so type M profile
5. Since ho  h  hc  this is an M2 profile
6. Calculate water surface profile

FLOW MEASURING STRUCTURES

The presence of a local rise in the path of flow, has shown that the depth would fall as the flow went
over the rise. If this rise were large enough, the fall would be enough to give critical depth over the
rise.

The fact that depth is critical over the rise and that critical depth can be calculated quite easily for a
given discharge, is made use of in hydraulic structures for flow measurement.

BROAD-CRESTED WEIR

v2
2g

vc2
H 2 g Esc
h
H1 h1
hc

∆z

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Assuming that the depth is critical over the rise, then we know

u c  ghc

Q  Auc  bhc ghc

Where b is the width of the channel

2
Also hc  E sc
3

Assuming no energy loss between upstream and downstream

E sc  H

2
 hc  H
3

2 2g
So Q bH 3 / 2  1.705bH 3 / 2
3 3

Since the flow upstream is subcritical, the velocity is negligible and kinetic head is zero, implying that
H = h. Therefore

2 2g 3 / 2
Q bh  1.705bh 3 / 2
3 3

However, in practice there are energy losses upstream of the weir. To incorporate this, a coefficient
of discharge is introduced to give

Q  1.705C d bh 3 / 2

Example

Water flows across a broad-crested weir in a rectangular channel 400 mm wide. The depth of the
water just upstream of the weir is 70 mm and the crest of weir is 40 mm above the channel bed.
Calculate the fall of the surface level and the corresponding discharge assuming that the velocity of
approach is negligible.

FLUMES

A second method of measuring flow by causing critical depth is to contract the flow. Similar specific
energy arguments to those used for a raised bed can be used in analysis of this situation, and they
come to similar predictions that depth will fall and not fall below critical depth.

It is also possible to combine the two by putting a raised section within the narrowed section.

These types of structures are known as flumes, and one such type is the Venturi flume.

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VENTURI FLUMES

Flumes are usually designed to achieve critical depth in the narrowest section (the throat) while also
giving a very small rise in water level.

The general equation for the ideal discharge through a flume can be obtained from the energy and
continuity considerations.

The energy equation gives:

V12 V22
E s  h1   h2 
2g 2g

By continuity

Q Q
V1  and V2 
b1 h1 b2 h2

which when substituted into the energy equation gives

2 g h1  h2 
Q  b1 h1 2
 b1 h1  1
 
 b2 2
h

If critical flow is obtained in the throat then h2  2 E s which can be substituted to give
3

29
Q  1.705b2 E s3 / 2

or introducing a velocity correction factor and a discharge coefficient

Q  1.705b2 C d h13 / 2

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