INTRODUCTION & RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS:

CONTINUOUS MOTION (Sections 12.1 - 12.2)

Today’s Objectives: In-Class Activities:
Students will be able to find • Check homework, if any
the kinematic quantities • Reading quiz
(position, displacement, • Applications
velocity, and acceleration) of • Relations between s(t), v(t),
a particle traveling along a and a(t) for general
straight path. rectilinear motion
• Relations between s(t), v(t),
and a(t) when acceleration is
constant
• Concept quiz
• Group problem solving
• Attention quiz

READING QUIZ

1. In dynamics, a particle is assumed to have _________.

A) both translation and rotational motions
B) only a mass
C) a mass but the size and shape cannot be neglected
D) no mass or size or shape, it is just a point

2. The average speed is defined as __________.

A) Δr/Δt B) Δs/Δt
C) sT/Δt D) None of the above.

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 APPLICATIONS

The motion of large objects,

such as rockets, airplanes, or
cars, can often be analyzed
as if they were particles.

Why?

If we measure the altitude

of this rocket as a function
of time, how can we
determine its velocity and
acceleration?

APPLICATIONS (continued)

A train travels along a straight length of track.

Can we treat the train as a particle?

If the train accelerates at a constant rate, how can we

determine its position and velocity at some instant?

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 An Overview of Mechanics

Mechanics: the study of how bodies

react to forces acting on them

Statics: the study Dynamics:

of bodies in 1. Kinematics – concerned
equilibrium with the geometric aspects of
motion
2. Kinetics - concerned with
the forces causing the motion

POSITION AND DISPLACEMENT

A particle travels along a straight-line path

defined by the coordinate axis s.
The position of the particle at any instant,
relative to the origin, O, is defined by the
position vector r, or the scalar s. Scalar s
can be positive or negative. Typical units
for r and s are meters (m) or feet (ft).
The displacement of the particle is
defined as its change in position.
Vector form: Δ r = r’ - r Scalar form: Δ s = s’ - s
The total distance traveled by the particle, sT, is a positive scalar
that represents the total length of the path over which the particle
travels.

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 VELOCITY
Velocity is a measure of the rate of change in the position of a particle.
It is a vector quantity (it has both magnitude and direction). The
magnitude of the velocity is called speed, with units of m/s or ft/s.

The average velocity of a particle during a

time interval Δt is
vavg = Δr/Δt
The instantaneous velocity is the time-derivative of position.
v = dr/dt

Speed is the magnitude of velocity: v = ds/dt

Average speed is the total distance traveled divided by elapsed time:

(vsp)avg = sT/ Δ t

ACCELERATION

Acceleration is the rate of change in the velocity of a particle. It is a

vector quantity. Typical unit is m/s2.

The instantaneous acceleration is the time

derivative of velocity.

Vector form: a = dv/dt

Scalar form: a = dv/dt = d2s/dt2

Acceleration can be positive (speed

increasing) or negative (speed decreasing).

As the book indicates, the derivative equations for velocity and

acceleration can be manipulated to get
a ds = v dv

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 SUMMARY OF KINEMATIC RELATIONS:
RECTILINEAR MOTION

• Differentiate position to get velocity and acceleration.

v = ds/dt ; a = dv/dt or a = v dv/ds

• Integrate acceleration for velocity and position.

Velocity: Position:
v t v s s t

∫ dv = ∫ a dt or ∫ v dv = ∫ a ds ∫ ds = ∫ v dt
vo o vo so so o

• Note that so and vo represent the initial position and

velocity of the particle at t = 0.

CONSTANT ACCELERATION
The three kinematic equations can be integrated for the special case
when acceleration is constant (a = ac) to obtain very useful equations.
A common example of constant acceleration is gravity; i.e., a body
freely falling toward earth. In this case, ac = g = 9.81 m/s2
downward. These equations are:
v t

∫ dv = ∫ a dt
vo o
c yields v = vo + act

s t

∫ ds = ∫ v dt yields s = s o + v ot + (1/2)a ct 2
so o
v s

∫ v dv = ∫ ac ds yields v2 = (vo )2 + 2ac(s - so)

vo so

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 EXAMPLE

Given: A motorcyclist travels along a straight road at a speed

of 27 m/s. When the brakes are applied, the
motorcycle decelerates at a rate of -6t m/s2.

Find: The distance the motorcycle travels before it stops.

Plan: Establish the positive coordinate s in the direction the

motorcycle is traveling. Since the acceleration is given
as a function of time, integrate it once to calculate the
velocity and again to calculate the position.

EXAMPLE (continued)
Solution:
1) Integrate acceleration to determine the vvelocity.
t

a = dv / dt => dv = a dt => ∫ dv = ∫ (−6t )dt

vo o

=> v – vo = -3t2 => v = -3t2 + vo

2) We can now determine the amount of time required for
the motorcycle to stop (v = 0). Use vo = 27 m/s.
0 = -3t2 + 27 => t = 3 s

3) Now calculate the distance traveled in 3s by integrating the

velocity using so = 0: s t

v = ds / dt => ds = v dt => ∫ ds = ∫ (−3t 2 + vo)dt

=> s – so = -t3 + vot so o

=> s – 0 = (3)3 + (27)(3) => s = 54 m

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 CONCEPT QUIZ
3 m/s 5 m/s

t=2s t=7s
1. A particle moves along a horizontal path with its velocity
varying with time as shown. The average acceleration of the
particle is _________.
A) 0.4 m/s2 B) 0.4 m/s2
C) 1.6 m/s2 D) 1.6 m/s2
2. A particle has an initial velocity of 30 m/s to the left. If it
then passes through the same location 5 seconds later with a
velocity of 50 m/s to the right, the average velocity of the
particle during the 5 s time interval is _______.
A) 10 m/s B) 40 m/s
C) 16 m/s D) 0 m/s

GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING

Given:Ball A is released from rest at
a height of 12 m at the same
time that ball B is thrown
upward, 1.5 m from the
ground. The balls pass one
another at a height of 6 m.

Find:The speed at which ball B was

thrown upward.

Plan: Both balls experience a constant downward acceleration

of 9.81 m/s2. Apply the formulas for constant
acceleration, with ac = -9.81 m/s2.

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 GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING (continued)
Solution:
1) First consider ball A. With the origin defined at the ground,
ball A is released from rest ((vA)o = 0) at a height of 12 m
((sA )o = 12 m). Calculate the time required for ball A to drop
to 6 m (sA = 6 m) using a position equation.
sA = (sA )o + (vA)ot + (1/2)act2
6 m = 12 m + (0)(t) + (1/2)(-9.81)(t2) => t = 1.106 s
2) Now consider ball B. It is throw upward from a height of 5 ft
((sB)o = 1.5 m). It must reach a height of 6 m (sB = 6 m) at the
same time ball A reaches this height (t = 1.106 s). Apply the
position equation again to ball B using t = 1.106s.
sB = (sB)o + (vB)ot + (1/2) ac t2

6 m = 1.5 + (vB)o(1.106) + (1/2)(-9.81)(1.106)2

=> (vB)o = 9.49 m/s

ATTENTION QUIZ
1. A particle has an initial velocity of 3 m/s to the left at
s0 = 0 m. Determine its position when t = 3 s if the
acceleration is 2 m/s2 to the right.

A) 0.0 m B) 6.0 m
C) 18.0 m D) 9.0 m

2. A particle is moving with an initial velocity of v = 12 m/s

and constant acceleration of 3.78 m/s2 in the same direction
as the velocity. Determine the distance the particle has
traveled when the velocity reaches 30 m/s.

A) 50 m B) 100 m
C) 150 m D) 200 m

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 RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: ERRATIC MOTION
(Section 12.3)
Today’s Objectives:
Students will be able to
In-Class Activities:
determine position, velocity,
and acceleration of a particle • Check homework, if any
using graphs. • Reading quiz
• Applications
• s-t, v-t, a-t, v-s, and a-s
diagrams
• Concept quiz
• Group problem solving
• Attention quiz

READING QUIZ

1. The slope of a v-t graph at any instant represents instantaneous

A) velocity. B) acceleration.
C) position. D) jerk.

2. Displacement of a particle in a given time interval equals the

area under the ___ graph during that time.

A) a-t B) a-s
C) v-t C) s-t

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 APPLICATION

In many experiments, a
velocity versus position (v-s)
profile is obtained.

If we have a v-s graph for

the rocket sled, can we
determine its acceleration at
position s = 300 meters ?

How?

GRAPHING

Graphing provides a good way to handle complex

motions that would be difficult to describe with
formulas. Graphs also provide a visual description of
motion and reinforce the calculus concepts of
differentiation and integration as used in dynamics.

The approach builds on the facts that slope and

differentiation are linked and that integration can be
thought of as finding the area under a curve.

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S-T GRAPH

Plots of position vs. time can be

used to find velocity vs. time
curves. Finding the slope of the
line tangent to the motion curve at
any point is the velocity at that
point (or v = ds/dt).

Therefore, the v-t graph can be

constructed by finding the slope at
various points along the s-t graph.

V-T GRAPH

Plots of velocity vs. time can be used to

find acceleration vs. time curves.
Finding the slope of the line tangent to
the velocity curve at any point is the
acceleration at that point (or a = dv/dt).

Therefore, the a-t graph can be

constructed by finding the slope at
various points along the v-t graph.

Also, the distance moved

(displacement) of the particle is the
area under the v-t graph during time Δt.

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 A-T GRAPH

Given the a-t curve, the change

in velocity (Δv) during a time
period is the area under the a-t
curve.

So we can construct a v-t graph

from an a-t graph if we know the
initial velocity of the particle.

A-S GRAPH

A more complex case is presented by

the a-s graph. The area under the
acceleration versus position curve
represents the change in velocity
(recall ∫ a ds = ∫ v dv ).
s2
½ (v1² – vo²) = ∫ a ds = area under the
s1
a-s graph

This equation can be solved for v1, allowing you to solve for
the velocity at a point. By doing this repeatedly, you can
create a plot of velocity versus distance.

12
 V-S GRAPH

Another complex case is presented

by the v-s graph. By reading the
velocity v at a point on the curve
and multiplying it by the slope of
the curve (dv/ds) at this same point,
we can obtain the acceleration at
that point.
a = v (dv/ds)

Thus, we can obtain a plot of a vs. s

from the v-s curve.

EXAMPLE
Given: v-t graph for a train moving between two stations

Find: a-t graph and s-t graph over this time interval

Think about your plan of attack for the problem!

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 EXAMPLE (continued)

Solution: For the first 30 seconds the slope is constant

and is equal to:
a0-30 = dv/dt = 40/30 = 4/3 m/s2
Similarly, a30-90 = 0 and a90-120 = -4/3 m/s2

a(m/s2)

4
3
t(s)

-4
3

EXAMPLE (continued)

s(m)
The area under the v-t graph
3600 represents displacement.
3000
Δs0-30 = ½ (40)(30) = 600 m

Δs30-90 = (60)(40) = 2400 m

Δs90-120 = ½ (40)(30) = 600 m

600
t(s)
30 90 120

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 CONCEPT QUIZ

1. If a particle starts from rest and

accelerates according to the graph
shown, the particle’s velocity at
t = 20 s is

A) 200 m/s B) 100 m/s

C) 0 D) 20 m/s

2. The particle in Problem 1 stops moving at t = _______.

A) 10 s B) 20 s
C) 30 s D) 40 s

GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING

Given: The v-t graph shown

Find: The a-t graph, average

speed, and distance
traveled for the 30 s
interval

Plan: Find slopes of the curves and draw the a-t graph. Find
the area under the curve--that is the distance traveled.
Finally, calculate average speed (using basic
definitions!).

15
 GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING
Solution:
For 0 ≤ t ≤ 10 a = dv/dt = 0.8 t m/s²

For 10 ≤ t ≤ 30 a = dv/dt = 1 m/s²

a(m/s²)

1
t(s)
10 30

GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING (continued)

Δs0-10 = ∫ v dt = (1/3) (.4)(10)3 = 400/3 m

Δs10-30 = ∫ v dt = (0.5)(30)2 + 30(30) – 0.5(10)2 – 30(10)

= 1000 m

s0-30 = 1000 + 400/3 = 1133.3 m

vavg(0-30) = total distance / time

= 1133.3/30
= 37.78 m/s

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 ATTENTION QUIZ

1. If a car has the velocity curve shown, determine the time t

necessary for the car to travel 100 meters. v
A) 8 s B) 4 s 75

C) 10 s D) 6 s
t
6s
2. Select the correct a-t graph for the velocity curve shown.
a a
v
A) t B) t
a a
t
C) t D) t

CURVILINEAR MOTION: RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS

(Sections 12.4)

Today’s Objectives:
Students will be able to:
a) Describe the motion of a In-Class Activities:
particle traveling along • Check homework, if any
a curved path. • Reading quiz
b) Relate kinematic • Applications
quantities in terms of • General curvilinear motion
the rectangular • Rectangular components of
components of the kinematic vectors
vectors. • Concept quiz
• Group problem solving
• Attention quiz

17
 READING QUIZ
1. In curvilinear motion, the direction of the instantaneous
velocity is always
A) tangent to the hodograph.
B) perpendicular to the hodograph.
C) tangent to the path.
D) perpendicular to the path.

2. In curvilinear motion, the direction of the instantaneous

acceleration is always
A) tangent to the hodograph.
B) perpendicular to the hodograph.
C) tangent to the path.
D) perpendicular to the path.

APPLICATIONS

The path of motion of each plane in

this formation can be tracked with
radar and their x, y, and z coordinates
(relative to a point on earth) recorded
as a function of time.

How can we determine the velocity

or acceleration of each plane at any
instant?

Should they be the same for each

aircraft?

18
 APPLICATIONS (continued)

A roller coaster car travels down

a fixed, helical path at a constant
speed.

How can we determine its

position or acceleration at any
instant?

If you are designing the track, why is it important to be

able to predict the acceleration of the car?

POSITION AND DISPLACEMENT

A particle moving along a curved path undergoes curvilinear motion.
Since the motion is often three-dimensional, vectors are used to
describe the motion.

A particle moves along a curve

defined by the path function, s.

The position of the particle at any instant is designated by the vector

r = r(t). Both the magnitude and direction of r may vary with time.

If the particle moves a distance Δs along the

curve during time interval Δt, the
displacement is determined by vector
subtraction: Δ r = r’ - r

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 VELOCITY
Velocity represents the rate of change in the position of a
particle.
The average velocity of the particle
during the time increment Δt is
vavg = Δr/Δt .
The instantaneous velocity is the
time-derivative of position
v = dr/dt .
The velocity vector, v, is always
tangent to the path of motion.
The magnitude of v is called the speed. Since the arc length Δs
approaches the magnitude of Δr as t→0, the speed can be
obtained by differentiating the path function (v = ds/dt). Note
that this is not a vector!

ACCELERATION
Acceleration represents the rate of change in the
velocity of a particle.

If a particle’s velocity changes from v to v’ over a

time increment Δt, the average acceleration during
that increment is:
aavg = Δv/Δt = (v - v’)/Δt
The instantaneous acceleration is the time-
derivative of velocity:
a = dv/dt = d2r/dt2

A plot of the locus of points defined by the arrowhead

of the velocity vector is called a hodograph. The
acceleration vector is tangent to the hodograph, but
not, in general, tangent to the path function.

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 CONCEPT QUIZ

1. If the position of a particle is defined by

r = [(1.5t2 + 1) i + (4t – 1) j] (m), its speed at t = 1 s is
A) 2 m/s B) 3 m/s
C) 5 m/s D) 7 m/s

2. The path of a particle is defined by y = 0.5x2. If the

component of its velocity along the x-axis at x = 2 m is
vx = 1 m/s, its velocity component along the y-axis at this
position is
A) 0.25 m/s B) 0.5 m/s
C) 1 m/s D) 2 m/s

ATTENTION QUIZ
1. If a particle has moved from A to B along the circular path
in 4s, what is the average velocity of the particle ?
A) 2.5 i m/s y

B) 2.5 i +1.25j m/s R=5m x

C) 1.25 π i m/s A B
D) 1.25 π j m/s

2. The position of a particle is given as r = (4t2 i - 2x j) m.

Determine the particle’s acceleration.
A) (4 i +8 j ) m/s2 B) (8 i -16 j ) m/s2
C) (8 i) m/s2 D) (8 j ) m/s2

21
 MOTION OF A PROJECTILE (Section 12.6)

Today’s Objectives: In-Class Activities:

Students will be able to • Check homework, if any
analyze the free-flight motion of • Reading quiz
a projectile. • Applications
• Kinematic equations for
projectile motion
• Concept quiz
• Group problem solving
• Attention quiz

READING QUIZ

1. The downward acceleration of an object in free-flight motion is

A) zero B) increasing with time
C) 9.81 m/s2 D) 9.81 cm/s2

2. The horizontal component of velocity remains _________

during a free-flight motion.
A) zero B) constant
C) at 9.81 m/s2 D) at 10 m/s2

22
 APPLICATIONS

A kicker should know at what angle, θ, and initial velocity, vo,

he must kick the ball to make a field goal.
For a given kick “strength”, at what angle should the ball be
kicked to get the maximum distance?

APPLICATIONS (continued)

A fireman wishes to know the maximum height on the wall he can

project water from the hose. At what angle, θ, should he hold the
hose?

23
 CONCEPT OF PROJECTILE MOTION
Projectile motion can be treated as two rectilinear motions, one in
the horizontal direction experiencing zero acceleration and the other
in the vertical direction experiencing constant acceleration (i.e.,
gravity).
For illustration, consider the two balls on the
left. The red ball falls from rest, whereas the
yellow ball is given a horizontal velocity. Each
picture in this sequence is taken after the same
time interval. Notice both balls are subjected to
the same downward acceleration since they
remain at the same elevation at any instant.
Also, note that the horizontal distance between
successive photos of the yellow ball is constant
since the velocity in the horizontal direction is
constant.

KINEMATIC EQUATIONS: HORIZONTAL MOTION

Since ax = 0, the velocity in the horizontal direction remains

constant (vx = vox) and the position in the x direction can be
determined by:
x = xo + (vox)(t)
Why is ax equal to zero (assuming movement through the air)?

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 KINEMATIC EQUATIONS: VERTICAL MOTION

Since the positive y-axis is directed upward, ay = -g. Application

of the constant acceleration equations yields:

vy = voy – g(t)

y = yo + (voy)(t) – ½g(t)2

vy2 = voy2 – 2g(y – yo)

For any given problem, only two of these three

equations can be used. Why?

Example 1
Given: vo and θ
Find: The equation that defines
y as a function of x.
Plan: Eliminate time from the
kinematic equations.
Solution: Using vx = vo cos θ and vy = vo sin θ
x
We can write: x = (vo cos θ)t or t =
vo cos θ
y = (vo sin θ)t – ½ g(t)2
By substituting for t:
2
y = (vo sin θ)
( x
vo cos θ ) ( )(
– g
2
x
vo cos θ )

25
 Example 1 (continued):
Simplifying the last equation, we get:

y = (x tanθ) –
( g x2
2vo2 )
(1 + tan2θ)

The above equation is called the “path equation” which describes the
path of a particle in projectile motion. The equation shows that the
path is parabolic.

Example 2
Given: Snowmobile is going 15
m/s at point A.
Find: The horizontal distance it
travels (R) and the time in
the air.
Solution:
First, place the coordinate system at point A. Then write the
equation for horizontal motion.
+ xB = xA + vAxtAB and vAx = 15 cos 40° m/s
Now write a vertical motion equation. Use the distance equation.
+ yB = yA + vAytAB – 0.5gctAB2 vAy = 15 sin 40° m/s
Note that xB = R, xA = 0, yB = -(3/4)R, and yA = 0.
Solving the two equations together (two unknowns) yields
R = 19.0 m tAB = 2.48 s

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 CONCEPT QUIZ

1. In a projectile motion problem, what is the maximum

number of unknowns that can be solved?

A) 1 B) 2

C) 3 D) 4

2. The time of flight of a projectile, fired over level ground

with initial velocity Vo at angle θ, is equal to

A) (vo sin θ)/g B) (2vo sin θ)/g

C) (vo cos θ)/g D) (2vo cos θ)/g

GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING

Given: Skier leaves the ramp at

θA = 25o and hits the
slope at B.

Find: The skier’s initial speed vA.

Plan: Establish a fixed x,y coordinate system (in the solution

here, the origin of the coordinate system is placed at A).
Apply the kinematic relations in x and y-directions.

27
 GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING (continued)
Solution:
Motion in x-direction:
Using xB = xA + vox(tAB)

tAB= (4/5)100 88.27

=
vA (cos 25) vA
Motion in y-direction:
Using yB = yA + voy(tAB) – ½ g(tAB)2
2
-64 = 0 + vA(sin 45) 80 – ½ (9.81) 88.27
vA (cos 25) vA

vA = 19.42 m/s

ATTENTION QUIZ
1. A projectile is given an initial velocity
vo at an angle φ above the horizontal.
The velocity of the projectile when it
hits the slope is ____________ the
initial velocity vo.

A) less than B) equal to

C) greater than D) None of the above.

2. A particle has an initial velocity vo at angle θ with respect to the

horizontal. The maximum height it can reach is when
A) θ = 30° B) θ = 45°
C) θ = 60° D) θ = 90°

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