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© Government of Tamilnadu
First Edition - 2007
Revised Edition - 2016
Reprint - 2017
Price : Rs.

This book has been prepared by the Directorate of
School Education on behalf of the Government of Tamilnadu

This book has been printed on 60 GSM Paper
Printed by Offset at:
ii

STANDARD XII - HISTORY

SYLLABUS
Periods
Unit I
1. India under East India Company's Rule- Administration- 10
Charter Acts - Expansion policy- Colonial and Economic
policies.
2. Education under the Company's Rule- Social and 10
Modernisation Reforms introduced by British Governors -
General (Reforms of Bentinck and Dalhousie).
Unit II
3. British Rule in Tamil Nadu- Palayakkarar Rebellion - Vellore 10
Mutiny.
4. The Great Revolt of 1857- Causes- ResultsFirst War of 10
Indian Independence - End of Company's Rule- Queen's
Proclamation.
Unit III
5. Socio - Religious Reform Movements in the 19th century
India (Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Theosophical - Society,
Ramakrishna Movement, MusIim, Parsi and Sikh Reform
Movements).
6. Changes in Indian Administration after 1858 (1861 Act-
Ripon- 1892 Act-Administrative Reforms under Lord Curzon
and their effects).
Unit IV
7. lndia's Freedom Movement (First two phases)- Emergence 15
- Growth - Moderates - Extremists - Minto- Morley Reforms-
Home Rule Movement- Montagu - Chelmsford Reforms.
8. India's Freedom Movement (Gandhian Period)- Non-Co- 15
operation Movement - Swarajya Party - Simon Commission -
Salt Satyagraha- Round Table Conferences - Gandhi - Irwin
Pact - Individual Satyagraha - Cripps Mission -Quit India
Movement etc.
9. Role of Tamil Nadu in India's Freedom Movement (Justice 15
Party's Rule, Congress Movement)
iii

Unit V
10. India after Independence - Social, Economic, Scientific and 10
Technological ProgressForeign Policy (l947-2000)
Unit VI
11. Renaissance - Discovery of Sea Routes - Reformation - 15
Counter Reformation.
12. American War of Independence - French Revolution - Causes 10
and Results.
Unit VII
13. lndustrial and Agrarian Revolutions- Causes -. Results 10
14. Spread of Colonialism - Imperialism- First World War- 15
Russian Revolution - League of Nations
Unit VIII
15. Rise of Fascism and Nazism- Second World War - Causes - 10
Results
Unit IX
16. Growth of Asian Nations - China and Japan after Second 15
World War
Unit X
17. U.N.O and its role in World Peace. 10
18. Cold Wars -Super Powers - Regional Security Agreements 15
(NATO,"SEATO and Warsaw Pact) - Growth of Atomic
Weapons - Missiles - Peace Efforts - Fall of Socialist States -
Liberalisation - Globalisation - World Today.
iv

ontents
MODERN INDIAN HISTORY
Sub Page
No. No.
I. India Under the English East India Company. 1

Warren Hastings (1772-1785)
2. Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793) 10
3. The Marquess of Wellesley ( 1798-1805) 16
4. Lord Hastings (1813-1823) 25
5. Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835) 31
6. Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) 38
7. Revenue Administration and Economic Policy of the British 45
8. Educational and Social Reforms 52
9. Palayakkarar Rebellion 59
10. Vellore Mutiny 65
11. The Great Revolt of 1857 70
12. British India After 1858: Lord Lytton (1876-1880), 78

Lord Ripon (1880-1884) and Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
13. Socio-Religious Reform Movements 86
14. Indian National Movement (1885-1905) 96
15. Indian National Movement (1905-1916) 103
16. The Indian National Movement (1917-1947) 110
17. Role of Tamil Nadu in the Indian National Movement 124
18. The Justice Party Rule 130
19. Constitutional Development (1858- 1947) 135
20. India After Independence 142

MODERN WORLD HISTORY

21. Renaissance 154
22. Geographical Discoveries 161
23. The Reformation and Counter Reformation 167
24. The American War of Independence (1776-1783) 174
25. French Revolution 181
26. Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions 189
27. First World War 197
28. Russian Revolution of 1917 204
29. The League of Nations 210
30. Rise of Fascism and Nazism 217
31. Second World War 226
32. Growth of Asian Nations: China And Japan 233
33. United Nations Organisation 239
34. The Cold War 246
35. World Today 251
vi

SOME OF THE IMPORTANT GOVERNOR-GENERALS

GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF FORT WILLIAM IN BENGAL
(Regulating Act of 1773)
Name Page
Warren Hastings 1774-1785

Earl (Marquess) Cornwallis 1786-1793
Richard Wellesley, Earl of Mornington 1798-1805
Marquess Cornwallis (Second time Governor General) 1805
Marquess of Hastings (Earl of Moira) 1813-1823
Lord William Bentinck 1828-1833
GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA
(Charter Act of 1833)
Lord William Bentinck 1833-1835
Earl of Dalhousie 1848-1856
Lord Canning 1856-1858
GOVERNORS-GENERAL AND VICEROYS

(Act of 1858)
Lord Canning 1858-1862
Baron (Earl of) Lytton I 1876-1880
Marquess of Ripon 1880-1884
Lord Curzon 1899-1904
Baron Chelmsford 1916-1921
Lord Irwin 1926-1931
Earl of Willingdon 1931-1934
Marquess of Linlithgow 1934-1936
Mountbatten 24 March 1947- 15 August 1947
AFFER INDEPENDENCE
Mountbatten 1947-1948
Rajagopalachari l948-1950
vii

viii

LESSON 1
INDIA UNDER THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY:
WARREN HASTINGS (1772-1785)
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The growth of East India Company’s Rule in India.
2. Reforms introduced by the first Governor-General, Warren Hastings.
3. Provisions, merits and defects of the Regulating Act of 1773.
4. Expansion policy of Warren Hastings - the First Maratha War and the
Second Mysore War.
5. Pitt’s India Act of 1784.
6. Impeachment of Warren Hastings.
The English East India Company
The English East India Company was established on 31 December 1600

as per the Royal Charter issued by the Queen of England,
Elizabeth I. The Company had sent Captain Hawkins to the court
of the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir in 1608 to secure permission
to establish a “factory” (store house of goods) at Surat. It was
turned down initially. However, in 1613, Jahangir issued the
firman permitting the East India Company to establish its first
trading post at Surat. Subsequently, Sir Thomas Roe obtained
Sir Thomas Roe more trading rights and privileges for the East India Company.
Accordingly, the English set up business
centres at Agra, Ahmedabad and Broach. Slowly the English
East India Company succeeded in expanding its area of trade.
In 1639, Francis Day established the city of Madras

and constructed the Fort St. George. On the west coast, the
Company obtained Bombay on lease from their King, Charles
II for a rent of 10 pounds per annum in 1668. By the year
1690, Job Charnock, the agent of the East India Company
purchased three villages namely, Sutanuti, Govindpur and Warren Hastings
Kalikatta, which, in course of time, grew into the city of Calcutta. It was fortified by
Job Charnock, who named it Fort William after the English King, William III. The
factories and trading centres which the English established all along the sea-coast
of India were grouped under three presidencies namely Bombay, Madras and
Calcutta.

After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the
Company became a political power. India was under the East India Company’s
rule till 1858 when it came under the direct administration of the British Crown.
Robert Clive was the first Governor of Fort William under the Company’s rule. He
was succeeded by Verelst and Cartier. In 1772, the Company appointed Warren
Hastings as the Governor of Fort William.
Reforms of Warren Hastings
When Warren Hastings assumed the administration of Bengal in 1772, he

found it in utter chaos. The financial position of the Company became worse and
the difficulties were intensified by famine. Therefore, Warren Hastings realized the
immediate need for introducing reforms.
Abolition of the Dual System
The East India Company decided to act as Diwan and to undertake the
collection of revenue by its own agents. Hence, the Dual System introduced by
Robert Clive was abolished. As a measure to improve the finances of the Company,
Warren Hastings reduced the Nawab’s allowance of 32 lakhs of rupees to half
that amount. He also stopped the annual payment of 26 lakhs given to the Mughal
Emperor.
Revenue Reforms
After the abolition of the Dual System, the responsibility of collecting

the revenue fell on the shoulders of the Company. For that purpose, a Board of
Revenue was established at Calcutta to supervise the collection of revenue.
English Collectors were appointed in each district. The treasury was removed from
Murshidabad to Calcutta and an Accountant General was appointed. Calcutta thus
became the capital of Bengal in 1772 and shortly after of British India.
The Board of Revenue farmed out the lands by auction for a period of
five years instead of one year in order to find out their real value. The zamindars
were given priority in the auction. However, certain good measures were taken to
safeguard the interests of the peasants. Arbitrary cesses and unreasonable fines
were abolished. Besides, restrictions were imposed on the enhancement of rent.
Yet, the system was a failure. Many zamindars defaulted and the arrears of revenue
accumulated.
Reorganisation of the Judicial System
The judicial system at the time of Warren Hastings’ ascendancy was a store-
house of abuses. The Nawab who was hitherto the chief administrator of justice,
misused his powers. Often, his judgments were careless. The zamindars who acted
as judges at lower levels within their own areas were highly corrupt and prejudiced.
On the whole, the judicial institution suffered from extreme corruption.

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Warren Hastings felt the necessity of reorganising the judicial system. Each
district was provided with a civil court under the Collector and a criminal court under
an Indian Judge. To hear appeals from the district courts two appellate courts,
one for civil cases and another for criminal cases, were established at Calcutta.
The highest civil court of appeal was called Sadar Diwani Adalat, which was to be
presided over by the Governor and two judges recruited from among the members
of his council. Similarly, the highest appellate criminal court was known as Sadar
Nizamat Adalat which was to function under an Indian judge appointed by the
Governor-in-Council.
Experts in Hindu and Muslim laws were provided to assist the judges.
A digest of Hindu law was prepared in Sanskrit by learned Pandits and it was
translated into Persian. An English translation of it – Code of Hindu Laws – was
prepared by Halhed.
Trade Regulations and other Reforms

Warren Hastings abolished the system of dastaks, or free passes and
regulated the internal trade. He reduced the number of custom houses and enforced
a uniform tariff of 2.5 percent for Indian and non-Indian goods. Private trade by
the Company’s servants continued but within enforceable limits. Weavers were
given better treatment and facilities were made to improve their condition. He also
introduced a uniform system of pre-paid postage system. A bank was started in
Calcutta. He improved the police in Calcutta and the dacoits were severely dealt
with.
The Regulating Act of 1773
The Regulating Act of 1773 opened a new chapter in the constitutional history
of the Company. Previously, the Home government in England consisted of the
Court of Directors and the Court of Proprietors. The Court of Directors were elected
annually and practically managed the affairs of the Company. In India, each of the
three presidencies was independent and responsible only to the Home Government.
The government of the presidency was conducted by a Governor and a Council.
The following conditions invited the Parliamentary intervention in the

Company’s affairs. The English East India Company became a territorial power
when it acquired a wide dominion in India and also the Diwani rights. Its early
administration was not only corrupt but notorious. When the Company was in
financial trouble, its servants were affluent. The disastrous famine which broke out
in Bengal in 1770 affected the agriculturists. As a result, the revenue collection was
poor. In short, the Company was on the brink of bankruptcy. In 1773, the Company
approached the British government for an immediate loan. It was under these
circumstances that the Parliament of England resolved to regulate the affairs of the
Company. Lord North, the Prime Minister of England, appointed a select committee

to inquire into the affairs of the Company. The report submitted by the Committee
paved the way for the enactment of the Regulating Act.
Provisions of the Act
The Regulating Act reformed the Company’s Government at Home and in

India. The important provisions of the Act were:
(i) The term of office of the members of the Court of Directors was extended
from one year to four years. One-fourth of them were to retire every year and
the retiring Directors were not eligible for re-election.
(ii) The Governor of Bengal was styled the Governor-General of Fort William
whose tenure of office was for a period of five years.
(iii) A council of four members was appointed to assist the Governor-General.

The government was to be conducted in accordance with the decision of the
majority. The Governor - General had a casting vote in case of a tie.
(iv) The Governor-General in Council was made supreme over the other
Presidencies in matters of war and peace.
(v) Provision was made in the Act for the establishment of a Supreme Court at
Calcutta consisting of a Chief Justice and three junior judges. It was to be
independent of the Governor- General in Council. In 1774, the Supreme
Court was established by a Royal Charter.
(vi) This Act prevented the servants of the Company including the Governor-
General, members of his council and the judges of the Supreme Court from
receiving directly or indirectly any gifts in kind or cash.
Merits and Demerits of the Act
The significance of the Regulating Act is that it brought the affairs of the
Company under the control of the Parliament. Besides, it proved that the Parliament
of England was concerned about the welfare of Indians. The greatest merit of
this Act is that it put an end to the arbitrary rule of the Company and provided a
framework for all future enactments relating to the governing of India.
The main defect of the Act was that the Governor-General was made
powerless because the council which was given supreme power often created
deadlocks by over-ruling his decision. However, many of these defects were
rectified by the Pitt’s India Act of 1784.
Expansionist Policy of Warren Hastings
Warren Hastings was known for his expansionist policy. His administration
witnessed the Rohilla War, the First Anglo-Maratha War and the Second Anglo-
Mysore War.

The Rohilla War (1774)
Rohilkand was a small kingdom situated in between Oudh and the Marathas.
Its ruler was Hafiz Rahmat Khan. He concluded a defensive treaty in 1772 with the
Nawab of Oudh fearing an attack by the Marathas. But no such attack took place.
But, the Nawab demanded money. When Rahmat Khan evaded, the Nawab with the
help of the British invaded Rohilkand. Warren Hastings, who sent the British troops
against Rohilkand was severely crticised for his policy on Rohilla affair.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)
The Marathas were largely remained disunited since the Third Battle of
Panipet (1761). The internal conflict among the Marathas was best utilized by
the British in their expansionist policy. In 1775, there was a dispute for the post of
Peshwa between Madhav Rao and his uncle Ragunatha Rao. The British authorities
in Bombay concluded the Treaty of Surat with Raghunatha Rao in March 1775.
Rahunatha Rao promised to cede Bassein and Salsette to the British but later
when he was unwilling to fulfill his promise, the British captured them. This action of
the Bombay Government was not approved by Warren Hastings. In 1776, Warren
Hastings sent Colonel Upton to settle the issue. He cancelled the Treaty of Surat
and concluded the Treaty of Purander with Nana Fadnavis, another Maratha
leader. According to this treaty Madhava Rao II was accepted as the new Peshwa
and the British retained Salsette along with a heavy war indemnity.
However, the Home authorities rejected the Treaty of Purander. Warren
Hastings also considered the Treaty of Purandar as a ‘scrap of paper’ and
sanctioned operations against the Marathas. In the meantime, the British force sent
by the Bombay Government was defeated by the Marathas.
In 1781, Warren Hastings dispatched British troops under the command of

Captain Popham. He defeated the Maratha chief, Mahadaji Scindia, in a number of
small battles and captured Gwalior. Later in May 1782, the Treaty of Salbai was
signed between Warren Hastings and Mahadaji Scindia. Accordingly, Salsette and
Bassein were given to the British. Raghunath Rao was pensioned off and Madhav
Rao II was accepted as the Peshwa.
The Treaty of Salbai established the British influence in Indian politics. It

provided the British twenty years of peace with the Marathas. The Treaty also
enabled the British to exert pressure on Mysore with the help of the Marathas in
recovering their territories from Haider Ali. Thus, the British, on the one hand,
saved themselves from the combined opposition of Indian powers and on the other,
succeeded in dividing the Indian powers.
The Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)
The first Anglo-Mysore War took place in 1767-69. Haider Ali emerged
victorious against the British and at the end of the War a defensive treaty was
5

concluded between Haider Ali and the British. After eleven

years, the Second Mysore War broke out and the main
causes for the second Anglo-Mysore War were:
1. The British failed to fulfill the terms of the defensive

treaty with Haider when he was attacked by the
Marathas in 1771.
2. There was an outbreak of hostilities between the

English and the French (an ally of Haider) during the
Haider Ali
American War of Independence.
3. The British captured Mahe, a French settlement within Haider’s territories.
4. Haider Ali formed a grand alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the
Marathas against the British in 1779.
The War began when the British led their forces through Haider’s territory without
his permission to capture Guntur in the Northern Sarkars. Haider Ali defeated
Colonel Baillie and captured Arcot in 1780. In the next year, Warren Hastings, by
a clever stroke of diplomacy, divided the Confederacy. He made peace with the
Nizam, won the friendship of Bhonsle and came to an understanding with the
Scindia (both Marathas). Consequently, Haider was isolated without any alliance.
He was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Porto Novo in March 1781. In December
1782, Haider died of cancer at the age of sixty and his death was kept secret till his
son Tipu Sultan assumed power.
The Second Mysore War came to an end by the Treaty of Mangalore in

1783. Accordingly, all conquests were mutually restored and the prisoners on both
sides were liberated.
Pitt’s India Act, 1784
The Regulating Act proved to be an unsatisfactory document as it failed in its

objective. In January 1784, Pitt the Younger (who became Prime Minister of England
after the General Elections) introduced the India Bill in the British Parliament.
Despite bitter debate in both the Houses, the bill was passed after seven months
and it received royal assent in August 1784. This was the famous Pitt’s India Act of
1784.
Main Provisions
(i) A Board of Control consisting of six members was created. They were
appointed by the Crown.
(ii) The Court of Directors was retained without any alteration in its composition.

(iii) The Act also introduced significant changes in the Indian administration. It
reduced the number of the members of the Governor-General’s Council from
four to three including the Commander-in-Chief.
Pitt’s India Act constitutes a significant landmark with regard to the foreign
policy of the Company. A critical review of the Act reveals that it had introduced
a kind of contradiction in the functions of the Company. The Court of Directors
controlled its commercial functions, whereas the Board of Control maintained
its political affairs. In fact, the Board represented the King, and the Directors
symbolised the Company.
The Impeachment of Warren Hastings
The Pitt’s India Act of 1784 was a rude shock and bitter disappointment
for Warren Hastings. The Prime Minister’s speech censuring the policy of the
Government of Bengal was considered by Warren Hastings as a reflection on his
personal character. His image and reputation were tarnished in England. Therefore,
he resigned and left India in June 1785.
In 1787, Warren Hastings was impeached in the Parliament by Edmund

Burke and the Whigs for his administrative excess. Burke brought forward 22
charges against him. The most important of them were related to the Rohilla War,
the Case of Nanda Kumar, the treatment of Raja Chait Singh of Benares and the
pressures on the Begums of Oudh. After a long trail which lasted till 1795, Warren
Hastings was completely acquitted. He received pension from the Company and
lived till 1818.
Nanda Kumar was an influential official in Bengal. He was hanged to death

by the verdict of the Supreme Court at Calcutta for a petty offence of forgery.
The English law was applied in this judgement. It was contended that Warren
Hastings and Sir Elija Impey, the judge of the Supreme Court conspired against
Nanda Kumar. Warren Hastings imposed heavy penalty on the Raja Chait Singh of
Benares for his delay in payment of tribute and deposed him in an unjust manner.
The Begums of Oudh were mother and grand mother of the Nawab of
Oudh. Warren Hastings helped the Nawab by sending his troops to the help of
Nawab who squeeze money from the Begums. This was a highhanded policy.
Estimate of Warren Hastings
He was a gifted personality endowed with ‘strong will, great energy and
resourcefulness’. His long stay in Bengal ‘in the shadow of the Mughal cultural
tradition’ gave him, enough opportunity to learn oriental languages such as
Bengali (the local language) and Persian (the diplomatic language) and to develop
‘oriental tastes’. Since he considered Indian culture as a basis for sound Indian
administration, he patronised the learning of Indian languages and arts. His task
7

was a challenging one since he was surrounded by hostile forces. “He faced his
external enemies with unflinching courage and unfailing resource, and his internal
opponents with extraordinary patience and firmness.” It was on the foundation which
Warren Hastings laid down, that others erected a ‘stately edifice’.
Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be to explain
1. How the East India Company established its rule in India.
2. The reforms of Warren Hastings such as revenue, judicial and trade.
3. The purpose of the Regulating Act, its merits and defects.
4. Expansion policy of Warren Hastings and the outcome of the first

Anglo-Maratha War and second Anglo- Mysore War.
5. The importance of the Pitt’s India Act of 1784.
6. The general achievements of Warren Hastings.
MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The Battle of Plassey took place in the year

(a) 1757 (b) 1764
(c) 1772 (d) 1777
2. The Second Mysore War came to an end by the Treaty of
(a) Salbai (b) Mangalore
(c) Purander (d) Mysore
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The Dual System was introduced by ___________
2. Haider Ali died in the year ___________
III. Match the following.
1. Francis Day a. Pitt’s India Act
2. Sadar Diwani Adalat b. Rohilkand
3. Hafiz Rahmat Khan c. Fort St. George
4. Board of Control d. Civil Court

8

IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is right.
a) Warren Hastings assumed the Governorship of Fort William in 1774.
b) Rohilla War took place during the administration of Warren Hastings.
c) According to the Regulating Act the term of office of the Court of Directors
was five years.
d) Raja Chait Singh was the ruler of Oudh.
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
1. The English East India Company was established on 31 December 1600.
2. The Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren Hastings and Madhava
Rao II.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Rohilla War.
2. Pitt’s India Act.
3. Second Anglo Mysore War.
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Write a note on the First Anglo-Maratha War.
2. Discuss the main provisions of the Regulating Act.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Give an account of the reforms of Warren Hastings.
2. Examine the expansionist policy of Warren Hastings.

LESSON 2
LORD CORNWALLIS (1786-1793)
Learning Objectives
Students will understand
1. The Third Mysore War and Tipu Sultan’s efforts to defeat the British.
2. Administrative Reforms of Lord Cornwallis.
3. Judicial Reforms.
4. Police and other reforms.
5. Achievements of Lord Cornwallis.
Lord Cornwallis, a warrior-statesman, succeeded Warren Hastings as

Governor-General in 1786. He belonged to an influential and aristocratic family
which had wider political connections. He was also a close friend of Prime Minister
Pitt and of Dundas, the most influential member of the Board of Control. He
distinguished himself as a remarkable soldier in the American War of Independence.
Although he surrendered at York Town in 1781 before the American troops, his
reputation was not spoiled. He still enjoyed the confidence of the authorities at
Home. After his return from America he was offered the
Governor- Generalship in India.
Cornwallis was prompted by a strong sense of public

duty and enjoyed the respect as well as the confidence of
his fellow countrymen. The Parliament was prepared to
give him extraordinary legal powers to carry out radical
reforms in the administration of Bengal. It amended Pitt’s
LORD CORNWALLIS
India Act in 1786 so as enable him to overrule the decision
of the majority of his council, if necessary. The appointment of Cornwallis was
significant in one respect. A new tradition of choosing a person from an aristocratic
family for the post of Governor-General was initiated. It was his good fortune that
he had an excellent team of subordinates comprising John Shore, James Grant,
and Sir William Jones. Although Cornwallis commenced his work under beneficial
circumstances, he had to carry out his policy with caution.
Tipu Sultan and the Third Mysore War (1790-92)
The Treaty of Mangalore (1784) exhibited the military strength of Mysore,

exposed English weaknesses and increased Tipu’s strength. Like his father he
wanted to eliminate the English from India. His other designs were to wreak
vengeance on the Nizam and on the Marathas as they had betrayed his father
during the hour of need.
10

The chief causes for the Third Mysore War were:
1. Tipu Sultan strengthened his position by undertaking various internal

reforms.This created worries to the British, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the
Marathas.
2. Moreover, Tipu made attempts to seek the help of France and Turkey by
sending envoys to those countries.
3. He also expanded his territories at the cost

of his neighbours, particularly the Raja of
Travancore, who was an ally of the British.
4. In 1789, the British concluded a tripartite

alliance with the Nizam and the Marathas
against Tipu.
War broke out in May 1790 between the

English and Tipu. It was fought in three phases.
The first phase commenced when Medows, the
Governor of Madras, initially directed the campaign
to invade Mysore but Tipu’s rapid movements halted Tipu Sultan
the progress of the English troops and inflicted heavy
losses on them. In the meantime, Cornwallis himself assumed command in
December 1790. This was the beginning of the second phase of the war. Marching
from Vellore, he captured Bangalore in March 1791, but Tipu’s brilliant strategies
prolonged the war and Cornwallis was forced to retreat to Mangalore due to lack
of provisions. The third phase of the war began when timely aid from the Marathas
with plenty of provisions helped him to resume his campaign and marched against
Srirangapattinam again. This time Tipu was at a disadvantage. Swiftly the English
forces occupied the hill forts near Srirangapattinam and seized it in February 1792.
Tipu Sultan concluded the Treaty of Srirangapattinam with the British. The terms
of the treaty were as follows:
(i) Tipu had to give up half his dominions.
(ii) He had to pay a war indemnity of three crore rupees and surrender two of
his sons as hostages to the English.
(iii) Both sides agreed to release the prisoners of war.
The Treaty of Srirangapattinam is a significant event in the history of South

India. The British secured a large territory on the Malabar Coast. In addition they
obtained the Baramahal district and Dindugal. After this war, although the strength of
Mysore had been reduced, it was not extinguished. Tipu had been defeated but not
destroyed.
11

Reforms
The internal reforms of Cornwallis can be studied under three main heads.
(i) Administrative reforms

(ii) Revenue reforms or Permanent Settlement (given in Lesson -7)
(iii) Judicial and other reforms
Administrative Reforms
The greatest work of Cornwallis was the purification of the civil service by
the employment of capable and honest public servants. He aimed at economy,
simplification and purity. He found that the servants of the Company were
underpaid. But they received very high commissions on revenues. In addition to that
they conducted forbidden and profitable private trade in the names of relatives and
friends. Cornwallis, who aimed at cleansing the administration, abolished the vicious
system of paying small salaries and allowing enormous perquisites. He persuaded
the Directors of the Company to pay handsome salaries to the Company servants in
order that they might free themselves from commercial and corrupting activities.
Further, Cornwallis inaugurated the policy of making appointments mainly

on the basis of merit thereby laying the foundation of the Indian Civil Service. To
cut down on extravagances, he abolished a number of surplus posts. Another
major reform that Cornwallis introduced was the separation of the three branches
of service, namely commercial, judicial and revenue. The collectors, the king-pins
of the administrative system were deprived of their judicial powers and their work
became merely the collection of revenue.
Judicial Reforms
In the work of judicial reorganization, Cornwallis secured the services of Sir

William Jones, who was a judge and a great scholar. Civil and criminal courts were
completely reorganized.
1. At the top of the judicial system, the highest civil and criminal courts of
appeal, namely Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were
functioning at Calcutta. Both of them were presided over by the Governor -
General and his Council.
2. There were four provincial courts of appeal at Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad

and Patna, each under three European judges assisted by Indian advisers.
3. District and City courts functioned each under a European judge. Every
district was provided with a court. As already stated, Cornwallis had taken
away from the collectors of their judicial powers and made them solely
responsible for the collection of revenue. As a result, District Judges were
appointed.
12

4. Indian judges or Munsiffs were appointed to all the courts at the bottom of the
judicial system.
In criminal cases, Muslim law was improved and followed. In civil cases,
Hindu and Muslim laws were followed according to the religion of the litigants. In
suits between Hindus and Muslims, the judge was the deciding authority. Cornwallis
was merciful by temperament. He hated barbarous punishments and abolished
those like mutilation and trial by ordeal.
Cornwallis was better known as a law giver than as an administrator. With

the help of his colleague, George Barlow, Cornwallis prepared a comprehensive
code, covering the whole field of administration’, judicial, police, commercial and
fiscal. This Code was based upon the principle of Montesquieu, “the Separation
of Powers”, which was popular in the West in 18th century. In order to curb undue
exercise of authority Cornwallis made all officials answerable to the courts.
Police Reforms
The effective implementation of judicial reforms required the reorganisation

of police administration. The District Judge controlled the police. Each district was
divided into thanas or police circles each of which was about 20 square miles. It was
placed under an Indian officer called the daroga who was ably assisted by many
constables. However, the police organization was not effective. In the words of
Marshman, ‘the daroga enjoyed almost unlimited power of extortion and became the
scourge of the country”.
Other Reforms
Cornwallis reformed the Board of Trade which managed the commercial

investments of the Company. With the aid of Charles Grant, he eradicated
numerous abuses and corrupt practices. Fair treatment was given to weavers and
Indian workers. He increased the remuneration for honest service.
Estimate of Cornwallis
Cornwallis, a blue-blooded aristocrat, was an ardent patriot. He discharged

his duties fearlessly, and his life was an embodiment of ‘duty and sacrifice’. He
perceived the danger of Tipu’s growing power and curtailed it by boldly discarding
the policy of nonintervention. As an administrator, he consolidated the Company’s
position in India and started the tradition of efficient and pure administration.
Although there were defects in his Permanent Settlement of Land Revenue, his
administrative and judicial reforms were solid achievements. He may be regarded
the parent of the Indian Administrative Service and founder of an efficient and clean
system of administration.
Sir John Shore (1793-98) succeeded Cornwallis as Governor General and

his administration was uneventful.
13

Learning Outcome
The students have learnt
1. The causes, course and results of the Third Mysore War.
2. Changes made in the administrative machinery by Cornwallis.
3. Judicial reforms and its importance.
4. Reorganization of police.
5. A general estimate on the administration of Lord Cornwallis.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Lord Cornwallis introduced
(a) Mahalwari System
(b) Permanent Revenue Settlement
(c) Ryotwari System

(d) Jagirdari System
1. Lord Cornwallis prepared the law code with the help of his colleague
___________
1.
Tripartite Alliance a. 1784
2. Treaty of Srirangapattinam b. 1786
3. Treaty of Mangalore c. 1789
4. Amendment to Pitt’s India Act d. 1792
a) Tipu Sultan concluded the Treaty of Srirangapattinam with the French.
b) Daroga was a revenue official.
c) The Third Anglo-Mysore War took place after the death of Haider Ali.
14

1. The Treaty of Mangalore exposed the weakness of the English.
2. During the time of Lord Cornwallis Hindu Law followed in criminal cases.
1. Treaty of Srirangapattinam.
2. Police Reforms of Lord Cornwallis.
1. Discuss the causes for the Third Mysore War.
2. Write the judicial reforms of Lord Cornwallis.
1. Estimate the reforms of Lord Cornwallis.
“Cornwallis’ life was embodiment of duty and sacrifice” – Justify.
15

LESSON 3
THE MARQUESS OF WELLESLEY (1798-1805)
Learning Objectives
Students will come to understand
1. The political condition of India at the time of the arrival of Lord

Wellesley
2. The Meaning of Subsidiary System
3. Merits and defects of the Subsidiary System
4. The Indian states that come under this system
5. Fourth Mysore War and the final fall of Tipu Sultan
6. War with the Marathas.
7. Estimate of Lord Wellesley
The appointment of Richard Colley Wellesley as Governor- General marks

an epoch in the history of British India. He was a great imperialist and called himself
‘a Bengal tiger’. Wellesley came to India with a determination to launch a forward
policy in order to make ‘the British Empire in India’ into ‘the British Empire of India’.
The system that he adopted to achieve his object is known as the ‘Subsidiary
Alliance’.
Political Condition of India at the time of Wellesley’s

Arrival
In the north-western India, the danger of Zaman Shah’s

aggression posed a serious threat to the British power in
India. In the north and central India, the Marathas remained
a formidable political power. The Nizam of Hyderabad
employed the Frenchmen to train his army. The political
unrest in the Karnatak region continued and Tipu Sultan had
LORD WELLESLEY remained the uncompromising enemy of the British.
Moreover, the policy of neutrality adopted by Sir John Shore, the successor
of Cornwallis, created a kind of political unrest in India and greatly affected the
prestige of the English. His non-intervention policy contributed much to the growth
of anti-British feelings. Further, Napoleon’s move for an Eastern invasion created a
fear among English statesmen. It was in this light that Wellesley moulded his policy.
Preservation of British prestige and removal of French danger from India were
Wellesley’s twin aims.
16

He was also thoroughly convinced that only a strong British power in India
could reduce and control the existing tyranny and corruption in Indian states.
Therefore, he reversed the nonintervention policy of his predecessor and formulated
his master plan namely the ‘Subsidiary Alliance’.
The Subsidiary System
The predecessors of Wellesley concluded alliances with Indian princes

like the Nawab of Oudh and the Nizam of Hyderabad. They received subsidies
from the Indian rulers for the maintenance of British troops, which were used for
the protection of respective Indian states. Wellesley enlarged and consolidated the
already existing system. However, his originality was revealed in its application.
Main Features of Subsidiary Alliance
1. Any Indian ruler who entered into the subsidiary alliance with the British had
to maintain a contingent of British troops in his territory. It was commanded
by a British officer. The Indian state was called ‘the protected state’ and the
British hereinafter were referred to as ‘the paramount power’. It was the
duty of the British to safeguard that state from external aggression and to
help its ruler maintain internal peace. The protected state should give some
money or give part of its territory to the British to support the subsidiary force.
2. The protected state should cut off its connection with European powers
other than the English and with the French in particular. The state was also
forbidden to have any political contact even with other Indian powers without
the permission of the British.
3. The ruler of the protected state should keep a British Resident at his court
and disband his own army. He should not employ Europeans in his service
without the sanction of the paramount power.
4. The paramount power should not interfere in the internal affairs of the
protected state.
Benefits to the British
Wellesley’s Subsidiary System is regarded as one of the master- strokes of

British imperialism. It increased the military strength of the Company in India at the
expense of the protected states. The territories of the Company were free from the
ravages of war thereby establishing the stability of the British power in India. The
position of the British was strengthened against its Indian and non-Indian enemies.
Under the system, expansion of British power became easy. Thus Wellesley’s
diplomacy made the British the paramount power in India.
17

Defects of the Subsidiary System
The immediate effect of the establishment of subsidiary forces was the

introduction of anarchy because of the unemployment of thousands of soldiers sent
away by the Indian princes. The freebooting activities of disbanded soldiers were felt
much in central India where the menace of Pindaris affected the people.
Further, the subsidiary system had a demoralizing effect on the princes of

the protected states. Safeguarded against external danger and internal revolt, they
neglected their administrative responsibilities. They preferred to lead easy-going
and pleasure- seeking lives. As a result misgovernment followed. In course of time,
the anarchy and misrule in several states had resulted in their annexation by the
British. Thus, the subsidiary system proved to be a preparation for annexation.
Furthermore, the British collected very heavy subsidies from the protected
princes and this had adversely affected their economy.
Enforcement of the Subsidiary System
Hyderabad: Hyderabad was the first state which was brought under
Wellesley’s Subsidiary System in 1798. The treaty concluded in 1798 was an ad hoc
measure. It fixed the amount to be paid annually at Rs.24 lakhs for the subsidiary
force. In accordance with the treaty, all the French troops in Hyderabad were
disbanded and replaced by a subsidiary British force. A new treaty was concluded in
1800 by which the Nizam ceded large territories to the Company and this constitutes
the famous Ceded Districts.
Oudh: The threat of invasion by Zaman Shah of Afghanistan was the

pretext for Wellesley to force the Nawab of Oudh to enter into a subsidiary treaty.
Accordingly, the Nawab gave the British the rich lands of Rohilkhand, the lower
Doab and Gorakhpur for the maintenance of an increased army which the British
stationed in the capital of Oudh. The strength of Nawab’s own army was reduced.
For the maintenance of law and order the British were authorised to frame rules and
regulations. By this, the British acquired the right to interfere in the internal matters
of Oudh. Although the Company obtained a fertile and populous territory, which
increased its resources, the highhanded action of Wellesley was severely criticized.
Tanjore, Surat and the Karnatak

Wellesley assumed the administration of Tanjore, Surat and the Karnatak
by concluding treaties with the respective rulers of these states. The Maratha state
of Tanjore witnessed a succession dispute. In 1799, Wellesley concluded a treaty
with Serfoji. In accordance with this treaty the British took over the administration
of the state and allowed Serfoji to retain the title of Raja with a pension of 4 lakhs of
rupees.
18

Raja Sarbhoji was a man of culture and attractive manners. He

was the disciple of Schwarts. He built the Saraswathi Mahal Library in
Tanjore which contains valuable books and manuscripts. He patronized
art and culture.
The principality of Surat came under British protection as early as 1759. The
Nawab of this historic city died in 1799 and his brother succeeded him. The change
of succession provided Wellesley an opportunity to take over the administration of
Surat. The Nawab was allowed to retain the title and given a pension of one lakh of
rupees.
The people of Karnatak had been suffering for a long time by the double
government. The Nawab, Umadat-ul-Umara was an incompetent ruler noted for his
extravagance and misrule. He died in the middle of 1801 and his son, Ali Hussain
became the Nawab. Wellesley asked him to retire with a liberal pension leaving
the administration to the English. Since he refused, Wellesley signed a treaty with
Azim-ud daulah, the nephew of the deceased Nawab in 1801. Accordingly the entire
military and civil administration of the Karnatak came under the British.
The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)
The circumstances which led to the Fourth Mysore War can be summarized
as follows: Tipu Sultan wanted to avenge his humiliating defeat and the terms
imposed on him by the British. He also aimed at making Mysore a strong state. Tipu
worked continuously to secure help to fight British imperialism. He took efforts to
seek the help of the France, Arabia, Kabul and Turkey. He corresponded with the
Revolutionary French Government in July 1798. At Srirangapattinam, a Jacobian
Club was started and the flag of the French Republic was hoisted. The tree of
Liberty was also planted. Later, when Napoleon came to power, Tipu received a
friendly letter from Napoleon (who was in Egypt at that time).
It was at this juncture that Wellesley reached Calcutta with a mind already
filled with fear of Napoleon. Therefore, he prepared for a war against Mysore. As
a part of his strategy, Wellesley tried to revive the Triple Alliance of 1790 with the
Marathas. Though his proposal was not accepted by the Marathas, they promised
to remain neutral. However, a Subsidiary Alliance with the Nizam was concluded by
the British and as a consequence, the French force at Hyderabad was disbanded.
Wellesley set out to persuade Tipu to accept a pact of subsidiary alliance

and wrote letters requesting the Tipu to dismiss the French, to receive an English
envoy, and to make terms with the Company and its allies. Tipu paid scant attention
to Wellesley’s letters and thus the Fourth Anglo-Mysore war started.
The war was short and decisive. As planned, the Bombay army under
General Stuart invaded Mysore from the west. The Madras army, which was led
19

by the Governor-General’s brother, Arthur Wellesley, forced Tipu to retreat to his

capital Srirangapattinam. Although severely wounded, he fought till his capital
Srirangapattinam was captured and he himself was shot dead.
Mysore After the War
With the fall of Tipu Sultan the kingdom of Mysore fell at the feet of Wellesley.
He restored Hindu rule at the central part of the kingdom. A five year old boy,
Krishnaraja III, a descendant of the dethroned Hindu Raja, was enthroned at
Mysore, which became the capital almost after two hundred years. Purnaiya, the
previous minister, became Diwan. The remaining parts of the kingdom were divided
between the British and the Nizam. The whole of Kanara, Wynad, Coimbatore,
Dharmapuri and Srirangapattinam were retained by the British whereas the Nizam
was given the areas around Gooty and a part of Chittoor and Chitaldurg districts.
A British Resident was stationed at Mysore. Tipu’s family was sent to the fort of
Vellore.
Wellesley and the Marathas
The only power that remained outside the purview of the subsidiary system
was the Marathas. Nana Fadnavis provided the leadership to the Marathas. He was
responsible for the preservation of independence of his country from the onslaught
of the British. By extending a helping hand to Cornwallis against Tipu he was able
to acquire a large slice of territory as the share of the Marathas from the kingdom of
Mysore. His death in 1800 removed the last great Maratha leader.
Peshwa Baji Rao II, despite his stately appearance and immense learning,
lacked political wisdom. The infighting among the Maratha leaders proved to be self-
destructive. Jaswant Rao Holkar and Daulat Rao Scindia were fighting against each
other. The Peshwa supported Scindia against Holkar. Holkar marched against the
Peshwa. The combined forces of Scindia and the Peshwa were utterly defeated.
The city of Poona fell at the feet of the victor who did not hesitate to commit all
sorts of atrocities, including the torturing of rich inhabitants. With rich booty Holkar
returned to his capital.
Peshwa Baji Rao II was in great danger, so he fled to Bassein where he
signed the Treaty of Bassein with the British in 1802. It was a subsidiary treaty and
the Peshwa was recognized as the head of the Maratha kingdom. Although it was
nominal, the treaty was considered the crowning triumph of Wellesley’s Subsidiary
System. In accordance with this document, the foreign policy of the Marathas came
under British control and therefore any action of the Maratha chiefs against the
British was successfully prevented. That is the reason why the Marathas considered
the treaty as a document of surrendering their independence.
As an immediate response to the Treaty of Bassein, the British troops
marched under the command of Arthur Wellesley towards Poona and restored the
Peshwa to his position. The forces of Holkar vanished from the Maratha capital.
20

The Second Maratha War (1803-1805)
Daulat Rao Scindia and Raghoji Bhonsle took the Treaty of Bassein as an
insult to the national honour of the Marathas. Soon the forces of both the chieftains
were united and they crossed the river Narmada. Wellesley seized this opportunity
and declared war in August 1803.
21

Arthur Wellesley captured Ahmadnagar in August 1803 and defeated the

combined forces of Scindia and Bhonsle at Assaye near Aurangabad.
Subsequently, Arthur Wellesley carried the war into Bhonsle’s territory and
completely defeated the Maratha forces on the plains of Argaon. As a result, the
Treaty of Deogaon was signed between Bhonsle and Wellesley. The former signed
the subsidiary treaty which forced him to give up the province of Cuttack in Orissa.
The campaign of British commander Lord Lake against the forces of Scindia
was rather dramatic. Lake triumphantly entered the historic city of Delhi and took
Shah Alam, the Mughal Emperor under British protection. Lake was quick in
consolidating his conquests. By negotiating with the Raja of Bharatpur, he occupied
Agra. Sadly this military engagement proved to be a battle of great slaughter in
which thousands of Maratha soldiers perished. Scindia signed a subsidiary treaty
with the British. It is known as the Treaty of Surji –Arjungaon.
During the war against Bhonsle and Scindia, Holkar remained aloof because
he was Scindia’s enemy. However, when Wellesley offered an alliance, Holkar
made extreme demands. This made Wellesley to declare war against Holkar. The
campaign against Holkar was well-organised but the English generals for the first
time committed blunders. Holkar remained unsubdued.
Estimate of Wellesley
An unscrupulous annexationist and an advocate of forward policy, Wellesley

was one of the greatest empire-builders that England had ever produced.
Wellesley converted the British Empire in India to the British Empire of India. The
establishment of British paramountcy in India was his supreme task. He located
the weak spots of the Indian powers and applied his political technique (namely
Subsidiary Alliance). By the annexation of Karnatak and Tanjore he paved the way
for the formation of the Madras Presidency. He rightly deserves to be called the
maker of the erstwhile Madras Presidency and the creator of the Province of Agra.
In this manner a great part of the Indian subcontinent was brought under Company
protection. “He turned the East India Company from a trading corporation into an
imperial power”.
Sir George Barlow was the next Governor-General for two years (1805-
07). The Vellore Mutiny of 1806 took place during his administration. He was
succeeded by Lord Minto (1807-13) who concluded the Treaty of Amritsar
with Ranjit Singh of Punjab in 1809. The Charter Act of 1813 was passed
during this period.
22

Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson, the student should be able to explain
1. The political condition in India was not favourable to the British
2. The techniques of Subsidiary System by which Wellesley expanded

the British control over the Indian states.
3. The manner in which the Indian states were admitted into this
system.
4. Later this led to their permanent inclusion into the British empire.
5. The Fourth Mysore War and the defeat of Tipu Sultan removed an
important threat to the expansion of the British in India.
6. The Second Maratha War exposed the weaknesses of the

Maratha confederacy and the advantages of the British.
7. Wellesley was able to make the Company an imperial power in the

Indian subcontinent.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The first state which was brought under Wellesley’s Subsidiary System in
1798 was

(a) Oudh (b) Tanjore

(c) Surat (d) Hyderabad
1. The fourth Anglo-Mysore war took place in the year ___________
2. The Subsidiary treaty signed by Scindia with the British is know

as___________
1. Krishnaraja III a. Marathas
2.
Serfoji b. Karnatak
3. Nana Fadnavis c. Mysore
4.
Umadat-ul-Umara d. Tanjore
23

IV. Find out the correct statement. Only one statement alone is correct.
a. Tanjore was the first state which was brought under Wellesley’s Subsidiary
System in 1798.
b. Wellesley tried to revive the Triple Alliance of 1789.
c. Peshwa Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein with the British in 1802.
d. Scindia signed the Treaty of Deogaon with the British.
1. Sir John Shore was the successor of Lord Wellesley.
2. Baji Rao signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802.
3. After the fourth Anglo-Mysore War, Tipu’s family was sent to the Fort of
Vellore.
1. Defects of the Subsidiary System.
2. Treaty of Bassein
1. Point out the main features of the Subsidiary System.
2. Discuss the circumstances that led to the fourth Mysore War.
1. Examine the enforcement of the Subsidiary System by Lord Wellesley.
2. Estimate the achievements of Lord Wellesley.
24

LESSON 4
LORD HASTINGS (1813-1823)
Learning Objectives
Students will come to know
1. The condition of India when Lord Hastings became Governor-

General.
2. The War with Nepal, the kingdom of the Gurkhas.
3. Who were the Pindaris and how they were exterminated.
4. The third and Final War with the Marathas.
5. The causes for the defeat of the Marathas at the hands of the
British.
6. The Reforms introduced by Lord Hastings.
7. An estimate of Lord Hastings.
Lord Hastings became Governor- General in

1813. He adopted a vigorous forward policy and waged
wars extensively. His aggressive and imperialist polices
paved the way for the general of expansion of the
British Empire. He further expanded the British power
in India.
The conditions in India when he assumed power

posed a serious threat to the British administration.
There was anarchy in central India. The Pindaris
plundered the whole region and the Marathas could
Lord H not control them. Also, there was infighting among the
astings
Maratha chiefs. Yet, they were aiming at the expulsion of the British from India. The
Peshwa was secretly plotting against the British. Hastings was also troubled by the
expansion of the Gurkha power. Therefore, Hastings determined to restore order
by suppressing the Pindaris and to eliminate threats to the British power by waging
wars with the Marathas and the Gurkhas.
War against the Gurkhas (1814-16)
Nepal emerged as a powerful Gurkha state in 1768. This country is situated

to the north of India with its boundary touching China in the north and Bengal and
Oudh in the east and south, respectively. In 1801, the British acquired the districts
25

of Gorakhpur and Basti from the Nawab of Oudh. This move brought the boundary
of Nepal to touch the British frontier. The aggressions of the Gurkhas into the British
territories culminated in a war. In May 1814, the Gurkhas attacked the British police
post and killed 18 policemen and their officer. Hastings declared war on Nepal. In
1814 several battles were fought between the British and the Gurkhas. Amar Singh
Thapa, the able General of Nepal Army was forced to surrender.
In March 1816, the Treaty of Sagauli was concluded. The Gurkhas gave up
their claim over the Tarai region and ceded the areas of Kumaon and Garhwal to
the British. The British now secured the area around Simla and their north-western
borders touched the Himalayas. The Gurkhas had to withdraw from Sikkim and
they also agreed to keep a British Resident at Katmandu. It was also agreed that
the kingdom of Nepal would not employ any other foreigner in its services other
than the English. The British had also obtained the sites of hill stations like Simla,
Mussoori, Nainital, Ranikhet and developed them as tourist and health resorts. After
this victory in the Gurkha War Hastings was honoured with English peerage and he
became Marquis of Hastings.
Suppression of the Pindaris
The origin of Pindaris is lost in obscurity. The first reference about them is
during the Mughal invasion of Maharashtra. They did not belong to any particular
caste or creed. They used to serve the army without any payment but instead were
allowed to plunder. During the time of Baji Rao I, they were irregular horsemen
attached to the Maratha army. It is worth mentioning here that they never helped the
British. They were mostly active in the areas of Rajputana and the Central Provinces
and subsisted on plunder. Their leaders belonged to both the Hindu as well as the
Muslim communities. Chief amongst them were Wasil Muhammad, Chitu and Karim
Khan. They had thousands of followers.
In 1812, the Pindaris plundered the districts of Mirzapur and Shahabad and
in 1815 they raided the Nizam’s dominions. In 1816, they plundered the Northern
Circars. Lord Hastings determined to suppress the Pindaris. For this he gathered
a large army of 1,13,000 men and 300 guns and attacked the Pindaris from four
sides. He himself took command of the force from the north while Sir Thomas
Hislop commanded the force from the south. By 1818, the Pindaris were completely
suppressed and all their bands disintegrated. Karim Khan was given a small estate
in the Gorakhpur district of the United Provinces. Wasil Muhammad took refuge in
the Scindia’s camp but the latter handed him over to the British. Wasil committed
suicide in captivity and Chitu escaped to the forest, where a tiger killed him. Thus,
by 1824, the menace of the Pindaris came to an end.
26

Downfall of the Maratha Confederacy

The third major achievement of Lord Hastings was against the Marathas. In
reality, the Maratha power had weakened considerably after the Third Battle of
Panipat (1761) and the two subsequent wars against the British. But the Marathas
had not finally crushed out. The Maratha chiefs fought amongst themselves and
their successors were invariably weak and incapable. The relationships of powerful
Maratha chiefs like the Bhonsle, Gaekwar, Scindia, Holkar and the Peshwa were
ridden with mutual jealousies.
Peshwa Baji Rao II wanted to become the head of the Maratha Confederacy
and at the same time wanted freedom from the British control. His Chief Minister
Tirimbakji encouraged him.
On the advice of the Company, the Gaekwar sent his Prime Minister
Gangadhar Shastri to negotiate with the Peshwa. On his way back, Gangadhar
Shastri, was murdered at Nasik in July 1815, at the instance of Triambakji.
This caused a lot of anger not only among the Marathas but also among
the British. The latter asked the Peshwa to handover Triambakji to them. Peshwa
handed over his Minister to the British, who lodged him in Thana jail from where he
escaped. Consequently, on 13 June 1817, the British Resident Elphinstone forced
the Peshwa to sign the Treaty of Poona. Baji Rao gave up his desire to become the
supreme head of the Marathas.
Third Maratha War (1817-1819)
But soon the Peshwa undid this treaty with the British and on 5 November
1817 attacked the British Residency. He was defeated at a place called Kirkee.
Similarly, the Bhonsle chief, Appa Sahib also refused to abide by the Treaty of
Nagpur, which he had signed with the British on 17 May 1816. According to this
treaty, Nagpur came under the control of the Company. He fought with the British
in the Battle of Sitabaldi in November 1817, but was defeated. The Peshwa
now turned to Holkar for help, but Holkar too was defeated by the British on 21
December 1817 at Baroda. Therefore, by December 1817 the dream of a Mighty
Maratha Confederacy was finally shattered.
In 1818, Scindia was also forced to sign a new treaty with the British on the
basis of which Ajmer was given to the Nawab of Bhopal, who also accepted the
British suzerainty. The Gaekwar of Baroda, while accepting the Subsidiary Alliance,
agreed to hand over certain areas of Ahmedabad to the British. The Rajput states
which were under the Pindaris were freed after the latter’s suppression.
The year 1818 was a significant year on account of major political
achievements for the British. The Maratha dream of establishing themselves as the
paramount power in India was completely destroyed. Thus, the last hurdle in the
way of British paramountcy was removed.
27

Causes of the Defeat of the Marathas
There were several reasons for the defeat of the Marathas in the Anglo-
Maratha Wars. The main reasons were:
 Lack of capable leadership

 Military weakness of the Marathas.
 The major drawback of the Maratha power was mutual bitterness and lack of
cooperation amongst themselves.
 The Marathas hardly left any positive impact on the conquered territories.
 The Marathas did not have cordial relations with other princes and Nawabs of
India.
 The Marathas failed to estimate correctly the political and diplomatic strength
of the British.
Reforms of Hastings
The Governor-Generalship of Lord Hastings witnessed not only territorial

expansion but also the progress of administration. He approved the Ryotwari
system of land revenue introduced in the Madras Presidency by Sir Thomas
Munroe. In the sphere of judiciary, the Cornwallis Code was improved. The Police
system of Bengal was extended to other regions. The importance of Indian Munsiffs
had increased during his administration. The separation of judicial and revenue
departments was not rigidly followed. Instead, the District Collector acted as
Magistrate.
Hastings had also encouraged the foundation of vernacular schools by

missionaries and others. In 1817, the Hindu College was established at Calcutta
by the public for the teaching of English and western science. Hastings was the
Patron of this college. He encouraged the freedom of the Press and abolished the
censorship introduced in 1799. The Bengali Weekly, Samachar Darpan was started
in 1818 by Marshman, a Serampore missionary.
Estimate
Lord Hastings was an able soldier and a brilliant administrator. His liberal
views on education and Press are commendable. He suppressed the Pindaris,
defeated the Marathas and curbed the power of the Gurkhas. His territorial gains
strengthened the British power in India. He was considered the maker of the
Bombay Presidency. In short, he completed and consolidated the work of Wellesley.
Lord Hastings was succeeded by Lord Amherst (1823-28) who fought the
First Anglo-Mysore War (1824-26).
28

Learning Outcome
After studying this lesson, the student is able to explain
1. The chief tasks that Lord Hastings had to fulfil when he came to
India.
2. The Gurkhas were defeated in the war and surrendered to the

British.
3. The Pindaris remained a nuisance to the peace and tranquillity of

central India and the efforts taken by Hastings to eliminate them.
4. The weaknesses of the Maratha confederacy and the supremacy of

the British, who overpowered them.
5. The Reforms of Lord Hastings.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Lord Hastings declared war on Nepal in the year

(a) 1814 (b) 1815

(c) 1816 (d) 1817
1. In 1768 ________ emerged as a powerful Gurkha state.
2. The third Battle of Panipat took place in the year ________
1. Amar Singh Thapa a. Pindaris
2. Karim Khan b. Bengali Weekly
3. Sir Thomas Munroe c. General of Nepal
4. Samachar Darpan d. Ryotwari System
a) Lord Hasings adopted the polify of non-intervention.
b) Treaty of Saugali was concluded in 1815,
c) The leaders of Pindrais belonged to Sikh community.
d) Lord Hastings was the patron of the Hindu College at Calcutta.
29


1. After the Gurkha war, the Gurkhas had agreed to keep a British Resident at
Kathmandu.
2. Triambakji was the Chief Minister of Baji Rao II.
1. Gurkha War.
2. Reforms of Lord Hastings.
1. Discuss the efforts taken by Lord Hastings to eliminate the Pindaris.
2. Mention the causes for the downfall of the Maratha Confederacy.
1. Evaluate the administration of Lord Hastings.
2. Examine the causes and effects of the Third Maratha War.
30

LESSON 5
LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK (1828-1835)
Learning Objectives
1. Bentinck’s basic attitude towards reforms.
2. His policy towards the Indian states.
3. His cordial relations with Ranjit Singh.
4. The Charter Act of 1833 and its importance.
5. Bentinck’s financial and administrative reforms.
6. His social reforms – Abolition of Sati, Suppression of Thugs and

prevention of female infanticide.
7. His educational reforms.
Lord William Bentinck assumed the office of the Governor- General in 1828.
Born in 1774 he commenced his career as a soldier and later at the young age of
twenty two he became a Member of Parliament. He was appointed the Governor of
Madras in 1803. He supported Sir Thomas Munroe on revenue administration. The
Vellore Mutiny of 1806 had resulted in Bentinck’s recall. However, his appointment
again to the higher office as Governor-General shows his
real greatness. As Governor-General, Bentinck had initiated
an era of progress and reforms. He was undoubtedly the first
Governor- General of British India who acted on the dictum
that “the welfare of the subject peoples was a main, perhaps
the primary, duty of the British in India”.
Policy Towards Indian States
William Bentinck adopted a policy of non-intervention

and non-aggression with Indian states. If at all he interfered
Lord William in the affairs of the Indian states, it was only to end any form
Bentinck of misgovernment and never to annex any territory.
Mysore
In Mysore, Hindu rule under Krishnaraja III was restored by Wellesley.

In the beginning, the young Raja functioned well along with his able minister
Puranaiya. Later, when the young raja assumed full control of the government he
proved incompetent. The peasantry of the state suffered from many grievances.
31

There was no redressal. Consequently, a revolt of the peasants broke out in 1830
and it was suppressed with the help of an army from Madras. Nonetheless, the
British authorities took over the administration of Mysore State and placed it under
the control of a commissioner. The Raja was given a pension.
Sir Mark Cubbon was commissioner from 1834 to 1861 and his administration
was beneficial to the people of Mysore. Even today, the famous Cubbon Park in
Bangalore city has been named after him to remind his services to Mysore.
Cachar and Jaintia
The principality of Cachar lying in the North East Frontier came under the
protection of the British in accordance with the Treaty of Yandaboo concluded at
the end of the first Burmese War. The Raja of this small state was assassinated in
1832 but there was no heir to succeed him. Bentinck annexed this state at the wish
of the people.
Jaintia was one of the territories brought under the custody of the British after
the first Anglo-Burmese War. The ruler of the small country behaved in an unruly
way by abducting a few subjects of British India with the evil intention of sacrificing
them to the goddess Kali. Therefore, the Governor-General acted promptly to avert
any recurrence of such cruel abhorrent act and annexed this country.
Coorg
Vira Raja was a ruthless ruler of Coorg who treated his people with savage
barbarity and killed all his male relatives. Lord William Bentinck decided to deal
with him effectively and sent Colonel Lindsay to capture Mercara, the capital of the
Coorg state. The Raja was deposed in 1834 and the state was annexed.
Relations with Ranjit Singh

Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor-General to visualise a Russian
threat to India. Hence, he was eager to negotiate friendly relations both with the
ruler of Punjab, Maharajah Ranjit Singh and also with the Amirs of Sind. His earnest
desire was that Afghanistan should be made a buffer state between India and any
possible invader. As an initial measure, an exchange of gifts took place between
Lahore, the capital of Punjab and Calcutta, the seat of Governor-General. It was
then followed by the meeting of Bentinck and Ranjit Singh on 25 October, 1831
at Rupar on the bank of the river Sutlej amidst show and splendor. The Governor-
General was successful in winning the friendship of Ranjit Singh and the Indus
Navigation Treaty was concluded between them. This treaty opened up the Sutlej
for navigation. In addition, a commercial treaty was negotiated with Ranjit Singh. A
similar treaty was also concluded with the Amirs of Sind.
32

Charter Act of 1833
The Regulating Act of 1773 made it compulsory to renew the Company’s

Charter after twenty years. Hence, the Charter Act of 1793 was passed by
the Parliament. It extended the life of Company for another twenty years and
introduced minor changes in the existing set up. The Charter Act of 1813 provided
one lakh of rupees annually for the promotion of Indian education. It also extended
the Company’s charter for another twenty years.
The Charter Act of 1833 was a significant constitutional instrument defining

the scope and authority of the East India Company. The liberal and utilitarian
philosophy of Bentham was made popular by the provisions of this Act. Following
were the important provisions:
(i) The English East India Company ceased to be a commercial agency in India.
In other words, it would function hereafter as the political agent for the Crown.
(ii) The Governor-General of Fort William was hereafter called ‘the Governor -
General of India’. Thus, Bentinck was the first Governor-General of India’.
(iii) A Law Member was appointed to the Governor-General’s Council. T. B.

Macaulay was the first Law Member of the Governor- General-in-Council.
(iv) The Act categorically stated ‘that no native of India, nor any natural born
subject of His Majesty, should be disabled from holding any place, office, or
employment, by reason of his religion, place of birth, descent or colour”. It was
this enactment which laid the foundation for the Indianisation of public services.
After twenty years, the Charter Act of 1853 was passed and it was the last in
the series of Charter Acts.
Reforms of Lord William Bentinck

The advent of Lord William Bentinck ushered in a new era in the annals
of India in many ways. Although his tenure of office covered only a short span
of seven years, it saw a period of enduring reforms. They may be classified as
financial, administrative, social and educational.
Financial Reforms
When Bentinck assumed the Governor-Generalship in 1828, the financial

position of the Company was poor. The exchequer was very weak. The state
budget showed a deficit of one million rupees. It became necessary on the part of
the Governor-General to take effective steps to improve the financial condition. To
achieve this he adopted the following measures:
He reduced the salaries and allowances of all officers and additional staff
were removed. In the military department, he abolished the system of double batta.
33

(Batta was an allowance to troops on active service.) By these financial reforms at

the time of his departure, he left the treasury with a surplus of Rs.1.5 millions.
Administrative Reforms
Bentinck’s administrative reforms speak of his political maturity and wisdom.
In the judicial department he abolished the provincial courts of appeal established
by Cornwallis. They were largely responsible for the huge arrears of cases. This
step was readily accepted by the Directors since it cut down their expenditure.
Another good measure of Bentinck was the introduction of local languages in
the lower courts and English in the higher courts in the place of Persian. Even in
matters of revenue Bentinck left his mark. He launched the revenue settlements
of the North West Province under the control of R.M. Bird. This settlement was for
a period of 30 years and it was made either with the tillers of the soil, or with the
landowners.
Social Reforms
The social reforms of William Bentinck made his name immortal in the history
of British India. These include the abolition of Sati, the suppression of Thugs and the
prevention of female infanticide.
Abolition of Sati
The practice of sati, the age old custom of burning of widows alive on the
funeral pyre of their husbands was prevalent in India from ancient times. This
inhuman social custom was very common in northern India more particularly
in Bengal. Bentinck was greatly distressed when he received a report of 800
cases of sati in a single year and that from Bengal. He determined to abolish this
practice which he considered an offence against natural justice. Therefore, he
became a crusader against it and promulgated his Regulation XVII on 4 December
1829 prohibiting the practice of sati. Those who practiced sati were made liable
for punishment by law courts as accessories to the crime. The Regulation was
extended to the Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830.
Suppression of Thugs
The most commendable measure which Bentinck undertook and which
contributed to the material welfare of the people was the suppression of the ‘thugs’.
They were hereditary robbers. They went about in small groups of fifty to hundred
posing as commercial gangs or pilgrims ‘strangling and robbing peaceful travellers’.
They increased in number in central and northern India during the 18th century when
anarchy reigned after the disintegration of the Mughal Empire. A campaign was
systematically organised by Colonel Sleeman from 1830 against the thugs. During
the course of five years nearly 2000 of them were captured. A greater number of
them were exterminated and the rest were transported to the Andaman and Nicobar
34

Islands. For his role in the suppression of thugs, Sir William Sleeman was known as
“Thugee Sleeman”.
Female Infanticide
Female infanticide was one of the horrible and heartless deeds committed
even by civilized people. This practice killing female infants was very much
prevalent in places like Rajputana, Punjab, Malwa and Cutch. Bentinck took
effective steps to prevent the ritual of child sacrifice at Saugar Island in Bengal. He
not only prohibited female infanticide but declared them as punishable crime.
Introduction of English Education
The introduction of English Education was a significant event of Lord William

Bentinck’s administration. He appointed a committee headed by Lord Macaulay
to make recommendations for the promotion of education. In his report, Macaulay
emphasized the promotion of European literature and science through English
medium to the people of India. This recommendation was wholeheartedly accepted
by William Bentinck. The Government Resolution in 1835 made English the official
and literary language of India. In the same year, William Bentinck laid foundation of
the Calcutta Medical College.
Estimate of William Bentinck
Bentinck was a “straightforward, honest, upright, benevolent, sensible

man”. His social reforms such as abolition of sati and prevention of child sacrifice
eradicated age old evils from Hindu society. It is gratifying to note that “Bentinck
acted where others had talked”. To enforce the regulations regarding the
prohibition of sati, he was prepared to risk his own position. Such courage and
straightforwardness were seldom found among the administrators of those days. His
educational reforms heralded a new age in India.
After William Bentinck, Lord Auckland (1836-42) became Governor-

General. The First Afghan War (1836-42) was fought during his administration.
Due to his failure in Afghanistan he was recalled in 1842. Lord Ellenborough
succeeded him and ended the Afghan War. He also annexed the Sindh. His
successor, Lord Hardinge (1844-48) fought the first Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46)
and concluded the Treaty of Lahore.
35

Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson, the student should be able to explain
1. William Bentinck, despite following the policy of nonintervention,

compelled to annex the states like Mysore.
2. He achieved friendship with Raja Ranjit Singh of Punjab and

concluded the Treaty of Amritsar.
3. The importance of the Charter of 1833.
4. Bentinck’s efficient administrative measures through financial and

administrative reforms.
5. Bentinck inaugurated an era of social reforms which included the

abolition of sati, suppression of thugs and prevention of female
infanticide.
6. His educational reforms remained the basis for the modernization of

India.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. English was adopted as the official language of British India in

(a) 1833 (b) 1835

(c) 1837 (d) 1839
2. The practice of Sati was abolished during the administration of
(a) Warren Hastings (b) Lord Cornwallis
(c) Lord Wellesley (d) Lord William Bentinck
1. The Vellore Mutiny broke out in the year ________

2. In the military department Lord William Bentinck abolished the system of
________
1.
Lord Macaulay a. Thugs
2. Vira Raja b. Law Member
3. William Sleeman c. Punjab
4.
Ranjit Singh d. Coorg
36

a) The Regulating Act of 1773 made it mandatory to renew the Company’s

Charter after thirty years.
b) The Charter Act of 1833 provided five lakhs of rupees for the promotion of
Indian education.
c) The Charter Act of 1833 made Lord William Bentinck the first Governor
General of India.
d) The Charter Act of 1853 was renewed after twenty years.
1. Lord William Bentinck assumed the office of the Governor General in 1838.
2. Lord William Bentinck laid the foundation for the Calcutta Medical College.
1. Ranjit Singh.
2. Sati
3. Lord Macaulay.
1. Discuss the important provisions of the Charter act of 1833.
1. Examine the policy of Lord William Bentinck towards the Indian states.
2. “Bentinck inaugurated an era of social reforms” – Comment.
37

LESSON 6
LORD DALHOUSIE (1848-1856)
Learning Objectives
1. Dalhousie’s policy of annexation.
2. Annexation of Punjab and Lower Burma.
3. Doctrine of Lapse, its application to Indian states.
4. Annexation of Oudh on the pretext of misrule.
5. Dalhousie’s domestic reforms including the introduction of railways

and telegraphs.
6. His educational and other reforms.
Lord Dalhousie was the youngest Governor-

General of India when he assumed charge at the age of
36 in 1848. His early career was remarkable. He studied in
Christ Church, Oxford. He became Member of Parliament
and enjoyed the confidence of Sir Robert Peel, the Prime
Minister of England. He did much for the progress of
railway construction in England as the president of the
Board of Trade. In 1847, he was offered the Governor-
Generalship of India which he accepted and arrived at
Calcutta in January 1848.
Policy of Annexation Lord D

alhousie
The most important aspect of Dalhousie’s administration is related to “the
great drama of annexation”. His aims for expanding the Company’s territories
were administrative, imperial, commercial and financial. Although he used different
reasons for annexation, his main objective was to end misrule in the annexed
states, as in the case of the annexation of Oudh. He aimed at providing the
beneficent administration to the people of the annexed states. At the same time
he had in his mind the advantages of annexation to the British such as imperial
defence, commercial and financial benefits. Though Dalhousie did not come to India
to follow a policy of annexation, but he was able to consolidate British rule in India
by his policy of annexation. His great annexations include the Punjab, Lower Burma,
most of the Central Provinces and Oudh.
38

Annexation of Punjab
At the end of the second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, Punjab was annexed by
Dalhousie. He organized the administration of Punjab very efficiently. The province
was divided into small districts under the control of District Officers who were called
Deputy Commissioners. These commissioners with the help of their assistants came
into close contact with people. Revenue and judicial departments were combined
to secure concentration of power and responsibility. The laws and procedure were
simplified in accordance with the custom of the people. The overall administration of
Punjab was entrusted to the Chief Commissioner. In fact, the Governor-General was
the virtual ruler of Punjab. The services of Lawrence brothers in the administration
of Punjab were notable. Within three years perfect order was restored in the
province. It was efficiently defended from internal and external enemies. In 1859, Sir
John Lawrence became the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab.
Second Burmese War and the Annexation of Lower Burma
In 1852, commercial disputes in Rangoon prompted new hostilities between
the British and the Burmese. After the end of the second Burmese War (1852),
Dalhousie annexed Lower Burma with its capital at Pegu. Major Arthur Phayre
was appointed the Commissioner of the new province. His administration also
proved to be efficient. The annexation of Lower Burma proved beneficial to Britain.
Rangoon, Britain’s most valuable acquisition from the war became one of the
biggest ports in Asia.
Doctrine of Lapse
Dalhousie also took advantage of every opportunity to acquire territory by
peaceful means. The East India Company was rapidly becoming the predominant
power in India. It had concluded alliances with Indian rulers. It promised to
support them and their heirs in return for various concessions. Although this
type of agreement favoured the British, Dalhousie sought to acquire even more
power. According to the Hindu Law, one can adopt a son in case of no male heir
to inherit the property. The question arose whether a Hindu ruler, holding his state
subordinate to the paramount power, could adopt a son to succeed his kingdom.
It was customary for a ruler without a natural heir to ask the British Government
whether he could adopt a son to succeed him. According to Dalhousie, if such
permission was refused by the British, the state would “lapse” and thereby become
part of the British India. Dalhousie maintained that there was a difference in principle
between the right to inherit private property and the right to govern. This principle
was called the Doctrine of Lapse.
The Doctrine of Lapse was applied by Dalhousie to Satara and it was
annexed in 1848. Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed in 1854. As a result of these
annexations, a large part of the Central Provinces came under the British rule. The
new province was governed by a Chief Commissioner from 1861.
39

Although the Doctrine of Lapse cannot be regarded as illegal, its application

by Dalhousie was disliked by Indian princes. The advantages of the annexations of
Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur were substantial to the British. Dalhousie was blamed for
using the Doctrine of Lapse as an instrument in pursuing his policy of annexation.
After the Mutiny of 1857, the doctrine of lapse was withdrawn.
Later during the Mutiny of 1857, Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi played an
important role in fighting against the British.
Annexation of Oudh
The British relations with the state of Oudh go back to the Treaty of Allahabad
in 1765. Right from Warren Hastings, many Governor-Generals advised the Nawab
of Oudh to improve the administration. But, misrule continued there and the Nawab
was under the assumption that the British would not annex Oudh because of his
loyalty to them. In 1851, William Sleeman, Resident at Lucknow, reported on the
“spectacle of human misery and careless misrule”. But Sleeman was against the
policy of annexing Oudh. After surveying the situation in Oudh, Dalhousie annexed it
in 1856. Nawab Wajid Ali was granted a pension of 12 lakhs of rupees per year. The
annexed territory came under the control of a Chief Commissioner.
Dalhousie’s annexation of Oudh, the last one among his annexations,

created great political danger. The annexation offended the Muslim elite. More
dangerous was the effect on the British army’s Indian troops, many of whom came
from Oudh, They had occupied a privileged position before its annexation. Under
the British Government they were treated as equals with the rest of the population.
This is a loss of prestige for them. In these various ways, the annexation of Oudh
contributed to the Mutiny of 1857.
Domestic Reforms of Dalhousie

Dalhousie’s territorial acquisition transformed the map of India. He was not
only a conqueror but also a great administrator. The appointment of a Lieutenant-
Governor to Bengal enabled Dalhousie concentrate on administration. His greatest
achievement was the molding of the new provinces into a modern centralized state.
For the newly acquired territories, he introduced the centralized control called
“Non-Regulation System”. Under this system a Commissioner was appointed for a
newly acquired territory. Under military reforms Dalhousie shifted the headquarters
of Bengal Artillery from Calcutta to Meerut. Simla was made the permanent
headquarters of the army.
Railways
The introduction railways in India inaugurated a new economic era. There
were three major reasons for the British to take interest in its quick development.
The first reason was commercial. The second main reason was administrative.
40

The third reason was defense. At the time of revolt and disturbance, movement of
the forces was much easier through railways. Lord Dalhousie’s contribution in the
development of railways is worth commending. In 1853, he penned his Railway
Minute formulating the future policy of railways in India. He started the “guarantee
system” by which the railway companies were guaranteed a minimum interest of five
percent on their investment. The government retained the right of buying the railway
at the end of the period of contract. The first railway line connecting Bombay with
Thane was opened in 1853. Railway lines connecting from Calcutta to the Raniganj
coal-fields was opened in 1854 and from Madras to Arakkonam in 1856.
The first railway in the world was opened in 1825 in England.
Telegraph
Similarly, the use of Telegraph brought marvelous changes in communication
system. In India, Lord Dalhousie’s contribution in this respect is commendable. In
1852, O’Shaughnessy was appointed the Superintendent of Telegraph Department.
Main cities of the country viz., Calcutta, Peshawar, Bombay and Madras were
telegraphically connected. About 4000 miles long Telegraph lines were laid before
the departure of Dalhousie. During the 1857 Revolt, the system of telegraphic
communication proved a boon for the English and the military value of Dalhousie’s
creation was much realized at that time.
Postal Reform
The foundation of modern postal system was laid down by Lord Dalhousie. A
new Post Office Act was passed in 1854. Consequently, irrespective of the distance
over which the letter was sent, a uniform rate of half an anna per post card was
charged throughout India. Postage stamps were introduced for the first time.
Education
Dalhousie had also evinced in the development of education. The
educational Despatch of Sir Charles Wood (1854) was considered the “Intellectual
Charter of India”. It provided an outline for the comprehensive scheme of education
at primary, secondary and collegiate levels. Dalhousie fully accepted the views of
Charles Wood and took steps to carry out the new scheme. Departments of Public
Instructions were organized. The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were
founded in 1857.
Public Works Department
Before the period of Dalhousie, the job of the Public Works Department was
done by the Military Board. Dalhousie created a separate Public Works Department
and allotted more funds for cutting canals and roads. The Upper Ganges Canal
was completed in 1854. Many bridges were constructed. By modernizing the Public
Works Department he laid the foundations of the engineering service in India.
41

Estimate of Dalhousie
Dalhousie left India in 1856. The outbreak of Mutiny in the following year
led to a severe criticism of his policy of annexation. Exhausted by his years of
overwork in India, he fell ill and died in 1860. There is no doubt that Dalhousie was
an able administrator and visionary. He increased the extent of British India and
consolidated it. He inaugurated an era of progress on many sides. He was the father
of Railways and Telegraphs. He introduced the process of modernization of India.
Hence, he is hailed as “the maker of modern India”.
42

Learning Outcome
After studying this lesson, the students will be able to explain
1. Dalhousie’s policy of annexation of states like Oudh was aimed at

providing beneficent rule to Indian states.
2. His annexation of Punjab, Lower Burma and most of central India

was nothing but expansion of British imperialism.
3. The Doctrine of Lapse was a tool in the hands of Dalhousie for his
policy of annexation.
4. Dalhousie remained a progressive reformer by introducing modern

methods of communication such as railways and telegraphs.
5. The student can give an impartial estimate of Dalhousie.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Punjab was annexed by Dalhousie in the year

(a) 1839 (b) 1849

(c) 1853 (d) 1856
2. Lawrence brothers lent their services in the administration of

(a) Burma (b) Punjab

(c) Bengal (d) Mysore
1. The first railway line between Bombay and Thane was opened in the
year________
2. The foundation of modern postal system was laid down by ________
1.
Wood’s Despatch a. 1857
2. Second Burmese War b. 1856
3.
Annexation of Oudh c. 1852
4. Foundation of the University of Madras d. 1854
43

a) The doctrine of lapse was introduced by Lord Wellesley.
b) The doctrine of lapse can be regarded as illegal.
c) The doctrine of lapse was applied to annex Lower Burma.
d) The doctrine of lapse was withdrawn after the Mutiny of 1857.
1. In 1850, O’Shaughnessy was appointed the Superintendent of Telegraph

Department.
2. The first railway line connecting Bombay with Thane was opened in 1853.
1. Wood’s Despatch.
2. Second Burmese War.
3. Dalhousie’s Postal Reforms
1. Discuss the annexation of Oudh by Lord Dalhousie.
2. Explain the principle and application of the Doctrine of Lapse.

1. Critically examine the annexation policy of Lord Dalhousie.
2. Estimate the reforms of Lord Dalhousie.
44

LESSON 7
REVENUE ADMINISTRATION AND
ECONOMIC POLICY OF THE BRITISH
Learning Objectives
1. The British agrarian policy.
2. Different Land Revenue Systems introduced by the British.
3. The Merits and demerits of the revenue administration.
4. British policy towards the handicrafts industry.
5. Causes for the decline of the Indian handicrafts.
British Agrarian Policy
It is a well-known fact that India is primarily an agricultural country. The

overwhelming majority of its people depend on agriculture for sustenance. If the
crop is good, prosperity prevails otherwise it leads to famine and starvation.
Till the 18th century, there was a strong relation between agriculture and
cottage industries in India. India was not only ahead in the field of agriculture than
most other countries but it also held a prominent place in the world in the field of
handicraft production. The British destroyed handicraft industry in the country while
unleashing far-reaching changes in the country’s agrarian structure by introducing
new systems of land tenures and policies of revenue administration.
India’s national income, foreign trade, industrial expansion and almost every
other dominion of economic activity, depended on the country’s agriculture. The
British policies revolved around getting maximum income from land without caring
much about Indian interests of the cultivators. They abandoned the age -old system
of revenue administration and adopted in their place a ruthless policy of revenue
collection.
After their advent, the British principally adopted three types of land tenures.
Roughly 19 per cent of the total area under the British rule, i.e., Bengal, Bihar,
Banaras, division of the Northern Western Provinces and northern Karnatak, were
brought under the Zamindari System or the Permanent Settlement. The second
revenue system, called the Mahalwari Settlement, was introduced in about 30
per cent of the total area under British rule i.e., in major parts of the North Western
Provinces, Central Provinces and the Punjab with some variations. The Ryotwari
45

System covered about 51 per cent of the area under British rule comprising part
of the Bombay and Madras Presidencies, Assam and certain other parts of British
India.
The Permanent Settlement
Lord Cornwallis’ most conspicuous administrative measure was the

Permanent Land Revenue Settlement of Bengal, which was extended to the
provinces of Bihar and Orissa. It is appropriate to recall that Warren Hastings
introduced the annual lease system of auctioning the land to the highest bidder. It
created chaos in the revenue administration.
Cornwallis at the time of his appointment was instructed by the Directors

to find a satisfactory and permanent solution to the problems of the land revenue
system in order to protect the interests of both the Company and the cultivators. It
obliged the Governor- General to make a thorough enquiry into the usages, tenures
and rents prevalent in Bengal. The whole problem occupied Lord Cornwallis
for over three years and after a prolonged discussion with his colleagues like Sir
John Shore and James Grant he decided to abolish the annual lease system and
introduce a decennial (Ten years) settlement which was subsequently declared to
be continuous. The main features of the Permanent Settlement were as follows:
(i) The zamindars of Bengal were recognised as the owners of land as long as
they paid the revenue to the East India Company regularly.
(ii) The amount of revenue that the zamindars had to pay to the Company was
firmly fixed and would not be raised under any circumstances. In other words
the Government of the East India Company got 89% leaving the rest to the
zamindars.
(iii) The ryots became tenants since they were considered the tillers of the soil.
(iv) This settlement took away the administrative and judicial functions of the
zamindars.
The Permanent Settlement of Cornwallis was bitterly criticised on the point

that it was adopted with ‘undue haste’. The flagrant defect of this arrangement
was that no attempt was made ever either to survey the lands or to assess their
value. The assessment was made roughly on the basis of accounts of previous
collections and it was done in an irregular manner. The effects of this system both
on the zamindars and ryots were disastrous. As the revenue fixed by the system
was too high, many zamindars defaulted on payments. Their property was seized
and distress sales were conducted leading to their ruin. The rich zamindars who led
luxurious lives left their villages and migrated into towns. They entrusted their rent
collection to agents who exacted all kinds of illegal taxes besides the legal ones
from the ryots.
46

This had resulted in a great deal of misery amongst the peasants and
farmers. Therefore Lord Cornwallis’ idea of building a system of benevolent land-
lordism failed. Baden Powell remarks, “The zamindars as a class did nothing for
the tenants”. Though initially the Company gained financially, in the long run the
Company suffered financial loss because land productivity was high, income from it
was meagre since it was a fixed sum. It should be noted that in pre- British period a
share on the crop was fixed as land tax.
Nevertheless, this system proved to be a great boon to the zamindars and to

the government of Bengal. It formed a regular income and stabilised the government
of the Company. The zamindars prospered at the cost of the welfare of the tenants.
Ryotwari Settlement
The Ryotwari settlement was introduced mainly in Madras, Berar, Bombay

and Assam. Sir Thomas Munro introduced this system in the Madras Presidency.
Under this settlement, the peasant was recognised as the proprietor of land. There
was no intermediary like a Zamindar between the peasant and the government.
So long as he paid the revenue in time, the peasant was not evicted from the
land. Besides, the land revenue was fixed for a period from 20 to 40 years at a
time. Every peasant was held personally responsible for direct payment of land
revenue to the government. However, in the end, this system also failed. Under this
settlement it was certainly not possible to collect revenue in a systematic manner.
The revenue officials indulged in harsh mesuares for non payment or delayed
payment.
Mahalwari Settlement
In 1833, the Mahalwari settlement was introduced in the Punjab, the Central
Provinces and parts of North Western Provinces. Under this system the basic unit
of revenue settlement was the village or the Mahal. As the village lands belonged
jointly to the village community, the responsibility of paying the revenue rested with
the entire Mahal or the village community. So the entire land of the village was
measured at the time of fixing the revenue.
Though the Mahalwari system eliminated middlemen between the

government and the village community and brought about improvement in irrigation
facility, yet its benefit was largely enjoyed by the government.
British Policy towards Indian Handicrafts

The European companies began arriving on the Indian soil from 16th century.
During this period, they were constantly engaged in fierce competition to establish
their supremacy and monopoly over Indian trade. Not surprisingly, therefore, initial
objective of the English East India Company was to have flourishing trade with
India. Later, this objective was enlarged to acquire a monopoly over this trade and
47

obtain its entire profit. Although the trade monopoly thus acquired by the Company
in India was ended by the Charter Act of 1833, yet the British Policy of exploiting the
resources of India continued unabated. In this respect, the nature of the British rule
was different from the earlier rulers.
As far as the traditional handicraft industry and the production of objects of
art were concerned, India was already far ahead of other countries in the world.
The textiles were the most important among the Indian industries. Its cotton, silk
and woolen products were sought after all over the world. Particularly, the muslin of
Dacca, carpets of Lahore, shawls of Kashmir, and the embroidery works of Banaras
were very famous. Ivory goods, wood works and jewellery were other widely sought
after Indian commodities.
Apart from Dacca, which was highly famous for its muslins, the other
important centres of textile production were Krishnanagar, Chanderi, Arni and
Banaras. Dhotis and dupattas of Ahmedabad, Chikan of Lucknow, and silk borders
of Nagpur had earned a worldwide fame. For their silk products some small towns
of Bengal besides, Malda and Murshidabad were very famous. Similarly, Kashmir,
Punjab and western Rajasthan were famous for their woolen garments.
Besides textiles, India was also known widely for its shipping, leather
and metal industries. Indian fame as an industrial economy rested on cutting and
polishing of marble and other precious stones and carving of ivory and sandalwood.
Moradabad and Banaras were famous for brass, copper, bronze utensils. Nasik,
Poona, Hyderabad and Tanjore were famous for other metal works. Kutch, Sind and
Punjab were known for manufacturing arms. Kolhapur, Satara, Gorakhpur, Agra,
Chittor and Palaghat had likewise earned a reputation for their glass industries.
Making of gold, silver and diamond jewellery was another important industrial
activity in which many places in India specialized. These entire handicrafts industry
indicated a vibrant economy in India.
Despite enjoying such fame in the world, the Indian handicraft industry had
begun to decline by the beginning of the 18th century. There were many reasons
for it. First, the policies followed by the English East India Company proved to be
highly detrimental to the Indian handicrafts industry. The Indian market was flooded
with the cheap finished goods from Britain. It resulted in a steep decline in the sale
of Indian products both within and outside of the country. In 1769, the Company
encouraged the cultivation of raw silk in Bengal while imposing service restrictions
on the sale of its finished products. In 1813 strategies were devised by the
Company to enhance the consumption of finished goods from Britain. In this respect
the tariff and octroi policies were suitably modified to suit the British commercial
interests. To cite an example, in 1835 only a minimal import of British duty of 2.5 per
cent was imposed on the import of British manufactured cotton cloth whereas a very
high 15 per cent export duty was charged on Indian cotton textiles as per the new
maritime regulations.
48

Moreover, goods from England could only be brought by the English cargo
ships. As a result of all these policies, the Indian textiles could not enter the British
market, whereas the Indian market was flooded with British goods.
Thus, with the rise of British paramountcy in India, the process of decline in
the power and status of Indian rulers had set in. Thus, the demands for the domestic
luxury goods like royal attires, armory and objects of art by the Indian royalty also
reduced drastically.
So, with the disappearance of the traditional dynasties, their nobility also
passed into oblivion. This led to a sharp decline in the demand for traditional luxury
goods.
Besides, the Industrial revolution led to the invention of new machinery in

Europe. Power looms replaced handlooms. In India also the advent of machines led
to the decline of handicraft as now the machine-made products were available at
cheaper rate and more goods could be produced in much lesser time.
Finally, the new communication and transport facilities brought about a

revolution in public life. Earlier, goods used to be transported either by bullock
carts or by ships. Thus, during the rainy season, it was not always convenient to
carry on with the normal transportation. But now conditions were changed with
the introduction of railways and steamer services. Concrete roads were laid to
connect the country’s agricultural hinterland. The import of goods from England also
increased with the simultaneous increase in exports of raw materials from India,
leading to massive loss of jobs among Indian artisans and craftsman who lost their
only means to livelihood.
Learning Outcome
1. The objectives of the British agrarian policy.
2. The Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari System and the

Mahalwari systems of land revenue.
3. The economic impact of British land revenue administration.
4. The Indian handicrafts industry and its importance.
5. British policy of exploitation.
6. The decline of the Indian handicrafts industry due to the Industrial

Revolution in England.
49

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The Permanent Settlement was introduced by
(a) Lord Cornwallis (b) Lord Wellesley
(c) Lord William Bentinck (d) Lord Dalhousie
1. The basic unit of revenue settlement under the Mahalwari system was
_________
1.
Muslin a. Banares
2.
Silk b. Tanjore
3.
Carpets c. Dacca
4. Metal works d. Lahore
a) The Permanent Settlement took away the judicial functions of zamindars.
b) There was an intermediary like zamindar between the government and

peasants under the Ryotwari settlement.
c) Indian handicrafts began to decline by the early 16th century.
d) The Industrial Revolution in England had encouraged the Indian handloom

industries.
1. Warren Hastings introduced the annual leasing system of auctioning the

lands.
2. Banaras was famous for embroidery works.
3. The East India Company modified the tariff and octroi policies to suit the
Indian commercial interests.
1. Mahalwari Settlement.
2. Ryotwari Settlement.
50

1. Point out the salient features of the Permanent Land revenue Settlement.
2. Write a note on the Indian handicrafts industry.
1. Examine the economic impact of the British land revenue administration.
2. Analyse the causes for the decline of Indian handicrafts industry.
51

LESSON 8
EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL REFORMS
Learning Objectives
1. The language and educational policies of the British.
2. Debates over the introduction of English education in India.
3. Introduction of social reforms in India.
4. Legislation on women.
5. Struggle against the Caste system and the legislation relating to

abolition of caste discrimination.
Language and Education Policy
Initially, the East India Company did not evince any particular interest in
matters of education. Although the British had captured Bengal in 1757, yet the
responsibility of imparting education remained only in Indian hands. The study of
ancient texts written in Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit still continued. In 1781, Warren
Hastings established a Madrasa in Calcutta to encourage the study of Muslim laws
along with Arabic and Persian languages.
A decade later in 1791 due to the sincere efforts of the British resident,
Jonathan Duncan, a Sanskrit College was established to promote the study of
Hindu laws and philosophy in Banaras. Therefore, it must be contended that during
the first three decades of the 19th century, the development of education took place
only through the traditional institutions.
It is apparent from the government and Church records that the state of
oriental learning at the time of the establishment of the Company’s rule in Bengal,
there were about 80,000 traditional institutions of learning in Bengal alone, which
means that there was at least one institution for every four hundred people in
that province. Different educational surveys of Madras, Bombay and Punjab also
demonstrate similar facts. There was at least one school in every village of India at
that time.
The East India Company began to adopt a dual policy in the sphere of
education. It discouraged the prevalent system of oriental education and gave
importance to western education and English language. The Charter Act of
1813 adopted a provision to spend one lakh rupees per annum for the spread of
education in India.
52

Although there was a prolonged debate pertaining to education during the

course of a general discussion on the Act of 1813 in the British Parliament, yet the
matter continued to generate debate for the next 20 years. Consequently, not even
a single penny out of the allocated funds could be spent on education.
The contemporary British scholars were divided into two groups on the issue
of development of education in India. One group, called the Orientalists, advocated
the promotion of oriental subjects through Indian languages. The other group, called
the Anglicists, argued the cause of western sciences and literature in the medium
of English language.
In 1828, after assuming the office of the Governor-General of India, Lord

William Bentinck, emphasized on the medium of English language in Indian
education. In the beginning of 1835, the 10 members of the General Committee
of Public Instruction were clearly divided into two equal groups. Five members
including the Chairman of the committee Lord Macaulay were in favour of adopting
English as medium of public instruction whereas the other five were in favour of
oriental languages.
The stalemate continued till 2 February 1835 when the Chairman of the
committee, Lord Macaulay announced his famous Minute
advocating the Anglicist point of view. Consequently,
despite fierce opposition from all quarters, Bentinck got
the resolution passed on 7 March 1835 which declared
that henceforth, government funds would be utilized for the
promotion of western literature and science through the
medium of English language.
In 1854, Sir Charles Wood sent a comprehensive

dispatch as a grand plan on education. The establishment
Lord M of departments of public instructions in five provinces and
acaulay
introduction of the pattern of grants in aid to encourage
private participation in the field of education were recommended. Besides,
the dispatch also laid emphasis on the establishment of schools for technical
education, teacher and women education. Over and above all these, the dispatch
recommended the establishment of one University each in Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras, on the model of the London University. Consequently, within the next few
years, the Indian education became rapidly westernized.
Social Policies and Legislation
In the beginning, the British interest was limited to trade and earning profits
from economic exploitation. Therefore, they did not evince any interest in taking
the issue of social or religious reforms. They were apprehensive of interfering with
the social and religious customs and institutions of the Indians because of the fear
53

that they might lose trade advantage. Thus, they adopted the policy of extreme
precaution and indifference towards social issues in India. The one reason why they
indulged in criticizing the customs and traditions of India was to generate a feeling of
inferiority complex among the Indians.
However, in the mid-19th century the social and religious movements,

launched in India, attracted the attention of the Company’s administration towards
the country’s social evils. The propaganda carried out by the Christian missionaries
also stirred the minds of the educated Indians. Western thought and education and
views expressed in different newspapers and magazines had their own impact.
Some of the British administrators like Lord William Bentinck had evinced personal
interest in the matter. There were primarily two areas in which laws were enacted,
laws pertaining to women emancipation and the caste system.
Social Laws Concerning Women
The condition of women, by the time the British established their rule, was not
encouraging. Several evil practices such as the practice of Sati, the Purdah system,
child marriage, female infanticide, bride price and polygamy had made their life quite
miscrable. The place of women had come to be confined to the four walls of her
home. The doors of education had been shut for them. From economic point of view
also her status was miserable. There was no social and economic equality between
a man and woman. A Hindu woman was not entitled to inherit any property. Thus, by
and large, she was completely dependent on men.
During the 19th and 20th centuries some laws were enacted with the sincere
efforts of social reformers, humanists and some British administrators to improve
the condition of women in Indian society. The first effort in this direction was the
enactment of law against the practice of Sati during the administration of Lord
William Bentinck.
Female Infanticide
Female infanticide was another inhuman practice afflicting the 19th century
Indian society. It was particularly in vogue in Rajputana, Punjab and the North
Western Provinces. Colonel Todd, Johnson Duncan, Malcolm and other British
administrators have discussed about this evil custom in detail. Factors such
as family pride, the fear of not finding a suitable match for the girl child and the
hesitation to bend before the prospective in-laws were some of the major reasons
responsible for this practice. Therefore, immediately after birth, the female infants
were being killed either by feeding them with opium or by strangulating or by
purposely neglecting them. Some laws were enacted against this practice in 1795,
1802 and 1804 and then in 1870. However, the practice could not be completely
eradicated only through legal measures. Gradually, this evil practice came to be
done away through education and public opinion.
54

Widow Remarriage
There are many historical evidences to suggest that widow remarriage
enjoyed social sanction during ancient period in India. In course of time the practice
ceased to prevail increasing the number of widows to lakhs during the 19th century.
Therefore, it became incumbent on the part of the social reformers to make sincere
efforts to popularize widow remarriage by writing in newspapers and contemporary
journals.
Prominent among these reformers were Raja Rammohan Roy and Iswar
Chandra Vidyasagar. They carried out large scale campaigns in this regard mainly
through books, pamphlets and petitions with scores of signatures. In July 1856, J.P.
Grant, a member of the Governor-General’s Council finally tabled a bill in support of
the widow remarriage, which was passed on 13 July 1856 and came to be called the
Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
Child Marriage
The practice of child marriage was another social stigma for the women.
In November 1870, the Indian Reforms Association was started with the efforts
of Keshav Chandra Sen. A journal called Mahapap Bal Vivah (Child
marriage: The Cardinal Sin) was also launched with the efforts of B.M. Malabari
to fight against child marriage. In 1846, the minimum marriageable age for a girl was
only 10 years.
In 1891, through the enactment of the Age of Consent Act, this was raised
to 12 years. In 1930, through the Sharda Act, the minimum age was raised to 14
years. After independence, the limit was raised to 18 years in 1978.
Purdah System
Similarly, voices were raised against the practice of Purdah during the 19th
and 20th century. The condition of women among the peasantry was relatively better
in this respect. Purdah was not so much prevalent in Southern India. Through the
large scale participation of women in the national freedom movement, the system
disappeared without any specific legislative measure taken against it.
Struggle against the Caste System and the related Legislation
Next to the issue of women emancipation, the caste system became the
second most important issue of social reforms. In fact, the system of caste had
become the bane of Indian society.
The caste system was primarily based on the fourfold division of society viz.
Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishyas and Shudras. On account of their degradation in their
social status, the Shudras were subjected to all kinds of social discrimination. In the
beginning of the 19th century the castes of India had been split into innumerable sub-
castes on the basis of birth.
55

In the meantime, a new social consciousness also dawned among the

Indians. Abolition of’ untouchability became a major issue of the 19th century social
and religious reform movements in the country. Mahatma Gandhi made the removal
of untouchability a part of his constructive programme. He brought out a paper, The
Harijan, and also organised the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar dedicated his entire life for the

welfare of the downtrodden. In Bombay,
he formed a Bahiskrit Hitkarini Sabha in
July 1924 for this purpose. Later, he also
organised the Akhil Bharatiya Dalit Varg
Sabha to fight against caste oppression.
DR. AMBEDKAR Jyotirao Phule in Western India and
Shri Narayana Guru in Kerala respectively
JYOTIRAO PHULE
established the Satya Sadhak Samaj and the Shri Narayana
Dharma Partipalana Yogam to include self-esteem among the downtrodden.
In the Madras Presidency also the beginning of 20th

century witnessed the rise of Self-respect Movement of Periyar
E.V.R. In order to eradicate this evil practice many other individual
and institutional efforts were also made. These movements were
directed mainly in removing the disabilities suffered by Harijans
in regard to drawing of water from public wells, getting entry into
temples and admission into schools. NARAYANA GURU
Learning Outcome
The students should be able to explain
1. The system of education prevalent in India before the advent of the
British.
2. The Company’s policy towards educational development in India.
3. The debates between the Orientalists and Anglicists relating to the
introduction of western education and the language of English.
4. Macaulay’s Minute on Education and the importance of Woods
Despatch.
5. Legislation relating to the abolition of social evils such as the
practice of Sati, female Infanticide.
6. The position of women in Indian society and the role of reformers in
the emancipation of women and the related legislation.
7. The measures taken to the eradication of discrimination under the
caste system.
56

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Jonathan Duncan established a Sanskrit college at
(a) Madras (b) Bombay

(c) Calcutta (d) Banaras
2. The Widow Remarriage Act was passed in the year

(a) 1846 (b) 1856

(c) 1870 (d) 1891
1. The Sarada Act raised the minimum marriageable age for girls to ________
years.
2. The Bahiskrit Hitkarini Sabha was formed by ________
3. The Macaulay’s Minute was announced in the year ________
1. Harijan Sevak Sangh a. Narayana Guru
2. Satya Shodak Samaj b. Periyar E.V.R.

3. Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam c. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
4. Self Respect Movement d. Mahatma Gandhi
5. Ahila Bharatiya Dalit Varg Sabha e. Jyotirao Phule

a. Orientalists advocated the promotion of oriental subjects through Indian

languages.
b. In 1829 Widow Remarriage Act was enactd.
c. Jyotirao Phule established the Shri Narayana Dharma Parlipalana Yogam.
d. In 1830 the Sharda Act was passed.
1. Warren Hastings established a Madrasa in Bombay.

2. The Anglicists argued for the cause of western sciences and literature in the
medium of English language.
57

3. Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar carried out campaigns to popularize widow

remarriage.
1. Macaulay’s Minute
2. Female Infanticide
3. Purdah system
1. Write a note on Charles Woods Despatch.
2. Discuss the measures taken by reformers to eradicate discrimination

under the caste system.
1. Examine the educational policy of the British.
2. Give an account of the social legislations for the emancipation of women.
58

LESSON 9
PALAYAKKARAR REBELLION
Learning Objectives
1. The Palayakkarar system in Tamil Nadu.
2. The role of Puli Thevar in the anti-British rebellion.
3. The rise of Kattabomman and his fight against the British.
4. The second rebellion led by the Marudu Brothers.
In Tamil Nadu, as in other parts of India, the earliest expressions of

opposition to British rule took the form of localized rebellions and uprisings. Chief
among these was the revolt of the Palayakkarars (Poligars) against the East India
Company.
The Palayakkarar system had evolved with the extension of Vijayanagar

rule into Tamil Nadu. Each Palayakkarar was the holder of a territory or Palayam
(usually consisting of a few villages), granted to him in return for military service and
tribute. In most cases, the Palayakkarars gave little attention to perform their duties
and were interested in increasing their own powers. With their numerical strength,
extensive resources, local influence and independent attitude, the Palayakkarars
came to constitute a powerful force in the political system of south India. They
regarded themselves as independent, sovereign authorities within their respective
Palayams, arguing that their lands had been handed down to them across a span of
sixty generations. Such claims were brushed aside by the East India Company.
Puli Thevar
Among the Palayakkarars, there were two blocs, namely the Western and the
Eastern blocs. The Western bloc had Marava Palayakkarars and the Eastern bloc
had Telugu Palayakkarars. Puli Thevar of Nerkkattumseval headed the former and
Kattabomman of Panchalamkuruchi led the latter. These two Palayakkarars refused
to pay the kist (tribute) to the Nawab and rebelled.
Many of the neighbouring Palayakkarars put up certain pretexts and did not
pay the tribute. Mahfuz Khan, with the assistance of the British army under Col.
Heron undertook an expedition to suppress the revolt in March 1755. Puli Thevar
and the Marava Palayakkarars of the Western bloc stood firm against the British.
Col. Heron decided to deal with the Maravas firmly.
59

Col. Heron tried to change the mind of Puli Thevar by diplomatic moves and
by show of force. But he failed in his attempts. PuliThevar proceeded to consolidate
his position by organising the Marava Palayakkarars of the West into a strong
confederacy. He also attempted to get the support of Haider Ali of Mysore and
the French against the British. The British approached Ramnad, Pudukottai and
the Dutch for help. Haider Ali couldn’t help Puli Thevar due to a Mysore- Maratha
struggle. Yusuf Khan (Khan Sahib) was entrusted by the British with the duty of
tackling Puli Thevar and his allies.
Puli Thevar attacked Madurai and captured it from Mahfuz Khan. Puli
Thevar’s military success had no parallel. The native ruler triumphed against the
British. It is a clear demonstration of the Marava might and the heroism of the
patriots. But Yusuf Khan recaptured Madurai. With the help of the Palayakkarars
of the Eastern bloc and the king of Travancore, Yusuf Khan had many victories.
After fierce battles, Nerkkattumseval was attacked in 1759. In 1767, this city was
captured by Col. Campbell. Puli Thevar escaped and died in exile without finally
fulfilling his purpose of checking the growth of the British influence. Although his
attempt ended in failure, he leaves a valiant trail of a struggle for independence in
the history of South India.
Vira Pandya Kattabomman
Vira Pandya Kattabomman became the Palayakkarar of Panchalamkuruchi at

the age of thirty on the death of his father, Jagavira Pandya
Kattabomman. Yet, several events led to the conflict
between Kattabomman and East India Company. During
this period the collection of tribute served as a cause of
friction. The Nawab of Arcot who had this right surrendered
it to the English under the provisions of the Karnatac Treaty
of 1792. Therefore, the chief of Panchalamkuruchi,
Kattabomman had to pay tribute to the English. In
September 1798, the tribute from Kattabomman fell into
arrears.
K Collector Jackson in his characteristic arrogance

attabomman
and rashness wrote letters to Kattabomman in a threatening language. There is
a tradition to indicate that Kattabomman declared : “ It rains, the land yields, why
should we pay tax to the English?” By the 31 May 1789, the total arrears of tribute
from Kattabomman amounted to 3310 pagodas. Though Jackson wanted to send an
army against Kattabomman, the Madras Government did not give permission.
Hence, on the 18 August 1798 Jackson sent an order to Kattabomman to

meet him at Ramanathapuram within two weeks. In the meantime, Kattabomman
went with arrears of tribute to meet Jackson. Kattabomman was humiliated twice
by Jackson when the former wanted to meet him at Tirukuttalam and Srivilliputttur.
60

But he was told that he could meet the collector only at Ramanathapuram. Despite
this humiliation, Kattabomman followed Jackson for twenty three days in a journey
of 400 miles through the latter’s route and reached Ramanathapuram on the 19
September.
An interview was granted by Jackson and Kattabomman cleared most of the

arrears leaving only 1090 pagodas as balance. During this interview Kattabomman
and his Minister, Sivasubramania Pillai, had to stand before the arrogant collector
for three hours together. Still he did not permit them to leave the place, but directed
them to stay inside the fort. Kattabomman suspected the intensions of Jackson.
Hence, he tried to escape with his minister and brother Oomathurai. At the gate of
the fort there followed a clash, in which some people including Lieutenant Clarke
were killed. Sivasubramania Pillai was taken prisoner. But Kattabomman escaped.
After his return to Panchalamkuruchi, Kattabomman appealed to the Madras

Council submitting the facts. The Madras Government directed Kattabomman to
appear before a Committee. Meanwhile, the government released Sivasubramania
Pillai and suspended the Collector, Jackson. He appeared before the Committee,
with William Brown, William Oram and John Casmayor as members. The Committee
found Kattabomman not guilty. S. R. Lushington was now appointed Collector in the
place of Jackson, latter was eventually dismissed from service.
League of the Palayakkarars
Thus the English removed the source of grievance to Kattabomman. Yet,

the humiliation suffered by Kattabomman affected his self-respect. During this time,
Marudu Pandyan of Sivaganga organized the South Indian Confederacy of rebels
against the British. The Tiruchirappalli Proclamation was made. He sent missions
Panchalamkuruchi. Thus a close association between Kattabomman and Marudu
Pandyan established. The events now moved to a crisis. In August 1798 the son
of the Palayakkarar of Sivagiri and his adviser visited Panchalamkuruchi and held
consultations. Kattabomman decided to establish his influence in Sivagiri with the
aid of the son of the Palayakkarar. As the Palayakkarar of Sivagiri was a tributary to
the Company, the Madras Council considered this move as a challenge to its own
authority and ordered war against Kattabomman.
Expedition to Panchalamkuruchi
In May 1799, Lord Wellesley issued orders from Madras for the advance of
forces from Tiruchirappalli, Thanjavur and Madurai to Tirunelveli. Major Bannerman,
armed with extensive powers, assumed the command of the expedition. On
the 1 September, 1799 the Major served an ultimatum directing Kattabomman to
surrender and attend on him at Palayamkottai on the 4th. Kattabomman replied that
he would submit on a lucky day.
61

Bannerman considered this reply as evasive and decided on military action.

On 5 September Kattabomman’s fort was attacked. On the 16th reinforcements
reached from Palayamkottai. In a clash at Kolarpatti the Palayakkarar troops
suffered heavy casualty and Sivasubramania Pillai was taken prisoner.
Kattabomman escaped to Pudukkottai. The ruler of Pudukkottai captured
Kattabomman from the jungles of Kalapore and handed him over to the British.
Fall of Kattabomman
Bannerman brought the prisoners to an assembly of the Palayakkarars

and after a mockery of trial sentenced them to death. Sivasubramania
Pillai was executed at Nagalapuram on the 13th of September. On the 16th of
October Vira Pandyan was tried before an assembly of Palayakkarars, summoned
at Kayattar. Thereupon, Bennerman announced death penalty. On the 16th of
October Kattabomman was hanged to death at a conspicuous spot near the old fort
of Kayattar. Vira Pandyan faced the last moments of his life with the pride of a hero.
Marudu Brothers
Despite the exemplary repression of Palayakkarars in 1799, rebellion broke

out again in 1800, this time in a more cohesive and united manner. Although the
1800-1801 rebellion was to be categorized in the British records as the Second
Palayakkarar War, it assumed a much broader character than its predecessor. It
was directed by a confederacy consisting of Marudu Pandian of Sivaganga, Gopala
Nayak of Dindugal, Kerala Verma of Malabar and Krishnappa Nayak and Dhoondaji
of Mysore.
The insurrection, which broke out in Coimbatore in June 1800, soon spread
to Ramanathapuram and Madurai. By May 1801, it had reached the northern
provinces, where Marudu Pandian and Melappan provided the leadership.
Oomathurai, the brother of Kattabomman emerged as a key leader. In February
1801, Oomathurai and two hundred men by a cleverly move took control of
Panchalamkuruchi Fort.
The fort now re-occupied and reconstructed by rebel forces,

Panchalamkuruchi became the centre of the uprising. Three thousand armed men
of Madurai and Ramanathapuram, despatched by Marudu Pandian, joined up with
the Panchalamkuruchi forces. However, British forces quickly asserted itself. The
Palayakkarar forces based at Panchalamkuruchi were crushed. By the orders of the
government, the site of the captured fort was ploughed up and sowed with castor oil
and salt so that it should never again be inhabited.
The British forces quickly overpowered the remaining insurgents. The

Marudu brothers and their sons were put to death. Oomathurai and Sevatiah were
beheaded at Panchalamkuruchi on 16 November, 1801. Seventy-three of the
principal rebels were sentenced to transportation. So savage and extensive was the
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death and destruction wrought by the English that the entire region was left in a
state of terror.
The suppression of the Palayakkarar rebellions of 1799 and 1800-1801

resulted in the liquidation of the influence of the chieftains. Under the terms of the
Karnatac Treaty (31 July, 1801), the British assumed direct control over Tamil Nadu.
The Palayakkararr system came to a violent end and the Company introduced the
Zamindari settlement in its place.
Learning Outcome
After studying this lesson the student is able to explain
1. The functioning of Palayakkarar system in Tamil Nadu.
2. Their relations with the British as tributaries.
3. The rise and fall of Puli Thevar against the British dominance.
4. Vira Pandya Kattabomman and the valiant struggle against the

British arrogance.
5. The Rebellion led by Marudu Brothers and their failure against the
mighty British.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Nerkattumseval was captured by
(a) Col. Heron (b) Col. Campbell
(c) Colin Jackson (d) Puli Thevar
2. Collector Jackson sent an order to Kattabomman to meet him at

(a) Madurai (b) Panchalamkurichi
(c) Ramanathapuram (d) Srivilliputtur
1. Virpandiya Kattabomman was the son of ________

2. Kattabomman was hanged to death at ________
3. The expedition to Panchalamkurichi was commanded by ________
63

1. Marudu Pandiyan a. Nerkattumseval
2.
Gopal Nayak b. Mysore
3.
Kerala Varma c. Malabar
4. Krishnappa Nayak d. Dindigal
5.
Puli Thevar e. Sivaganga
a) The Palayakkarars constitute a powerful force in the political system of North

India.
b) Yusuf Khan was also known as Khan Sahib.
c) Sivasubramania Pillai was the minister of Marupandiyan.
d) The South Indian confederacy was organized under the leadership of

Oomaithirai.
1. The Palayakkarar system had evolved with the extension of Vijayanagar rule
into Tamil Nadu.
2. The Palayakkarar of Sivagiri was a tributary to the Company.
3. Oomathurai and Sevatiah were beheaded at Madurai.
1. Puli Thevar
2. Palayakkarar system
3. Bannerman
1. Write a note on South Indian Rebellion of 1801.
1. Estimate the valiant struggle of Kattabomman against the British.
64

LESSON 10
VELLORE MUTINY
Learning Objectives
1. The Causes for the Vellore Mutiny.
2. The objectives of this Mutiny.
3. The suppression of the Mutiny.
4. The nature of this anti-British uprising.
Vellore was the capital of erstwhile North Arcot district in Tamil Nadu. At
present, this district is named after its capital Vellore. It is a well fortified and
beautiful city.
Vellore Fort
With the expansion of the East India Company’s rule in India, the native
rulers and their dependents suffered. The native rulers either submitted or rebelled.
These rebellions had no clear vision or ideal but purely motivated by the territorial
interest of the native rulers and their ambition to preserve the old feudal order. The
heroism and sacrifice of individuals like Puli Thevar, Kattabomman and Marudu
Brothers had no parallel. But all these leaders never organised the common
people for a unified and meaningful cause. The ideas of nationalism, political
consciousness and organized struggle came much later.
In Vellore the native sepoys rose in revolt in 1806.This incident differs from
other previous rebellions in. The earlier rebellions were those of the native rulers.
The Vellore Mutiny was organized by the sepoys. The earlier rebellions had only a
regional interest. Every prince wanted to safeguard his own kingdom at any cost.
65

But Vellore Mutiny was the result of spontaneous outflow of the feelings of the
sepoys who served under the Company. It was a protest by the sepoys against the
Company. This protest showed the future possibilities.
Causes
Several causes are attributed to the Vellore Mutiny. Indian sepoys had to
experience numerous difficulties when they went to serve in the Company’s army.
The sepoys were forced to serve under the Company since their earlier
patrons (the native chieftains) were all disappearing from the scene. The strict
discipline, practice, new weapons, new methods and uniforms were all new to the
sepoys. Anything new appears to be difficult and wrong for a man who is well-settled
in the old way of life for a long-time.
Sir John Cradock, the commander-in-chief, with the -approval of Lord-

William Bentinck, the Governor of Madras, introduced a new from of turban,
resembling a European hat. Wearing ear rings and caste marks were also
prohibited.
The sepoys were asked to shave the chin and to trim the moustache. The
sepoys felt that these were designed to insult them and their religious and social
traditions. There was also a popular belief that this was the beginning of a process
by which all of them would be converted to Christianity.
The English treated the Indian sepoys as their inferior. There was the racial
prejudice. This was the psychological base for the sepoy mutinies in India during the
Company’s rule.
The sepoys once served the local chieftains (either Hindu or Muslim). The
chieftains were their own kinsmen but now they served under the foreigners. They
can never forget their original loyalties.
The Vellore uprising was preceded by a series of protests by the Indian

troops. In May 1806, the 4th Regiment rose in revolt against the new turban. The
Commander-in-Chief took severe action the sepoys who were found guilty were
punished with 500 to 900 lashes. Before the mutiny secret associations were formed
and meetings held in which Tipu’s family took part.
On June 17th 1806 a sepoy of the 1st Regiment named Mustapha Beg,
secretly informed his commanding officer, Colonel Forbes, that a plot had been
planned for the extermination of the European officers and troops. But this was not
taken seriously .
On the eve of the Mutiny at Vellore Fettah Hyder, the first son of Tipu, tried
to form an alliance against the English and sought the help of the Marathas and the
French.
66

Fettah Hyder received secret information through one Mohommed Malick.

Besides, princes Fettah Hyder and Moiz-ud-Deen in particular were active in
planning the execution of the Mutiny.
Thus, there was the desire to revive the old Muslim rule in this region. The
sepoys were aware of the tragic end of Puli Thevar, Khan Sahib, Kattabomman,
Marudu Brothers, Tipu Sultan and others. Hence there were ill-feelings about the
British in the minds of the sepoys. All these led to the rebellion.
Course of the Mutiny
On July 10th in the early morning the native sepoys of the 1st and 23rd
Regiments started the revolt . Colonel Fancourt, who commanded the garrison,
was their first victim. Colonel Me Kerras of the 23rd Regiment, was shot down on the
parade-ground. Major Armstrong was the next officer to be killed during the mutiny.
About a dozen other officers were also killed.
Major Cootes who was outside the fort dashed to Ranipet, 14 miles away,
and informed Colonel Gillespie at 7 am . Col. Gillespie reached the Vellore fort at 9
A.M.
Meantime, the rebels proclaimed Futteh Hyder, Tipu’s first son, as their
new ruler and hoisted tiger-striped flag of Tipu Sultan. But the uprising was swiftly
crushed by Col. Gillespie. 800 Indian soldiers were found dead in the fort alone. Six
hundred soldiers were imprisoned in Tiruchi and Vellore. Some rebels were hung,
some shot dead. The uprising was thus brought to a bloody end. Tipu’s son was
sent to Calcutta. The commander-in-chief and the governor were recalled.
Vellore Mutiny failed. There was no proper leadership. The rebellion was
also not well organized. But it is the starting point of a new era of the resistance of
the sepoys to the British rule. The 18th century was marked by the resistance of the
local chieftains. The first six decades of 19th century was marked by the resistance of
sepoys.
K.K. Pillai rejects the thesis that Vellore Mutiny led to the 1857 revolt. V.D.
Savarkar calls the Vellore Mutiny of 1806 as the prelude to the first War of Indian
Independence in 1857. N. Sanjivi proclaims that the Tamils had taken the real
lead in the Indian freedom struggle. K. Rajayyan argues that this mutiny was a
continuation of the Marudu Brothers’ resistance movement against the colonial rule.
67

Learning Outcome
1. The multiple causes that led to this outbreak of Vellore sepoy

Mutiny.
2. The grievances of the sepoys such as new rules and customs

implemented by the British in the army.
3. The suppression of the revolt.
4. The nature of this anti-British rebellion.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Which among the following was one of the causes for the Vellore Mutiny?
(a) Doctrine of lapse
(b) Collection of Tributes
(c) Introduction of new army regulations
(d) Economic exploitation of the British rule.

1. The Commander-in-Chief of the Vellore Fort was ——————
2. ——— who was outside the fort dashed to Ranipet to seek help
1. Fettah Hyder a. Governor of Madras
2. Colonel Fancourt b. suppressed the mutiny
3. William Bentinck c. Tipu’s son
4. Col. Gillespie b. killed in the mutiny
a) New army regulations were mainly responsible for the Vellore Mutiny.
b) Tipu’s family were not kept in the Vellore fort.

c) French help was not sought by Tipu’s son.
d) After the mutiny Tipu’s sons were sent to Penang.

68

V. State whether the following statements are True or False
1. Mustapha Beg Indian sepoy forewarned about the Vellore Mutiny.
2. No British army officer was killed during the Vellore Mutiny.
1. Sir John Cradock
2. Col. Gillespie
VII. Answer briefly ( 100 words)
1. Explain the Course of the Vellore Mutiny.
1. Examine the causes for the outbreak of Vellore Mutiny of 1806.
69

LESSON 11
THE GREAT REVOLT OF 1857
Learning Objectives
1. The nature of the Great Revolt of 1857.
2. The underlying causes of the Revolt.
3. The immediate cause of the outbreak of Revolt..
4. The course of the Revolt.
5. Causes for the failure of the Revolt.
6. Effects of the Revolt.
The 1857 Revolt sowed the seeds of Indian nationalism, which lay dormant
in the subconscious of the Indian people. It started the movement which was a
continuous struggle against the British rule till 1947. Hence, the nature, character
and causes of this Great Revolt of 1857 should be studied in order to understand
the subsequent events.
Nature of the Revolt
The historical writings of the British scholars underplayed the character of the
Revolt of 1857. Sir John Lawrence was of the opinion that the Revolt was purely a
military outbreak, and not a conspiracy to overthrow British rule. On the other hand
the Revolt of 1857 is hailed by the Indian scholars, especially by Vir Savarkar as the
First War of Indian Independence.
Two distinguished Indian historians, R.C. Majumdar and S.N. Sen, have
analysed the Revolt of 1857 in depth. The two scholars differ in their opinion. S.N.
Sen believes that the 1857 Revolt was part of the struggle for Indian independence.
R.C. Majumdar maintains that the outbreaks before 1857, whether civil or military,
were “a series of isolated incidents” ultimately culminated in the Great Revolt of
1857.
Causes of the Revolt
Political Causes
The discontent and disaffection manifested in the form of revolts against

the British Government were not confined to the ruling chiefs and royal families
70

alone. On the contrary, the British rule was disliked by the people at large in any
region when it was newly introduced. Anti-British feelings were particularly strong in
those regions like Burma, Assam, Coorg, Sind, and the Punjab which were unjustly
annexed to the British Empire. The Doctrine of Lapse, particularly its practical
application by Lord Dalhousie, produced grave discontent and alarm among the
native princes, who were directly affected.
Economic Causes
The huge drain of wealth, the destruction of its industry and increasing
land revenue had become the common features of the latter half of the eighteenth
century. The East India Company, after attaining political power, used it to fund the
growth of British trade and commerce at the cost of Indians. The British damaged
the Indian trade and manufacture by imposing a high tariff in Britain against Indian
goods, and by encouraging all means the import of British goods to India. In
England the ruin of the old handloom weavers was accompanied by the growth of
the machine industry. But in India the ruin of the millions of artisans and craftsmen
was not accompanied by any alternative growth of new industrial forms.
A new plantation system introduced in the year 1833 resulted in incalculable

misery for the Indian peasants. This was the result of permitting Englishmen to
acquire land plantations in India. The hard hit were the peasants on the indigo
plantations in Bengal and Bihar.
Social Causes
The Englishmen showed an arrogant attitude towards the Indians.

Indiscriminate assaults on Indians by Englishmen became quite common. Also, a
general alarm was raised among the Hindus and Muslims by the activities of the
Christian missionaries. The educational institutions established by the missionaries
inculcated western education and culture in the place of oriental learning. The native
population felt that were losing their social identity.
Military causes
Discontent against the British Raj was widely prevalent among the Indian
soldiers in the British army. The Indian sepoys in the British Indian army nursed a
sense of strong resentment at their low salary and poor prospects of promotion.
The British military officers at times showed least respect to the social values and
religious sentiments of Indian sepoys in the army. Thus, although generally faithful
to their masters, the sepoys were provoked to revolt. The Vellore mutiny of 1806, a
precursor to the 1857 Great Revolt, was the outcome of such tendencies on the part
of the military authorities.
Another important cause of the sepoys’ dissatisfaction was the order that
abolished the foreign allowance or batta when they served in foreign territories.
71

Thus the discontent was widespread and there was an undercurrent before the
volcanic situation of 1857. All that needed was only a spark to set it a fire.
The Beginning of the Revolt
The 1857 Revolt was sparked off by the episode of the greased cartridges.
The new Enfield rifle had been introduced for the first time in the Indian army. Its
cartridges had a greased paper cover whose end had to be bitten off before the
cartridge was loaded into the rifle. The grease was composed of fat taken from
beef and pig. The religious feelings of the Hindu and Muslim sepoys were terribly
wounded. The sepoys believed that the government was deliberately trying to
destroy their religious and cultural identity. Hence they raised the banner of revolt.
The events that led to the Revolt began on 29 March 1857 at Barrackpore.
Mangal Pandey (a sepoy) refused to use the greased cartridges and single-
handedly attacked and killed his officer. Mangal Pandey was hanged. The regiment
to which he belonged was disbanded and sepoys guilty of rebellion punished.
The British instead of diffusing the explosive situation, paved the way for
a mighty crisis by the above act. A chain reaction was set in motion. At Meerut in
May 1857, 85 sepoys of the 3rd Cavalry regiment were sentenced to long terms
of imprisonment for refusing to use the greased catridges. Therefore, on 10 May
the sepoys broke out in open rebellion, shot their officers, released their fellow
sepoys and headed towards Delhi. General Hewitt, the officer
commanding at Meerut was helpless to prevent the army’s
march.
Next morning the rebellious army reached Delhi. The city

of Delhi fell into the hands of the rebellious soldiers on 12 May
1857. Lieutenant Willtashby, the officer in charge of Delhi could
not prevent the mutineers. Soon, the mutineers proclaimed the
Bahadur Shah II aged nominal king, Bahadur Shah II of the Mughal dynasty as
the Emperor of India. Very soon the rebellion spread throughout
northern and central India at Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur, Banares, in parts of
Bihar, Jhansi and other places.
Delhi
The leadership at Delhi was nominally in the hands of Bahadur Shah, but the
real control was exercised by General Bakht Khan. On the side of the British the
combined effort of Nicholson, Wilson, Baird Smith and Neville Chamberlain enabled
the recapture Delhi by September 1857. In Delhi, Emperor Bahadur Shah II was
arrested and deported to Rangoon, where he remained in exile till he died in 1862.
72

Kanpur
At Kanpur the revolt was led by Nana Saheb,

the adopted son of Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa.
Nana Saheb expelled the English from Kanpur
with the help of the sepoys and proclaimed himself
the Peshwa. Nana Saheb in his efforts against Tantia Tope
Nana S
the British was ably supported by two of his
aheb
lieutenants. One was Tantia Tope, the other was Azimullah. Sir Hugh Wheeler
the commander of the British garrison at Kanpur surrendered on the 27 June 1857.
But, soon Kanpur was recaptured by the British commander Sir Colin Campbell.
Lucknow
The principal person responsible for the revolt in Lucknow

was the Begum of Oudh. With the assistance of the sepoys, the
zamindars and peasants, the Begum organised an all out attack
on the British. Henry Lawrence, the chief commissioner tried to
defend the British. Lawrence was killed in a bomb blast during the
fight. The final relief for the British forces in Lucknow came in the
Begum Of O form of Sir Colin Campbell, who suppressed the revolt.
udh
Jhansi
Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, the widowed queen of

Gangadhar Rao played a heroic role in this revolt. Rani Lakshmi
Bai was affected by Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse, was joined
by Tantia Tope. The combined efforts of Rani and Tantia Tope
saw the capture of Gwalior. Meanwhile, Sir Hugh Rose defeated
Tantia Tope and stormed Jhansi on 3 April 1858. He then Rani Lakshmi B ai
captured Gwalior. The Rani of Jhansi died a soldier’s death on
17 June 1858. Tantia Tope was captured and hanged on charges of rebellion and
murder in the massacre of Kanpur.
Bihar
Kunwar Singh, a ruined and discontented zamindar of Jagdishpur near Oudh,

was the chief organiser of the revolt in Bihar. He fought the British in Bihar. Kunwar
Singh sustained a fatal wound in the battle and died on 27 April 1858 at Jagdishpur.
Ultimately the 1857 Revolt came to an end with the victory of the British.
Viceroy Canning proclaimed peace throughout India.
Causes for the Failure of the Revolt
The first and foremost cause was that the Revolt failed to embrace the whole
of India. Different sections of society such as moneylenders, merchants and modern
73

educated Indians were actually against the Revolt. The lack of interest shown by
the intellectuals in the movement was a serious setback. The resources of the
British Empire were far superior to those of the rebels. Similarly, the insurgents
lacked a carefully concerted general plan or a strong central organisation to plan the
movements of the army and oversee their strategy.
On the other hand, the British possessed better equipment. In addition, the
British were aided by new scientific inventions such as the telegraph system and
postal communications. This enabled the British to keep in touch with all parts of the
country and to manoeuvre their troops according to their needs.
All the said factors combined to cause the defeat of the rebels of the 1857
Revolt and ended in the victory for the British.
Significance and Effects of the Mutiny
The Revolt of 1857 though completely suppressed had shaken the very
foundations of British rule in India, for the simple reason that the Revolt exhibited
the popular character. It brought together the disgruntled sections of society to
rise against the British rule. The common people rose up in arms often fighting
with spears and axes, bows and arrows, lathis and scythes, and crude mulkets.
However, this civilian revolt was not universal but sporadic and inconsistent.
Nevertheless, it added a new dimension to the character of the 1857 Revolt.
Another significant aspect of the 1857 Revolt was the Hindu-Muslim unity.
As far as the effects of the Revolt are concerned, it brought about

fundamental changes in the character of Indian administration which was
transferred from the East India Company to the Crown by the Queen’s Proclamation
of 1 November, 1858. At the same time the Governor-General received the new
title of Viceroy. Lord Canning had the unique opportunity to become the Governor-
General as well as the first Viceroy according to the Act of 1858.
Lord Canning proclaimed the new Government at Allahabad on 1 November

1858 in accordance with the Queen’s Proclamation. The latter has been called the
Magna Carta of the Indian people; it disclaimed any extension of territory, promised
religious toleration, guaranteed the rights of Indian princes and pledged equal
treatment to her subjects, Indians and Europeans.
The Revolt of 1857 ended an era and sowed the seeds of a new one. The
year 1857 is a great divide between the two landmarks in Indian history. One was
that of British paramountcy in the first half, and the other is that of the growth of
Indian nationalism in the second half of the nineteenth century.
74

75

Learning Outcome
After studying this lesson the student has understood that
1. There are two views on the nature of the Great Revolt of 1857.
2. The fundamental causes are varied such as political, economic,

social and military.
3. The immediate cause was the personal grievance of the sepoys.
4. The course of Revolt – not universal but sporadic with scattered

civilian participation.
5. The British with their superior strength suppressed the Revolt.
6. The suppression of the Revolt has revealed the weaknesses of the

Indian sepoys and leaders of the Revolt.
7. The Results and the importance of the Revolt of 1857.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Who among the following considered the Revolt of 1857 as the First War of
Indian Independence?
(a) Sir John Lawrence (b) Vir Savarkar

(c) S.N. Sen (d) R.C. Majumdar
2. Which of the following incident sparked off the Revolt of 1857?
(a) Exploitation of the Indian economy by the British.
(b) The Doctrine of Lapse followed by Dalhousie.
(c) Activities of the Christian Missionaries.
(d) The episode of greased cartridges.
1. The sepoy who refused to use the greased cartridge at Barrackpore was
________
2. The Queen’s Proclamation was read by Lord Canning at ________
76

1.
Bahdur Shah a. Kanpur
2.
Nana Sahib b. Jhansi
3. Begums of Oudh c. Bihar
4.
Lakshmi Bai d. Delhi
5. Kanwar Singh e. Lucknow
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is correct.
a) Bahadhur Shah II was proclaimed as the emperor of India during the revolt of
1857.
b) Kanpur was recaptured by the British commander Johnson.
c) Rani Lakshmi Bai was hanged on the charges of rebellion.
d) Tantia Tope was one of the lieutenants of the Begums of Oudh.
1. Emperor Bahadhur Shah was arrested and deported to Rangoon.
2. The Vellore Mutiny of 1806 is considered as the precursor of the 1857 Revolt.
3. The Revolt of 1857 led to the division between the Hindus and Muslims.
1. Greased Cartridges.
2. Nana Sahib.
3. Rani Lakshmi Bai.
4. Causes for the failure of the Revolt of 1857.
1. Write a note on the nature of the Revolt of 1857.
2. Analyse the results of the Great Revolt of 1857.
1. Examine the causes for the Revolt of 1857.
2. Trace the course of the Revolt of 1857.
77

LESSON 12
BRITISH INDIA AFTER 1858:
LORD LYTTON (1876-1880), LORD RIPON (1880-1884)
AND LORD CURZON (1899-1905)
Learning Objectives
1. Lord Lytton’s policies on famine, the Indian Press and trade.
2. Second Afghan War.
3. Lord Ripon’s reforms in the field of education and Local- Self

Government.
4. The Ilbert Bill controversy and Ripon’s attitude towards Indians.
5. Lord Curzon’s reforms and the Partition of Bengal.
After the 1857 Revolt, the responsibility of ruling India was

directly assumed by the British Crown. Lord Canning became the
first Viceroy of India in 1858. The Government of India Act of 1858
and the Queen’s Proclamation in the same year signify this change
in the Indian administration. The Queen’s Proclamation remained
the basis of the British policy in India for more than 60 years. The
administrations of Lord Lytton, Lord Ripon and Lord Curzon were
QUEEN VICTORIA
important during this period.
Lord Lytton (1876-1880)
Lord Lytton was an experienced diplomat and a man of

striking ability and brilliance. The British Prime Minister, Disraeli
appointed him as the Viceroy of India. The prevailing famine and the Lord L
ytton
political disturbances in the North West Frontier caused a great worry
to the British at that time.
Famine Policy
The famine of 1876-78 had resulted from the failure of two monsoons.
It covered an area of two lakh fifty thousand square miles and affected fifty eight
million people. The worst affected areas were Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad,
Bombay, Central India and the Punjab. It took a toll of five million lives in a single
year. The outbreak of cholera and fever added to the misery of the suffering
78

population. Lytton’s Government failed miserably to tackle the situation. The

government’s relief measures seemed to be inadequate. The first Famine
Commission (1878-80) under Sir Richard Strachey was appointed and it made
many commendable recommendations. They include provision of funds for famine
relief and construction work in the annual budget. The Famine Code came into
existence in 1883.
The Vernacular Press Act and the Arms Act (1878)
In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed. This Act empowered
a Magistrate to secure an undertaking from the editor, publisher and printer of
a vernacular newspaper that nothing would be published against the English
Government. The equipment of the press could be seized if the offence was
committed. This Act crushed the freedom of the Indian press. This created adverse
public opinion against the British Government. In the same year, the Arms Act was
passed. This Act prevented the Indians to keep arms without appropriate license. Its
violation would be a criminal offence. The Europeans and the Anglo- Indians were
exempted from the operation of these legislations.
Other Reforms
Lord Lytton introduced uniform salt tax throughout British India. He also
abolished many import duties and supported the Free Trade Policy. This had
seriously affected the Indian economic interest. The system of decentralisation of
finance that had begun in the time of Lord Mayo was continued during the time of
Lord Lytton. The provincial governments were empowered with some control over
the expenditure of all provincial matters like land-revenue, excise, stamps, law
and justice. Lytton wanted to encourage the provinces in collecting the revenue
and thereby strengthen the financial power and position of the provinces. In 1878,
the Statutory Civil Service was established exclusively for Indians but this was
abolished later.
Lytton and the Second Afghan War (1878-80)
The Afghan policy of the British was based on the assumed threat of Russian
invasion of India. The first Afghan War (1838-42) proved to be a disastrous one for
the British in India. When Lord Lytton was appointed the Viceroy of India, he was
instructed by the home government to follow a forward policy. The Russian attempt
to send a mission to Afghanistan was the main cause of the Second Afghan War.
Soon after the outbreak of the war in 1878, the British troops captured the
territory between Kabul and Kandahar. The ruler of Afghanistan, Sher Ali fled from
his country and died in 1879. His son Yakub Khan became the ruler and the British
concluded the Treaty of Gandamak with him. A British Resident was sent to Kabul
but soon he was murdered along with other British officers by the Afghan rebels.
Although the British troops were able to recapture Kabul, the difficulties in holding it
79

increased due to the activities of the rebels. Suddenly in 1780, Lytton was forced to
resign by the new government in England.
Lytton’s Afghan policy was severely crticised because he was responsible

for the murder of the British officers including the Resident in Kabul. During his
administration, millions died due to famine. The Vernacular Press Act undermined
his credit.
Lord Ripon (1880-84)
Lord Ripon was a staunch Liberal democrat with faith in

self- government. He was appointed as the Viceroy of India by
Gladstone, the Liberal Party Prime Minister of England. Ripon
was instructed to reverse the Afghan policy of Lytton. Therefore,
as soon as he came to India, peace was made with Afghanistan LORD RIPON
without affecting the British prestige. The proposal of appointing a Resident in Kabul
was dropped. He was also responsible for the rendition of Mysore to its Hindu ruler.
Moreover, he repealed the Vernacular Press Act and earned much popularity among
Indians. Then, he devoted himself to task of liberalising the Indian administration.
Introduction of Local Self-Government (1882)
Ripon believed that self-government is the highest and noblest principles

of politics. Therefore, Ripon helped the growth of local bodies like the Municipal
Committees in towns and the local boards in taluks and villages. The powers of
municipalities were increased. Their chairmen were to be non-officials. They were
entrusted the care of local amenities, sanitation, drainage and water-supply and also
primary education. District and taluk boards were created. It was insisted that the
majority of the members of these boards should be elected non-officials. The local
bodies were given executive powers with financial resources of their own. It was
perhaps the desire of Ripon that power in India should be gradually transferred to
the educated Indians. He also insisted on the election of local bodies as against
selection by the government. In all these measures, Ripon’s concern was not so
much for efficiency in administration. Instead, Ripon diffused the administration
and brought the government closer to the people. This was his most important
achievement. It was Ripon who laid the foundations of the system which functions
today.
Educational Reforms
Like Lord William Bentinck, Lord Ripon was a champion of education of

the Indians. Ripon wanted to review the working of the educational system on the
basis of the recommendations of the Wood’s Despatch. For further improvement
of the system Ripon appointed a Commission in 1882 under the chairmanship of
Sir William Hunter. The Commission came to be known as the Hunter Commission.
The Commission recommended for the expansion and improvement of the
80

elementary education of the masses. The Commission suggested two channels

for the secondary education-one was literary education leading up to the Entrance
Examination of the university and the other preparing the students for a vocational
career. The Commission noted the poor status of women education. It encouraged
the local bodies in the villages and towns to manage the elementary education. This
had resulted in the extraordinary rise in the number of educational institutions in
India.
First Factory Act (1881)
Lord Ripon introduced the Factory Act of 1881 to improve the service
condition of the factory workers in India. The Act banned the appointment of children
below the age of seven in factories. It reduced the working hours for children. It
made compulsory for all dangerous machines in the factories to be properly fenced
to ensure security to the workers.
Ilbert Bill Agitation (1884)
Lord Ripon wanted to remove two kinds of law that had been prevalent in
India. According to the system of law, a European could be tried only by a European
Judge or a European Magistrate. The disqualification was unjust and it was
sought to cast a needless discredit and dishonour upon the Indian-born members
of the judiciary. C.P.Ilbert, Law Member, introduced a bill in 1883 to abolish this
discrimination in judiciary. But Europeans opposed this Bill strongly. They even
raised a fund of one lakh fifty thousand rupees and established an organisation
called the Defence Association. They also suggested that it was better to end the
English rule in India than to allow the English to be subjected to the Indian Judges
and Magistrates. The press in England joined the issue. Hence, Ripon amended the
bill to satisfy the English in India and England.
The Ilbert Bill controversy helped the cause of Indian nationalism. The Ilbert
Bill Controversy is a high watermark in the history of Indian National Movement.
Ripon was totally disillusioned and heartbroken and he tendered his resignation and
left for England. The immediate result of this awakening of India was the birth of the
Indian National Congress in 1885, the very next year of Ripon’s departure.
Estimate of Lord Ripon
Lord Ripon was the most popular Viceroy that England ever sent to India.
The Indians by and large hailed him as “Ripon the Good”, because he was the
only Viceroy who handled the Indian problems with compassion and sympathy. His
attempt to remove racial distinction in the judiciary, the repeal of the Vernacular
Press Act, the rendition of Mysore and the introduction of the Local-Self Government
increased his popularity among Indians. His resignation was deeply regretted by
Indians who cherished his memory with gratitude.
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Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
Lord Curzon occupies a high place among the rulers of

British India like Lord Wellesley and Lord Dalhousie. He was
a thorough imperialist. In order to make the administration
efficient, Lord Curzon overhauled the entire administrative
machinery. His internal administration may be studied under the
following heads.
Lord C
Educational Reforms
urzon
Curzon took a serious view of the fall in the standard of education and
discipline in the educational institutions. In his view the universities had degenerated
into factories for producing political revolutionaries. To set the educational system
in order, he instituted in 1902, a Universities Commission to go into the entire
question of university education in the country. On the basis of the findings and
recommendations of the Commission, Curzon brought in the Indian Universities
Act of 1904, which brought all the universities in India under the control of the
government.
Police and Military Reforms
Curzon believed in efficiency and discipline. He instituted a Police

Commission in 1902 under the chairmanship of Sir Andrew Frazer. Curzon
accepted all the recommendations and implemented them. He set up training
schools for both the officers and the constables and introduced provincial police
service. As for the remodeling of the army, it was by and large done by Lord
Kitchener, the Commander-in-Chief in India in Curzon’s time.
Calcutta Corporation Act (1899)
The Viceroy brought in a new legislative measure namely the Calcutta

Corporation Act in 1899 by which the strength of the elected members was reduced
and that of the official members increased. Curzon gave more representations to the
English people as against the Indians in the Calcutta Corporation. There was strong
resentment by the Indian members against Curzon’s anti-people measures.
Preservation of Archaeological objects
Curzon had a passion for preserving the ancient monuments of historical

importance in India. No Viceroy in India before or after him took such a keen interest
in archaeological objects. He passed a law called the Ancient Monuments Act,
1904 which made it obligatory on the part of the government and local authorities
to preserve the monuments of archaeological importance and their destruction an
offence.
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Partition of Bengal, 1905
The Partition of Bengal into two provinces was effected on 4 July 1905. The
new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam included the whole of Assam and the
Dacca, Rajshahi and Chittagong divisions of Bengal with headquarters at Dacca.
Though Curzon justified his action on administrative lines, partition divided the
Hindus and Muslims in Bengal. This led to the anti-partition agitation all over the
country. This had also intensified the National Movement.
Estimate of Lord Curzon
Lord Curzon assumed his office, when he was forty years old. All his reform
measures were preceded by an expert Commission and its recommendations. He
made a serious study of the Indian problems in all their aspects. At the beginning
Curzon earned the popularity and admiration of the Indian people. He lost the
popularity by the act of Partition of Bengal.
Learning Outcome
After studying this lesson students would acquire knowledge about
1. Lytton’s unpopular measures such as the Vernacular Press Act and

inadequate handling of the famine situation.
2. His failure in Afghan policy which led to the murder of English officers.
3. Lord Ripon’s liberal reforms in the sphere of education, local-self
government and labour welfare.
4. His efforts to end the racial discrimination in the judiciary and that
the Ilbert Bill issue was also responsible for the rise of national
movement.
5. Lord Curzon’s reforms and also his anti-Indian measure of the

Partition of Bengal and its impact.
83

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Name the first Viceroy of India.
(a) Warren Hastings (b) Lord Dalhousie
(c) Lord Canning (d) Lord Ripon
2. In which year the Vernacular Press Act was passed?

(a) 1878 (b) 1882

(c) 1898 (d) 1902
1. The first Famine Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of

________
2. The Indian Universities Act was passed in the year ________
1.
Arms Act a. Andrew Fraser
2. Local Self-Government b. Lord Curzon

3. Education Commission c. Lord Ripon
4. Partition of Bengal d. William Hunter
5. Police Commission e. Lord Lytton

a) Lord Ripon was asked to follow the Afghan policy of Lord Lytton.
b) Lord Ripon earned popularity among the Indians by repealing the Vernacular
Press Act.
c) Lord Ripon gave scant attention to educational reforms.
d) Lord Ripon introduced the Factory Act in 1882.
1. The British Prime Minister Disraeli appointed Lord Lytton as the Viceroy of
India.
2. The Vernacular Press Act crushed the freedom of the Indian Press.
84

1. The Vernacular Press Act.
2. Hunter Commission.
3. Ilbert Bill Controversy.
1. Write a note on the Famine Policy followed by Lord Lytton.
2. Discuss the Importance of Local Self-Government.
3. Point out the educational reforms of Lord Curzon.
1. Examine the Afghan policy of Lord Lytton.
2. Estimate the reforms of Lord Ripon.
3. Give an account of the administration of Lord Curzon.
85

LESSON 13
SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
Learning Objectives
1. The Brahmo Samaj and its services.
2. The reforms of Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission and similar

organizations.
3. The services rendered by social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy,

Swami Dayanand Saraswathi and Vivekananda.
4. Reform Movements among the Muslims in India.
5. Sikh and Parsi reform movements.
6. Socio-religious reforms in Tamil Nadu led by Saint Ramalinga

and Vaikunda swamigal.
In the history of modern India, the socio-religious reforms occupy a significant

place. Social reformars like Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Sarawathi and
Swami Vivekananda were responsible for the social and cultural awakening in India.
The spread of liberal ideas of the west provided further stimulus
for the emergence of reform movements. These movements
introduced important changes in social and religious life of the
people of India.
Raja Rammohan Roy and the Brahmo Samaj
Raja Rammohan Roy established the Brahmo Samaj

at Calcutta in 1828 in order to purify Hinduism and to preach
monotheism. He is considered as the first ‘modern man of
India’. He was a pioneer of socio-religious reform movements in
modern India.
RAMMOHAN ROY
Born in 1772 in the Hooghly district of Bengal, he inculcated a
brilliant freedom of thought and rationality. He studied the Bible as well as Hindu and
Muslim religious texts. He had excellent command over many languages including
English, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, French, Latin, Greek and Hebrew.
In 1815, he established the Atmiya Sabha. Later, it was developed into the
Brahmo Sabha in August 1828. Through this organisation, he preached that there
86

is only one God. He combined the teachings of the Upanishads, the Bible and
the Koran in developing unity among the people of different religions. The work
of the Atmiya Sabha was carried on by Maharishi Debendranath Tagore (father of
Rabindranath Tagore), who renamed it as Brahmo Samaj. He turned the Brahmo
Samaj into a leading social organisation of India.
Raj Rammohan Roy is most remembered for helping Lord William Bentinck
to declare the practice of Sati a punishable offence in 1829. He also protested
against the child marriage and female infanticide. He favored the remarriage of
widows, female education and women’s right to property. He felt that the caste
system was the greatest hurdle to Indian unity. He believed in the equality of
mankind. He did not believe in the supremacy of the Brahmin priests. He favoured
inter-caste marriages. He himself adopted a Muslim boy. In 1817, he founded
the Hindu College (now Presidency College, Calcutta) along with David Hare, a
missionary. He also set up schools for girls.
Rammohan Roy started the first Bengali weekly Samvad Kaumudi and
edited a Persian weekly Mirat-ul-akhbar. He stood for the freedom of the press.
Rammohan died in Bristol in England in 1833.
Henry Vivian Derozio and the Young Bengal Movement
Henry Vivian Derozio was the founder of the Young

Bengal Movement. He was born in Calcutta in 1809 and
taught in the Hindu College, Calcutta. He died of cholera in
1833. His followers were known as the Derozians and their
movement the Young Bengal Movement. They attacked
old traditions and decadent customs. They also advocated Vivian DeR
ozio
women’s rights and their education. They founded associations and organized
debates against idol worship, casteism and superstitions.
Swami Dayanand Saraswathi and the Arya Samaj
The Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand

Saraswathi at Bombay in 1875. Born in Kathiawar in Gujarat,
Swami Dayanand (1824-83) was a scholar, a patriot, a social
reformer and a revivalist. He believed the Vedas were the
source of true knowledge. His motto was “Back to the Vedas”.
Swami Dayanand He was against idol worship, child marriage and caste system
Saraswathi based on birth. He encouraged inter- caste marriages and widow
remarriage. He started the Suddhi movement to bring back those Hindus who had
converted to other religions to its fold. He wrote the book Satyartha Prakash which
contains his ideas.
The Arya Samaj, though founded in Bombay, became very powerful in

Punjab and spread its influence to other parts of India. It has contributed very much
87

to the spread of education. The first Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) School was
founded in 1886 at Lahore. Many more schools came up in other parts of India in
later years. The Arya Samaj had also spread nationalism. Hundreds of Arya Samaj
patriots, including Lala Lajpat Rai, took part in the Indian freedom struggle.
Prarthana Samaj
The Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867 in Bombay

by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang. It was an off-shoot of Brahmo
Samaj. It was a reform movement within Hinduism and
concentrated on social reforms like inter-dining, inter-marriage,
widow remarriage and uplift of women and depressed classes.
m.g.
Justice M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar joined it in 1870
ranade
and infused new strength to it. Justice Ranade promoted the Deccan Education
Society.
Swami Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Mission
The original name of Swami Vivekananda was

Narendranath Dutta (1863-1902) and he became the most
famous disciple of Shri Ramkrishna Paramahamsa. He was
born in a prosperous Bengali family of Calcutta and educated
in Scottish Church College. In 1886 Narendranath took the
vow of Sanyasa and was given the name, Vivekananda.
He preached Vedantic Philosophy. He condemned the
caste system and the current Hindu emphasis on rituals Swami V
and ceremonies. Swami Vivekananda participated at the
ivekananda
Parliament of Religions held in Chicago (USA) in September 1893 and raised the
prestige of India and Hinduism very high.
Vivekananda preached the message of strength and self- reliance. He asked

the people to improve the lives of the poor and depressed classes. He believed that
service to mankind is service to God. He founded the Ramkrishna Mission at Belur
in Howrah in 1897. It is a social service and charitable society. The objectives of this
Mission are providing humanitarian relief and social work through the establishment
of schools, colleges, hospitals and orphanages.
Theosophical Society
The Theosophical Society was founded in New York

(USA) in 1875 by Madam H.P. Blavatsky, a Russian lady, and
Henry Steel Olcott, an American colonel. Their main objectives
were to form a universal brotherhood of man without any
distinction of race, colour or creed and to promote the study of
ancient religions and philosophies. They arrived in India and
Madam B
established their headquarters at Adyar in Madras in 1882.
lavatsky
88

Later in 1893, Mrs. Annie Besant arrived in India and took over the leadership of
the Society after the death of Olcott. Mrs. Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu
School along with Madan Mohan Malaviya at Benaras which later developed into
the Banaras Hindu University.
Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Pandit Ishwar Chandra was a great educator, humanist

and social reformer. He was born in 1820 in a village in
Midnapur, Bengal. He rose to be the Head Pandit of the
Bengali Department of Fort William College. He firmly believed
that reform in Indian society could only come about through
education. Vidyasagar founded many schools for girls. He PANDIT VIDYASAGAR
helped J.D. Bethune to establish the Bethune School. He founded the Metropolitan
Institution in Calcutta. He protested against child marriage and favoured widow
remarriage which was legalised by the Widow Remarriage Act (1856). It was
due to his great support for the spread of education that he was given the title of
Vidyasagar.
Jyotiba Phule
Jyotiba Phule belonged to a low caste family in Maharashtra. He waged a

life-long struggle against upper caste domination and Brahmanical supremacy.
In 1873 he founded the Satyashodak Samaj to fight against the caste system. He
pioneered the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra and worked for the
education for women. Jyotiba Phule and his wife established the first girls’ school at
Poona in 1851.
Muslim Reform Movements
The Muslim reform movements started a little later because they had
avoided western education in the beginning. The first effort was in 1863 when
the Muhammad Literary Society was set up in Calcutta. Its aim was to popularise
the study of English and western sciences. It established a number of schools in
Bengal.
Aligarh Movement
The Aligarh Movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmad

Khan (1817-98) for the social and educational advancement
of the Muslims in India. He fought against the medieval
backwardness and advocated a rational approach towards
religion. In 1866, he started the Mohammadan Educational
Conference as a general forum for spreading liberal ideas
among the Muslims. In 1875, he founded a modern school at
Aligarh to promote English education among the Muslims. This
Syed Ahmad Khan
89

had later grown into the Mohammadan Anglo Oriental College and then into the
Aligarh Muslim University.
The Deoband School
The orthodox section among the Muslim ulema organised the Deoband
Movement. It was a revivalist movement whose twin objectives were : (i) to
propagate among the Muslims the pure teachings of the Koran and the Hadis and
(ii) to keep alive the spirit of jihad aganist the foreign rulers. The new Deoband
leader Mahmud-ul-Hasan (1851-1920) sought to impart a political and intellectual
content to the religious ideas of the school. The liberal interpretation of Islam
created a political awakening among its followers.
Sikh Reform Movement
Punjab also came under the spell of reforms. Baba Dayal Das founded the
Nirankari Movement. He insisted the worship of God as nirankar (formless). The
Namdhari Movement was founded by Baba Ram Singh. His followers wore white
clothes and gave up meat eating. The Singh Sabhas started in Lahore and Amritsar
in 1870 were aimed at reforming the Sikh society. They helped to set up the Khalsa
College at Amritsar in 1892.They also encouraged Gurmukhi and Punjabi literature.
In 1920, the Akalis started a movement to remove the corrupt Mahants (priests)
from the Sikh gurudwaras. The British government was forced to make laws on this
matter. Later, the Akalis organised themselves into a political party.
Parsi Reform Movement
The Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded at Bombay by Furdunji

Naoroji and S.S. Bengalee in 1851. They advocated the spread of women’s
education. They also wanted to reform their marriage customs. Naoroji published
a monthly journal, Jagat Mithra. The momentum gathered through these reform
movements and went a long way in uplifting the entire community. By the middle
of the twentieth century most of them were highly placed in various capacities and
have made a significant contribution to India’s development.
Saint Ramalinga
Saint Ramalinga was one of the foremost saints of Tamil

Nadu in the nineteenth century. He was born on October 5,
1823 at Marudhur, near Chidambaram. He was the last son of
his father, Ramayya Pillai and mother, Chinnammayar.
Developing a deep interest in spiritual life, Ramalinga

moved to Karunguli in 1858, a place near Vadalur where
the Saint later settled down. His divine powers came to be
recognised at the early age of eleven. In 1865 he founded the Saint R
amalinga
Samarasa Suddha Sanmargha Sangha for the promotion of
90

his ideals of establishing a casteless society. He preached love and compassion to

the people. He composed Tiru Arutpa. His other literay works include Manu Murai
Kanda Vasagam and Jeeva Karunyam. His language was so simple as to enable
the illiterate people to understand his teachings. In 1870 he moved to Mettukuppam,
place three miles away from Vadalur. There he started constructing the Satya
Gnana Sabai in 1872. He introduced the principle that God could be worshipped in
the form of Light.
Sri Vaikunda Swamigal
Sri Vaikunda Swamigal was born in 1809 at Swamithoppu in the

Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu. His original name was Mudichoodum Perumal
but he was called Muthukkutty. He preached against the caste system and
untouchability. He also condemned religious ceremonies. Many came to his place to
worship him and slowly his teachings came to be known as Ayyavazhi. By the mid-
nineteenth century, Ayyavazhi came to be recognized as a separate religion and
91

spread in the regions of South Travancore and South Tirunelveli. After his death, the
religion was spread on the basis of his teachings and the religious books Akilattirattu
Ammanai and Arul Nool. Hundreds of Nizhal Thangals (places of worship) were built
across the country.
Self-Respect Movement and Periyar E.V.R.
Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy was a great social reformer.

In 1921, during the anti-liquor campaign he cut down 1000
coconut trees in his own farm. In 1924, he took an active part
in the Vaikam Satyagraha. The objective of the Satyagraha
was to secure for untouchables the right to use a road near a
temple at Vaikom in Kerala. E.V.R. opposed the Varnashrama
policy followed in the V.V.S. Iyer’s Seranmadevi Gurugulam.
Periyar E.V.R.
During 1920 - 1925 being in the Congrees Party he stressed
that Congress should accept communal representation. Subsequently in 1925, he
started the “Self-Respect Movement”. The aims of the ‘Self -Respect Movement’
were to uplift the Dravidians and to expose the Brahminical tyrany and deceptive
methods by which they controlled all spheres of Hindu life. He denounced the
caste system, child marriage and enforced widowhood. He encouraged inter-caste
92

marriages. He himself conducted many marriages without any rituals. Such a

marriage was known as “Self- Respect Marriage.” He gave secular names to new
born babies.
He attacked the laws of Manu, which he called the basis of the entire
Hindu social fabric of caste. He founded the Tamil journals Kudiarasu, Puratchi and
Viduthalai to propagate his ideals.
In 1938 at Tamil Nadu Women’s Conference appreciatin the noble service

rendered by E.V.R. he was given the title “Periyar”. On 27th June 1970 by the
UNESCO organisation praised and adorned with the title “Socrates of South
Asia”.
Learning Outcome
1. Raja Rammohan Roy and the Brahmo Samaj.
2. Swami Dayanand and the services of Arya Samaj.
3. Swami Vivekananda’s life and ideals and also the social services
rendered by the Ramakrishna Mission
4. The Muslim Reform movements such as the Deoband School, the

Aligarh Movement.
5. The Nirankari and Namdari movements among the Sikhs and the
Parsi reform movement.
6. St. Ramalinga’s Samarasa Suddha Sanmarga, Vaikuntaswami’s

Ayyavazhi.
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MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The Brahmo Samaj was established in the year

(a) 1827 (b) 1828

(c) 1829 (d) 1838
2. Who among the following started the Aligarh Movement?
(a) Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (b) Salimullah Khan
(c) Muhammad Ali Jinnah (d) Muhammad al Hasan
3. Satya Gnana Sabai was started at

(a) Madurai (b) Rameswaram

(c) Vadalur (d) Chidambaram
1. ________ was the Bengali Weekly started by Raj Rammohan Roy.
2. Swami Dayanadha Saraswathi was the author of ________

3. The Satya Shodak Samaj was founded by ________
1. Atmiya Sabha a. Olcott
2. Young Bengal Movement b. Raja Rammohan Roy
3. Prarthana Samaj c. Baba Dayal
4. Nirankari Movement d. Henry Vivian Derozio
5. Thesopical Society e. Atmaram Pandurang
a) In 1815 Dayanand Saraswathi established the Atmiya Sabha.
b) Rammohan Roy started the first Bengali weekly Samvad Kaumudi.
c) Rabindranath Tagore was the founder of the Young Bengal Movement.

d) The Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867 in Bombay
94

1. The motto of Swami Dayanand Saraswathi was ‘Back to the Vedas’.
2. The original name of Shri Ramakrishna was Narendranath Dutta.
3. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagara opposed the widow remarriage.
4. Saint Ramalinga composed Thiru Arutpa.
1. Arya Samaj
2. Swami Vivekananda
3. Jyotiba Phule
4. Sri Vaikunta Swamigal
1. Discuss the principles of Saint Ramalinga.
2. Examine the Islamic Reform movements.
1. “Raja Rammohan Roy was the father of Indian Renaissance” – Discuss.
2. Examine the importance of the socio-religious reform movements of 19th

century India.
95

LESSON 14
INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1885-1905)
Learning Objectives
1. The growth of East India Company’s Rule in India.
1. Origin and growth of nationalism in India..
2. Birth of Indian National Congress.
3. The objectives and methods of Early Nationalist Movement.
4. Leaders of this period.
5. Achievements of moderates.
Factors Promoting the Growth of Nationalism in India
The following causes are responsible for the origin and growth of nationalism
in India.
1. Political Unity
For the first time, most of the regions in India were united politically and
administratively under a single power (the British rule). It introduced a uniform
system of law and government.
2. Development of Communication and Transport
The introduction of railways, telegraphs and postal services and the

construction of roads and canals facilitated communication among the people. All
these brought Indians nearer to each other and provided the facility to organise the
national movement on an all India basis.
3. English Language and Western Education
The English language played an important role in the growth of nationalism

in the country. The English educated Indians, who led the national movement,
developed Indian nationalism and organised it. Western education facilitated the
spread of the concepts of liberty, equality, freedom and nationalism and sowed the
seeds of nationalism.
4. The Role of the Press
The Indian Press, both English and vernacular, had also aroused the national
consciousness.
96

5. Social and Religious Movements of the Nineteenth Century
The leaders of various organisations like the Brahmo Samaj, Ramakrishna

Mission, Arya Samaj, and Theosophical Society generated a feeling of regard for
and pride in the motherland.
6. Economic Exploitation by the British
A good deal of anti-British feeling was created by the economic policy

pursued by the British government in India. The English systematically ruined the
Indian trade and native industries. Therefore, economic exploitation by the British
was one of the most important causes for the rise of Indian nationalism.
7. Racial Discrimination
The Revolt of 1857 created a kind of permanent bitterness and suspicion

between the British and the Indians. The English feeling of racial superiority grew.
India as a nation and Indians as individuals were subjected to insults, humiliation
and contemptuous treatment.
8. Administration of Lytton
Lord Lytton arranged the Delhi Durbar at a time when the larger part of
India was in the grip of famine. He passed the Vernacular Press Act which curbed
the liberty of the Indian Press. His Arms Act was a means to prevent the Indians
from keeping arms. All these measures created widespread discontent among the
Indians.
9. The Ilbert Bill controversy
The Ilbert Bill was presented in the Central Legislature during the Viceroyalty
of Lord Ripon. The Bill tried to remove racial inequality between Indian and
European judges in courts. This Bill was opposed by the British residents in India.
Ultimately the Bill was modified.
Thus various factors contributed to the rise of nationalism and the formation
of the Indian National Congress.
Early Political Associations
The British Indian Association – 1851 Bengal
The Bombay Association — 1852 Dadabhai Naoroji
East India Association 1856 London
Madras Native Association 1852
Poona Sarvojanik Sabha—1870
The Madras Mahajana Sabha—1884
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The Indian National Congress (1885)
Allan Octavian Hume, a retired civil servant in the British Government took
the initiative to form an all-India organization. Thus, the Indian National Congress
was founded and its first session was held at Bombay in 1885.
W.C. Banerjee was its first president. It was attended by 72
delegates from all over India. Persons attending the session
belonged to different religious faiths. They discussed the
problems of all the Indians irrespective of their religion, caste,
language and regions. Thus Indian National Congress from
the start was an all-India secular movement embracing every
section of Indian society. The second session was held in A.O. H
ume
Calcutta in 1886 and the third in Madras in 1887.
The history of the Indian National Movement can be studied in three

important phases:
(i) The phase of moderate nationalism (1885-1905) when the Congress
continued to be loyal to the British crown.
(ii) The years 1906-1916 witnessed- Swadeshi Movement, rise of militant

nationalism and the Home Rule Movement.
(iii) The period from 1917 to1947 is known as the Gandhian era.
Moderate Nationalism
The leading figures during the first phase of the National Movement were
A.O. Hume, W.C. Banerjee, Surendra Nath Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji, Feroze
Shah Mehta, Gopalakrishna Gokhale, Pandit Madan Mohan
Malaviya, Badruddin Tyabji, Justice Ranade and G.Subramanya
Aiyar.
Surendranath Banerjee was called the Indian Burke.

He firmly opposed the Partition of Bengal. He founded the
Indian Association (1876) to agitate for political reforms. He
G had convened the Indian National Conference (1883) which
okhale
merged with the Indian National Congress in l886. G. Subramanya Aiyar preached
nationalism through the Madras Mahajana Sabha. He also founded the The Hindu
and Swadesamitran. Dadabhai Naoroji was known as the Grand Old Man of India.
He is regarded as India’s unofficial Ambassador in England. He was the first Indian
to become a Member of the British House of Commons. Gopal Krishna Gokhale
was regarded as the political guru of Gandhi. In 1905, he founded the Servants of
India Society to train Indians to dedicate their lives to the cause of the country.
For a few years the Congress enjoyed the patronage of the British
administrators. Between 1885 and 1905, the Congress leaders were moderates.
98

The Moderates had faith in the British justice and goodwill. They were called
moderates because they adopted peaceful and constitutional means to achieve their
demands.
Main Demands of Moderates
 Expansion and reform of legislative councils.

 Greater opportunities for Indians in higher posts by holding the ICS
examination simultaneously in England and in India.
 Separation of the judiciary from the executive.
 More powers for the local bodies.
 Reduction of land revenue and protection of peasants from unjust landlords.
 Abolition of salt tax and sugar duty.
 Reduction of spending on army.
 Freedom of speech and expression and freedom to form associations
Methods of Moderates
The Moderates had total faith in the British sense of justice and fair play.
They were loyal to the British. They looked to England for inspiration and guidance.
The Moderates used petitions, resolutions, meetings, leaflets and pamphlets,
memorandum and delegations to present their demands. They confined their
political activities to the educated classes only. Their aim was to attain political rights
and self-government stage by stage.
In the beginning, the British Government welcomed the birth of the Indian
National Congress. In 1886, Governor General Lord Dufferin gave a tea garden
party for the Congress members in Calcutta. The government officials had also
attended Congress sessions. With the increase in Congress demands, the
government became unfriendly. It encouraged the Muslims to stay away from
the Congress. The only demand of the Congress granted by the British was the
expansion of the legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act of 1892.
Achievements of Moderates
1. The Moderates were able to create a wide national awakening among the
people.
2. They popularized the ideas of democracy, civil liberties and representative

institutions.
3. They explained how the British were exploiting Indians. Particularly, Dadabhai
Naoroji in his famous book Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India wrote his
99

Drain Theory. He showed how India’s wealth was going away to England
in the form of: (a) salaries,(b)savings, (c) pensions, (d) payments to British
troops in India and (e) profits of the British companies. In fact, the British
Government was forced to appoint the Welby Commission, with Dadabhai as
the first Indian as its member, to enquire into the matter.
4. Some Moderates like Ranade and Gokhale favoured social reforms. They
protested against child marriage and widowhood.
5. The Moderates had succeeded in getting the expansion of the legislative

councils by the Indian Councils Act of 1892.
Learning Outcome
After studying this lesson students would be able to explain
1. The factors led to the growth of Indian nationalism.
2. The birth and growth of the Indian National Congress.
3. A brief sketch of the leaders of the moderate nationalism.
4. The aims and methods of the moderates in claiming their demands.
5. The British exploitation of the Indian economy and the Drain Theory.
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MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The Indian National Congress was founded by
(a) W.C. Banerjee
(b) A.O. Hume
(c) Mahatma Gandhi
(d) Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose
2. Who among the following was the political Guru of Gandhiji ?
(a) Surendra Nath Banerjee
(b) Gopala Krishna Gokhale
(c) Bala Gangadhara Tilak
(d) Bipin Chandra Pal
1. The first session of the Indian National Congress was held at ________
2. ________was the first Indian to become a member of the British House of

Commons.
1.
Delhi Durbar a. S.N. Banerjee
2. Ilbert Bill Controversy b. Gokhale

3.
Indian Association c. Lord Lytton
4. Servants of India Society d. Dadhabai Naaoroji
5.
Drain Theory e. Lord Ripon
a) The Revolt of 1857 created a kind of permanent bitterness and suspicion

between the British and the Indians.
b) Lord Ripon arranged the Delhi Durbar at a time when the larger part of India
was in the grip of famine.
c) A.O. Hume was the first president of the INC in 1885.
d) Gokhale was called the Indian Burke.
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1. W.C. Banerjee was the first President of the Indian National Congress.
2. The book Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India was written by S.N. Banerjee.
3. The administration of Lord Lytton contributed to the growth of nationalism in

India.
4. The period from 1906 to 1916 is known as the era of moderate nationalism.
1. Indian National Congress.
2. Dadhabai Naoroji.
1. Write a note on the main demands of the moderates.
2. Discuss the methods adopted by the moderates in the first phase of the
Indian National Movement.
1. Examine the causes for the rise of nationalism in India.
2. Evaluate the achievements of the moderates.
102

LESSON 15
INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905-1916)
Learning Objectives
1. The causes for the rise of extremism in the Indian National

Movement.
2. Main objective and methods of extremists.
3. Leaders of extremists such as Tilak, Bipan Chandra Pal and Lala

Lajpat Rai.
4. The impact of the Partition of Bengal on national movement.
5. Swadeshi Movement and the achievements of extremists.
6. The birth of Muslim League.
7. The Home Rule Movement.
The period from 1905 was known as the era of extremism in the Indian
National Movement. The extremists or the aggressive nationalists believed that
success could be achieved through bold means. The important extremist leaders
were Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo
Ghosh.
Causes for the Rise of Extremism
1. The failure of the Moderates to win any notable success other than the
expansion of the legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act (1892).
2. The famine and plague of 1896-97 which affected the whole country and the
suffering of the masses.
3. The economic conditions of the people became worse.
4. The ill-treatment of Indians in South Africa on the basis of colour of skin.
5. The Russo-Japanese war of 1904-5 in which Japan defeated the European

power Russia. This encouraged Indians to fight against the European nation,
Britain.
6. The immediate cause for the rise of extremism was the reactionary rule of
Lord Curzon:
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 He passed the Calcutta Corporation Act, (1899) reducing the Indian

control of this local body.
 The Universities Act (1904) reduced the elected members in the

University bodies. It also reduced the autonomy of the universities and
made them government departments.
 The Sedition Act and the Official Secrets Act reduced the freedoms of all
people.
 His worst measure was the Partition of Bengal (1905).
Main Objective of Extremists
Their main objective was to attain Swaraj or complete independence and not
just self-government.
Methods of the Extremists
The Extremists had no faith in the British sense of justice and fair play. They
pointed out the forceful means by which the British had taken control of India. They
believed that political rights will have to be fought for. They had the spirit of self-
reliance and self- determination.
The methods used by the extremists were:
1. Not cooperating with the British Government by boycotting government

courts, schools and colleges.
2. Promotion of Swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods.
3. Introduction and promotion of national education.
Leaders of the Extremists
The extremists were led by Bala Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai,
Bipinchandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak is regarded as the real founder of

the popular anti-British movement in India. He was known
as ‘Lokamanya’. He attacked the British through his
weeklies The Mahratta and the Kesari.
He was jailed twice by the British for
T his nationalist activities and in 1908
ilak
deported to Mandalay for six years. He set up the Home Rule
League in 1916 at Poona and declared “Swaraj is my birth-
right and I will have it.”
Lala Lajpat Rai is popularly known as the ‘Lion

of Punjab’. He played an important role in the Swadeshi Lala Lajpat R
ai
104

Movement. He founded the Indian Home Rule League in the US in 1916. He was
deported to Mandalay on the ground of sedition. He received fatal injuries while
leading a procession against the Simon Commission and died on November 17,
1928.
Bipan Chandra Pal began his career as a moderate and turned an extremist.
He played an important role in the Swadeshi Movement. He preached nationalism
through the nook and corner of Indian by his powerful speeches and writings.
Aurobinda Ghosh was another extremist leader and he actively participated

in the Swadeshi Movement. He was also imprisoned. After his release he settled
in the French territory of Pondicherry and concentrated on
spiritual activities.
Partition of Bengal and the Rise of Extremism
The partition of Bengal in 1905 provided a spark for

the rise of extremism in the Indian National Movement.
Aurobinda G
Curzon’s real motives were:
hosh
● To break the growing strength of Bengali nationalism since Bengal was
the base of Indian nationalism.
● To divide the Hindus and Muslims in Bengal.
● To show the enormous power of the British Government in doing

whatever it liked.
On the same day when the partition came into effect, 16 October 1905, the
people of Bengal orgainsed protest meetings and observed a day of mourning. The
whole political life of Bengal underwent a change. Gandhi
wrote that the real awakening in India took place only after the
Partition of Bengal. The anti-partition movement culminated
into the Swadeshi Movement and spread to other parts of
India.
The aggressive nationalists forced Dadabhai Naoroji

to speak of Swaraj (which was not a Moderate demand) in
the Calcutta Session of Congress in 1906. They adopted
the resolutions of Boycott and Swadeshi. The Moderate
Dadabhai N Congressmen were unhappy. They wanted Swaraj to be
aoroji
achieved through constitutional methods. The differences led
to a split in the Congress at the Surat session in 1907. This is popularly known as
the famous Surat Split. The extremists came out of the Congress led by Tilak and
others.
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Swadeshi Movement
The Swadeshi Movement involved programmes like the boycott of

government service, courts, schools and colleges and of foreign goods, promotion
of Swadeshi goods, Promotion of National Education through the establishment of
national schools and colleges. It was both a political and economic movement.
The Swadeshi Movement was a great success. In Bengal, even the landlords
joined the movement. The women and students took to picketing. Students refused
using books made of foreign paper.
The government adopted several tough measures. It passed several Acts

to crush the movement. The Swadeshi volunteers were beaten badly. The cry of
Bande Mataram was forbidden. Schools and colleges were warned not to allow their
students to take part in the movement or else their, aid would be stopped. Some
Indian government employees lost their jobs. Extremist leaders Bala Gangadhar
Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh were imprisoned
and deported.
Achievements of Extremists
The achievements of extremists can be summed up as follows:
1. They were the first to demand Swaraj as a matter of birth right.
2. They involved the masses in the freedom struggle and broadened the social
base of the National Movement.
3. They were the first to organize an all-India political movement, viz. the
Swadeshi Movement.
Formation of the Muslim League (1906)
In December 1906, Muslim delegates from all over India met at Dacca for
the Muslim Educational Conference. Taking advantage of this occasion, Nawab
Salimullah of Dacca proposed the setting up of an organisation to look after the
Muslim interests. The proposal was accepted. The All-India Muslim League was
finally set up on December 30, 1906. Like the Indian National Congress, they
conducted annual sessions and put their demands to the British government.
Initially, they enjoyed the support of the British. Their first achievement was the
separate electorates for the Muslims in the Minto-Morley reforms.
The Lucknow Pact (1916)
During the 1916 Congress session at Lucknow two major events occurred.
The divided Congress became united. An understanding for joint action against
the British was reached between the Congress and the Muslim League and it was
called the Lucknow Pact. The signing of the Lucknow Pact by the Congress and
the Muslim League in 1916 marked an important step in the Hindu-Muslim unity.
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The Home Rule Movement (1916)
Two Home Rule Leagues were established, one by B.G. Tilak at Poona in
April 1916 and the other by Mrs. Annie Besant at Madras in September 1916. The
aim of the Movement was to get self- government for India within the British Empire.
It believed freedom was the natural right of all nations. Moreover, the leaders of the
Home Movement thought that India’s resources were not being used for her needs.
The two Leagues cooperated with each other as well with the Congress and
the Muslim League in putting their demand for home rule. While Tilak’s Movement
concentrated on Maharashtra, Annie Besant’s Movement covered the rest of
the country. The Home Rule Movement had brought a new life in the national
movement. There was a revival of Swadeshi. Women joined in larger numbers.
On 20 August 1917, Montague, the Secretary of State in England, made a

declaration in the Parliament of England on British Government’s policy towards
future political reforms in India. He promised the gradual development of self-
governing institutions in India. This August Declaration led to the end of the Home
Rule Movement.
Revolutionary Movements
In the first half of the 20th century, revolutionary groups sprang up mainly in
Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab and Madras. The revolutionaries were not satisfied
with the methods of both the moderates and extremists. Hence, they started many
revolutionary secret organizations. In Bengal Anusilan Samiti and Jugantar were
established. In Maharashtra Savarkar brothers had set up Abhinava Bharat. In
the Madras Presidency, Bharathmatha Association was started by Nilakanta
Bramachari.
In Punjab Ajit Singh set up a secret society to spread revolutionary

ideas among the youth. In London, at India House, Shyamji Krishna Verma
gathered young Indian nationalists like Madan Lal Dhingra, Savarkar, V.V.S.
Iyer and T.S.S.Rajan. Lala Hardyal set up the ‘Ghadar Party’ in USA to organise
revolutionary activities from outside India.
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Learning Outcome
After studying this lesson, the student will understand that
1. The policies of the British government such as the Partition of

Bengal contributed to the rise of extremists.
2. The aims and methods of extremists were different from the

moderates.
3. The Swadeshi Movement became a popular movement with its

boycott of government schools and colleges.
4. The Muslims were initially supported by the British.
5. The importance of the Home Rule Movement.
6. The activities of the revolutionaries in the cause of Indian

nationalism.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Which among the following is not a cause for the rise of extremism?
(a) Ilbert Bill (b) Calcutta Corporation Act

(c) The Universities Act (d) Partition of Bengal
2. The Muslim League was founded in
(a) 1906 (b) 1909 (c) 1916 (d) 1926
1. The “Surat Split” in the Indian National Congress took place in the year
_________
2. Mrs. Annie Besant established the Home Rule League at _________
3. Barathamatha Association was started by _________
1. Kesari a. Maharashtra
2. Lion of Punjab b. Muslim League
3. Salimulla Khan c. Lala Har Dayal

4. Ghadar Party d. B.G. Tilak
5. Abhinav Bharat e. Lala Lajpat Rai
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a) The extremists were led by Gokhale.
b) The extremists had no faith in the British sense of justice.
c) The extremists believed in the principle of ahimsa.
d) The extremists wanted to achieve Swaraj through the constitutional

means.
e) The differences between the moderates and extremists led to the split in the
Congress at Lucknow.
1. The immediate cause for the rise of extremism was the reactionary rule of
Lord Curzon.
2. The extremists were the first to demand Swaraj as a matter of birth right.
3. The All India Muslim League was set up in 1905.
1. Partition of Bengal.
2. Surat Split.
3. Muslim League.
4. Lucknow Pact.
1. Write a note on the rise of extremism in the Indian National Movement.

2. Bring out the importance of the Swadeshi Movement.
3. Explain the role of the Home Rule Movement in the Freedom Struggle.
1. Discuss the important events in the Indian National Movement from 1905 to
1916.
109

LESSON 16
THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1917-1947)
Learning Objectives
1. The life of Mahatma Gandhi and his involvement in Indian freedom

struggle.
2. The impact of Jallianwala Bagh massacre on the national

movement.
3. The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement.

4. The Civil-Disobedience Movement and Salt Satyagraha.
5. The Quit India Movement and its impact on the Freedom Struggle.
6. The Cabinet Mission Plan.
Advent of Gandhi
The third and final phase of the Nationalist Movement [1917-1947] is known
as the Gandhian era. During this period Mahatma Gandhi became the undisputed
leader of the National Movement. His principles of non- violence and Satyagraha
were employed against the British Government. Gandhi made the nationalist
movement a mass movement.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born at Porbandar

in Gujarat on 2 October 1869. He studied law in England.
He returned to India in 1891. In April 1893 he went to
South Africa and involved himself in the struggle against
apartheid (Racial discrimination against the Blacks) for
twenty years. Finally, he came to India in 1915. Thereafter,
he fully involved himself in the Indian National Movement.
Mahatma Gandhi began his experiments with

Satyagraha against the oppressive European indigo
Mahatma G
planters at Champaran in Bihar in 1917. In the next year
andhi
he launched another Satyagraha at Kheda in Gujarat in support of the peasants
who were not able to pay the land tax due to failure of crops. During this struggle,
Sardar Vallabhai Patel emerged as one of the trusted followers of Gandhi. In 1918,
Gandhi undertook a fast unto death for the cause of Ahmedabad Mill Workers and
finally the mill owners conceded the just demands of the workers.
110

On the whole, the local movements at Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad

brought Mahatma Gandhi closer to the life of the people and their problems at the
grass roots level. Consequently, he became the leader of the masses.
Rowlatt Act (1919)
In 1917, a committee was set up under the presidentship of Sir Sydney

Rowlatt to look into the militant Nationalist activities. On the basis of its report the
Rowlatt Act was passed in March 1919 by the Central Legislative Council. As per
this Act, any person could be arrested on the basis of suspicion. No appeal or
petition could be filed against such arrests. This Act was called the Black Act and
it was widely opposed. An all-India hartal was organized on 6 April 1919. Meetings
were held all over the country. Mahatma Gandhi was arrested near Delhi. Two
prominent leaders of Punjab, Dr Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, were arrested
in Amritsar.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April, 1919)
The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place on 13 April 1919 and

it remained a turning point in the history of
India’s freedom movement. In Punjab, there
was an unprecedented support to the Rowlatt
Satyagraha. Facing a violent situation, the
Government of Punjab handed over the
administration to the military authorities under
General Dyer. He banned all public meetings and
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre detained the political leaders. On 13th April,
the Baisakhi day (harvest festival), a public meeting was organized at the
Jallianwala Bagh (garden). Dyer marched in and without any warning opened fire
on the crowd. The firing continued for about 10 to 15 minutes and it stopped only
after the ammunition exhausted. According to official report 379 people were killed
and 1137 wounded in the incident. There was a nation- wide protest against this
massacre and Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood as a protest. The
Jallianwala Bagh massacre gave a tremendous impetus to the freedom struggle.
Khilafat Movement
The chief cause of the Khilafat Movement was the defeat of Turkey in the
First World War. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres (1920) was felt by the
Muslims as a great insult to them. The whole movement was based on the Muslim
belief that the Caliph (the Sultan of Turkey) was the religious head of the Muslims
all over the world. The Muslims in India were upset over the British attitude against
Turkey and launched the Khilafat Movement.
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saifuddin Kitchlew and the Ali
brothers were the prominent leaders of this movement. A Khilafat Committee had
111

been formed and on 19th October 1919, the whole country had observed the Khilafat
day. On 23 November, a joint conference of the Hindus and the Muslims had also
been held under the chairmanship of Mahatma Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi was
particularly interested in bringing the Hindus and the Muslims together to achieve
the country’s independence. Subsequently, the Khilafat Movement merged with the
Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)
Mahatma Gandhi announced his plan to begin Non-Cooperation with the

government as a sequel to the Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the
Khilafat Movement. It was approved by the Indian National Congress at the Nagpur
session in December, 1920.
Programmes
The programmes of the Non-Cooperation Movement were:
 Surrender of titles and honorary positions.

 Resignation of membership from the local bodies.
 Boycott of elections held under the provisions of the 1919 Act.
 Boycott of government functions.
 Boycott of courts, government schools and colleges.
 Boycott of foreign goods.
 Establishment of national schools, colleges and private panchayat courts.
 Popularizing swadeshi goods and khadi.
The movement began with Mahatma Gandhi renouncing the titles, which
were given by the British. Other leaders and influential persons also followed him by
surrendering their honorary posts and titles. Students came out of the government
educational institutions. National schools such as the Kashi Vidyapeeth, the Bihar
Vidyapeeth and the Jamia Millia Islamia were set up. All the prominent leaders of
the country gave up their lucrative legal practice. Legislatures were boycotted. No
leader of the Congress came forward to contest the elections for the Legislatures.
In 1921, mass demonstrations were held against the Prince of Wales during
his tour of India. The government resorted to strong measures of repression. Many
leaders were arrested. The Congress and the Khilafat Committees were proclaimed
as illegal. At several places, bonfires of foreign clothes were organised. The
message of Swadeshi spread everywhere. Most of the households took to weaving
cloths with the help of charkhas.
112

But the whole movement was abruptly called off on 11th February 1922 by
Gandhi following the Churi Chaura incident in the Gorakpur district of U.P. Earlier
on 5th February an angry mob set fire to the police station at Churi Chaura and
twenty two police men were burnt to death. Many top leaders of the country were
stunned at this sudden suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Mahatma
Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922.
Significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement
1. It was the real mass movement with the participation of different sections of
Indian society such as peasants, workers, students, teachers and women.
2. It witnessed the spread of nationalism to the remote corners of India.
3. It also marked the height of Hindu-Muslim unity as a result of the merger of

Khilafat movement.
4. It demonstrated the willingness and ability of the masses to endure hardships

and make sacrifices.
Swaraj Party
The suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement led to a split within

Congress in the Gaya session of the Congress in December
1922. Leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittranjan Das
formed a separate group within the Congress known as the
Swaraj Party on 1 January 1923. The Swarajists wanted to
contest the council elections and wreck the government
from within. Elections to Legislative Councils were held in
November 1923. In this, the Swaraj Party gained impressive
successes. In the Central Legislative Council Motilal Nehru
became the leader of the party whereas in Bengal the party
Motilal N was headed by C.R. Das.
ehru
The Swaraj Party did several significant things in the Legislative Council. It
demanded the setting up of responsible government in India with the necessary
changes in the Government of India Act of 1919. The party could pass important
resolutions against the repressive laws of the government. When a Committee
chaired by the Home Member, Alexander Muddiman considered the system of
Dyarchy as proper, a resolution was passed against it in the Central Legislative
Council. After the passing away of C.R. Das in June 1925, the Swarj Party started
weakening.
Simon Commission (1927)

The Act of 1919 included a provision for its review after a lapse of ten years.
However, the review commission was appointed by the British Government two
113

years earlier of its schedule in 1927. It came to be known as Simon Commission

after the name of its chairman, Sir John Simon. All its seven members were
Englishmen. As there was no Indian member in it, the Commission faced a lot of
criticism even before its landing in India. Almost all the political parties including the
Congress decided to oppose the Commission.
On the fateful day of 3 February 1928 when the Commission reached

Bombay, a general hartal was observed all over the country. Everywhere it was
greeted with black flags and the cries of ‘Simon go back’. At Lahore, the students
took out a large anti-Simon Commission demonstration on 30 October 1928 under
the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai. In this demonstration, Lala Lajpat Rai was
seriously injured in the police lathi charge and he passed away after one month.
The report of the Simon Commission was published in May 1930. It was
stated that the constitutional experiment with Dyarchy was unsuccessful and in
its place the report recommended the establishment of autonomous government.
There is no doubt that the Simon Commission’s Report became the basis for
enacting the Government of India Act of 1935.
Nehru Report (1928)
In the meanwhile, the Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead, challenged the

Indians to produce a Constitution that would be acceptable to all. The challenge was
accepted by the Congress, which convened an all party meeting on 28 February
1928. A committee consisting of eight was constituted to draw up a blueprint for the
future Constitution of India. It was headed by Motilal Nehru. The Report published
by this Committee came to be known as the Nehru Report.
The Report favoured:
● Dominion Status as the next immediate step.
● Full responsible government at the centre.
● Autonomy to the provinces.
● Clear cut division of power between the centre and the provinces.
● A bicameral legislature at the centre.
However, the leader of the Muslim League, Mohammad Ali Jinnah regarded
it as detrimental to the interests of the Muslims. Jinnah convened an All India
Conference of the Muslims where he drew up a list of Fourteen Points as Muslim
League demand.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)
In the prevailing atmosphere of restlessness, the annual session of the

Congress was held at Lahore in December 1929. During this session presided
114

over by Jawaharlal Nehru the Congress passed the Poorna Swaraj resolution.
Moreover, as the government failed to accept the Nehru Report, the Congress gave
a call to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement. The Congress had also observed
January 26, 1930 as the Day of Independence. Since then January 26th had been
observed as a day of independence every year. The same date later became the
Republic Day when the Indian Constitution was enforced in 1950.
The Dandi March
Thus, the stage was set for the second

major struggle led by the Congress. On 12th
March 1930, Gandhi began his famous March to
Dandi with his chosen 79 followers to break the
salt laws. He reached the coast of Dandi on 5 Dandi March
April 1930 after marching a distance of 200 miles and on 6 April formally launched
the Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking the salt laws.
On 9 April, Mahatma Gandhi laid out the programme of the movement which
included making of salt in every village in violation of the existing salt laws; picketing
by women before the shops selling liquor, opium and foreign clothes; organising the
bonfires of foreign clothes; spinning clothes by using charkha fighting untouchability;
boycotting of schools and colleges by students and resigning from government
jobs by the people. Over and above all these, the programme also called upon the
people not to pay taxes to the government.
Soon, the movement spread to all parts of the country. Students, workers,
farmers and women, all participated in this movement with great enthusiasm. As a
reaction, the British Government arrested important leaders of the Congress and
imprisoned them.
Round Table Conference
The British government adopted the strategy of talking to different political

parties by convening the Round Table Conferences. The first Round Table
Conference was held in November 1930 at London and it was boycotted it by the
Congress.
In January 1931 in order to create a conducive atmosphere for talks,

the government lifted the ban on the Congress Party and released its leaders
from prison. On 8 March 1931 the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed. As per this
pact, Mahatma Gandhi agreed to suspend the Civil-Disobedience Movement
and participate in the Second- Round Table Conference. In September 1931,
the Second Round Table Conference was held at London. Mahatma Gandhi
participated in the Conference but returned to India disappointed as no agreement
could be reached on the demand of complete independence and on the communal
question.
115

In January 1932, the Civil-Disobedience Movement was resumed. The

government responded to it by arresting Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Patel and by
reimposing the ban on the Congress party.
Poona Pact (1932)
By 1930, Dr Ambedkar had become a leader of national stature championing
the cause of the depressed people of the country. While presenting a real picture
of the condition of these people in the First Round Table Conference, he had
demanded separate electorates for them. On 16 August 1932 the British Prime
Minister Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement, which came to be as
the Communal Award. According to this award, the depressed classes were
considered as a separate community and as such provisions were made for
separate electorates for them. Mahatma Gandhi protested against the Communal
Award and went on a fast unto death in the Yeravada jail on 20 September 1932.
Finally, an agreement was reached between Dr Ambedkar and Gandhi.
This agreement came to be called as the Poona Pact. The British Government
also approved of it. Accordingly, 148 seats in different Provincial Legislatures were
reserved for the Depressed Classes in place of 71 as provided in the Communal
Award.
The third Round Table Conference came to an end in 1932. The Congress
once more did not take part in it. Nonetheless, in March 1933, the British
Government issued a White Paper, which became the basis for the enactment of the
Government of India Act, 1935.
The Second World War and National Movement
In 1937 elections were held under the provisions of the Government of
India Act of 1935. Congress Ministries were formed in seven states of India. On 1
September 1939 the Second World War broke out. The British Government without
consulting the people of India involved the country in the war. The Congress
vehemently opposed it and as a mark of protest the Congress Ministries in the
Provinces resigned on 12 December 1939. The Muslim League celebrated that day
as the Deliverance Day. In March 1940 the Muslim League demanded the creation
of Pakistan.
Individual Satyagraha
During the course of the Second World War in order to
secure the cooperation of the Indians, the British Government
made an announcement on 8 August 1940, which came to be
known as the ‘August Offer’. The August Offer envisaged that
after the War a representative body of Indians would be set up
to frame the new Constitution. Gandhi was not satisfied with is
VINOBA BHAVE
offer and decided to launch Individual Satyagraha.
116

Individual Satyagraha was limited, symbolic and non-violent in nature and it

was left to Mahatma Gandhi to choose the Satyagrahis. Acharya Vinoba Bhave was
the first to offer Satyagraha and he was sentenced to three months imprisonment.
Jawaharlal Nehru was the second Satyagrahi and imprisoned for four months. The
individual Satyagraha continued for nearly 15 months.
Cripps Mission (1942)
In the meantime, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow expanded

his Executive Council by including five more Indians into it in July
1941. However, in the midst of worsening wartime international
situation, the British Government in its continued effort to secure
Indian cooperation sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India on 23 March
1942. This is known as Cripps Mission.
The main recommendations of Cripps were:
o The promise of Dominion Status to India, SIR STAFFORD

CRIPPS
o Protection of minorities
o setting up of a Constituent Assembly in which there would be
representatives from the Princely States along with those of the British
Provinces,
o There would be provision for any Province of British India not prepared to
accept this Constitution, either to retain its present constitutional position
or frame a constitution of its own.
The major political parties of the country rejected the Cripps proposals.
Gandhi called Cripp’s proposals as a “Post-dated Cheque”. They did not like the
rights of the Princely States either to send their representatives to the Constituent
Assembly or to stay out of the Indian Union. The Muslim League was also
dissatisfied as its demand for Pakistan had not been conceded in the proposal.
Quit India Movement (1942-1944)
The failure of the Cripps Mission and the fear of an impending Japanese
invasion of India led Mahatma Gandhi to begin his campaign for the British to quit
India. Mahatma Gandhi believed that an interim government could be formed only
after the British left India and the Hindu-Muslim problem sorted out. The All India
Congress Committee met at Bombay on 8 August 1942 and passed the famous
Quit India Resolution. On the same day, Gandhi gave his call of ‘do or die’.
On 8th and 9th August 1942, the government arrested all the prominent
leaders of the Congress. For once, this pre-planned action of the government left
the Indian people without leadership. Mahatma Gandhi was kept in prison at Poona.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, and other leaders were imprisoned in
the Ahmednagar Fort.
117

At this time, leadership was provided by Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyuta and
S.M. Joshi. The role of Jayaprakash Narain in this movement was important. Large
number of students also left their schools and colleges to join the movement. The
youth of the nation also participated in this movement with patriotism. Strikes,
demonstrations and public meetings were organised in various towns and cities.
Slowly the movement reached the rural areas. In 1943, as the movement gained
further momentum, there were armed attacks on government buildings in Madras
and Bengal. In 1944 Mahatma Gandhi was released from jail. Quit India Movement
was the final attempt for country’s freedom. The British Government ordered for
538 rounds of firing. Nearly 60,229 persons were jailed. At least 7,000 people were
killed. This movement paved the way for India’s freedom. It aroused among Indians
the feelings of bravery, enthusiasm and total sacrifice.
Indian National Army
During the course of the Second World War, armed

revolutionary activities continued to take place. The
role of Subhas Chandra Bose towards such activities is
incomparable. On 2 July 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose
reached Singapore and gave the rousing war cry of ‘Dilli
Chalo’. He was made the President of Indian Independence
League and soon became the supreme commander of the
Subhas Indian National Army. He gave the country the slogan of Jai
Chandra B Hind. The names of the INA’s three Brigades were the Subhas
ose
Brigade, Gandhi Brigade and Nehru Brigade. The women’s
wing of the army was named after Rani Laxmibai.
The Indian National Army marched towards Imphal after registering its victory
over Kohima. After Japan’s surrender in 1945, the INA failed in its efforts. Under
such circumstances, Subhas went to Taiwan. Then on his way to Tokyo he died on
18 August 1945 in a plane crash.
The trial of the soldiers of INA was held at Red Fort in Delhi. Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai and Tej Bahadur Sapru fought the case on
behalf of the soldiers.
Cabinet Mission (1946)
After the Second World War, Lord Atlee became the Prime Minister of
England. On 15 March, 1946 Lord Atlee made a historic announcement in which the
right to self-determination and the framing of a Constitution for India were conceded.
Consequently, three members of the British Cabinet - Pathick Lawrence, Sir Stafford
Cripps and A. V. Alexander - were sent to India. This is known as the Cabinet
Mission.

118

The Cabinet Mission put forward a plan for solution of the constitutional
problem. Provision was made for three groups of provinces to possess their
separate constitutions. The Cabinet Mission also proposed the formation of a
Union of India, comprising both the British India and the Princely States. The
Union would remain in charge of only foreign affairs, defence and communications
leaving the residuary powers to be vested in the provinces. A proposal was
envisaged for setting up an Interim Government, which would remain in office till
a new government was elected on the basis of the new Constitution framed by the
Constituent Assembly. Both the Muslim League and the Congress accepted the
plan.
Consequently, elections were held in July 1946 for the formation of a

Constituent Assembly. The Congress secured 205 out of 214 General seats. The
Muslim League got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats. An Interim
Government was formed under the leadership of Jawaharlal
Nehru on 2 September 1946.
Mountbatten Plan (1947)
On 20 February l947, Prime Minister Atlee announced

in the House of Commons the definite intention of the
British Government to transfer power to responsible Indian
hands by a date not later than June 1948. Thus, to effect
the transference of that power Atlee decided to send Lord Lord M
ountbatten
Mountbatten as Viceroy to India.
Lord Mountbatten armed with vast powers became India’s Viceroy on 24

March 1947. The partition of India and the creation of Pakistan appeared inevitable
to him. After extensive consultation Lord Mountbatten put forth the plan of partition
of India on 3 June 1947. The Congress and the Muslim League ultimately approved
the Mountbatten Plan.
Indian Independence Act 1947
Indian Independence
119

The British Government accorded formal approval to the Mountbatten Plan

by enacting the Indian Independence Act on 18 July 1947. The salient features of
this Act were:
 The partition of the country into India and Pakistan would come into effect from
15 August 1947.
 The British Government would transfer all powers to these two Dominions.
 A Boundary Commission would demarcate the boundaries of the provinces

of the Punjab and Bengal.
 The Act provided for the transfer of power to the Constituent Assemblies of
the two Dominions, which will have full authority to frame their respective
Constitutions.
The Radcliff Boundary Commission drew the boundary line separating

India and Pakistan. On 15th August 1947 India, and on the 14th August Pakistan
came into existence as two independent states. Lord Mountbatten was made the
first Governor General of Independent India, whereas Mohammad Ali Jinnah
became the first Governor General of Pakistan. The most tragic incident occurred
on 30 January 1948, when Mahatma Gandhi - the father of the nation- on his way to
a prayer meeting was assassinated by Nathuram Godse.
Learning Outcome
1. Gandhi’s early experiments of Satyagraha made him a mass leader.
2. The Non-Cooperation movement and its success.
3. The political activities between 1922 and 1930 such as Swaraj

politics and anti-Simon struggle.
4. The Civil Disobedience Movement, Round Table Conference and

the Poona Pact.
5. The Quit India Movement and its impact.
6. The role of INA in the freedom struggle.
7. The Cabinet Mission to the Independence of India.
120

121

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The Kheda Satyagraha was launched by Gandhi in support of
(a) Indigo planters (b) Industrial labour
(c) Peasants (d) Mill workers
2. The Chauri Chaura incident took place in the year

(a) 1920 (b) 1921

(c) 1922 (d) 1923
1. The Rowlat Act was passed in the year __________
2. The Poorna Swaraj Resolution was passed at __________
3. The Communal Award was announced by the British Prime Minister________
1. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre a. 1923
2.
Swaraj Party b. 1931
3.
Dandi March c. 1930
4.
Poona Pact d. 1919
5. Gandhi-Irwin Pact e. 1932

a) According to the Rowlat Act, any person could be arrested on the basis of
suspicion.
b) The Khilafat Day was observed on 19th October 1919.
c) The plan of Non Cooperation was approved by the Indian National Congress
at the Lahore session.
d) The Fourteen Points of the Muslim League was submitted by Muhammad

Ansari.
1. The chief cause of the Khilafat Movement was the defeat of Turkey in the
First World War.
2. The agreement between Dr. Ambedkar and the British government was
called as the ‘Poona Pact’.
122

1. Khilafat Movement
2. Swaraj Party
3. Dandi March
4. Indian National Army
5. Cabinet Mission
6. Mountbatten Plan
1. Write a note on the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
2. Bring out the significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
3. Discuss the salient features of the Nehru Report.
4. Write a note on the Poona Pact.
5. Examine the provisions of the Indian Independence Act.
1. Give an account of the Civil-Disobedience Movement.
2. Estimate role of Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian Freedom Struggle.
3. Discuss the important events of the Freedom Movement from 1919 to 1935.
123

LESSON 17
ROLE OF TAMIL NADU IN THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
Learning Objectives
After studying this lesson students will come to understand
1. The early nationalist uprisings in Tamil Nadu.
2. Swadeshi Movement.
3. Home Rule Movement in Tamil Nadu.
4. Salt Satyagraha in Tamil Nadu.
5. Quit India Movement.
Tamil Nadu played an important role in the Indian National Movement. Even
prior to the Great Revolt of 1857, the rebellion in Panchalam Kuruchi, the 1801
“South Indian Rebellion” of the Marudu brothers and the Vellore Mutiny of 1806
were the early anti-colonial struggles in Tamil Nadu. During the nationalist era
Tamil Nadu provided the leaders like G. Subramania Iyer, V.O.C. Chidambaram
Pillai, Subramania Bharathi, C. Rajagopalachari and K. Kamaraj to the National
Movement. Besides, the nationalist movement in Tamil Nadu was as active as
elsewhere.
Beginning of the National Movement in Tamil Nadu
The earliest political organisation, the Madras Native Association was

started in July 1852. Lakshminarasu Chetty and Srinivasa Pillai were the founders
of this organization. The Madras Native Association was sharply critical of the
policies of the East India Company’s rule. Subsequently in 1884, the Madras
Mahajana Sabha was established by P. Anandacharlu and P. Rangaiya Naidu. The
Madras Native Association was ultimately merged with this organization.
The Madras Mahajana Sabha strongly supported the activities of the Indian
National Congress. It had also initiated social reform. G. Subramania Iyer performed
the remarriage of his widowed daughter in December 1889. He moved the first
resolution in the first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. He started
the nationalist papers like The Hindu in English and Swadeshamitran in Tamil. In
1892, the Madras Provincial Conference was started to mobilize people in the rural
areas of Tamil Nadu. The third session of the Indian National Congress was held
in Madras in 1887 under the presidentship of Fakruddin Thyabji. Later a number of
such annual sessions were also held in the city of Madras.
124

Swadeshi Movement in Tamil Nadu
The Partition of Bengal in 1905 led to the beginning of

Swadeshi Movement in Tamil Nadu. During this period the
important leaders of the National Movement were – V.O.
Chidambaram Pillai, Subramania Siva and Subramania
Bharathi. In May 1907 Bharathi brought Bipin Chandra Pal
one of the leaders of extremists in the Congress to Madras
city. After the Surat split in 1907, V.O.C. and fellow nationalists
started the Chennai Jana Sangam. Subramania Bharathi
SubramanIa was a non-conformist, unorthodox and a
B revolutionary in social and political ideas.
harathi
He edited the Tamil Weekly India. He wrote nationalist songs
called the Swadesa Geethangal.
V.O. Chidambaram Pillai was a lawyer by profession

and he joined the nationalist movement in 1905. He was a
follower of Bal Ganghadar Tilak. He led the Coral Mill Strike
in February 1908 in Tuticorin. In 1906 he launched the subramania
siva
Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company in Tuticorin. Hence
he was called Kappalottiya Tamilan. There was competition between Swadeshi
Steam Navigation Company and British India Steam Navigation Company. V.O.C.
advocated the boycott of the British India Steam Navigation Company and this
had resulted in the Tirunelveli uprising in March 1908. He was ably assisted by
Subramania Siva. Both were arrested and imprisoned. They
served six years rigorous imprisonment. They were given
harsh punishment inside the prison. V.O.C. was asked to draw
an oil press and hence he is known as Chekkilutta Chemmal.
The arrest of the nationalist leaders, harsh punishment for the
nationalist leaders inside the prison and the collapse of the
Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company led to the formation
V.O. C of a revolutionary organization in Tamil Nadu called the
hidambaram
Bharathamatha Association. Nilakanta Bramachari played a
vital role in it. One of the followers of this association Vanchi Nathan shot dead the
notorious British official Robert William Ashe at Maniyatchi junction in June 1911.
Home Rule Movement in Tamil Nadu
The Home rule Movement in Madras was organized by

Mrs. Annie Besant between 1916 and 1918.The first indication
of Annie Besant’s decision to launch a Home Rule Movement
appeared in New India in September 1915. Besant sought the
support of the Indian National Congress at its annual meeting at
Annie Besant
125

Bombay in December, 1915. She was supported in her movement by Tilak. Home
Rule Movement was vigorous during the First World War.
Non-co-operation Movement
In Tamil Nadu the Non-co-operation Movement was strong during the years
1921—23. Beginning in March 1921 there were campaigns of Non-Cooperation
against the foreign regulations. In 1921 and 1922 there were campaigns against
the consumption of liquor in many parts of the province. Temperance campaign was
particularly prominent in Madurai. Non- Cooperation had been a success in Tamil
Nadu. C. Rajagopalachari, S. Satyamurthi and E. V. Ramaswami Naicker were the
important leaders of the Non- Cooperation Movement in Tamil Nadu. At that time
E. V. Ramaswami Naicker was the President of the Tamil Nadu Congress
Committee. C. Rajagopalachari stressed that the council boycott was a central part
of the Gandhian Programme. However, this view was not shared by Kasturi Ranga
Iyengar, Srinivasa Iyengar, Varadarajulu Naidu and Vijayaraghavachari.
In the meantime, Periyar E.V.R. launched the

Vaikom Satyagraha in Kerala against the practice of social
segregation. Later he resigned from the Congress and came
out on the social segregation issue at Seramandevi Guru
Kulam of V.V.S. Iyer. S. Satyamurthi of Pudukkottai was one
of the important freedom fighters. He led the anti-Simon
Campaign in 1929 when the Simon Commission visited Tamil
Nadu. K. Kamaraj
The other important nationalist leader was K. Kamaraj from Virudhunagar.
He participated in the Vaikom Satyagraha in 1924 and thus entered nationalist
movement. He was the vice-president and treasurer of the Ramnad District
Congress Committee in 1929. From the beginning, Kamaraj was the man of the
masses. He spoke in simple and direct language. He had a sound common sense
and practical wisdom. He was fully aware of the rural Tamil Nadu. He visited
each and every village and understood the different problems of the masses. He
always identified himself with the common man of Tamil Nadu. Thus, he really
brought the Congress movement to the villages in Tamil Nadu.
Salt Satyagraha
As part of the Civil Disobedience Movement, Gandhi

launched the Salt Satyagraha. He undertook the Dandi
March in 1930. C. Rajagopalachari became the TNCC
president in April 1930. Authorized by TNCC and AICC to
direct the Salt Satyagraha in Tamil Nadu Rajaji undertook the
C. Rajagopalachari famous Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha March. He selected
the route from Tiruchirappalli to Vedaranyam in Thanjauvr
126

district. The March began on Tamil New Year’s Day (13th April). The March reached
Vedaranyam on 28 April 1930. Two days later Rajagopalachari was arrested for
breaking the salt laws. Some of the other important leaders who participated in
the Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha were T.S.S. Rajan, Mrs. Lakshmipathi Sardar
Vedaratnam Pillai, C. Swaminatha Chetty and K.Santhanam.
Tiruppur Kumaran who led the flag march was fatally beaten. Since he
guarded the national flag in his hands he was called Kodi Kaththa Kumaran.
Commemorating his sacrifice the Goverment of India issued a postal stamp in his
honour.
Similarly, the National Movement was encouraged

by songs composed by Namakkal Kavinjar Ramalingam
Pillai. In his songs he praised the Gandhian methods in the
struggle for freedom. He sang that “a war is coming without
knife and blood”. This highlighted the Gandhian principle of
non-violent struggle against the British.
Tiruppur Kumaran
Quit India Movement
Later, in 1937 when elections were held in accordance with the 1935 Act,
Congress won the elections and formed the ministry in Madras headed by C.
Rajagopalachari. There were nine other ministers in his cabinet. The ministry was
in power from July 1937 to October 1939. The ministry had resigned along with
other Congress ministries in the different provinces over the issue of the Indian
involvement in the Second World War.
During Second War, after the failure of the Cripps’s Proposals Gandhi had
launched the Quit India Movement. In Tamil Nadu Quit India Movement drew the
factory workers, students and common people. It was a wide spread movement.
The Buckingham & Carnatic Mills, Port Trust and the Tramway workers joined the
movement in large numbers. Quit India Movement was launched in places like North
Arcot, Madurai and Coimbatore. There was police firing at Rajapalayam, Karaikudi
and Devakottai. Besides, Subhash Bose’s INA had many men and women soldiers
from Tamil Nadu.
Finally, when India attained independence on 15th August, 1947 the Madras
Government under O.P. Ramaswami Reddiar passed a resolution appreciating the
Indian Independence Act.
127

Learning Outcome
1. Tamil Nadu played a significant role in the Indian Freedom Struggle.
2. Those leaders who led the masses from Tamil Nadu in the
Swadeshi Movement.
3. The role of C. Rajagopalachari and others in the Salt Satyagraha.
4. The nature of the Quit India Movement in Tamil Nadu.
5. Important places where people in large numbers participated in

this historic movement.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Who among the following moved the first resolution in the first session of the
Indian National Congress?
(a) Srinivasa Pillai (b) Lakshminarasu Chetty

(c) Rangaiya Naidu (d) G. Subramanya Iyer
2. The Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha was led by

(a) Gandhi (b) Rajaji

(c) V.O.C (d) Kamaraj
1. The Madras Native Association was started in _________
2. The Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company was launched by_______
1. Subramaniya Bharathi a. Swadesamithran
2. Mrs. Annie Besant b. Madras Mahajana Sabha
3. G. Subramanya Iyer c. India
4. P. Anandacharlu d. New India
128

IV. Find out the correct statement one statement alone is correct.
a. Madras Native Association was started by G. Subramania Iyer.
b. The Third Session of the Indian National Congress was held in Madras.
c. Periyar E.V.R. had never been the President of Tamil Nadu Congress
Committee.
d. Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha March begun on 1 January 1930 from

Tiruchirappalli.
1. The Madras Mahajana Sabha severely opposed the Indian National

Congress.
2. The Bharathamatha Association was a revolutionary organization in Tamil

Nadu.
3. The Vaikom Satyagraha was launched by Periyar E.V.R.
4. In 1937, the Congress Ministry was formed in Madras under Kamaraj.
1. G. Subramanya Iyer
2. Vedaranyam March
3. Subramaniya Bharathi
1. Write a note on Madras Mahajana Sabha.
2. Discuss the role of V.O.C in the Indian National Movement.
1. Examine the role of Tamil Nadu in the Indian Freedom Struggle.
129

LESSON 18
THE JUSTICE PARTY RULE
Learning Objectives
1. The factors that led to the rise of Non-Brahmin Movement in Madras

Presidency.
2. The genesis of the Justice Party.
3. The Justice Party in power.
4. Achievements of the Justice Party.
5. The end of the Justice rule in Madras Presidency.
The Justice Party rule in the Madras Presidency constitutes an important

chapter in the history of South India. The ideology and objectives of the Justice
Party had been unique and somewhat different from those of the Congress Party.
The Justice Party represented the Non-Brahmin Movement and engineered a social
revolution against the domination of Brahmins in the sphere of public services and
education.
Birth of the Justice Party
Various factors had contributed to the formation of the Justice Party, which
represented the Non-Brahmin Movement. The social dominance of the Brahmins
was the main cause for the emergence of the Non-Brahmin Movement. Their high
proportion in the Civil Service, educational institutions and also their predominance
in the Madras Legislative Council caused a great worry among the non- Brahmins.
The Brahmins had also monopolized the Press. The rediscovery of the greatness
of the Tamil language and literature also provided a stimulus to the non-Brahmins.
Particularly, the publication of the book entitled A Comparative Grammar of the
Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages by Rev. Robert Caldwell in 1856
gave birth to the Dravidian concept. Later the ancient Tamil literature had been
rediscovered and printed by various Tamil scholars including Arumuga Navalar, C.V.
Damodaram Pillai and U.V. Swaminatha Iyer. V. Kanakasabhai Pillai in his famous
historical work, The Tamils 1800 Years Ago pointed out that Tamils had attained a
high degree of civilization before the Advent of the Aryans. This led to the growth of
Dravidian feelings among the non-Brahmins. These factors collectively contributed
to the birth of the Non-Brahmin Movement and the Justice Party.
130

The precursor of the Justice Party was the Madras United League which
was renamed as the Madras Dravidian Association in November 1912. Dr. C.
Natesa Mudaliar played a significant role in nurturing this organization. In 1916
the South Indian Liberal Federation was formed for the purpose of ‘promoting
the political interests of non-Brahmin caste Hindus’. The leaders who stood behind
the formation of this organization were Pitti Theagaraya Chetti, Dr.T.M. Nair, P.
Ramarayaninger (Raja of Panagal) and Dr. C. Natesa Mudaliar. The South Indian
Liberal Federation published an English newspaper called Justice and hence
this organization came to be called the Justice Party. The other news paper which
supported the Justice Party was Dravidan (in Tamil). Besides, the Justice Party
organized a series of public meetings, conferences, lectures to popularise Non-
Brahmin movement. Similarly, the Justice Party formed District Associations, the
Non-Brahmin Youth League.
Justice Party Rule
The Justice Party came to power following the election of 1920 held
according to the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms. The Justice Party captured sixty
three out of ninety eight elected seats in the Madras Legislative Council. As Pitti
Theagaraya Chetti declined to lead the ministry, A. Subbarayalu Reddiar formed the
ministry. In the election of 1923 it fought against the Swarajya Party. The Justice
Party again won the majority and the ministry was formed by Raja of Panagal. In the
election of 1926 a divided Justice Party faced the opposition of a united Congress.
Therefore, an independent, A. Subbarayan with the help of the Swarajya Party
formed the ministry. In 1930 when the next election was held the Justice Party won
the majority and formed a ministry with B. Muniswami Naidu as the leader. In 1932
Raja of Bobbili replaced him as Prime Minister of the Presidency. In 1934 Raja of
Bobbili formed his second ministry, which continued in power until the election of
1937.
Achievements of the Justice Party

The Justice Party remained in power for a period of thirteen years. Its
administration was noted for social justice and social reform. Justice rule gave
adequate representation to non-Brahman communities in the public services. It
improved the status of depressed classes through education reforms. Justice Party
introduced following reforms in the field of Education :
1. Free and compulsory education was introduced for the first time in Madras.
2. Nearly 3000 fisher boys and fisher girls were offered free special instruction
by the Department of Fisheries.
3. Midday Meals was given at selected corporation schools in Madras.
4. The Madras Elementary Education Act was amended in 1934 and in 1935 to
improve elementary education.
131

5. The Education of girls received encouragement during the Justice rule in

Madras.
6. Education of the Depressed Classes was entrusted with Labour Department.
7. Encouragement was given to Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani medical education.
The government took over the power of appointing district munsiffs out of the
control of the High Court. The Communal G.O.s (Government Orders) of 1921 and
1922 provided for the reservation of appointments in local bodies and educational
institutions for non-Brahmin communities in increased proportion.
The Staff Selection Board, created by the Panagal Ministry in 1924, was
made the Pubic Service Commission in 1929. It was the first of its kind in India.
The women were granted the right to vote on the same basis as was given to men.
The Hindu Religious Endowment Act of 1921, enacted by the Panagal Ministry, tried
to eliminate corruption in the management of temples. Justice Party Government
introduced economic reforms.
To assist the growth of industries State Aid to Industries Act, 1922 was
passed. This led to the establishment of new industries such as : sugar factories,
engineering works, tanneries, aluminum factories, cement factories and oil milling
so on. This act provided credits to industries, allotted land and water. This proved
favourable for industrial progress.
Similarly, Justice Party Government introduced schemes for rural

development to help agrarian population, public health schemes to prevent
diseases. To improve village economy village road scheme was introduced. In
the city of Madras the Town Improvement Committee of the Madras Corporation
introduced Slum Clearance and Housing Schemes. As a social welfare measures
the Justice Party Government gave waste lands in village to Depressed Classes.
The devadasi system, a disgrace to women, was abolished. The Justice

administration reorganized the working of the University of Madras. During the
administration of Justice Party, the Andhra University was established in 1926 and
Annamalai University in 1929.
End of Justice Party Rule
The Government of India Act of 1935 provided for provincial autonomy

and the electoral victory meant the assumption of a major responsibility in the
administration of the province. K. V. Reddi Naidu led the Justice Party, while
C. Rajagopalachari led the Congress in the South. In the election of 1937, the
Congress captured 152 out of 215 seats in the Legislative Assembly and 26 out of
46 in the Legislative Council. In July 1937 the Congress formed its ministry under
C. Rajagopalachari. Thus, the rule of Justice Party which introduced important
social legislations came to an end. In 1944 the Justice party conference was held in
132

Salem. There Peraringar Anna passed a resolution thereby the name of justice party
was changed as Dravidiar Kalagam.
Learning Outcome
1. The domination of Brahmin community in the sphere of civil service

and education led to the emergence of the Non- Brahmin Movement.
2. The leaders of the Justice Movement.
3. The Justice ministries between 1920 and 1937.
4. The achievements of the Justice party administration such as

Communal G.O, Hindu Religious Endowment Act and abolition of
devadasi system.
5. The decline of the Justice Party.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The South Indian Liberal Foundation was formed in the year

(a) 1912 (b) 1914

(c) 1916 (d) 1917
2. Which of the following journal was not founded by Periyar E.V.R?
(a) Kudi Arasu (b) Puratchi

(c) Viduthalai (d) Swarajya
1. The Hindu Religious Act was passed in the year _________
1.
Communal G.O. a. 1929
2. Staff Selection Board b. 1922

3. Madras State Aid to Industries Act c. 1924
4.
Annamalai University d. 1921
133

a) C.V. Damodaram Pillai was the author of The Tamils 1800 Years Ago.
b) Madras Dravidian Association was started in November 1912.
c) In 1917 the South Indian Liberal Federation was formed.
d) Tamil newspaper called Justice supported the Justice Party.
1 The Justice Party remained in power for a period of thirteen years.
2 Justice Party introduced Free and compulsory education.
1. Non Brahmin Movement
2. Communal G.O
1. Describe the educational reforms of the Justice Party.
2. Write a note on the end of Justice Party.

1. Examine the achievements of the Justice Party rule in Tamil Nadu.
2. Estimate the role of Periyar E.V.R. in the promotion of social justice.
134

LESSON 19
CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1858 – 1947)
Learning Objectives
1. The history of constitutional development from 1858 to 1935.
2. The imporance of the Councils Act of 1861 and 1892.
3. Main provisions of the Minto-Morley Reforms, 1919.
4. The Salient features of the Act of 1919.
5. The Significance of the Government of India Act of 1935.
The history of constitutional development in India begins from the passing

of the Regulating Act in 1773. The Pitt’s India Act of 1784 and the successive
Charter Acts from 1793 to 1853 form part of the constitutional changes under the
East India Company’s rule. The Revolt of 1857 brought about important changes in
the British administration in India. The rule of the East India Company came to an
end. The administration of India came under the direct control of the British Crown.
These changes were announced in the Government of India Act of 1858. The
‘Proclamation of Queen Victoria’ assured the Indians a benvelont administration.
Thereafter, important development had taken place in constitutional history of India
as a result of the Indian National Movement.
Government of India Act of 1858
The Governemnt of India Act of 1858 was passed by the Parliament of
England and received royal assent on 2nd August 1858. Following are the main
provisions of the Act:
 East India Company’s rule came to an end and the Indian
administration came under the direct control of the Crown.
 In England, the Court of Directors and Board of Control were
abolished. In their place came the Secretary of State for India and
India Council were established. The Secretary of State would be a
member of the British cabinet. Sir Charles Wood was made the first
Secretary of State for India. India Council consisting of 15 members
would assist him.
 The Governor General of India was also made the Viceroy of India. The
first Viceroy of India was Lord Canning.
 All the previous treaties were accepted and honoured by the Act.
135

Queen Victoria’s Proclamation
On 1 November 1858 the Proclamation of Queen Victoria was announced

by Lord Canning at Allahabad. This royal Proclamation was translated into Indian
languages and publicly read in many important places. It annonced the end of
Company’s rule in India and the Queen’s assumption of the Government of India.
It endorsed the treaty made by the Company with Indian princes and promised
to respect their rights, dignity and honour. It assured the Indian people equal
and impartial protection of law and freedom of religion and social practices. The
Proclamation of Queen Victoria gave a practical shape to the Act of 1858.
Indian Councils Act of 1861
The Indian Councils Act of 1861 increased the number of members in the
Governor-General’s executive Council from 4 to 5. Further the Governor-General’s
Executive Council was enlarged into a Central Legislative Council. Six to tweleve
“additional members” were to be nominated by the Governor-General. Not less than
half of these members were to be non-officials. Thus a provision was made for the
inclusion of Indians in the Legislative Council. The functions of these members were
strictly limited to making legislation and they were forbidden from interfering in the
matters of the Executive Council. They did not possess powers of administration
and finance.
Legilative Councils were also established in the provinces. The number of

additional members in the provinces was fixed between four to eight. So, this Act
was an important constitutional development and the people of India came to be
involved in the law malking process. The mechanism of Indian legislation developed
slowly and reinforced further by the Acts of 1892 and 1909.
Indian Councils Act of 1892
The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was the first achievement of the Indian
National Congress. It had increased the number of “additional members” in the
Central Legislative Council. They were to be not less than 10 and not more than 16.
It had also increased the proportion of non-officials – 6 officials and 10 non-officials.
The members were allowed to discuss the budget and criticize the financial policy
of the government. In the provinces also the number of additional members was
increased with additional powers.
Minto- Morley Reforms of 1909
The Indian Councils Act of 1909 was also known as Minto- Morley Reforms
in the names of Lord Morley, the Secretary of State for India and Lord Minto, the
Governor-General of India. Both were responsible for the passing of this Act. It
was passed to win the support of the Moderates in the Congress. The important
provisions of this Act were:
136

1. The number of “additional members” of the Central Legislative Council was

increased to a maximum of 60. Elected members were to be 27 and among
the remaining 33 nominated members not more than 28 were to be officials.
2. The principle of election to the councils was legally recognized. But

communal representation was for the first time introduced in the interests
of Muslims. Separate electorates were provided for the Muslims.
3. The number of members in provincial legislative councils of major provinces

was raised to 50.
4. The Councils were given right to discuss and pass resolutions on the Budget
and on all matters of public interest. However, the Governor-General had the
power to disallow discussion on the budget.
5. An Indian member was appointed for the first time to the Governor-General’s
Executive Council. Sir S. P. Sinha was- the first Indian to be appointed thus.
6. In Bombay and Madras, the number of members of the Executive Councils

was raised from 2 to 4. The practice of appointing Indians to these Councils
began.
7. Two Indians were also appointed to the India Council [in England].
The Minto- Morley reforms never desired to set up a parliamentary form of
government in India. However, the Moderates welcomed the reforms as fairly liberal
measures. The principle of separate electorates had ultimately led to the partition of
India in 1947.
Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919
The political developments in India during the First World War such as
the Home Rule Movement led to the August Declaration. On 20th August, 1917
Montague, the Secretary of State for India made a momentous declaration in the
House of Commons. His declaration assured the introduction of responsible
government in India in different stages. As a first measure the Government of India
Act of 1919 was passed by the Parliament of England. This Act is popularly known
as Montague-Chelmsford Reforms. At that time Lord Chelmsford was the Viceroy of
India.
The main features of the Act were:
1. Dyarchy was introduced in the provinces. Provincial subjects were divided

into “Reserved Subjects” such as police, jails, land revenue, irrigation
and forests and “Transferred Subjects” such as education, local self-
government, public health, sanitation, agriculture and industries. The
Reserved subjects were to be administered by the Governor and his
Executive Council. The Transferred subjects by the Governor and his
ministers.
137

2. A bicameral (Two Chambers) legislature was set up at the centre. It consisted

of the Council of States and the Legislative Assembly. The total member in
the Legislative Assembly was to be a maximum of 145, out of which 105
were to be elected and the remaining nominated. In the Council of States
there would be a maximum of 60 members out of which 34 were elected and
the remaining nominated.
3. The salaries of the Secretary of State for India and his assistants were to
be paid out of the British revenues. So far, they were paid out of the Indian
revenues.
4. A High Commissioner for India at London was appointed.
The most important defect in this Act was the division of powers under the
system of Dyarchy in the provinces.
The Government of India Act of 1935
The Government of India Act of 1935 was passed on the basis of the report
of the Simon Commission, the outcome of the Round Table Conferences and the
White Paper issued by the British Government in 1933. This Act contained many
important changes over the previous Act of 1919.
Following were the salient features of this Act.
1. Provision for the establishment of an All India Federation at the Centre,

consisting of the Provinces of British India and the Princely States. (It did not
come into existence since the Princely States refused to give their consent for
the union.)
2. Division of powers into three lists: Federal, Provincial and Concurrent.

3. Introduction of Dyarchy at the Centre. The Governor-General and his
councillors administered the “Reserved subjects”. The Council of Ministers
were responsible for the “Transferred” subjects.
4. Abolition of Dyarchy and the introduction of Provincial Autonomy in the

provinces. The Governor was made the head of the Provincial Executive but
he was expected to run the administration on the advice of the Council of
Ministers. Thus provincial government was entursted to the elected Ministers.
They were responsible to the popularly elected Legislative Assemblies.
5. Provincial Legilatures of Bengal, Madras, Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar

and Assam were made bicameral.
6. Extension of the principle of Separate Electorates to Sikhs, Europeans,

Indian Christians and Anglo Indians.
7. Esatblishment of a Federal Court at Delhi with a Chief Justice and 6 judges.
138

The working of the provincial autonomy was not successful. The Governors
were not bound to accept the advice of the ministers. In reality, the real power in
the Provincial Government was with the Governor. But, despite these drawbacks
in the scheme, the Congress decided to take part in the elections to the Provincial
Legislatures with the consideration that it was an improvement over the previous
Acts.
In accordance with the provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935

elections to the Provincial Legislatures were held in February 1937. The Congress
had virtually swept the polls. On 7 July 1937, after the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow,
assured the Congress of his cooperation, the party formed its ministries in seven
provinces.
1773 The Regulating Act
1750 - 1800 1784 The Pitts India Act
1793 The Charter Act
1800 - 1850
Constitutional 1853 The Charter Act

Developments 1858 The Government of India Act
1850 - 1900 1861 The Indian Councils Act
1892 The Indian Councils Act
1909 The Indian Councils Act
(Minto-Morley Reforms)
1919 The Government of India Act
1900 - 1950 (Montford Reforms)
1935 Government of India Act
Learning Outcome
1. The changes effected under the Act of 1858 and the importance of
Queen’s Proclamation.
2. The expansion of central and provincial legislatures by the Acts of
1861 and 1892.
3. The intrduction of the priciple of election and also Separate
Electorates to the Muslims by the Act of 1909.
4. The introduction of Dyarchy in the provinces and the division of
subjects into “Reserved” and “Transferred’ by the Act of 1919.
5. The Provincial Autonomy was intrduced by the Act of 1935 but with
limited powere to Indian ministers.
139

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Which among the folowing was the provision of the Government of India Act
of 1858?
(a) Creation of Court of Directors and Board of Control
(b) Extension of Company’s rule for twenty years
(c) Establishment of India Council with fifteen members
(d) Cancellation of all previous treaties.
2. Which Act legally recognized the principle of election to the legislative

councils?
(a) Act of 1861 (b) Act of 1892
(c) Act of 1909 (d) Act of 1919
1. The Government of India Act of 1919 was passed during the Viceroyalty of
_________
2. The Government of India Act of 1935 introduced _______ in the provinces.
3. The first Indian law member to the Governor General’s Council was _______
1. Secretary of State for India a. 1935
2. Dyarchy in the provinces b. 1909
3. All India Federation c. 1919
4. Introduction of Sperate Electorate d. 1858
a) Proclamation of Queen Victoria was announced by Lord Canning at

Allahabad.
b) Minto- Morley Reforms refers to Lord Morley, the Governor and Lord Minto,
the Secretary of State for India.
c) 1919 Act introduced Dyarchy at the Centre.
d) A Unicameral (one Chamber) legislature was set up at the centre.
140

1. The Act of 1858 made the Governor-General of India as the Viceroy of India.
2. The Act of 1861 increased the number of members in the Governor-General

in Council from five to six.
3. The Act of 1919 appointed a High Commissioner for India at London.
1. Queen’s Proclamation
2. Indian Councils Act of 1892
3. Bicameral Legislature
4. Dyarchy
5. Provincial Autonomy
1. Point out the importance of the Government of India Act of 1858.
2. Discuss the provisions of the Indian Councils Act of 1861.
1. Critically examine the provisions of the Minto-Morley Reforms.

2. Analyse the salient features of the Government of India Act of 1919.
3. “The Government of India Act of 1935 introduced significant changes in the

constitutional system of India” – Comment.
141

LESSON 20
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Learning Objectives
1. The salient features of the Indian Constitution.
2. The integration of Indian States.
3. The Linguistic Reorganization of States.
4. Economic Development of India since Independence.
5. Growth of Science and Technology
6. The foreign policy of Independent India.
After the Independence in 1947, the most immediate and important tasks
before the Indian leaders were the drafting of the constitution and the integration of
Indian states into the Indian union. They had also been vested with the responsibility
of making India economically sound and scientifically modern. In the long term
perspective, the most challenging tasks ahead have been the removal poverty and
the progress of education among the masses for which the successive governments
continue to take necessary steps.
Constitution of India
The Constituent Assembly began its work on 9th

December 1946 and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as
its Chairman. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was appointed as the
Chairman of the Drafting Committee. After a detailed
discussion, the Constitution of India was finally adopted
on 26 November 1949. The Constitution came into effect
on 26th January 1950. Since then the day is celebrated as
Dr. Rajendra P Republic Day.
rasad
The salient features of the Indian Constitution are the
adult suffrage, Parliamentary system, Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles.
It provides a combination of federal and unitary forms of governance at the centre
and the powers of the government have been clearly stated in the three lists:
Central, State and Concurrent.
The President is the constitutional head of the state while the Prime Minister
is the head of the Executive. The Prime Minister is the leader of the party that has
142

a majority in the Lok Sabha. The Indian Parliament has two houses – the Rajya
Sabha or upper house and the Lok Sabha or lower house. Each state has its own
government headed by the Chief Minister who remains the leader of the majority
party in the respective Legislative Aassembly. Thus, democratically elected
governments rule the nation and provision is made for periodical elections.
The judiciary remains the upholder of the constitution. The Indian

judiciary system consists of the Supreme Court at the centre and High Courts in the
states. The subordinate courts in each state are under the control of the High Court.
Integration of Princely States
At the time of Independence there were 11

British provinces and nearly 566 princely states. After
the departure of the British from India the princes of
Indian states began to dream of independence. With
great skill and masterful diplomacy Sardar Vallabhai
Patel succeeded in integrating the princely states with
the Indian union by 15 August 1947. Only three of them
– Junagadh, Jammu and Kashmir and Hyderabad –
refused to join.
Vallabai P
The ruler of Junagadh expressed his willingness to join
atel
Pakistan against the wishes of the people of that state. Patel sent Indian troops and
after a plebiscite Junagadh joined Indian Union.
The state of Jammu and Kashmir bordered India and Pakistan. Its ruler was
Raja Hari Singh. In the beginning he also claimed independent status. When the
Pathan tribes led by Pakistan army officers invaded Kashmir, Hari Singh sought
the help of India. Nehru pointed out that under international law India could send
its troops only after the state’s accession to India. Therefore, on 26th October 1947,
Raja Hari Singh signed the ‘instrument of accession’ and Jammu and Kashmir has
become an integral part of India.
In the case of Hyderabad the Nizam refused to join the Indian union. After
repeated appeals, in 1948 Indian troops moved into Hyderabad and the Nizam
surrendered. Finally, Hyderabad acceded to the Indian Union.
Thus the Union of India was established with the integration and accession
of the princely states with the Indian Union. This formidable task was fulfilled by the
“Iron Man of India” Sardar Vallabhai Patel.
The Linguistic Reorganization of the States

In 1948, the first Linguistic Provinces Commission headed by S.K. Dar was
appointed by the Constituent Assembly to enquire into the possibility of linguistic
provinces. This commission advised against such a step. In the same year another
143

committee known as JVP committee consisting of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhai Patel

and Pattabhi Sitaramaih was appointed by the Congress Party. This committee also
did not favour for linguistic provinces. But there were popular movements for states
reorganization all over the country and it was intensive in Andhra. Therefore, in 1953
Andhra was created as a separate state. Simultaneously, Madras was created as a
Tamil- speaking state. The struggle led by M.P. Sivagnanam to retain Tiruttani with
Madras was a memorable event in the history of Tamil Nadu.
The success of Andhra struggle encouraged other linguistic groups to agitate

for their own state. In 1953, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru appointed the States
Reorganization Commission with Justice Fazal Ali as its chairman and Pandit
Hridayanath Kunzru and Sardar K.M. Panikkar as its members. The commission
submitted its report on 30 September 1955. Based on this report, the States
Reorganization Act was passed by the Parliament in 1956. It provided for 16 states
and six union territories. The Telengana region was transferred to Andhra. Kerala
was created by merging the Malabar district with Travancore-Cochin. There was a
strong movement of the Tamil linguistic people in Travancore (Kaniyakumari) who
struggled to be part of the state of Tamil Nadu.
Indian Polity (1947 – 2000)
India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was

considered the architect of modern India. He consolidated
the Indian Independence by forging national unity,
nurturing democratic institutions, promoting science and
technology, planning for economic development and by
following independent foreign policy. He was truly a nation
Jawaharlal N
builder. He died in 1964.
ehru
Lal Bahadur Sastri succeeded Nehru as the next Prime Minister of India. He
remained a role model for honesty in public life. He ended the Indo-Pak war of 1965
by concluding the Tashkent Agreement in
January 1966. His untimely death was a great
loss to the nation.
Indira Gandhi, daughter of Nehru became

Prime Minister in 1966 and bravely faced
the domestic challenges such as scarcity
Indira G
of food and foreign pressures during the
andhi
Morarji D
1971 Bangladesh crisis. When opposition to her rule gathered
esai
momentum in 1975, she brought emergency rule, a black mark in the democratic
tradition of India. However, she restored democratic rule by announcing general
elections in 1977 in which she was defeated. Later in 1980 she was able to regain
power by democratic means. In 1983 she undertook “Blue Star Operation” in the
Golden Temple at Amritsar - Punjab. As a result, unfortunately, she was shot dead
144

by her own bodyguards in 1984 as a vengeance to her policy towards Punjab

militancy.
The Janata Party rule for brief period between 1977 and 1980 brought
Morarji Desai as Prime Minister of India. For the first time a non-Congress ministry
was formed after independence. The lack of unity among the Janata leaders had
resulted in the fall of the Janata Government.
Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime Minister of India in 1984 after

her mother Indira Gandhi’s assassination. He introduced New
Education Policy and encouraged foreign investment. In 1987
he sent the Indian Peace Keeping Force to Sri
Lanka with a view to put an end to the ethnic
violence. He continued as Prime Minister
Rajiv G till the next elections held in 1989. Later in
andhi
May 1991, he was assassinated (by the Sri Lankan Tamil
extremists).
V.P. Singh was the Prime Minister between 1989

and 1991. He was leading an anti-Congress coalition called
the Janata Dal. During his tenure he decided to implement the
Mandal Commission Report which provided reservation for V.P.SINGH
other backward classes. His government was marked by factionalism, and he was
forced to resign in 1990. The next Prime Minister Chandrasekhar held the office
from November 1990 to March 1991.
In June 1991 P. V. Narasimha Rao became Prime Minister. He moved

decisively toward new economic reforms, reducing the government’s economic role,
instituting austerity measures, and encouraging foreign investment. The finance
minister Dr.Manmohan Singh’s role in this sphere is worth noting. As a result, India
started moving towards liberalization, privatization and globalization.
After the elections of 1996, Atal Bihari Vajpayee became Prime Minister
from the BJP party but he was not able to prove majority in the Parliament. Deve
Gowda formed a coalition government. He was the eleventh Prime Minister of India
(1996– 1997). He was from the state of Karnataka. His government also fell due
to the no confidence motion voted jointly by the Congress and the BJP. He was
succeeded by I.K. Gujral for a brief period in 1997. Atal Bihari Vajpayee became
the Prime Minister of India in 1998. In the 1999 elections the National Democratic
Alliance under the leadership of Vajpayee formed the government. His period
witnessed two important events. One was the Kargil War with Pakistan and another
was the nuclear tests at Pokhran.
145

Economic Development
When India became independent in 1947, it was gripped by mass poverty,

unemployment, illiteracy, static agriculture, poorly developed industries and
inadequate infrastructure. There was an urgent need immediate efforts on national
scale to achieve the path of progress in the socio-economic front. Jawaharlal
Nehru, was greatly influenced by the achievements of Soviet Planning. But he
also realized the importance of the democratic values. He encouraged planning
for rapid industrial and agricultural growth. He encouraged Mixed Economy as a
result both public sector (Government owned) and Private Sector companies come
in to existence. His fundamental objective was to build an independent self-reliant
economy.
Economic Planning
The National Planning Commission was established on 15 March 1950 with

the Prime Minister Nehru as its chairperson. The main objectives of the Planning
Commission were:
(i) To achieve higher level of national and per capita income.
(ii) To achieve full employment.
(iii) To reduce inequalities of income and wealth.
(iv) To setup a society based on equality and justice and absence of

exploitation.
The First Five Year Plan (1951-1956) tried to complete the projects at hand
including the rehabilitation of refugees. It was only during the Second Five Year Plan
(1956-61) Prof. P.C. Mahalanobis, the noted economist played a leading role. This
plan aimed at developing the industrial sector in the country. Rapid industrialization
with particular emphasis in the development of basic and heavy industries continued
during the Third Five Year Plan (1961-66). During this period many iron and steel,
chemical, fertilizers, heavy engineering and machine building industries were set up
in different parts of India.
The objective of the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) was “growth with
stability” and “progressive achievement of self reliance”. The original draft
outline of the plan was prepared in 1966 under the stewardship of Ashok Mehta.
Popular economic slogan during this time was Garibi Hatao (Removal of poverty).
The Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79) was introduced at a time when the country was
under severe economic crisis arising out of inflation. There was increase in oil price.
But the plan was dropped at the end of the fourth year of the plan in March 1978 by
the Janata Government.
146

The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) aimed at strengthening the infrastructure
for both agriculture and industry and meet the minimum basic needs of the people.
The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985 – 90) emphasized on accelerating the growth
of food grains production, increasing employment opportunities and raising
productivity. The Eighth Five Year Plan (1992 – 97) aimed to achieve the goals,
namely, improvement in the levels of living, health and education of the people,
full employment, and elimination of poverty and planned growth of population. The
main objectives of the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997 – 2002) were to give priority to
agricultural sector, to remove poverty, to control prices, to provide food to the
weaker sections, population control, to develop panchayat administration and to
uplift the depressed classes as well as tribal people.
The Green Revolution
Despite creditable growth of agricultural output in the 1950s India faced food
shortage in the mid sixties. The increase in population and the huge outlay to the
plan of industrialization put pressures on agricultural growth. India was forced to
import millions of tons of food grains. The two wars with China (1962) and Pakistan
(1965) and two successive drought years (1965-66) brought enormous pressures to
food production. In this background the Green Revolution was launched in India with
the aim of achieving self-sufficiency in food production.
The then Prime Minister, Lal Bahadur Sastri, Food Minister, C.Subramanian,
and Indira Gandhi, who succeeded Sastri in 1966 after his brief tenure, put their
efforts to the development of agriculture. The term Green Revolution was coined
by Dr William Gadd of USA in 1968, when Indian farmers brought about a great
advancement in wheat production. The introduction of modern methods of
agriculture such as high-yield variety seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides
agricultural machineries such as tractors, pump-sets and agricultural education
considerably increased the food grain production in India. India attained food self-
sufficiency by the 1980s. The effects of Green Revolution were notable in the north-
western region of Punjab, Haryana and western U.P., Andhra Pradesh, parts of
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Growth of Science and Technology
Independent India has also witnessed a tremendous growth in the sphere

of science and technology. After 1947, Nehru became aware of the significant role
of scientific research and technology for the progress of India. India’s first national
laboratory, the National Physical Laboratory was established in 1947. It was
followed by seventeen such national laboratories for specializing in different areas of
research. Nehru himself assumed the chairmanship of the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research.
147

In 1952, the first Indian Institute of Technology, on the model of

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was set up at Kharagpur. Subsequently, IITs
were set up at Madras, Bombay, Kanpur and Delhi. The expenditure on scientific
research and science-based activities has increased year by year.
There are about 200 research laboratories in India carrying out research in
different areas. The Department of Science and Technology (DST) which was set up
in 1971 has been assigned the responsibility of formulating science policy.
Atomic Energy
India was one of the first countries in the world to

recognize the importance of nuclear energy. The Atomic Energy
Commission was set up in August 1948 under the chairmanship
of Homi J. Baba to formulate a policy for all atomic energy
activities in the country. The Department of Atomic Energy
(DAE) was set up 1954 as executive agency for implementing Homi J. B
aba
the atomic energy programmes. In 1956, India’s first nuclear
reactor in Trombay near Bombay (first in Asia also) began to function. Research and
development work in the field of atomic energy and allied fields are carried out at
three research centres, namely the Bhabha Atomic Research Center at Trombay,
the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu and the
Center for Advanced Technology, Chennai.
Space Research
India has also evinced interest in space research. The Indian National
Committee for Space Research was set up in 1962. Side by side, a Rocket
Launching Facility at Thumba came up. The first generation Indian National Satellite
System (INSAT-1) represents India’s first step towards implementing national
requirements. The INSAT – 1A and the INSAT – 1B served country’s need in the
field of telecommunications and meteorological earth observations.
The ISRO [Indian Space Research Organization] looks after the activities in
space science, technology and applications. T h e Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre at
Trivandrum, the largest of the ISRO centres, is primarily responsible for indigenous
launch vehicle technology. The ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore is the satellite
technology base of the Indian space programme.
The SHAR Centre, encompassing the Sriharikota Island in Andhra Pradesh

on the east coast of India is the main operational base of ISRO which is the satellite
launching range.
India’s Foreign Policy

After 1947, India began to follow an independent foreign policy. It was
designed by the first Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. He developed the
148

basic principles of India’s foreign policy. He was the architect of the Non-aligned
Movement during the Cold War era. Also, he extended support to colonial countries
in their struggle for independence. Nehru outlined the five principles of coexistence
or Panch Sheel for conducting relations among countries. They are:
- mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty
- non-aggression
- non-interference in each other’s internal affairs
- equality and mutual benefit and
- peaceful coexistence.
India plays an active role in international bodies such as the Common Wealth
and the United Nations Organization. After the Independence, Nehru decided to stay
within Common Wealth, an organization consisting of former British colonies. India
had also played an active role in the UN peacekeeping forces in various parts of the
world. It had sent its troops as part of UN peace-keeping Mission to Korea, Indo-
China, Suez Canal and The Congo.
India had to fight three major wars [1965, 1971 and 2000] with Pakistan over
the issue of Kashmir.
India maintained friendly relations with both USA and USSR during the Cold
War era. In 1971 India and USSR signed the Indo- Soviet Treaty of Friendship and
Alliance during the Bangladesh crisis.
India and China are the two most important powers of Asia. These two are
the most populous countries of the World. Also, they possess the significance of
proud, history and civilization dating back to ancient times. When the communist
regime under the leadership of Mao Tse Tung was established in 1949, India was
one among the first countries to recognize the People’s Republic of China. In spite
of India’s friendly relations with China India had to defend herself when China
attacked India in 1962. The emergence of Bangladesh as an independent state
with the active help of India was an important event. During the liberation struggle
between East Pakistan and West Pakistan India supported East Pakistan. The
coordinated approach of the Indian forces along with Mukti Bahini ultimately led to
the liberation of Bangladesh (East Pakistan) in December 1971 India is maintaining
friendly relations right from the birth of Bangladesh in 1971.
India has also been maintaining friendly relations with its neighbours for
which purpose the South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was
established. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives
are its members. The aim of SAARC is to increase economic, social and cultural
cooperation among its members. Periodic meetings are being held to achieve this
goal.
149

150

Learning Outcome
1. The democratic principles laid in the Indian Constitution.
2. Vallabhai Patel’s Contribution to the integration of Princely States.
3. The reorganization of states on linguistic basis.
4. Nehru’s economic planning and the objectives of various Five Year

Plans.
5. Development of science and Technology in various spheres

including atomic research and space programmes.
6. Basic principles of India’s foreign policy and India’s relations with

world countries and neighbours.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Who among the following was the chairman of the Constituent Assembly?
(a) Dr. Ambedkar (b) Dr. Rajendra Prasad
(c) K.M. Panikkar (d) Jawaharlal Nehru
2. Which of the following Princely states refused to join the Indian Union?
(a) Hyderabad (b) Mysore
(c) Jaipur (d) Travancore
3. For the first time in independent India, a non-Congress ministry was formed
under the leadership of
(a) V.P. Singh (b) Narasimha Rao
(c) Morarji Desai (d) A.B. Vajpayee
4. The first Indian Institute of Technology was set up at
(a) Kanpur (b) Bombay

(c) Madras (d) Kharagpur
151

1. The Iron Man of India was __________
2. Andhra State was created in the year _________
3. _________ was considered as the architect of modern India.
4. The New Education Policy was introduced by _________
5. With the aim of achieving self sufficiency in food production _________ was
launched.
6. The Bhaba Atomic Research Centre is situated at _________
7. The nation Bangladesh emerged in _________
1. Raja Hari Singh a. Emergency Rule
2. Indira Gandhi b. Atomic Energy Commission
3. V.P. Singh c. ISRO
4. Homi J. Bhaba d. Kashmir
5. Vikram Sarabai e. Mandal Commission
a) The President is the constitutional head of the state.
b) The Planning Commission was established with the Vice- President as its
chairman.
c) The Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research is situated in Neyveli.
d) ISRO satellite centre is at Mangalore.
1. The States Reorganization Commission was appointed under the

chairmanship of Fazal Ali.
2. Dr. Manmohan Singh served as Finance Minister under P.V. Narasimha Rao.
1. Green Revolution
2. Panch Sheel
3. ISRO
152

1. Discuss the salient features of the Indian Constitution.
2. Write a note on the Linguistic Reorganization of States.
3. Mention the important features of India’s foreign policy.
1. Analyse the role of Sardar Vallabhai Patel in the integration of Indian states.
2. Give an account of the economic progress through five year plans.
3. Describe the development of science and technology in independent India.
4. “Jawaharlal Nehru is the architect of modern India” – Discuss.
153

LESSON 21
RENAISSANCE
Learning Objectives
1. The meaning of Renaissance.
2. The causes for the birth of Renaissance in Italy.
3. Revival of classical Literature.
4. Renaissance Literature.
5. Renaissance Art.
6. Development of Science.
7. Results of the Renaissance.
The term Renaissance literally means “rebirth” or “revival”. But it refers to the
significant changes that took place in Europe during the transition period between
the medieval and modern. There was a revival of literature and art on the intellectual
side. The spirit of enquiry led to scientific inventions. Politically, this period
witnessed the end of feudalism and the emergence of nation-states. The spirit of
individualism and humanism began to dominate in the social sphere. The religious
transformation was symbolized by the Reformation. All these changes in Europe
were collectively referred to as Renaissance.
The Roman Empire declined by the end of the 5th century A.D. It had resulted
in the neglect of classical literature and arts. But these treasures of culture were
preserved in the Eastern Roman Empire with its capital at Constantinople. The
Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453. As a result, the Byzantine-
Greek scholars fled from Constantinople to Rome. They brought with them the
Greek and Roman heritage. With this revival of classical learning in Italy, a spirit
of enquiry developed. This spirit of enquiry stimulated the progress of science, art,
architecture, sculpture, painting, literature, geography and religion.
Renaissance in Italy
Italy is considered the birth place of the Renaissance for several reasons.
Some of them were:
- Italy was the seat of ancient civilization and the Latin language.
- The rich city states in Italy like Florence and Venice patronized art and
literature. For example, the Medici family of Florence had patronized many
scholars.
154

- The publication of the Divine Comedy by the greatest Italian poet Dante (1265-
1321) triggered the Renaissance movement in the city of Florence. It was
written in the Italian language. Thereafter, the Renaissance spread to other
parts of Europe and reached its peak in the sixteenth century.
Revival of Classical Literature
The most important contribution of the Renaissance was
the revival and learning of ancient Greek and Latin literature. The
pioneer in this effort was Petrarch (1304–1374) with his profound
knowledge in these languages, he collected and compiled many
ancient manuscripts containing the works of Plato and Aristotle. His
disciple Boccaccio had also encouraged the classical learning.
P
Many Greek scholars who came from Constantinople spread the
etrarch
ancient Greek literature in Florence. The most notable among them was Manuel
Chrysolores. Another scholar, Bracciolini traced the works of Tacitus, Livy and
Sophocles. In the 15th century Pope Nicholas V founded the Vatican Library and
the ancient manuscripts were preserved in that library. They were
studied and analysed by scholars. The contribution of Erasmus
(1463-1536) in correcting and editing the Latin works was also
notable. He edited the New Testament in the Greek language.
The invention of printing press by John Gutenberg
B (1398- 1468) in Germany had influenced the Renaissance literature.
occaccio
The first book published by him was The Bible. William Caxton set
up a printing press in England. Shortly, many
printing presses came up throughout Europe and it
provided a stimulus to the Renaissance movement.
The availability of books at cheaper rates made the
masses to improve their awareness.
L E
rasmus
ivy
Renaissance Literature
Apart from the revival of classical literature, many works in classical
languages as well as in the native languages came up during this period. We
have already referred to Dante’s Divine Comedy written in the
Italian language. Similarly, Chaucer wrote the
Canterbury Tales in English. Boccaccio was the
author of the Deccameron, a collection of fables.
Machiavelli, who lived in Florence, wrote his eight-
volume History of Florence. His most famous work
M
was The Prince, a book on political science.
achiavelli
D
ante

155

While Italy was the home of the most famous literary figures of the
Renaissance, a Renaissance literature typical of that period can also be found in
France, England, Germany, and Spain.
In England, Sir Thomas Moore wrote his famous book
Utopia in Latin. However, the Elizabethan era marked the beginning
of the English Renaissance. It saw dramatists like
William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe and
Thomas M Charles Webster; poets like Edmund Spenser,
ore
Sydney and Ben Johnson. Hakluyt wrote excellent travel accounts
during this period.
S
Montaigne (1533-1592), the French essayist, was the most
hakespeare
typical writer of the Renaissance literature. His works reflect an intense interest in
himself and in things connected with the life of man. His essays on
education were regarded as important for centuries. A forerunner of
Voltaire in his method of writing and thinking, Montaigne revolted
against the authority and the tyranny of the past and earned the title
“the first modern man”.
Martin L In Germany, Martin Luther translated the Bible in the German

uther
language. Sebastian Brant wrote The Ship of Fools. In Spain,
Cervantes authored the famous Don Quixote.
Renaissance Art
Art in the Middle Ages was dominated by the Christian religion and
Church. During the Renaissance importance was given to the love of nature and
human body. Although the spirit of humanism prevailed, the subject matter of the
most of the Renaissance art was Christian. Renaissance painting bloomed most
profusely in Italy. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1564) and
Raphael (1483-1520) were the dominant figures among the Renaissance painters.
Leonardo da Vinci, one of the most versatile men of his time, was an artist,
poet, musician, and engineer. Hence, he is known as the “Renaissance Man”. Born
in Florence, he visited several countries. He was patronized by the
Duke of Milan. His famous paintings were the Mona Lisa and the
Last Supper.
Michelangelo was both a painter and sculptor. He lived in
Florence and patronized by the Medici family.
Leonardo Da
Later, he went to Rome. The magnificent frescoes
V on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican
inci
represent his most brilliant achievement in
painting. This work contains 145 pictures with 394 figures, some
of which are as much as ten feet high. His painting, The Last M
ichelangelo
Judgement is considered the best in the world.
156

Raphael achieved a rare blending of devotional feeling with a sense of

beauty. Although Raphael died at the age of thirty-seven, he produced a great
number of paintings, of which the most familiar is the Madonna.
The Venetian School is an excellent example of the secularization of the
Renaissance art. Artistic expression in Venice was worldly and materialistic. Titian
(1477-1576) and Tintoretto (1518-1592) were the greatest painters of Venice.
Renaissance Sculpture
The art of sculpture had also witnessed progress during the
Renaissance period. It was more original and beautiful. The pioneer
of the Renaissance sculpture was Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455).
The magnificent doors at the Baptistery of Florence
were his master piece. Michael Angelo appreciated
R the beauty of these doors as worthy to the gates
aphael
of the Paradise. Donatello (1386-1466) produced
the statue of St. George in Florence and that of St. Mark at Venice.
Michelangelo besides being a painter was a celebrated sculptor. Lorenzo
He produced some of his best sculptures for the Medici family in G
hiberti
Florence. He was also the creator of the statue of David in Florence.
Brunelleschi and Robbia were the other famous sculptors of this period. One of the
most familiar examples of the Renaissance architecture is St. Peter’s Church of
Rome.
Development of Science
The spirit of modem science was born with the Renaissance. Science
in the Middle Ages struggled against superstitions. The Renaissance brought about
a critical observation of natural phenomena. This spirit of learning took root in
science.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626) is considered the father of modern
science. He denounced the deductive method and advocated
the inductive method in scientific research.
Descartes (1596-1650) brought out convincingly
Francis B the necessity of questioning everything. Descartes
acon
contributed the idea of doubt, and doubt was the
forerunner of a new age in science.
Copernicus (1473-1543) established the heliocentric
C
theory. According to this theory the heavenly bodies
opernicus
do not revolve about the earth as believed during that period but
around the sun. Kepler (1571- 1630) formulated mathematical laws
to support the conclusions of Copernicus. He also stated that the
planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits. Galileo (1564-
1642) through the invention of the telescope brought new evidence
K to support the Copernican theory.
epler
157

Newton (1642-1727) concluded that the movements of

all celestial bodies were controlled by gravitation. With the new
astronomical knowledge that was available, the old Julian calendar
was reformed in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII.
The humanistic spirit of the Renaissance had
also awakened increased interest in the study G
alileo
of medicine and anatomy. Vesalius (1514-1564), a Netherlander
wrote a treatise on human anatomy. William Harvey (1578-1657)
discovered the blood circulation, a prime contribution to medical
science. In this period, chemistry became something more than
N
alchemy. Paracelsus (1493-1541) showed that reactions in the
ewton
human body involve chemical changes. He had employed chemicals for medicinal
purposes. Cordus (1515-1544) made ether from sulphuric acid and alcohol. Helmont
(1577-1644) discovered the carbon dioxide.
Results of the Renaissance
The Renaissance remained the symbol of the beginning
of the modern age. The spirit of enquiry and the consequent
scientific inventions produced important changes in the life of
humanity. The invention of the Mariner ’s Compass and other
astronomical faiths led to the Geographical discoveries. The WILLIAM HARVEY
impact of these discoveries was profound in the political and
economic life of the people. The reasoning spirit had resulted in the Reformation
and changed the outlook of the people towards religion.
Important Historical Events of Renaissance

1300 Humanism taught at Padua University in Italy
1341 Petrarch given title of ‘Poet Laureate’ in Rome
1349 University established in Florence
1390 Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales published
1436 Brunelleschi designs the Duomo in Florence
1454 Gutenberg prints the Bible with movable type
1495 Leonardo da Vinci paints The Last Supper
1512 Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel ceiling
1516 Thomas More’s Utopia published
1543 Andreas Vesalius writes On Anatomy
1582 Gregorian calendar introduced by Pope Gregory XIII
1628 William Harvey links the heart with blood circulation
1687 Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica published
158

Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
1. The wider meaning of the Renaissance.
2. The reasons for the birth of Renaissance in Italy.
3. The role of intellectuals like Dante and Petrarch in the revival of

Classical Literature.
4. The role of Leonardo da Vinci and others in the Renaissance art.
5. The scientific development during the Renaissance.
6. The results of the Renaissance.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in
(a) 1453 (b) 1533
(c) 1543 (d) 1443
2. Who among the following is considered as the father of modern science?
(a) Copernicus (b) Francis Bacon
(c) Kepler (d) Newton
1. Boccaccio was the disciple of ___________
2. The Prince, a book on political science was written by __________
3. Telescope was invented by __________
1. Last Supper a. Michael Angelo
2. Last Judgement b. Sebastian Brant
3. Madonna c. Sir Thomas Moore

4. Utopia d. Leonardo da Vinci
5. The Ship of Fools e. Raphael
159

a) The first book published by John Gutenberg was The Bible.
b) Descartes is considered the father of modern science
c) Newton established the Heliocentric Theory.
d. Blood circulation was discovered by Thomas More.
1. Dante’s Divine Comedy was written in the Latin language.
2. The printing press was first invented by William Caxton.
1. Meaning of Renaissance.
2. Leonardo da Vinci.
3. Copernicus.
1. Discuss the causes for the birth of Renaissance in Italy.
2. Write a note on the Renaissance sculpture.

3. Estimate the results of the Renaissance.
1. Evaluate the role of intellectuals in the development of Renaissance literature.
2. Assess the scientific development during the period of the Renaissance.
160

LESSON 22
GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES
Learning Objectives
1. The causes leading to the geographical discoveries.
2. The role of Portugal in exploring the new sea routes.
3. The role of Spain in the discovery of new continents.
4. Other geographical discoveries.
5. The impact of geographical discoveries.
The Geographical Discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries constitute

an important chapter in the history of the modern world. It is also known as the
Age of Discovery. The new sea routes to the East as well as the discovery of
new continents like the America radically transformed the course of history. The
adventurous spirit of the sailors like Bartholomew Diaz, Christopher Columbus and
Ferdinand Magellan ultimately led to these historic discoveries. There are several
causes that led to these discoveries.
Causes for the Geographical Discoveries
1. In 1453, the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, the important trade

route to the East. Thus, the Turks began to control the European trade with
the East. They imposed heavy duties on the goods. On the other hand,
the Arab traders continued their trade through the Coasts of India and got
huge profits in spice trade. Therefore, the Europeans were forced to find an
alternative route to the East.
2. The Renaissance spirit and the consequent scientific discoveries were also
responsible for geographical discoveries. The art of ship-building developed
along with the invention of Mariner’s Compass. The astronomical and other
scientific discoveries raised the hope of the adventurers to explore new sea
routes.
3. The travel accounts of Marco Polo and Nicolo Polo about China and India
kindled great enthusiasm among the Europeans about the fabulous wealth
of the Eastern countries. Other accounts of the voyages also encouraged
explorations. A Merchants Handbook described all known trade routes
between Europe and the Far East. Similarly, the Secrets of the Faithful
Crusader told about Asiatic cities.
161

4. Other factors such as the spirit of adventure, desire for new lands and
competition for exploration between European nations had also stimulated
the explorers venturing into the seas.
Portugal
The first great wave of expeditions was launched by Portugal.

Its ruler was Henry (1394-1460) generally known as “the
Navigator”. As a result of his efforts, the Madeira and Azores
Islands were discovered. The main project of Henry
the Navigator was the exploration of the West
Henry the
N Coast of Africa. His sailors discovered the Cape
avigator
Verde Islands. Although Henry died in 1460, his zeal
provided stimulus to the Portuguese for further explorations. In 1487
Bartholomew Diaz reached the southern tip of Africa and called it Bartholomew
“the Cape of Storms” due to a terrible storm he experienced there. Diaz
Later it was renamed as “the Cape of Good Hope” because it provided hope that
access to the Indian Ocean was possible. Vasco da Gama successfully used this
route and reached India in 1498. Vasco da Gama’s discovery of a new sea-route to
India was a most significant event in the history of Europe and Asia.
Spain
Next to Portugal, Spain began to explore the

sea route to the east. Christopher Columbus, a
Genoese sailor, planned to discover a new sea
route to the East by traveling westwards. After
securing monetary assistance from King Ferdinand
Vasco Da G and Queen Isabella of Spain, he set sail on August C
olumbus
ama
3, 1492 across the Atlantic. After a long and difficult voyage he reached an island
of the Bahamas on Oct 12, 1492. He thought that he had reached
the shores of India. Therefore, he called the natives of that island
Indians. He made three more voyages and explored the islands in
the Caribbean Sea and Central America. These islands are even
today called as the West Indies.
Amerigo Later in 1501, Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian navigator, with the
V
support of the king of Spain explored the areas of South America. He
espucci
came to the conclusion that what Columbus discovered was not
India but a “New World”. Therefore the new continent was named
as America. However, Columbus is considered as the discoverer of
America.
In 1493, Pope Alexander VI issued a Bull in order to prevent

any dispute between Spain and Portugal in exploring new sea M
agellan
162

routes and new lands. It is popularly called the Papal Bull (order of Pope). According
to it an imaginary line was drawn dividing the globe into east and west. Spain was
given the right to possess the lands on the west and Portugal on the east of the
Pope’s line. Thus, Spain could not use sea route through the Cape of Good Hope to
reach the East Indies.
Therefore, Spain planned to reach the east by sailing westwards. On August

10, 1519, Ferdinand Magellan had sailed with five Spanish ships – namely, Trinidad,
San Antonio, Concepcion, Victoria, and Santiago - from the port of Sevilla. The fleet
of Magellan crossed an arduous 373-mile long passage on the southern end of
South America. This strait is now named the Strait of Magellan. Then he entered
an ocean which was calmer than the Atlantic. Therefore, he named it the Pacific
Ocean. While crossing the Pacific, the sailors suffered for want of food and drinking-
water. At last, on March 6, 1521, they reached the Philippines, where Magellan was
killed by the natives. The survivors with the only remaining ship, the Victoria arrived
at Sevilla through the Cape of Good Hope on September 9, 1522. It was the first
voyage undertaken round the world.
Other Geographical Discoveries
In 1497, John Cabot was sent by Henry VII of England to

explore the seas. He discovered the Newfoundland. In his next
expedition, he reached North America and explored it. But he
was not able to find any people there and
returned to England disappointed. However,
this voyage resulted in the claim of England
to the mainland of North America. In 1534,
John C Jacques Cartier from France went to the
abot
North America and explored the region. He found the Red Indian Jacques
settlements and named that region as Canada. C
artier
Voyages by Europeans
1492 Columbus claims Bahama Islands and Cuba for Spain
1494 The ‘undiscovered world’ divided between Portugal and
1497 John Cabot, Englishman, explores North American coast
1498 Vasco da Gama reaches Calicut/Kozhikode
1499 Amerigo Vespucci sights South American coast
1522 Magellan circumnavigates the globe
1571 Spanish conquer the Philippines
1600 British East India Company formed
1602 Dutch East India Company formed
163

Impact of the Geographical Discoveries
The geographical discoveries had a profound impact on the economic,

political and social conditions in most parts of the world. The most important among
them are:
1. There was a tremendous improvement in the trade and industry in Europe. It

began to reach beyond the Oceans.
2. The expansion of trade provided a stimulus to the development of ship-building

industry. Larger quantities of goods had to be carried in bigger ships.
3. As the trade developed in large scale, joint-stock companies and banking

enterprises emerged. European companies established their trade centres in
Asia, Africa and Latin America.
4. The trading companies slowly captured political power and established their rule
in their respective regions. This led to Colonialism and Imperialism.
5. Capitalism had grown in Europe along with the policy of Mercantilism. As a

result, the colonies were exploited.
6. The mad rush for new colonies led to mutual rivalry among the European
powers and ultimately resulted in wars.
7. The system of slavery was followed. The European planters in America

imported Negro slaves from Africa to work in their plantations.
8. The geographical discoveries solved the problem of over population in Europe

and many Europeans began to settle in the American continents.
9. The culture of Europe had spread to Asia, Africa and other parts of the world
very rapidly.
Learning Outcome
1. The causes like the fall of Constantinople and scientific discoveries

led to geographical discoveries.
2. Henry the Navigator and his contributions to geographical

explorations.
3. Early efforts of the Portuguese navigators like Bartholomew Diaz.
4. The explorations of Christopher Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci.
5. Magellan’s circumnavigation of the Globe.
6. Impact of the geographical discoveries.
164

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Madeira and Azores islands were discovered by
(a) Henry (b) Bartholomew Diaz
(c) Columbus (d) Magellan
1. Vascodagama reached India in __________
2. Canada was discovered by __________
1. Bartholomew Diaz a. Bahamas Island
2. Columbus b. Newfoundland
3. Amerigo Vespucci c. Cape of Storm
4. John Cabot d. America
a. King Ferdinand of Spain is generally known as “the Navigator”.
b. In 1487 Vasco da Gama reached the southern tip of Africa and called it “the
Cape of Storms”.
c. Ferdinand Magellan while crossing the clam part of the ocean named it the
Pacific Ocean.
d. John Cabot of England went to the North America and explored the region.
1. Vasco da Gama reached India in 1598.
2. Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian navigator, with the support of the king of Spain
explored the areas of South America.
1. Henry the Navigator.

2. Ferdinand Magellan
165

1. Discuss the role of Portugal in exploring the new sea routes.
2. Analyse the causes for the geographical discoveries.
1. Give an account of the contribution of Spain towards the discovery of new

countries.
2. Examine the impact of the geographical discoveries.
166

LESSON 23
THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER REFORMATION
Learning Objectives
1. The causes for the Reformation.
2. Martin Luther’s Contribution to the Reformation.
3. Ulrich Zwingli and the Reformation in Switzerland.
4. John Calvin and his contribution to the Reformation.
5. Counter Reformation.
6. The results of the Reformation.
The term Reformation refers to a great religious reform movement in Europe

during 16th century. There was a big protest against the Christian Church in different
parts of Europe and it ultimately resulted in the emergence of Protestant Christian
religion. This great religious movement was not only the evidence of a great
religious change, but also proclaimed the dawn of a new era. The Reformation
started in Germany and later it spread to other countries.
Causes for the Reformation
There are several causes for the Reformation.
1. The Christian Church under the Pope was originally commanded respect
among the people. But in the Middle ages, it had become a big feudal
institution and possessed so much of lands and wealth. The Popes enjoyed
great political influence and interfered into the political affairs. As a result
they began to neglect their spiritual duties. The Pope and the clergy began
to lead luxurious lives. The Popes like Alexander VI, Julius II and Leo X who
lived in 15th and 16th centuries with their activities undermined the respect and
prestige of the Church.
2. The Renaissance movement created a spirit of inquiry among the masses.

They began to read the Bible and realized that the activities of the Church
and the clergy were not according to the precepts of the holy book. In the
years preceding the Reformation, many writers condemned luxurious
and superstitious practices prevalent in the Church. John Wycliffe (1330-
1384) from England criticized the Pope for his authority and misdeeds. He
translated the Bible into English. He is considered “the Morning Star of the
167

Reformation. Erasmus (1466-1536) attacked the superstitions followed by

the clergy in his book In Praise of Folly. It was published in 1509. John Huss
(1369-1415), a Bohemian, struggled for reforming the Church. But he was
condemned for his writings against the Church and burnt to death. These
early efforts to reform the Church sowed the seeds for the Reformation of
the 16th century.
3. The emergence of nation-states in Europe eroded the political influence

enjoyed by the Church during the Middle Ages. The Pope and the Emperor
lost their influence and power. The people began to respect their king and
the nation. Therefore, the concept of Universal Church slowly gave way to
national churches.
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
The Reformation started in Germany and it was led by Martin

Luther. Martin Luther was born in Eisleben on November 10, 1483.
Luther was educated at the University of Erfurt. He became a monk
in 1508. In November 1510 he visited Rome. He was shocked to Martin L
uther
see the worldly life led by the Roman clergy. In 1512 he received
his doctorate in theology from Wittenberg University. He began his career as a
professor of theology in the same university. Thereafter, Luther began a systematic
campaign for the removal of evils of the Church.
In 1517, Pope Leo X sent John Tetzel to

Germany to sell indulgences for the purpose of
raising money to renovate the Saint Peter’s Church
at Rome. An indulgence was originally meant a
John T promise given to a sinner for the remission of
etzel
punishment if he repented and confessed his Pope Leo X
sins. But Pope Leo X used the sale of indulgences to raise money.
Therefore, Luther opposed the practice of the sale of indulgences. When John
Tetzel visited Wittenberg, Luther listed the abuse of indulgence in his 95 theses and
nailed it to the doors of the church. Pope Leo X got alarmed and excommunicated
Luther in January 1521. Luther burnt this order in public.
Then the Pope appealed to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, to punish
Luther for his writings against the Church. But Luther had the
support of the German princes. However, he appeared before
Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in April 1521. Luther was
proclaimed guilty. But before his imprisonment, he was escorted by
his friends and kept at Wartburg Castle. There he translated New
Charles V Testament from original Greek into German language. He published
his most popular book, the Small Catechism, in 1529. Luther led a life of seclusion
till his death in 1546.
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When the rural people of Germany joined this religious protest it became
the Peasants’ War of 1524-1525. The revolt of peasants was suppressed with
an iron hand. Many peasants were massacred. In the Diet of Spires which met
in 1526, the religious question was raised again by the German princes. The
Diet gave permission to the princes to choose their own religion. But, Emperor
Charles V revoked this decision in 1529. Therefore, the German princes drew up
a protest and they came to be known as “Protestants”. It was only in the Peace of
Augsburg in 1555, formal approval was given by the Emperor to the princes either
to remain Catholic or Lutheran. It gave recognition only to Lutheran sect and not to
Zwinglianism or Calvinism.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Ulrich Zwingli paved the way for the Reformation in Switzerland. He was
contemporary of Martin Luther. Born in a rich family in Switzerland, he became a
priest in the Zurich Canton in 1502. He attacked abuses of the Church such as the
sale of indulgences. He spoke openly that the clergy should strictly
follow the principles of the Bible. Samson was sent to Zurich by the
Pope to sell the indulgences. It was opposed by Zwingli. Thereafter,
his preaching was directed against the leadership of the Pope, the
excessive veneration of saints, the celibacy of the priesthood, and
fasting. His stand against the celibacy was opposed by the bishop
UlrichZ
of Constance. The city council voted in favour of Zwingli and against
wingli
the bishop. Thus Zurich adopted the Reformation. In 1523, Pope sent an order
excommunicating Zwingli but, the Zurich Canton announced its separation from
the Church. Five other Cantons declared a war against Zurich in which Zwingli was
killed in 1531. Finally an agreement was reached between the Cantons by which
each Canton was given freedom to choose their religious sect.
John Calvin (1509-1564)
The French protest reformer John Calvin

was born in France. He studied humanities
and Law at the University of Paris. He
John C obtained in 1532, Doctor of Law. His first
alvin
published work was a commentary on Roman philosopher
HENTRY VIII
Seneca’s De Clementia. In 1536, he settled in Geneva. His main
teachings are that the Bible alone is the final authority for matters of faith and that
salvation is attained purely through grace. He subscribed to the doctrine of the
absolute fore-knowledge and the determining power of God. Calvin published his
religious doctrines as a book called The Institutes of Christian Religion. His religious
sect was own as Calvinism. He became the head of the church in Geneva. He
established several schools for the spread of education. He was also the founder
of the University of Geneva. Calvinism had spread to many parts of Europe.
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Reformation in England
King Henry VIII of England initially opposed Martin Luther and supported the
Pope. He was called “the Defender of Faith” by Pope Leo X. This relationship with
the Pope broke down when the Pope refused to permit King Henry VIII to marry
Anne Boleyn after divorcing his queen. He asked the Parliament to
pass an Act of Supremacy in 1534 by which the king was made the
head of the Church of England. This new Church independent of
the authority of Pope was called the Anglican Church. Henry VIII
did not introduce any changes in the Catholic doctrines. But the
Edward VI Anglican Church became really Protestant in the reign of Edward VI
(1547-1553). The service books were translated into English.
Counter-Reformation
The success of the Reformation movement created a great

awe and fear in the Roman Catholic Church. Before things went
out of control, it took drastic measures to check the spread of the
Protestant religion and also to carry out reforms within itself. This
process was known as Counter-Reformation.
Ignatius
Loyola Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) was a Spanish soldier and lost
his legs in a war. Thereafter, he decided to contribute his might to
the cause of the Roman Catholic Church. Loyola founded the Society of Jesus in
1534 and it was recognized by the Pope. The aim of this Society was to reform
and restore the glory of the Catholic Church. Members of the society were known
as Jesuits. They worked hard to earn good name for the Catholic Church through
their dedicated service. They established schools and colleges in several parts of
the world. They achieved a remarkable success in their missionary activities. They
remained faithful to the Pope and the Catholic religion.
The Council of Trent (1545-1563) introduced several reforms in the Catholic
Church. The most glaring abuses of the clergy were removed. Celibacy was strictly
enforced for them. The sale of offices was stopped. The practice of the sale of
indulgences was abolished. It also stressed that clergy adhere more strictly to their
duties. The Pope was recognized as the supreme authority in the matters of religion.
An Index consisting of the list of dangerous and heretical books was issued
by the Church. The Catholics were prohibited from reading these books.
Similarly the medieval practice of Ecclesiastical Court of Inquisition was

revived. Torture was used to extract confession. Severe punishments such as
burning to death were employed against the enemies of the Church.
The success of the Counter Reformation can be understood from the fact that
the rapid spread of Protestantism was halted. Southern Germany, France, Poland,
170

some of the Swiss cantons, and Savoy were brought back to the Catholic faith. At
the same time Protestantism was driven out of Italy and Spain. The Roman Catholic
Church is still one of the greatest religious organizations in the world.
Important Historical Events of Reformation

1492 Columbus claims Bahama Islands and Cuba for Spain
1517 Martin Luther writes the Ninety-Five Theses
1522 Luther translates the Bible into German
1525 Peasant uprising in Germany
1559 Anglican Church established in England, with the king/
queen as its head
Effects of Reformation
The important results of the Reformation were:
1. The Reformation led to two major divisions in Christianity – Catholics and

Protestants. This division had resulted in religious persecution and religious
wars Germany and in other parts of Europe.
2. People were encouraged to read the Bible and ponder on religion. The
freedom given by the Protestants to interpret the Bible led to free thinking. It
encouraged the development of art, literature and science.
3. The democratic church system paved the way for the growth of democracy
and nationalism. The nations began to evolve their own churches. The place
of Pope was taken by the nationalistic churches.
4. The rapid progress of the Protestant religion and the counter- Reformation
ultimately resulted in the purification of the Church. Both Catholics and
Protestants began to adopt high moral standards after the Reformation. The
Catholics purified their Church establishments and this in turn improved the
values in the society.
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Learning Outcome
1. The abuses in the Church and other factors led to the Reformation.
2. The life and work of Martin Luther in bringing the Reformation

in Germany.
3. The role of John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli in the Reformation.
4. The process of Counter Reformation and the role of Ignatius Loyola.
5. The results of the Reformation.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Which among the following was not a reason for the Reformation?
(a) The Spirit of enquiry created by the Renaissance
(b) Emergence of nation-states in Europe
(c) The Geographical discoveries

(d) The luxurious life led by the Pope and the Clergy.
2. Who is considered as the ‘morning star of the Reformation’?
(a) Erasmus (b) Martin Luther
(c) John Huss (d) John Wycliffe
1. The Society of Jesus was founded by__________
2. The founder of the University of Geneva was _______
1. Martin Luther a. France
2. Ulrich Zwingli b. Spain
3. John Calvin c. Germany
4. Ignatius Loyola d. England
5. John Wycliffe e. Switzerland
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a) The Counter Reformation was launched by the Protestants.
b) The followers of Ignatius Loyola contributed for the spread of education.
c) The Trent Council was convened by Henry VIII.
d) During the Counter Reformation an Index consisting of the list of good books
was issued by the Church.
1. King Henry VIII of England initially supported Martin Luther and opposed the
Pope.
2. The Anglican Church became really Protestant in the reign of Edward.
1. Ulrich Zwingli
2. Counter Reformation
3. Society of Jesus
1. Discuss the role of John Calvin in the Reformation.
2. Evaluate the effects of the Reformation.
1. Examine the causes for the Reformation.
2. Analyse the contribution of Martin Luther for the Reformation in Germany.
3. Discuss the course of the Counter Reformation.
173

LESSON 24
THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1776-1783)
Learning Objectives
1. The fundamental causes of the American War of Independence.
2. The circumstances leading the war.
3. The Declaration of Independence.
4. Important events of the war.
5. Importance of the war.
The English Colonies in America
After the discovery of the American continent, there was a continuous

migration of people from Europe to the New World. South America was colonized by
Spain. The English and the French established their colonies in the North America.
By the mid eighteenth century, the English had established their thirteen colonies
along the Atlantic coast. Landless peasants, people seeking religious freedom
and traders had settled there. Initially the relationship between the colonies and
British Government was cordial. Although these colonies were controlled through
the governors, they enjoyed political freedom. Each colony had its own assembly
elected by the people. It enacted laws concerning local matters. However, the
policies followed by the home government (Britain) had resulted in the confrontation.
This ultimately led to the American War of Independence at the end of which the
colonies became independent. There were several causes for this war.
Fundamental Causes
The British Government followed the policy of mercantilism. According to

this policy the colonies existed for the benefit of the mother country. The colonies
were expected to furnish raw materials. They had to serve as markets for produced
goods. Moreover, the colonies had to ship their goods only in British ships. In these
ways the colonies were expected to add more wealth to the home country. The
British Government enacted laws to implement this policy of mercantilism.
A series of Navigation Acts were passed by the British Parliament to

control the trade of the American colonies. These Acts insisted that all the goods
of both exports and imports should be carried in ships owned by England. Custom
collectors were appointed in the colonies to implement the Navigation Acts. But, the
American colonies considered these Acts as infringement of their rights.
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The Molasses Act levied heavy duties on sugar and molasses imported into
the American colonies. In addition to this, a series of Trade Acts were also passed
to control the trade in the colonies. For example, the Hat Act of 1732 prohibited the
import of hats from one colony to the other. The Iron Act 1750 stopped the large-
scale production of iron in the colonies. These Acts were opposed by the colonies.
Due to these restrictions, bitterness developed between the home

government and the American colonies. They were looking for an opportunity to free
themselves from the control of Britain.
Circumstances leading to the War of Independence
Seven Year’s War
The end of the Seven Years War in 1763 and the transfer of Canada from
France to England removed the French fear from the minds of the Americans. There
was no need to depend on their mother country against any possible attack by the
French. Therefore, the American colonies decided to face the colonial attitude of the
British.
Granville Measures
When Granville was the Prime Minister of England a series of Acts were
passed affecting the interests of the American colonies. The Proclamation of 1763
prohibited the colonists from purchasing lands beyond Appalachian Mountains. The
Sugar Act of 1764 increased the duties on the sugar which affected the interests
of the colonies. The Stamp Act of 1765 insisted on the use of British stamps
in commercial and legal documents of the colonies. The Quartering Act made
it compulsory that colonists should provide food and shelter to English troops.
These measures were severely opposed by the colonists. They raised the slogan
“No Taxation without Representation” thus insisting American representation in
the English Parliament. As violence broke out in the streets, the Stamp Act was
repealed.
Townshend Laws
Charles Townshend, the Finance Minister of England imposed fresh taxes

on glass, paper, tea, paints, etc in 1767. It was known as Townshend laws. The
Americans protested it and boycotted the British goods. On 5th March 1770, five
Americans were killed by the British soldiers at Boston during the protest. It was
known as the Boston Massacre. After this event, the Townshend laws were
repealed.
Boston Tea Party

In 1773, a new Tea Act was passed imposing a tax on import of tea. It was
a symbol to show that the British Parliament had the right to tax the colonies. But
175

Americans showed their protest. A group of

Americans dressed as Red Indians, climbed
on the ships and threw away the tea bundles
into the sea at the Boston harbour. This
event took place on 16th December 1773
and it was known as the Boston Tea Party.
The offenders were punished. In 1774, the
British Parliament passed the Intolerable Acts
against the Americans in order to prevent Boston Tea P
arty
such protests.
Philadelphia Congress
The American colonists decided to unite in their fight against the British. In
September 1774, the first Continental Congress was held at
Philadelphia. It was attended by the representatives of the
twelve colonies except Georgia. This congress appealed to the
British King to remove restrictions on industries and trade and
not to impose any taxes without their consent. The second
Continental Congress met in May 1775 at Philadelphia.
Delegates from all the thirteen colonies attended this Congress.
J Prominent leaders like Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin
efferson
participated in it. George Washington was made the Commander-
in-Chief of the American army. As a last attempt, an Olive Branch Petition was sent
to the British king George III, who rejected it. The king proclaimed that the American
colonies were in a state of rebellion.
Declaration of Independence
In January 1776, Thomas Paine came to America from

England and issued a pamphlet “Common Sense”. It attacked
the idea of hereditary monarchy and advocated democratic
government. More than one lakh copies of this 50 page booklet
were distributed throughout the thirteen colonies. It inculcated
the fighting spirit among the Americans. On 4th July 1776,
the American Declaration of Independence was adopted
by the Continental Congress. It was prepared by a committeeThomas P
aine
of five led by Thomas Jefferson who included the ideals of human freedom in it.
The Declaration of independence laid emphasis on the unalienable rights of men
namely, “Life, Liberty and Pursuit of happiness”.
Important Battles
The war started in 1775, when the first battle was fought between the British
soldiers and the colonial militia at Lexington in Massachusetts. Soon, George
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Washington assume the command of the army of the American

colonies. The British General, Gage won a victory at Bunker
Hill. In 1776 the British forces led by Sir William Howe defeated
Washington in the battle of Long Island. However, the army of
American colonies commanded by General Gates defeated
British troops at Saratoga in October, 1777. The victory at
Saratoga marked a turning point in the war. The French troops
George under Lafayette came to the help of the American colonies.
W Finally, the British troops under the command of General
ashington
Cornwallis surrendered to Washington at Yorktown in 1781. The war came to an
end by the Treaty of Paris in 1783.
Importance of the American War of Independence
• The American colonies became free and the Republic of the United States
of America was established. The first democratic government with a written
constitution in the world became a reality. The Bill of Rights ensured
fundamental rights to the citizens of the U.S.A.
• The American War of Independence was also called the American Revolution
because it inspired the French Revolution. It was not only a war against
England but against aristocracy and reactionary elements. It was also a fight
against colonial domination.
• It introduced new political, social and economic set up in the United States of
America. Democracy with separation of powers on the model suggested by
French thinker Montesquieu was founded. Capitalism also took strong roots.
• However, the rights of the sons of the soil, the Red Indians and the Negroes
were not considered at that time.
Learning Outcome
1. The fundamental causes for the war of American Independence.
2. The circumstances leading the war such as Granville measures,

Townshend laws and the Boston Tea Party.
3. The Declaration of Independence and its importance.
4. The important events of the war.
5. The importance of the American War of Independence.
177

178

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. “No Taxation without representation” was the slogan of revolution in
(a) France (b) China
(c) America (d) Russia
2. The author of “Common Sense”
(a) Voltaire (b) Benjamin Franklin
(c) Thomas Paine (d) Thomas Jefferson
1. The First Continental Congress in 1774 was held at _________
2. The Seven Years War came to an end in_______
3. The American War of Independence came to an end by the treaty of ______

1. Stamp Act a. 1764
2. Sugar Act b. 1765
3. Boston Tea Party c. 1767
4. Townshend laws d. 1773
a) The Navigation Acts were passed by the British Parliament for the benefit of
the American colonies.
b) The Quartering Act made it compulsory that the colonists should provide food
and shelter to the English troops.
c) The Second Continental Congress was attended by the representatives of

the 12 colonies except Georgia.
d) On 4th July 1774, the American Declaration of Independence was adopted by

the Continental Congress.
1 The victory at Saratoga marked a turning point in American War of

Independence.
2. The British troops under the command of General Cornwallis surrendered to

Washington at Lexington in 1781.
179

1. Townshend Laws
2. Boston Tea Party
3. Stamp Act
1. Analyse the fundamental causes for the American War of Independence.
2. Write a note on the Philadelphia Congress.
3. Bring out the importance of the American Declaration of Independence.
1. Examine the circumstances leading to the American War of Independence.
180

LESSON 25
FRENCH REVOLUTION
Learning Objectives
1. The causes of the French Revolution.
2. The role of French philosophers.
3. The Fall of Bastille and the beginning of the revolution.
4. The Constituent Assembly and the National Convention.
5. The Reign of Terror.
6. The end of the revolution.
The French Revolution opened a new chapter in the history of Europe.

It marked a turning point in the history of humankind. The French Revolution put
an end to the age old absolute monarchy, feudal laws and social inequality. It
introduced for the first time the idea of republicanism based on “Liberty, Equality and
Fraternity”. These ideas had influenced the entire continent of Europe and also the
world.
Causes of the French Revolution
The causes of the French revolution include the political, social and
economic aspects that were prevalent in France before the outbreak of the
revolution.
Political Causes
France was ruled by the Bourbon dynasty. They

firmly believed in the Divine Right theory – as they were
representatives of God, they were answerable only to God.
Louis XIV was a strong and powerful ruler of the Bourbon Louis XIV
dynasty. His wars ruined the economy of France. His successors Louis XV
and Louis XVI were weak administrators. Louis XV foretold at the end of his
rule: “After me the deluge”. His words came to be true. Louis XVI was the most
incompetent ruler. His wife and queen, Marie Antoinette interfered too much into the
administration. She was thoroughly ignorant of the sufferings of the French people.
But she always favoured and protected the interests of the French nobles. She did
not allow the financial reforms to take place. Because it affected the interests of the
nobles and the clergy.
181

Social Causes
The French society was based on inequality. The society consisted of three
major divisions, the nobles, clergy and the common people. The nobles had no
political power but remained loyal to the king. They enjoyed many privileges and
led a life of luxury. They were exempted from taxation. The higher clergy owned
one fifth of the lands in France and enjoyed several privileges. Their number
in France was around only five thousand. They lived in palatial houses and they
were exempted from taxes. But the lower clergy were denied all these privileges.
Therefore, they turned against the higher clergy during the revolution. Both the
noble and the higher clergy led a life of ease and pleasure without bothering about
the wretched condition of the masses.
The majority of the population in France belonged to the third category.

Traders, lawyers, owners of industries, government servants, peasants and workers
were in this category. While the nobles and the clergy were exempted from paying
taxes, the masses paid all the taxes. Hence it was said : “the nobles fight, the clergy
pray and the people pay”. The taille or land tax was entirely paid by the peasants.
The gabelle or salt tax was a burden on the common man. The head of each family
had to pay the capitation tax. Besides paying these taxes to the king, they have
to pay tithe (tax) to the Church. The burden on the peasants was higher than the
others because he had certain other obligations to the nobles. They were forced
to use the mill, wine-press, slaughterhouse and oven of their lords after paying the
usual dues. They were also compelled to render feudal services to the lords.
Economic Causes
The financial condition of France was very critical

during the reign of Louis XVI. The national debt had increased
beyond the limit. The national income was less than national
expenditure. Hence, the king tried to mobilize national income
by selling important offices of the government. At last, the
king appointed financial experts Turgot and Jacques Necker
as Director-General of Finances. They tried to curtail royal Jacques N
ecker
expenditure and improve the income to the government. But their measures did
not receive the support of the nobles. On their advice the queen Marie Antoinette
removed them. Later, Calonne was appointed to look into the financial crisis. But he
was not able to do anything but to levy fresh taxes. Therefore, Louis XVI was forced
to convene the States General after a gap of 175 years, on May 5th, 1789.
The French Philosophers
The writings and the preaching of the French philosophers prepared the
common people for the revolution. The most prominent among them were
Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. Montesquieu in his book, The Spirit of Laws
182

advocated the constitutional form government. He introduced

the idea of separation of powers into executive, legislative
and judiciary to ensure the effective functioning of democracy.
Voltaire launched a crusade against superstition and attacked
traditional beliefs. He wrote many essays, poems and dramas
creating awareness among the masses. He advocated the
supremacy of reason. He stood for religious toleration. He
M strongly condemned the corruptions in the church. He stood
ontesquieu
for a benevolent despotism. Rousseau was the author of the
famous book, Social Contract, which was considered the Bible
of the French Revolution. He said that the real sovereignty rests
with the people. His famous statement,
“Man is born free and is everywhere in
chains” kindled the revolutionary spirit
of the masses. Diderot and D’ Alembert V
oltaire
published the Encyclopedia. It contained several essays and
articles written by revolutionary thinkers. The revolutionary
ideas of these philosophers spread throughout France
R and created awareness among the masses. The French
ousseau
intellectuals gave the motto “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity” which became the
watchwords of the revolution of 1789.
Impact of the American War of Independence

The independence of the thirteen American colonies from England provided
a boost to the French people. The French captain Lafayette with his soldiers
returned from America after helping the colonies to secure their independence.
His experience in America along with the fighting spirit for the cause of democracy
reached the ears of the French and inspired them. Therefore, they decided to put an
end to the despotic rule of the Bourbons.
Convening of the States-General
The bankruptcy of French treasury was the starting point of the French
Revolution. Louis XVI was faced with a serious financial situation. There was also
no alternative but to propose new taxes. So, Louis XVI summoned the States
General on 5th May 1789. The main purpose for summoning the States General was
to get its consent for the fresh taxes to be levied upon the people. The king also
recalled Necker to head the finance ministry.
National Assembly
The States General consisted of three Estates Chambers. The first Estate
was represented by the nobles, the second the clergy and the third by the common
people. When the king called for its meeting, each Estate sat separately. However,
183

the members of the third estate demanded a joint sitting and one vote for each
member. As the first and second Estates did not concede to this demand, there
was a deadlock. On 17th June 1789, the third Estate declared itself as the National
Assembly. The king got alarmed and prevented them from entering the hall. But,
the members of the National Assembly went to a nearby Tennis Court and took an
oath to frame a new constitution. This is known as Tennis Court Oath.
Tennis Court O

ath
On 23 June 1789, a special session of States General was held. The king
rd
declared the acts of the Third Estate as illegal. He also ordered that the three
Estates should meet separately. But the third Estate refused to accept the king’s
orders. Hence, Louis XVI submitted to the will of the third Estate, which represented
the common people. He ordered the three Estates to sit together. Thus the
formation of National Assembly was completed.
Fall of the Bastille

Although the king recognised the National
Assembly, he decided to suppress it. A large
number of soldiers were brought to Versailles
and Paris. Necker, the popular minister was also
dismissed. On hearing this, the mob of Paris
became violent. They attacked the State prison
called the Bastille, murdered the guards and Fall of the B
astille
freed the prisoners. The fall of the Bastille was regarded in France as a triumph of
liberty. After the fall of the Bastille the peasants rose against the nobles. Riots began
against the aristocrats all over France. Nobles were attacked and their castles
stormed. They also destroyed the records of their feudal services. The nobles
voluntarily surrendered their feudal rights and the privileges on 4th August 1789.
Feudalism and serfdom were abolished. The principle of equality was established.
Class distinctions were abolished. There was a shortage for bread in Paris. On 5th
184

October, a large number of women went to the King’s palace at Versailles to make a
petition. They were not satisfied with the reply of the queen and hence they brought
with them the king, the queen and their son to Paris.
Work of the National Assembly (1789 - 1791)
The National Assembly styled itself the Constituent Assembly. It drew
up the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The new constitution drafted by the
Constituent Assembly provided for a limited monarchy to France. The titles of the
nobles were abolished. Judiciary was remodeled. The method of torture was
abolished. New central and local courts were established. Judges were to be
elected. Drastic action was also taken against the church. The monasteries were
suppressed. Absolute religious toleration was proclaimed. The collection of tithes
by the church was abolished. Then, measures were taken for the nationalization
of church properties. After drafting the new constitution, the National Assembly
dissolved itself in 1791.
Political Clubs
The political clubs sprang up in different
quarters. Of these, the most conspicuous
were the Jacobian Club and Cordelier
Club. The Jacobian Club was led by
Robespierre, a radical democrat. The
Cordelier Club was led by Danton. The
D Girondists were a group of eloquent young R
anton
obespierre
men and stood for establishing a republican form of government. Madame Roland
was a prominent member of the Girondists.
The Legislative Assembly
According to the new constitution, the new Legislative Assembly met in 1791.
When the revolution broke out many of the nobles managed to escape from France.
They carried out propaganda against the revolution in France and tried to mobilize
support from other countries. Austria and Prussia came forward to help them. To
curtail their activities the Legislative Assembly passed laws. The king did not
approve of these laws and used his veto against them.
King Leopold of Austria issued the famous Declaration of Pilnitz against
the revolutionaries on 27th August 1791. War broke out between the revolutionary
government and Austria in 1792. The revolutionary army was defeated. The wrath
of the revolutionaries turned against the French king. On 10th August 1792 the mob
attacked the King’s palace at Tuileries. The king was suspended and elections
were ordered for a National Convention to prepare another new constitution for
the country. This was followed by the “September Massacres”. The Revolutionary
government at Paris led by Danton massacred 1500 suspected supporters of the
French king. Then the French army defeated the Austrian army at Valmy.
185

The National Convention (1792 - 1795)
After the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly, the National Convention

met in 1792. It abolished monarchy and declared France as a republic. The king
Louis XVI after a summary trail was found guilty of treason was guillotined (head cut
off) on Sunday, 21st January 1793. Three days later the queen Maire Antoinette was
also guillotined.
Reign of Terror
The National convention divided on the issue of the execution of the king.
The moderates did not agree with the Jacobians, who formed the majority in the
Convention. The Jacobians had set up the Revolutionary Tribunal to deal with the
moderates. It was the beginning of the Reign of Terror. It was the final phase of the
Revolution. It was also the darkest period of the Revolution. Riots broke out in many
places like Lyons, Marseilles and other cities. In 1793, the first coalition was formed
by the European nations against the revolutionary government.
The Jacobians suspended the constitution and created the Committee of

Public Safety with full powers to deal with the situation. Robespierre was the leader
of this committee. It put down all the riots staged by the royalists within the country.
Many people were killed on suspicion of being royalists. Soon, Robespierre became
a virtual dictator of France. But, his opponents turned against him and sent him to
the guillotine in 1794.
End of Revolution
With the fall of Robespeirre the Reign of Terror gradually came to an end.
Moreover the public opinion was strongly against it. The
Revolutionary Tribunal was suspended. The functions of
Committee of Public Safety were restricted. The Jacobian
Club was closed. The National Convention at last took up
its long neglected task of framing of a constitution for the
French Republic. The executive was entrusted to a Directory,
consisting of five members. The legislative power was entrusted
NapoleA
to two houses called the Council of Five Hundred and the
n
Council of the Ancients. Napolean Bonapartee was then at Paris and he was
entrusted with the task of defending the Convention against the Parisian mob. He
dispersed the mob and saved the Convention and began his brilliant career. On
October 26, 1795 the convention declared itself dissolved and the Directory took
charge of the French government.
Results of the Revolution
The French Revolution of 1789 inaugurated a new era in the history of the
mankind. The ideas of “liberty, equality and fraternity” spread to other parts of the
186

world. The Bourbon monarchy was abolished. The Revolution rejected tyranny,
divine right, conservatism, and feudal vestiges associated with bourbon rule in
France. At the same time it failed to establish a permanent Republic in France.
The French Revolution, after a violent turn led to the emergence of a great dictator,
Napoleon Bonaparte.
Learning Outcome
1. The political, social and economic causes of the French Revolution
2. The role French thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu.
3. The fall of Bastille and the beginning of the revolution.
4. The Constituent Assembly and its role in framing the constitution.
5. The National Convention and its activities.
6. The Reign of Terror under Robespierre.
7. The end of the revolution and the results.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The King of France at the time of 1789 Revolution was
(a) Louis XII (b) Louis XIV
(c) Louis XVIII (d) Louis XVI
1. _________ was the author of the book “Social Contract”.
2. In the States General, the first Estate was represented by _______

1. Encyclopedia a. Danton
2. September Massacres b. D’ Alembert
3. Reign of Terror c. Montesquieu
4. The Spirit of Laws d. Robespierre
187

a. King Louis XVI issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
b. Madame Roland was a prominent member of the Cordelier Club.
c. King Leopold of Prussia issued the famous Declaration of Pilnitz.
d. The Jacobians suspended the constitution and created the Committee of

Public Safety.
1. Marie Antoinette was the wife and queen of Louis XVI.
2. The idea of Separation of Powers was proposed by Montesquieu.
1. National Assembly
2. Rousseau
3. Reign of Terror
1. Examine the contributions of the French philosophers to the French

Revolution.
2. Write a note on the results of the French Revolution.
1. Examine the causes of the French Revolution of 1789.
2. Trace the course of the French Revolution of 1789.
188

LESSON 26
AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONS
Learning Objectives
1. The process of agricultural revolution.
2. The causes for the Industrial Revolution.
3. Scientific inventions in different sectors of industrial production.
4. Merits and demerits of the Industrial Revolution.
Agricultural Revolution
The term agricultural revolution refers to the radical changes in the method of
agriculture in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. There was a massive increase
in agricultural productivity, which supported the growing population. The Agricultural
Revolution preceded the Industrial Revolution in England. During the Agricultural
Revolution, four key changes took place in agricultural practices. They were
enclosure of lands, mechanization of farming, four-field crop rotation, and selective
breeding of domestic animals.
Prior to the agricultural revolution, the practice of agriculture had been

much the same across Europe since the Middle Ages. The open field system was
essentially feudal. Each farmer engaged in cultivation in common land and dividing
the produce.
From the beginning of 12th century, some of the common fields in Britain were
enclosed into individually owned fields. This process rapidly accelerated in the 15th
and 16th centuries as sheep farming grew more profitable. This led to farmers losing
their land and their grazing rights. Many farmers became unemployed. In the 16th
and 17th centuries, the practice of enclosure was denounced by the Church, and
legislation was drawn up against it. However, the mechanization of agriculture
during the 18th century required large, enclosed fields. This led to a series of
government acts, culminating finally in the General Enclosure Act of 1801. By the
end of the 19th century the process of enclosure was largely complete.
Great experiments were conducted in farming during this period. Machines

were introduced for seeding and harvesting. Rotation of crops was introduced by
Townshend. The lands became fertile by this method. Bakewell introduced scientific
breeding of farm animals. The horse-drawn ploughs, rake, portable threshers,
manure spreaders, multiple ploughs and dairy appliances had revolutionized
farming. These changes in agriculture increased food production as well as other
farm outputs.
189

Industrial Revolution
The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was used by European scholars – Georges

Michelet in France and Friedrich Engels in Germany. It was used to describe the
changes that occurred in the industrial development of England between 1760 and
1820. The Industrial Revolution had far-reaching effects in England. Subsequently,
similar changes occurred in European countries and in the U.S.A. the Industrial
Revolution had a major impact on the society and economy of these countries and
also on the rest of the world.
This phase of industrial development in England is strongly associated

with new machinery and technologies. These made it possible to produce goods
on a massive scale compared to handicraft and handloom industries. There were
changes in the cotton and iron industries. Steam, a new source of power, began
to be used on a wide scale in British industries. Its use led to faster forms of
transportation by ships and railways. Industrialisation led to greater prosperity for
some, but in the initial stages many people including women and children had
experienced poor living and working conditions. This sparked off protests and the
government was forced to enact laws to improve the conditions of workers.
Causes for the Industrial Revolution
 England’s advantageous geographical location.
 The precedence of agricultural revolution.
 New inventions and the introduction of machinery.
 The enterprising spirit of British entrepreneurs.
 Growth of capital in England.

 Colonial possessions of England, which supplied raw materials and served as
markets
Scientific Inventions
Textile Machinery
The primary cause of the Industrial Revolution was the scientific inventions.
The earliest mechanical inventions came in the textile industry. Spinning was the
slowest process in the manufacturing of cloth. The invention of flying shuttle by
Kay in 1733 improved weaving. In 1764, Hargreaves invented the ‘spinning jenny’.
This machine could spin eight threads at the same time, instead of one. Arkwright
improved the ‘spinning jenny’ in 1769. Compton improved it still further in 1779.
In 1785, Cartwright invented the power loom. Whitney, an American, speeded up
the process (1792) with a cotton gin, which automatically removed seeds from the
fiber of the cotton. The invention of the sewing machine by Elias Howe, in 1846,
190



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accelerated the production of clothing and made possible the modern clothing
industry. Thus, one invention followed another, not only in textile industries but also
in many others. In this way, the present-day complex machinery has evolved.
Steam Engine
Heavy machinery could not function with out power

to operate it. The invention of the steam engine provided the
practical solution. The first practical application of steam to
machinery was made by James Watt in 1765. He devised the
first closed cylinder with a piston pushed back and forth by
steam. This has been extensively used in textile machinery.
James W
Development of Transport
att
There is a close relationship between the development of industry and
improvement in transportation. Industrializaion depends largely on the bringing of
raw materials to factories and on the disposing of manufactured goods in a wide
market. As late as the 17th century, highways were poorly kept. A pack horse was
the only possible means of travel on land. In the second half of the 18th century,
John McAdam (1756-1836) built a type of hard-surfaced road in England. The only
important change made in this method was the substitution of a tar composition for
mud as a binder. France copied the English methods, and under the patronage of
the government many highways were built.
The heavy expenses involved in the building and upkeep of highway

encouraged the development of inland waterways. During the second half of the 18th
century and the early part of the 19th century thousands of miles of artificial water
route were dug in England, in France, and in the United Slates. In 1761, a canal
was built in England from Worsley to Manchester to carry coal from the mines to the
furnaces.
There were serious drawbacks in the river and canal transportation. The
rate of travel was slow and the expense of construction and maintenance was
high. Geographical factors limited the extent to which water transportation could
be utilized. Railroads provided a solution for these problems. The first tracks were
made of wood and the first cars were
horse drawn, but the introduction of iron
for rails and the application of Watt’s steam
engine for traction power revolutionized
the whole procedure. George Stephenson
constructed the first practical locomotive in
1814.The Stockton and Darlington railroad
started operation in England in 1825. The
Locomotive Of George
Stephenson era of railroads had begun.
191

Communication
Modern transportation and business enterprises are much dependent on

rapid and efficient communication. Before the perfection of the telegraph, carrier
pigeons and semaphores were the speediest methods available. The electric
telegraph depended upon earlier basic researches made by Faraday, Volta,
Ampere, and Franklin. It was invented independently in
Germany, England, and the United States, by Steinheil,
Wheatstone, and Morse, respectively. Telegraphic equipment
was widely installed after 1845. A cable from America to
Europe was laid under the Atlantic Ocean in 1866. By the
close of the 19th century, all the important commercial centers
in the world had telegraphic communications. The penny Graham B
ell
post was established in 1840. The Universal Postal Union, to aid
international mail service, was adopted in 1875. Graham Bell invented the telephone
in 1876.
Lighting
In industry, transportation, social activities, amusements, and cultural

pursuits, artificial light plays a very important role. In 1784, a burner was devised
for oil lamps, which was later used for kerosene lamps. Gas for artificial illumination
was introduced and widely used by the middle of the 19th century. Davy, in 1821,
worked out the theory of the electric arc. Edison, in 1879 invented the electric bulb.
Iron and Steel
The coal and iron industries replaced old technologies

of wood, water and wind. In 1709 Darby introduced coal for
charcoal in blast furnace. John Smeaton invented the blast
furnace with a rotary fan. For the new machinery, a better
grade than ordinary cast iron was needed. Henry Cord and
Peter Onions introduced puddling and rolling Process in 1784.
In 1740 steel was produced at Sheffield by Huntsman. Later,
Henry Bessemer invented a faster and cheaper method of E
dison
producing steel. The first iron bridge was constructed in 1777.
The first iron ship was made in 1790.
Merits of Industrial Revolution

Urbanisation
The factory system introduced by the Industrial Revolution created cities and
urban centres. In England, cities like Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, and Sheffield
arose. People left their rural homes and gathered around these cities by the
hundreds and thousands in quest of work and wages. The population of Manchester
increased six fold within a half century.
192

Machinery
The introduction of power machinery rapidly increased production of goods.
Intellectual Movement
The intellectual encouragement had also been great. Schools, colleges,

newspapers, libraries, and the radio had been dependent on the capitalistic system
for their rapid development. Many intellectual like Marx, St. Simon emerged as a
result of the Industrial Revolution.
Large Employment
The starting of new industries provided employment to many men and

women.
Demerits of Industrial Revolution

New Social Problems
The rapid growth of industrial cities created problems that were difficult
to solve. Accommodation, sanitation, and health were not provided adequately.
Sickness and crime prevailed. Women and children were employed for cheap
labour. They worked for 12 to 14 hours per day.
Capitalism
The establishment of the factory system increased the amount of money in

circulation. However, money concentrated in the hands of a few people.
Class Division
The Industrial Revolution divided society into two distinct groups: the rich
middle class (bourgeoisie), composed of manufacturers, merchants, mine owners,
bankers, and professional men, on the one hand, and the wage-earning class
(proletariat), composed of mill workers and factory workers, on the other. This gap
between employer and employee gave rise to many economic and social problems.
Growth of Colonialism and Imperialism
The Industrial Revolution had strengthened colonialism because the colonies

were useful to obtain raw materials and sell the finished products. So, larger
territories were captured thus paving way for imperialism.
193

Industry Name Invention Year

Textile Machinery John Kay Flying Shuttle 1763
Hardgreaves Spinning jenny 1764
Richard Arkwright Water Frame 1769
Samuel Crompton Spinning Mule 1779
Edmund Cartwright Power Loom 1785
Ely Whitney Cotton Gin 1792
Elias Howe Sewing Machine 1846
Coal and John Smeaton Blastfurnance 1760
Iron Henry Bessemen Steel 1850
Industries
Sir Humphrey Davy Safety Lamp 1816
Field of James Watt Steam Engine 1736-1819
Power George Stephenson Locomotive 1781-1848
Field of John Mc Adam He used a mud 1756-1836
Transport birder to build
a type of hard
surface road
Communication Alexander Graham Telephone 1876
Bell
Learning Outcome
1. The meaning and the process of Agricultural Revolution.
2. The causes for the Industrial Revolution.
3. Scientific Inventions that contributed to the growth of Industrial

Revolution.
4. Growth of different industrial sectors such as textiles and

transportation.
5. The merits and demerits of industrial revolution.
194

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Rotation of crops was introduced by
(a) Harvey (b) Townshend
(c) Mac Adam (d) Hargreaves
1. Alexander Graham Bell invented _________
2. The electric bulb was invented by __________
1. Flying Shuttle a. Hargreaves
2. Spinning Jenny b. Elias Howe
3. Power Loom c. Kay
4. Sewing Machine d. James Watt
5. Steam engine e. Cartwright

a. Bakewell introduced scientific breeding of farm animals
b. The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was used Georges Michelet in Germany.
c. John McAdam introduced railways in England.
d. Edison invented the steam engine in 1879.
1. Industrialization depends largely on the bringing of raw materials to factories

and on the disposing of manufactured goods in a wide market.
2. John Smeaton constructed the first practical locomotive in 1814.
3. The Universal Postal Union was adopted in 1875 to aid international mail
service.

1. John McAdam
195

1. Examine the causes for the Industrial Revolution.
2. Discuss the process of Industrial Revolution in England.
1. Give an account of the scientific inventions that contributed to the growth of

Industrial Revolution.
2. Analyse the merits and demerits of the Industrial Revolution.
196

LESSON 27
FIRST WORLD WAR
Learning Objectives
1. The concepts of colonialism, imperialism and their impact.
2. The causes for the First World War.
3. The course of the First World War.
4. The end and results of the First World War.
Colonialism
Colonialism is the extension of a nation’s sovereignty over another territory

beyond its borders. Colonizers generally dominate the resources, labour, and
markets of the colonial territory. They also impose socio-cultural, religious and
linguistic aspects on the conquered population.
European colonialism began in the 15th century with the “Age of Discovery”.
This was led by Portuguese and Spanish explorations of the Americas, and the
coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India, and East Asia. By 17th century, England,
France and Holland successfully established their own overseas empires, in direct
competition with each other and those of Spain and Portugal. Spain and Portugal
were weakened after the loss of their New World colonies. But Britain, France and
Holland turned their attention to the Old World, particularly South Africa, India and
South East Asia, where colonies were established. The industrialization of the 19th
century led to what has been termed the era of New Imperialism. The fight among
the European countries to control and establish new colonies led to the First World
War.
There are different types of colonies. Settler colonies, such as the original
thirteen states of the United States of America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and
Argentina arose from the emigration of peoples from a mother country. This led to
the displacement of the indigenous peoples.
Colonies of dependencies came into existence due to the conquest

by foreign countries. Examples in this category include the British India, Dutch
Indonesia, French Indo-China , and the Japanese colonial empire.
Plantation colonies such as Barbados, Saint-Dominguez and Jamaica,

where the white colonizers imported black slaves - who rapidly began to outnumber
their owners- led to minority rule, similar to a dependency.
197

Imperialism
Imperialism is a policy of extending control or authority over colonized

countries. The term is used to describe the policy of a nation’s dominance over
distant lands. The “Age of Imperialism” usually refers to the Old Imperialism period
starting from 1860, when major European states started colonizing the other
continents. The term ‘Imperialism’ was initially coined in the mid 1500s to reflect
the policies of countries such as Britain and France who expanded into Africa, and
the Americas. Imperialism refers to the highest stage of capitalism which made it
necessary to find new markets and resources. This theory of necessary expansion
of capitalism outside the boundaries of nation-states was shared by Lenin and Rosa
Luxemburg.
Economic Market
Industrial Revolution created the need among the European countries to find
new markets for their industrial goods. Similarly, they had to find raw materials for
their industries. This dual need pushed the European countries to compete with
each other to establish their political control over Asia, Africa and Latin America.
Improvement in Communications
Advancement in science and technology led to improvement in transport

and communication. Steamships, Railroads, roadways were improved. This helped
imperialism to have a firm hold over the conquered territories.
Rise of Extreme Nationalism
The late 19th century was a period of intense nationalism. Many nations
developed myths of superiority over other peoples. Each country wanted to have
colonies to add to its prestige and power. Writers and speakers in England, France
and Germany opened institutions to promote the idea of imperialism. European
countries took great pride in calling their territories as empires.
The ‘Civilizing Mission’
In the minds of many Europeans, imperialist expansion was very noble. They
considered it a way of bringing civilization to the ‘backward peoples of the world.
Explorers and adventurers, as well as missionaries helped in spreading imperialism.
US Imperialism
The United States has enjoyed its status as a sole superpower. Beginning at
the end of World War II, the U.S. largely took over from the United Kingdom certain
roles of influence in the Middle East. Several Middle Eastern nations such as Egypt,
Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel have all been
directly or otherwise substantially influenced by U.S. policy.
198

First World War (1914 -1918)

CAUSES
System of Alliances
There were many causes for the World War I. The most important cause was
the system of secret alliances. Before 1914 Europe was divided into two camps.
It was Germany which created the division in European politics before World
War I. In order to isolate France, Germany entered in to an alliance with Austria.
Bismarck formed the three Emperors League by making alliance with Russia.
Later Germany did not care for Russia. Hence Russia left. But Germany continued
its alliance with Austria alone. This was known as Dual alliance. After Italy joined in
this alliance, it became a Triple alliance.
In the meantime Russia began to lean towards France. In 1894 there came
Franco-Russian alliance against Austro-German alliance. It was at this time England
followed a policy of splendid isolation. She also felt that she was all alone. First
she wanted to join with Germany. When this became a failure, she entered into an
alliance with Japan in 1902. In 1904 she made alliance with France. In 1907 Russia
joined this alliance. This had resulted in Triple Entente. Thus Europe was divided
into two camps. The secret nature of these alliances brought about the war of 1914.
Militarism
The countries in Europe had been increasing their armies and navies. This
was the main reason for universal fear, hatred and suspicions among the countries
of Europe. In Europe, England and Germany were superior in Navy. There were
competitions between these two countries in naval armaments. For every ship built
by Germany, two ships were built by England.
Narrow Nationalism was also a cause for the war. The love of the country
demanded the hatred of another. For instance, love of Germany demanded the
hatred of France. Likewise the French people hated the German people. In Eastern
Europe narrow nationalism played a greater role. The Serbians hated Austria-
Hungary.
The desire for the people of France to get back Alsace-Lorraine was also a
cause for the outbreak of First World War. It was Bismarck who had taken away
Alsace-Lorraine from France and annexed them with Germany in 1871. The result
was that there grew animosities between these two countries. It was this reason
that forced Germany to take steps to isolate France by making alliances with other
countries.
William II, the Emperor of Germany himself was a cause for the First World
War. He wanted to make Germany a stronger power. He was not prepared to
make any compromise in international affairs. He was mistaken in assessing Great
199

Britain’s strength. It was a misunderstanding of the British character by William II

that was responsible for the war.
Prussian spirit by Germany was also a cause for war. The Prussians were taught
that war was a legal in the world. War was the national industry of Prussia. The
younger generation of Germany was indoctrinated with such a philosophy of war.
Public Opinion
The position of public opinion by the newspapers was also a cause. Often,
the newspapers tried to inflame nationalist feeling by misrepresenting the situations
in other countries. Ambassadors and cabinet ministers admitted the senseless
attitude of the leading news papers in their own countries.
The desire of Italy to recover the Trentino and the area around the port
of Trieste was also a cause for war. The Italians considered that these areas were
inhabited by Italians. But they were still part and parcel of Austria-Hungary. They
cried for the redemption of these territories. Italy also entered into a competition with
Austria to control the Adriatic Sea. As Austria was not prepared to put up with the
competition, there arose bitterness in the relations of these two countries.
The Eastern Question was also a factor for the war. This complicated the
situation in the Balkans. The misrule of Turkey resulted in discontentment. There
was a rivalry between Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria for the control of Macedonia
which had a mixed population. On the occasion of Bosnian crises Russia supported
Serbia. Pan Slavism also created complications.
The questions Bosnia - Herzegovina in the Balkans was also similar to the
problem of Alsace-Lorraine. Bosnia and Herzegovina were given to Austria-Hungary
by the Congress of Berlin in 1878. This was strongly opposed by Serbia. A strong
agitation was started in Serbia to separate these provinces from Austria-Hungary
and unite them with Serbia. This created rivalry between Serbia and Austria-
Hungary. This became very keen after 1909. Serbia also received moral support
from her big brother Russia (The Serbs and Russians belong to Slav Race).
Immediate Cause
The immediate cause was the assassination of Arch

Duke Francis Ferdinand who was heir to the Austrian throne.
Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated
by Serbians in the Bosnian capital Sarajevo when they paid
a visit to this city on 28th June 1914. The news of this murder
shocked many countries. Austria-Hungary was already sick of
Serbia and she decided to take advantage of the new situation
to crush her. The murder of their crown prince and his wife Arch Duke
resulted in an ultimatum being sent to Serbia for immediate F
erdinand
200

compliance of certain terms. Serbia’s reply did not pacify Austria-Hungary. Hence,
Austria-Hungary backed by Germany declared war on Serbia. Russia mobilised her
forces in favour of Serbia.
Course of the War
During the war Germany and her allies were called Central Powers. England
and her allies were called Allied Powers. Germany entered the war to defend
Austria. Shortly all the powers in the hostile camps were automatically drawn into
the war. Turkey and Bulgaria joined the war on the side of Germany. Italy left the
Triple Alliance and joined the opposite camp with the idea of recovering Italian
territories under Austrian control.
England joined the war against Germany. There was bitter fighting on the
French soil. The Battle of Verdun decided the fortunes of the war in favour of the
Allies. Germany started submarine warfare in a large scale. All the laws relating to
naval warfare were thrown out.
Russia fought on the side of Allies up to 1917. The Bolshevik regime wanted
peace with Germany. Thus the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was signed between Russia and
Germany.
The Lusitania ship was drowned by a German submarine

and consequently many Americans lost their lives. This resulted
in the declaration of war against Germany by the U.S.A. In spite
of best efforts, Germany could not stand and ultimately she
surrendered in November 1919.
The German Emperor Kaiser William lost all hopes

of winning the war. He abdicated his throne and fled to
Kaiser W
Holland. The German army signed the armistice agreement on
illiam
November 11, 1918 to mark their surrender to the Allies. The allies of Germany had
earlier suffered defeat at the hands of the Allied powers.
Results of the War
The Great War took a heavy toll of lives. It is estimated that about ten million
lives were lost and twenty million people have been wounded. People all over the
world suffered untold miseries. There was a large scale damage to civil property.
It is estimated that the direct cost of the war reached just over two hundred
billion dollars and the indirect cost more than a hundred and fifty billion dollars.
A large variety of deadly weapons such as incendiary bombs, grenades and

poison gases were used. Tanks, submarines and aircrafts were also used.
The war wrought its havoc on the economics of the participating countries.
It may be remembered that about 25 nations had joined the allies at the time of
201

the outbreak of war. The victors felt the devastating effects of the war even before
the cessation. All these nations were burdened with the national debts. The world
economy was in shambles.
Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles on 28th June 1919. It
was a dictated peace and Germany had by then become even too weak to protest.
She lost everything. Germany and her allies suffered most since they had to pay
heavy sums to the victorious allies as reparation debts.
Austria Hungary signed the Treaty of St. Germaine. Hungary signed

the Treaty of Trianon with the allies in 1920. Bulgaria had accepted the Treaty
of Neuliy in 1919. Turkey, which sided with Germany during the war, signed the
Treaty of Sevres in 1920.
Learning Outcome
1. The rise of colonialism and its impact.
2. Imperialism and its impact on the world politics.
3. The system of alliances and other causes for the First World War.
4. The role of USA in the First World War and the victory of the Allied
powers in the war.
5. The Treaties concluded at the end of the First World War and the
results of the war.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Which one of the following was grouped under the settler colonies?
(a) British India (b) Indo-China
(c) 13 American colonies (d) Indonesia

1. The Three Emperors League was formed by __________
2. The Congress of Berlin was convened in the year _________
202

1. Treaty of Versailles a. Austria-Hungary
2. Treaty of Saint Germaine b. Turkey
3. Treaty of Sevres c. Germany
4. Treaty of Nueliy d. Bulgaria
a. When Italy joined Dual Alliance it became Triple Alliance.
b. Austrian Prince Francis Ferdinand was assassinated in Austrian Capital.
c. During the First World War the world was divided in to Allied Powers and Axis
Powers.
d. After the War Bulgaria joined the Treaty of Trianan.
1. The Triple Alliance was concluded between Germany, Italy and Austria-
Hungary.
2. William II was the emperor of Germany during the First World War.
3. The immediate cause of the First World War was the assassination of
Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand.
4. The Brest-Litovsk was signed between Russia and Italy.
1. Colonialism
2. Imperialism
3. Triple Entente
4. Treaty of Versailles
1. Discuss the impact of colonialism.
2. Trace the course of the First World War.
1. Enumerate the various causes of the First World War.
2. Examine the results of the First World War.
203

LESSON 28
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1917
Learning Objectives
1. Causes of the Russian Revolution.
2. The rise of Socialists in Russia.
3. The Course of the Russian Revolution.
4. The end of the revolution and its results.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a very important political event of

the 20 Century. For the first time, Karl Marx’s idea of socialism and Proletariat
th
revolution became a reality. Russia was a big and powerful country. Even Napoleon
Bonaparte could not conquer Russia in 1812. However, during the beginning of
the 20th Century Russia was no longer a powerful country. During this time Russia
was ruled by the Romanov dynasty. Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia at the time of
the Revolution. During his rule Russia faced serious domestic and international
problems. Eventually, a series of political events led to the overthrow of the Tsarist
rule by October Revolution of 1917. Bolshevik Party headed by Lenin led the
revolution. Thus, Russia became USSR [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics], which
lasted until its disintegration in 1991.
Causes of the Russian Revolution
Political
Politically the Tsar’s rule was very weak. Russia fought a

war with Japan in 1904-05. Small Asian Country Japan defeated
the mighty European country Russia in the Russo-Japanese Tsar Nicholas II
war. This lowered the international and domestic prestige of Russia.
The Tsars believed in the divine right theory of kingship.

Tsar Nicholas II was autocratic in his administration. The
people had many grievances. The members of zemstoves and
Dumas wanted liberal reforms from the Tsar. But Tsar was not
prepared to sanction any reforms. Meantime, the working class
of St. Petersburg went on strike. The striking workers went on a
procession to Tsar’s place to present a petition to redress their
R grievances. They were led by father Gapon. When the workers
usputin
204

reached Tsar’s palace the guards fired on the unarmed crowed. This event is known
as “Bloody Sunday” as it took place on a Sunday, 22nd January 1905. This is
also known as 1905 Revolution. This event was indeed a prelude to the October
Revolution of 1917.
The Tsarist court was under the evil influence of Rusputin. The Tsarina was
strongly under his influence and at times the administration was affected by his
influence. Hence, the nobles poisoned Rusputin to death.
Economic
The economic causes of the Russian Revolution largely originated in

Russia’s slightly outdated economy. Russia’s agriculture was largely based on
independent peasants. They did not own modern machinery. Russian agriculture
suffered from cold climate. Russia’s agriculture season was only 4-6 months. The
famine of 1891 had left many peasants in poverty. The rapid industrialization of
Russia also resulted in urban overcrowding and poor conditions for urban industrial
workers. Between 1890 and 1910, the population of the capital of St Petersburg
increased from 1,033,600 to 1,905,600, with Moscow experiencing similar growth.
In one 1904 survey, it was found that an average of sixteen people shared each
apartment in St Petersburg, with six people per room. There was also no running
water, and piles of human waste were a threat to the health of the workers. Hence,
the workers in general were in a discontented situation.
Rise of Socialist Party

One of the most important events in the history
of socialist movement was the formation in 1864 of the
International Working Men’s Association or the First
International. During the short period of its existence, the
International exercised a tremendous influence on workers’
movements in Europe.
Karl M
To unite the socialist parties in various countries into
arx
an international organisation, a Congress was held in Paris on 14th July 1889, the
centenary of the French Revolution of 1789. The result of this Congress was what
has come to be known as the Second International. The formation of the Second
International marked a new stage in the history of socialism.
On the first of May 1890, millions of workers all

over Europe and America struck work and held massive
demonstrations. Since then the first of May is observed as the
international working class day all over the world.
In Russia when the workers’ organizations were set up George
they were dominated by Marx’s ideas on socialism. In 1883, the P
lekhanov
205

Russian Social Democratic Party was formed by George Plekhanov, a follower of

Marx. This party along with many other socialist groups was united into the Russian
Social Democratic Labour Party in 1898. However, the party was soon split over
questions of organization and policies. One group which was in a minority called
the Mensheviks [Russian it means minority]. The majority party was called as the
Bolsheviks.
The leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir

Ilyich Ulyanov, popularly known as Lenin. He is regarded
as one of the greatest leaders of the socialist movement
after Marx and Engels. He devoted himself to the task of
organizing the Bolshevik Party as an instrument for bringing
about revolution. His name has become inseparable from
the revolution of 1917. The Russian socialists, including
Plekhanov and Lenin, had played an important part in the
L Second International.
enin
Besides the Menshevik and the Bolshevik parties, which were the political
parties of industrial workers, there was the Socialist Revolutionary Party which
voiced the demands of the peasantry.
World War I
Russia had a very adverse history of military failures. Even before the
outbreak of the First World War, Russia had lost a war with Japan in 1904–05.
Most of Russia’s fleet was sunk by the Japanese in that war. While the Russian
army enjoyed some initial successes against Austria-Hungary in 1914, Russia’s
deficiencies — particularly regarding the equipment of its soldiers and the lack of
advanced technology (aeroplanes, telephones) proved the causes for Russia’s
failures.
Russia’s first major battle was a disaster. In the 1914 Battle of Tannenberg,
over 120,000 Russian troops were killed, wounded, or captured, while Germany
suffered only 20,000 casualties. Whatever nationalistic or patriotic support the
Russian government had gained in the early stages of the war had been lost.
In 1915, Nicholas had taken direct command of the army. The superior
German army - better led, better trained, better supplied - was effective against the
ill-equipped Russian forces. By the end of October 1916, Russia had lost between
1.6 and 1.8 million soldiers, with an additional two million prisoners of war and one
million missing. Thus, a total of nearly five million men lost. These were heavy
losses. Mutinies began to occur in the Russian army. Soldiers went hungry and
lacked shoes, munitions, and even weapons.
Nicholas was blamed for all these crises. As this discontent grew, the State
Duma issued a warning to Nicholas to grant constitutional form of government.
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Nicholas ignored them. As a result, Russia’s Tsarist regime collapsed a few months
later during the February Revolution of 1917.
February Revolution
The February Revolution was the result of the political, economic and social
causes mentioned above. On the eve of the February Revolution there was food
shortage in the city. People protested against war.
As the protests grew, various political reformists (both liberal and radical
left) joined together against the Tsar regime. In February the protests in Petrograd
turned violent as large numbers of city residents rioted and clashed with police and
soldiers. There was also total strike. Eventually the bulk of the soldiers garrisoned in
Petrograd joined the protesters.
On 12th March, 1917 the capital city of Petersburg (renamed

Petrograd and now Leningrad) fell into the hands of the revolutionaries. Soon the
revolutionaries took Moscow, the Tsar Nicholas II gave up his throne and the first
provisional Government was formed on 15 March.
The fall of the Tszar is known as the February Revolution because, according
to the old Russian calendar, it occurred on 27 February 1917.
Kerensky’s Provisional Government
The most important demands of the people were

fourfold: peace, land to the tiller, control of industry by workers,
and equal status for the non-Russian nationalities. The
Provisional Government under the leadership of Kerensky
K
did not implement any of these demands and lost the support
erensky
of the people. Lenin, who was in exile in Switzerland at the time of the February
Revolution, returned to Russia in April. Lenin gave his “April Theses”. This
promised people what they wanted.
Under his leadership the Bolshevik Party put forward clear policies to end
the war, transfer land to the peasants and advance the slogan “All power to the
Soviets”. Lenin and his trusted associate Leon Trotsky led the October Revolution.
October Revolution of 1917
The unpopularity of the Kerensky’s government led to its collapse on 7th

November 1917, when a group of soldiers occupied the Winter Palace, the seat of
the Kerensky Government. An All- Russian Congress of Soviets met on the same
day and assumed full political power. This event which took place on 7 November
is known as the October Revolution because of the corresponding date of the old
Russian calendar, 25 October.
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Results of the Revolution
Russia withdrew from the First World War. Later, formal peace was signed
with Germany later. The estates of the landlords, the Church and the Tsar were
confiscated and transferred to peasants’ societies to be allotted to peasant families
to be cultivated without hired labour. The control of industries was transferred to
committees of workers. By the middle of 1918, banks and insurance companies,
large industries, mines, water transport and railways were nationalised. Foreign
debts were refused and foreign investments were confiscated. A Declaration of
the Rights of Peoples was issued conferring the right of self-determination upon
all nationalities. A new government, called the Council of People’s Commissars,
headed by Lenin was founded. These first acts of the new government began the
era of socialism.
The first Soviet constitution was adoped on July 10, 1918. It created the
Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. Later, on December 30, 1922, the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics came into being. However, soon the new
Soviet state was involved in a civil war. The officers of the army of the fallen Tsar
organised an armed rebellion against the Soviet state. Troops of foreign powers—
England, France, Japan, the United States and others— joined them. War was
fought till 1920. By this time the ‘Red Army’ of the new state was in control of almost
all the lands of the old Czarist empire. Indeed, a revolutionary wave lasted until
1923.
Learning Outcome
1. The political, social and economic causes of the Russian

Revolution.
2. The role of the Socialist led by Lenin in the Russian Revolution.
3. Course of the revolution and the end of Tsarist regime in Russia.
4. The formation of USSR and the results of the Russian Revolution.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The Bolshevik Party in Russia was headed by

(a) Karl Marx (b) Tsar Nicholas II
(c) Lenin (d) Engles
208

1. The Russian Socialist Democratic Party was formed by _______
2. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republic came into existence in the

year______
III. Match the following
1. Tsar Nicholas a. Provincial Government
2. Bloody Sunday b. Lenin
3. ‘April Thesis’ c. 1905
4. Krenskey d. Romanov Dynasty
a) The February revolution in Russia was led by Lenin.
b) The Menshevik government was led by Kerensky.
c) The Bolshevik party was a moderate political force.
d) Tsar Nicholas II supported the Mensheviks.
1. Russian withdrew from the First World War in the middle.

2. The trusted associate of Lenin was Leon Trotsky.
1. Bloody Sunday
2. The Bolsheviks
3. October Revolution
1. Discuss the role of Lenin in the Russian Revolution.
2. Write a note on the February Revolution.
1. Examine the causes for the Russian Revolution of 1917.
2. Discuss the course of the Russian Revolution of 1917.
209

LESSON 29
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Learning Objectives
1. The establishment of the League of Nations.
2. The organs of the League of Nations.
3. The achievements of the League of Nations.
4. Causes for the failure of the League of Nations.
Establishment of League of Nations
The out break of the First World War made the leaders of the world to
establish an international organisation for preventing future wars. The Treaty
of Versailles also provided a Covenant for the establishment of an international
organisation to maintain peace and security in the world. The founder of this
organization was President Woodrow Wilson of USA. It was
his idea to create a world organization to maintain peace and
prevent future wars. President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen
Points underline the creation of a general association of
nations. It was Woodrow Wilson who worked hard during Paris
negotiations to bring about the birth of the League of Nations.
The League was actually established in 1920 and its head
quarters was shifted from Paris to Geneva in Switzerland. Thus,
the League of Nations came into being. However, League failed Woodrow W
ilson
to prevent the Second World War.
Aims of the League
The League aimed at preventing wars through peaceful settlement of

disputes among member nations. Secondly it desired to preserve and protect the
independence of member-nations by promoting international understanding and co-
operation.
Organs of the League
The League set upon itself the task of achieving the above aims through
its organs-mainly the Assembly and the Council. To begin with, all those powers
who worked for the defeat of Germany and her allies became the members of the
League.
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The Assembly
This supreme body consisted of the representatives of the various states

which were the members of the League. Every member state was given the right
of one vote in the Assembly. All decisions of the Assembly were required to be
unanimous. It acted as International Legislature.
The Council
It originally consisted of four permanent members and four other members

elected by the Assembly. In 1926, Germany was also given a permanent seat in
the council. The number of non- permanent members
continued to increase and ultimately it reached the
figures of eleven. Of the two, the assembly was certainly
stronger.
The Secretariat
Symbol Of The League Of N
It was located at Geneva. The Secretary General
ations
was the prominent figure. He was appointed by the
Council but the approval of Assembly was essential. The staff of the Secretariat was
appointed by the Secretary General in consultation with the Council. The member
states had to pay towards the expenses of the Secretariat.
ORGANISATION OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
The
Assembly
The
The League
Secretariat The Council
League of
Nations
The
Permanent International
Court of Labour
International Organisation
Justice
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The Permanent Court of International Justice
It consisted of 15 judges with its head quarters at The Hague. It gave

judgments on questions involving the interpretation of international law, treaties and
other mutual obligations. The judges of the court were elected for nine years.
The International Labour Organisation
It was also attached to the League of Nations with its headquarters at

Geneva. Its object was to improve the labour conditions in various parts of the
world. Its governing body consisted of the representatives of the government,
employers and workers.
Mandate system
It was set up by the League. The territories captured from the Central Powers
and Turkey were not restored to them. The administration of those countries was
given to various powers under the supervision of the League of Nations.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Aaland Islands
These islands lie between Sweden and Finland. Both Finland and Aaland
once belonged to Sweden. On the ownership of Aaland Islands, there came a
dispute between Sweden and Finland in 1920. A special Commission of the League
investigated the case and settled the dispute in favour of Finland.
Mosul Boundary Dispute
This was a question related to the frontier dispute between Turkey and the
Great Britain’s mandated territory of Iraq. Both the parties claimed Mosul Villayet
which was rich in oil. Both failed to come to an agreement on this boundary line.
Ultimately the League Council gave its final judgment on the subject. . In June
1926, a treaty was made between Turkey and Great Britain by which a small part of
the Villayet was given to Turkey. The revised boundary was recognised as definite.
Some royalty from Mosul oil fields were given to Turkey.
Eupen and Malmady
In 1920 and 1921 Germany protested to the League of Nations against the
decision of giving Euphen and Malmady to Belgium. The League Council discussed
the matter in September 1920 and wrote to the government that its decision
regarding the transfer of Euphen and Malmedy to Belgium was final.
Curfu Incident
In August 1923, an Italian general and two officers were murdered on Greek
soil. The Italians demanded apologies and reparations too for the crime. Greece
212

refused to accept the demands of Italy. Hence Italy occupied the island of Curfu. In
this dispute Britain and France mediated and brought about a compromise between
Italy and Greece.
Dispute between Greece and Bulgaria
There was a border dispute between Greece and Bulgaria. In 1925 a Greek
army commander was murdered. The Greek army marched in to Bulgaria. The
League Council requested Britain and France to investigate this affair. The Greek
forces were withdrawn and Greece was asked to pay compensation to Bulgaria for
violation of her territory on a scale to be fixed by a League Commission.
Dispute between Great Britain and France
In 1921, there was dispute between France and Great Britain over the
nationality question in Tunis and Morocco. The matter went to the Court of
International Justice. However the dispute was decided by mutual negotiations
between the foreign ministers of the two countries.
Non-political Work
The League did also a lot of non-political work. A slavery convention
met at Geneva in 1925. In 1932 it was decided to set up a permanent Slavery
Commission. The Financial Commission was responsible for the issue and
supervision of various League Loans for Austria, Hungary, Greece etc. The league
also set up in 1923 the Health Organisation with a Health Committee and a
secretariat. It did good in fighting diseases such as Malaria, Smallpox, Rabies,
Cancer, Tuberculosis and heart diseases etc. It helped nations to improve national
health. It organised technical conferences. The League did commentate Common
Wealth work in the field of control of traffic in dangerous drugs, peasant reforms,
suppression of trade in obscene literature .
Causes for the Failure of League of Nations
The League failed in its main object of maintaining peace in the world. In
spite of its efforts for two decades, the whole world was involved in war again in
1939. There are many causes for its failure.
The major powers like USA and USSR were not members of the League of
Nations. This was a serious defect.
It was unfortunate that the Covenant of the League of Nations was made a
part and parcel of the peace settlement. It would have been better if it had been
kept separate. There were many states which considered the Treaty of Versailles
as a treaty of revenge and were not prepared to ratify the same. By not ratifying the
treaty, they were refused to be members the League. The absence of great powers
[USA and USSR] in the international organisation weakened the League. Japan,
Germany and Italy had left the League.
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There was also a feeling among the nations that the League of Nations was
fully dominated by the victorious countries of World War I especially of France and
England. The result was that the other states began to doubt about the working of
the League of Nations.
The countries like Germany were humiliated by the victorious countries.

Germany was compelled to pay war reparations when it was suffering from
economic difficulties. Hence there were no chances of peace.
After World War I, in Europe there came situations for the rise of dictatorships
in Italy, Japan and Germany. Japan in the Far East conquered Manchuria. The
League was not also in a position to condemn the action of Japan. Japan was also
prepared to give up the membership of the League.
Likewise in Italy there was Fascist Dictatorship. This had preached the
people of Italy narrow nationalism. Italy captured Abyssinia. When the League
questioned the conquest of Italy on Abyssinia, it left the League.
Germany too was not prepared to accept the commitments under the Treaty
of Versailles. In Germany too there was Nazi dictatorship. Hitler preached pseudo
patriotism. He also spoke about the superiority of German race over other races. He
wanted to expand Germany’s sway over Austria and Poland. He made conquests
over these countries. Defying the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles he increased
the armaments. When this was questioned in the League, Germany left the League.
Small nations lost their faith on the working of the League. They felt that
the League of Nations had no power to control the aggressive activities of the big
powers.
France’s insistence of forcing Germany to pay the war reparation at the

time of its economic crisis had disastrous effects on the politics of the country. This
contributed to the downfall of the Weimar Republic. This led to the rise of Hitler in
Germany and the latter was responsible for the failure of the League.
The birth of the League of Nations on the ruins of the First World War was
welcomed. However, the member states of the League did not cooperate. As
a result the League failed in its mission. Thus, the Second World War broke out.
Finally, UNO was established on the disintegration of the League.
214

Learning Outcome
1. The formation of the League of Nations.
2. The role of Woodrow Wilson in its formation.
3. The achievements of the League of Nations in establishing world peace.
4. Causes for the failure of the League of Nations.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Name the person responsible for the founding of the League of Nations
(a) George Washington (b) Harry Truman
(c) F.D. Roosevelt (d) Woodrow Wilson
1. The League of Nations was established in the year ________
1. Headquarters of the League of Nations a. The Hague
2. Court of International Justice b. Curfu Incident
3. Italy c. Turkey and Iraq
4. Mosul Boundary d. Geneva
a) The U.S.A did not join the League of Nations.
b) The League of Nations succeeded in preventing the world war.
c) The League of Nations successfully prevented Japanese attack on

Manchuria.
d) Hitler and Mussolini did not respect the decisions of the League of Nations.

1. The mandate system was set up by the League of Nations.
2. The League of Nations was replaced by the United Nations Organization.
215

1. International Labour Organization
2. Mandate System
3. Curfu Incident
1. Give an account of the formation of the League of Nations.
2. Describe the important organs of the League of Nations.
1. Examine the achievements of the League of Nations.
2. Analyse the causes for the failure of the League of Nations.
216

LESSON 30
RISE OF FASCISM AND NAZISM
Learning Objectives
1. The rise of Fascism in Italy and its causes.
2. Mussolini’s foreign policy.
3. The rise of Nazism in Germany and the factors contributed to it.
4. Hitler’s foreign policy and its effects.
Mussolini and the Fascist Italy

Causes for the Growth of Fascism in Italy
Italy attended the Paris Peace Conference with great expectations. The
secret Treaty of London which was signed in 1915 with the Allies gave Italy great
hope. At Paris, Orlando presented the demands of Italy. But the US President
Woodrow Wilson rejected the Treaty of London. Italian claims over territories on
the Adriatic Sea, some Turkish provinces and Albania in the Balkan were all turned
down. Thus Italy gained nothing in the Paris Peace Conference. “Italy had won the
war but had lost peace”.
Italy was disappointed. The representatives of Italy were forced to

boycott the conference. They felt that the Allies had purposely deceived Italy.
This discontentment created a feeling of revolt among the middle class youth.
They decided to form an organization and unite in order to avenge their national
humiliation and treachery.
Economic Condition
During the war, Italy was forced to spend huge amount more than her
national income. Unemployment prevailed. People believed that government was
responsible for such a situation. They wanted an alternative government. The rise of
the Fascist Party was also a result of above dissatisfaction.
Spread of Socialism
The unemployment problem, poverty and inflation helped the spread of

Socialism. The believers in Marxism had a political party called Social Democrats
of Italy. In the 1919 election they gained 156 seats out of 574. This party helped a
lot for the rise and development of Fascism in Italy.
217

Rise of Mussolini
Benito Mussolini was the originator of the idea of Fascism. He was born in
1883. Mussolini’s father an ironsmith, was a follower of Socialism. Hence, Mussolini
was influenced by the socialistic ideology. He was a school teacher a trade unionist
and a journalist. He was imprisoned in 1908 for revolutionary ideas. In 1912 he
started the editing of Avanthi, a socialist journal. He was a bitter opponent of the
Church.
When the First World War broke out, the Italian

Government decided not to take part in the War. But Mussolini
propagated that the Italian Government should immediately join
the war in favour of the Allies. For that Mussolini was punished.
But later Italy was forced to join the war on the side of the Allies.
As a result Mussolini became popular. He also participated in
M the war as a soldier.
ussolini
The Bolshevik Revolution took place in Russia in 1917. The
people of Italy also were influenced by the revolution. The communists of Italy also
were planning for a massive revolution. Mussolini, who was a staunch opponent
of Bolshevism, decided to start a new party to fight Communism. In march 1919
the Fascist Party was established under his leadership. The members wore black
shirts and were equipped with arms. The party had its own flag. The members were
well disciplined and Mussolini was their chief commander.
In the first party convention of Milan, Mussolini announced the programmes

and Charter of demands of the party. They were:
● Nationalisation of factories
● Confiscation of surplus money from the capitalists
● Universal Franchise
● Forfeiture of the Church property
● Eight hours work in factories
● Framing of a new constitution.
These demands of the Fascist Party soon achieved popularity in Italy. The
number of members increased very rapidly. In 1919 there were only seventeen
thousand members in the party. The number increased to 3 lakhs in 1922. The
Fascists captured the offices of the Socialist and the Communist parties by force.
In October 1922, the Fascist Party had its party convention at Naples. A
Charter of Demands was passed at the convention. They include induction of
Fascist members in the Cabinet, new election to the Legislatures and the adoption
218

of a vigorous foreign policy. But the government refused to concede. The Fascists
therefore marched on to Rome, under the leadership of Mussolini. They captured
all the government officers. The government asked the king Victor Immanuel III to
promulgate martial law. Mussolini was invited to form the ministry.
Mussolini as the Prime Minster of Italy
Mussolini was an action oriented Prime Minister. He took the following steps
for the reorganization of administration.
 The dacoits living in the interiors of Naples and Sicily were crushed.
 The economic and social conditions of the labourers were improved.
 Trade Unions were abolished.
 The entire powers of the Parliament were snatched.
 Members faithful to the leader alone were appointed as ministers and

officers.
Elections were conducted under the basis of the changed law. The Fascist
Party got a complete majority in the National Parliament. After elections, Mussolini
adopted some measures to crush opponents.
 All local bodies were suspended.
 Only Fascist lawyers were allowed to practice.

 In 1926, all political parties were banned.
 The cabinet system of government came to an end.
 Freedom of the Press was curtailed.
 Unlimited powers were given to the police department.
 Members of the opposition parties were imprisoned.
Mussolini as the Dictator
Rule of one leader and one party was the ideology of Fascism. He had no
faith in democracy and hated the majority. He believed in the supremacy of the
state. The individual had no right. The individual was merely a means to recognise
the existence of the state.
NAZISM IN GERMANY
After the First World War, harsh peace was imposed on Germany and other
defeated countries. This had created intense nationalist upsurge in Germany. The
economic breakdown and the rise of socialist parties paved the way for the rise of
Hitler and Nazism in Germany. Similarly such situation arose in Italy and Japan.
219

This resulted in the Axis formation. The aggressive foreign policy of Hitler led to the
Second World War.
Germany at the End of World War I
At the end of the World War I, the German King William was forced to
abdicate A republic was proclaimed in Germany. Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the
Social - Democratic Party formed a temporary government. This was followed by
an election to the Constituent Assembly. The Social Democratic Party emerged as
the largest party. The session of the Constituent Assembly was held in the city of
Weimar. A new constitution was drafted. This is known as Weimar Constitution.
The Revolt of the Royalists
The Treaty of Versailles was very harsh and humiliating to Germany. It

suffered territorial loss. The policy of disarmament was imposed. The war reparation
was enormous. Germany was held responsible for the World War. This affected the
sentiments of the Germans. A group of people opposed the signing of the Treaty of
Versailles.
In March 1920, the royalists under the leadership of Dr. Kapp revolted. But
he failed and surrendered before the republican government. The second such
revolt was led by Ludendorff. He was assisted by Hitler. Ludendorff and Hitler were
arrested and imprisoned for 5 years. It was during this jail life, Hitler wrote the
famous book Mein Kampf which later became the Bible of the Nazi party.
Economic Crisis
The post war Germany posed a disastrous financial crisis. For the payment of
reparation, the government was forced to take loans. Factories were closed. Trade
and commerce were deteriorating. Heavy taxes were imposed. To meat the financial
crisis the government had no other option but to issue more and more paper
currencies. This resulted into inflation. Unemployment was rampant.
Reparation
According to the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany, which

was held responsible for the First World War, had to pay a heavy amount of
compensation. The Reparation Commission fixed the amount as 660 million
pounds. There was opposition against these provisions. Most of them argued that,
since Germany was not responsible for World War I, there was no need to pay the
heavy amount of war indemnity.
Dawes Plan
The financial crisis in Germany forced the Weimar Republic to make an

appeal to the allies for the reduction of the amount of reparation. As a result
a committee consisting of ten members was formed under the chairmanship
220

of Dawes, an eminent finance specialist of U.S.A. The committee made some

amendments to the provision of the Treaty of Versailles. This known as Dawes Plan
The financial burden of Germany was reduced to certain level. When the problem of
reparation again appeared in 1929 the Young Committee made a plan to solve it.
Hitler and the Nazi Germany
Adolph Hitler was born in April 1889 in a very humble family in an Austrian
village. On account of poverty he could not get proper education. His father wanted
to make his son a government employee. But Hitler was very fond of art from his
early days. So he went to Vienna at the age of 18 to learn the art of painting and
architecture. While he was in Vienna, he happened to witness the behavior of the
Jews. He felt that the Jews were the moral enemies of individualism, nationalism
and racialism. Further he felt that the Jews were the supporters
of the Marxian ideology. Thus his anti- Jews ideas developed at
very early age. Hitler was opposed to democracy and believed
in the supremacy of the German race.
During the First World War Hitler joined the army and
participated in the war. In recognition of his service and
bravery shown during the war, he was honoured with the
award of the ‘Iron Cross’. He believed that the Jews and the
communists were responsible for the defeat of Germany. He
therefore undertook a programme to avenge the defeat. He
began to work as a spy in Munich. He also started a new party
with the cooperation of his friends. National Socialist German
Labour Party was launched.
H
Nazi Party
itler
To carryout his programmes, Hitler started the National Socialist Party or
Nazi Party. ‘Swastika’ was made the symbol of Nazi Party. By the year 1932, the
membership of the Nazi Party increased to 70 lakhs. To attract the young people to
his party, Hitler started ‘Hitler Young Society.’ Also he formed two military bodies.
The members were wearing brown shirts with a red armband carrying a black
Swastika. Another division was called as the ‘Black Shirts’. They were the body
guards of the Nazi party leaders.
In 1932, Hitler contested for the post of President. But he was defeated
with a few votes against Hindenburg. But in the general election conducted in the
same year, his party became the largest party in the parliament. According to the
provisions of the constitution as a leader of the majority party in the Reichstag, Hitler
was made the Chancellor. Thus he formed the Nazi Government.
He established the dictatorship of the Nazi Party. Communist party

was banned and its leaders were arrested. The civil rights of the people were
221

suspended. The Weimar Republic came to an end. Hitler declared the establishment
of the Third Reich. The flag of the Nazi Party became the National flag. The
Parliament was dissolved. The powers of the parliament were transferred to Hitler.
Anti- Jew Policy

In Germany, the Jews enjoyed a privileged position due to their wealth and
education. He believed that they were anti- nationals. Hitler now made several
efforts to crush the Jews. Anti- Jew Laws were passed. They were denied German
citizenship. He adopted very harsh and repressive measures for the economic and
cultural boycott of the Jews.
Military Reforms
Hitler reorganised his military on the basis of German nationality. Germans
alone were admitted into the military service. He established a totalitarian type of
government so that he could follow an aggressive foreign policy.
Foreign Policy of Hitler
Hitler did not approve the Treaty of Versailles. It was a dictated peace. Hence
it was a humiliating one. The German people accepted the policy of Hitler and
accepted him as their leader. The important aspects of his foreign policy are given
below.
German came out of the League of Nations
Following the League of Nations Disarmament Conference on February 3,
1932 Hitler announced the withdrawal from the League. He started the process of
rearming Germany.
Rearmament
As mentioned above, after the Geneva Disarmament Conference, Hitler
withdrew from the League of Nations. Now he was free to rearm Germany. On
March 16, 1935, Hitler announced compulsory military training for all German
people. He also aimed to have the air force equal to that of England and France.
He announced that the reason for the increase in the strength of the army was self-
defence. But France and England had natural suspicion over these actions of Hitler.
Therefore they convened a meeting at Stressa in Switzerland and condemned the
behaviour of Hitler. But their condemnation did not affect Hitler from rearmament.
Militarization of Rhineland
Rhineland was to be demilitarised, according to the Treaty of Versailles.
On March 7, 1936, Hitler sent his army into the heart of Rhineland and started the
construction of fortifications. France opposed this move of Germany. But England
was a silent spectator to this action of Hitler. Thus a golden opportunity to stop the
aggressive behaviour of Hitler was lost by both England and France.
222

The Spanish Civil War
A Republic had been proclaimed in Spain in 1931. In 1936 the conservatives

under General Franco started a Civil War against the Republic. Now Germany
and Italy supported Franco whereas Russia supported the Republicans. The
Republicans were defeated and the dictatorship of Franco was established. The net
result of the Spanish Civil War was that it helped Italy and Germany to come closer
and later their friendship was converted into a treaty.
Rome- Berlin -Tokyo Axis
In October 1936, On the basis of an agreement Germany approved Italian

control over Abyssinia and Italy granted permission to Hitler to annex Austria
with Germany. Hitler was antagonistic towards Russian Communism. Therefore
Hitler in November 1936, signed an Anti- Commintern Pact with Japan, another
enemy of Russia. In November 1937, Italy was admitted into the alliance. This
Anti Commintern pact was otherwise called as Rome –Berlin- Tokyo Axis. This
Axis was formed against England, France and Russia. This was the beginning of
Second World War.
Nazism grew in Germany under Hitler. It stood for aggressive nationalism,

authoritarianism and the leadership principle. On becoming Germany’s Chancellor
in 1933, Hitler undertook a rearmament programme. His aggressive foreign policy
led to the Second World War. Similarly, Mussolini organized the Fascist movement
in Italy. He believed in dictatorship, aggressive foreign policy and colonial policy.
Thus, he emerged as the Il Duce or supreme commander. The emergence of
dictatorship in Europe paved the way for Second World War.
Learning Outcome
1. The factors led to the rise of Fascism in Italy.
2. The principles of Fascism and Mussolini’s aggressive foreign policy.
3. Growth of Nazism in Germany and its principles.
4. Hitler’s foreign policy and the formation of Rome-Berlin- Tokyo Axis.
5. The impact of the rise of Fascism and Nazism.
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MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Which among the following journal was edited by Mussolini?
(a) New Italy (b) Mein Kamph
(c) Avanti (d) Risorgimento
2. The Nationalist Socialist Party was founded by
(a) Hitler (b) Mussolini
(c) Kaiser William II (d) Karl Marx
1. Fascism was the principle of _________
2. Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was signed in the year __________
1. Treaty of London a. 1917
2. Fascist Party b. 1936
3. Anti- Commintern Pact c. 1915

4. Bolshevik Revolution d. 1919
a) Mussolini was influenced by the socialist ideology.
b) Mussolini was a staunch supporter of the Church.
c) Swastika was made as the symbol of the Fascist Party.
d) The members of the Fascist Party wore Red Shirts.
1. The aggressive foreign policy of Hitler led to the Second World War.
2. Hitler was the author of Mein Kamph.
3. The Spanish Civil War was started under the leadership of Dr. Kapp.

1. Fascism
2. Nazism
3. Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis
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1. Briefly discuss the causes for the growth of Fascism in Italy.
2. What were the reasons for the rise of Hitler in Germany?
3. Discuss the foreign policy of Hitler.
1. Give an account of the rise of dictatorships in Germany and Italy.
2. Analyse the principles and growth of Nazism in Germany.
225

LESSON 31
SECOND WORLD WAR
Learning Objectives
1. The causes for the Second World War.
2. The rise of dictatorships and other causes for the war.
3. The course of the Second World War.
4. Results of the Second World War.
The First World War came to an end in 1918 and the Paris Peace conference
was held in 1919. Many treaties including the Treaty of Versailles were signed in
the conference. One of the important features of this conference was that only the
victorious nations alone were invited. The conference turned out to be a meeting of
the victors to share the spoils of the war. The defeated countries were badly treated.
They also discussed about the establishment of permanent peace in the world. In
order to solve mutual problems among the nations, under the initiative of the U.S.
President Woodrow Wilson, the League of Nations had been established. But the
League failed to maintain the expected international peace. This ultimately led to
the rise of dictatorships in Germany, Italy and Japan. The formation of Rome, Berlin,
Tokyo Axis led to the Second World War.
Causes of the Second World War

Treaty of Versailles
Germany was defeated in the First World War. She was not invited to the
Paris Peace Conference. Germany was forced to sign a harsh and humiliating
treaty. German territories were taken away from her. She was deprived of her
colonies. Her navy was completely
disbanded. Her army was reduced
considerably. The Weimar Republic was not
in a position to solve the post-war problems.
The German people decided to take
revenge for their humiliation. In fact, the
Second World War was a war of retaliation.
Therefore, the Treaty of Versailles had in
Treaty Of V
itself the seeds of the Second World War.
ersailles
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Rise of Dictatorships
The inter-war period witnessed the rise of dictatorships in Europe. The

inter-war period is otherwise called the period of dictators. Germany, Italy, Spain
and Japan witnessed the rise of dictators. In Germany, the Weimar Republic was
weak. Hitler, the leader of the Nazi Party took full advantage of the weakness of the
Republican Government and brought the government under his control. He started
aggression. He captured Austria and Czechoslovakia. At last he attacked Poland
and World War II started.
The same condition prevailed in Italy also. Italy felt that it was deceived in the
Paris Peace Conference. Mussolini started the Fascist Party. In 1922 he captured
power and became a dictator. He also followed an aggressive foreign policy. The
spirit of dictatorship arose in Spain and Japan also. In Spain, General Franco
defeated the Republican Government and established his dictatorship. In this effort,
he was assisted by the armies of Hitler and Mussolini. Japan became a partner of
Hitler and Mussolini by signing the Rome- Berlin -Tokyo Axis. This alliance disturbed
world peace and the Second World War started.
Militarism
The failure of the disarmament efforts after the First World War was a major
reason for the outbreak of a new War. In the Paris Peace conference Germany was
forced to disarm itself. The German Government demanded disarmament of the
victorious powers, in the same way as she had been disarmed. As they refused,
Germany under the dictatorship of Hitler increased its military strength. Owing to
the immense increase in armaments and the development of militarism, the Second
World War became inevitable.
Imperialism
The policy of imperialism was one of the causes for the Second World
War. It was this same feeling of imperialism which played a dominant role during
the First World War. Germany and Japan, who were more imperialistic than the
Allied powers, simply ignored the decisions of the Paris Peace Conference. They
made their efforts to expand their respective territories. Hitler occupied Rhineland,
Austria, Memel, Czechoslovakia and incorporated them into German territory. Japan
attacked Manchuria and captured it from China. Mussolini occupied Abysinia and
launched a series of aggressive activities.
Colonialism
There was also a race for colonies among the European countries in order
to obtain raw materials and markets for their industrial growth. This trend continued
among these powers even after the First World War. Germany was deprived of all
her colonies at the Paris Peace Conference. Italy was dissatisfied with the treatment
227

of Allied Powers. Japan, a powerful Asiatic country wanted to have colonies to

enrich its resources. It is in these circumstances Germany, Italy and Japan decided
to follow aggressive foreign policy. These aggressive actions ultimately led to the
Second World War.
Failure of the League of Nations
After the First World War, the League of Nations was established to solve
controversies among the nations and to maintain permanent peace and order in
the world. Even the members of the League failed to respect the provisions of the
covenant of the League. Those who violated the provisions simply walked out of
the League, without any punishment. The League could not contain the Japanese
annexation of Manchuria and Italian invasion of Abyssinia. Hitler’s activities posed
a challenge to the League. Thus, the failure of the League of Nations to control
aggressive countries was a major cause for World War II.
Dissatisfaction of National Minorities
The Allied powers though posed themselves as the champions of the

principle of self-determination, in actual practice that principle was not followed
by them. In some parts of Central Europe, the problem of national minorities
existed. It is these minority groups which became the hot beds of discontent and
dissatisfaction. German annexation of Austria and Sudetenland and attack on
Poland was based on this policy of reunion of National minorities.
Mutual differences of the Allies
There was no collective cooperation among the Allies. England followed a

policy appeasement towards Germany. France’s fear of Germany was opposed by
England. The U.S.A., the architect of the League of Nations, did not join the League.
These differences among the allies failed to check the increasing strength of the
dictators.
Course of the War
According to the decisions taken in the Paris Peace Conference, Poland had
been made an independent kingdom. East Prussia was separated from Germany.
Now, Hitler wanted to unite East Prussia with Germany. Hitler invaded Poland on
September 1, 1939. Great Britain declared war against Germany on September 3.
Second World War started.
In April 1940, Germany captured Denmark and Norway. In May 1940, Holland
and Belgium were conquered. Germany attacked France and captured it in June
1940.
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EUROPE DURING
WORLD WAR II NORWAY
DEN
R
S
SW E
NORTH
SE
A S
SEA DENMARK C
AL
TI U
B
ENGLAND
IC GERMANY PO L A N D U S S R
NT
SEA
A CZEC
L AN HOSL
AT CE OVAK
PIAN
IA
O FRANCE TR
I A
CAS
S
AU HUNGARY
PORTUGAL RUMANIA
I Y U KO BLACK SEA
T SL
A AV
CORSIA IA
L
ROME Y
Greater Germany
T
U
SARDENGA
Nurtural Countries
SPAIN
R
Allied to Germany
K
MEDITERRANEAN SEA Territories occupied by Axis
E
Y
MALTA Opposing Germany
Italy fought against the British forces in North Africa. Mussolini attacked
Greece and captured it with German support. Yugoslavia and Crete were occupied
by the Germans.
After the fall of France, Britain was left alone. Hence, Hitler wanted to attack
England by air. There was continuous air force attack on Britain. But the dynamic
leadership of Prime Minister Churchill saved England. Germany could not conquer
Britain.
Germany made a mistake of invading the Soviet Union, despite a non-

aggression pact. One of the important battles was the Battle of Stalingrad. For
five months the battle went on. It involved 2 million men, 2000 tanks and 2000
aero-planes. The invading German army was driven back. In February1943, about
90,000 German soldiers surrendered. This was a turning point of the war.
In December 1941, Japan attacked the Pearl Harbour. This tragedy dragged
the U.S.A. into the war. General MacArther was made
the supreme commander of the Pacific region. Lord
Mountbatten, the Commander of South East Asia drove
the Japanese from Burma.
In Africa, Abyssinia was conquered by the

Pearl H
U.S.A. from Italy. The Italian Somaliland was also
arbour
conquered. The British General Montgomery captured Libya from Germans. He
also conquered Tripoli and entered Tunisia. In 1942 Algeria fell. In 1943 Sicily was
captured by the British and U.S. troops. North Africa was cleared of Italian and
229

German troops. The mainland of Italy was attacked. There was a revolt in Italy and
Mussolini was arrested, but he managed to escape with German help. In September
1943, Italy surrendered unconditionally. Mussolini was captured and killed by his
own people in April 1945.
In 1944 the Allied forces entered into France and expelled the German army
from France. After that the Allied forces attacked Germany from the Southwest.
Russia invaded Germany from the East. On 2 May 1945 Russian army entered
Berlin. Hitler committed suicide. Germany surrendered.
Even after the surrender of Germany, Japan continued the war. USA dropped
two atom bombs on Hiroshima (6th August) and on Nagasaki (9th August). Following
this Japan surrendered on 14th August 1945.
The Second World War was over. At the end of the war, some 13 million
Europeans were killed and 17 million civilians had died as a result of the fighting. All
major cities were in ruins. Agriculture was ruined. People of the entire world had to
face untold miseries, directly or indirectly.
Results of the Second World War
 In this war, about 15 Million soldiers and 10 million civilians lost their lives.
 An important result of the Second World War was that it brought to an end the
colonial Empire of the European countries in Asia and Africa.
 Multi-polar world became bi-polar world.
 The USA and USSR emerged as Super Powers.
 Cold War started as an ideological war between USA and USSR.
Learning Outcome
1. The causes of the Second World War.
2. The rise of dictatorships and the formation of the Rome- Berlin-

Tokyo Axis led to the outbreak of the war.
3. The main events of the war and the ultimate victory of the allied
power.
4. Results of the Second World War.
230

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Japan attacked the Pearl Harbour in the year
(a) 1940 (b) 1941
(c) 1942 (d) 1945
1. The U.S.A. dropped the first atom bomb on Hiroshima on _________
2. The Supreme Commander of the Pacific region was________
III. Match the following:
1. Mussolini a. Japanese invasion
2. Manchuria b. Nazism
3. General MacArther c. Fascism
4. Hitler d. Supreme Commander of the Pacific Region
IV. Find out the Statement. One statement alone is correct.
a. Hitler invaded Poland on September 1, 1940.

b. In December 1941, Japan attacked the Pearl Harbour.
c. In September 1945 Italy surrendered.
d. On 2 May 1944 Russian army entered Berlin.
1. Germany was invited to attend the Paris Peace Conference.
2. General Franco was the dictator of Spain.
3. The U.S.A. was an active member of the League of Nations.
4. The Battle of Stalingrad was fought between Germany and the Soviet Union.
1. Militarism
2. Imperialism
3. National Minorities
231

1. Trace the main events of the Second World War.
2. Examine the results of the Second World War.
1. Give an account of the causes of the Second World War.
232

LESSON 32
GROWTH OF ASIAN NATIONS: CHINA AND JAPAN
Learning Objectives
1.The rise of modern China.
2.The emergence of the People’s Republic of China.
3.The rise of modern Japan.
4.Growth of Japan as an economic giant.
Rise of Modern China
Asia is generally divided into South Asia, South East Asia, East Asia and
West Asia. China and Japan are part of East Asia. The People’s Republic of China,
which was established in 1949 is the largest country in East Asia. It is also the fourth
largest country in the world. It has the largest population in the world. It shares its
border with 14 nations in Asia.
China is one of the oldest civilizations in the world. China

was ruled by many dynasties. During the 19th and 20th centuries,
China was ruled by the Manchu dynasty. China during Manchu
rule became weak. China was called the sick man of Asia. It
became a quasi colony of the western powers. The European
countries came to China for trade and commerce. China called
the Europeans as “Red Barbarians”. China imposed many
Lin Tse H restrictions on European traders. Co-hong (security merchants)
su
was the institution that controlled the European trade. Particularly
the English and French did not like this. Slowly the English merchants introduced
opium to the Chinese traders. In due course of time, China imported large quantities
of opium. Opium-eating became a national vice. Therefore, the Chinese government
imposed rules to prohibit opium trade. The action of Commissioner Lin Tse hsu led
to First Opium War (1839-1842) in which England defeated China. The war came to
an end with the Treaty of Nanking. In 1856 the Second Opium War took place. This
time Britain, France, USA and Russia fought against China. The war ended with the
Treaty of Tientsin in 1860.
Thus, the western countries established their supremacy in China. China

was partitioned into many economic zones controlled by western powers. This is
known as “the cutting of the Chinese Melon” (ie., cutting China into many pieces).
The failure of Manchu dynasty led to the Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864) in China.
233

It was led by Hung Hsiu-chüan. The rebellion was crushed. China was controlled
by queen Tzu hsi from 1860 to 1908 till her death. Tzu hsi’s reactionary rule led to
revolutionary movements in China.
In 1894-1895 a war broke out between China and Japan. This is known as
the First Sino-Japanese War. The war was fought for the control of Korea. China
was defeated in this war. This led to a Chinese revolt known as
the Boxer Rebellion against the foreign domination of China.
This rebellion was also suppressed with the help of the western
countries.
However, during this time an intellectual emerged as the

undisputed leader of China. He was Dr. Sun Yat Sen. He is
known as the “Morning Star” of China. He mobilized young
Dr. Sun Yat S
revolutionaries and started the 1911 Revolution in China. This
en
revolution ended the Manchu rule in China. New flag, new calendar were adopted.
China for the first time became a republic. Yuan Shih Kai became the President of
the Chinese Republic.
During the First World War, Japan captured the Shantung Province from
China. After the War, at the Peace Conference at Versailles China wanted to get
back her territory of Shantung province. But the allied countries gave Shantung to
Japan. Immediately, the May Fourth Movement started in China.
Following this once again Dr. Sun Yat Sen assumed control of China. He
started the Kuomintang Party. With the Russian help he wanted to introduce
reforms in China. It was during this period the Chinese Communist Party of China
was started. Mso Tse Tung and Chou –en-lai were the original founding members of
the Communist Party of China.
In 1924 Dr. Sun Yat Sen passed away. The leadership of the Kuomintang
party was assumed by Chiang Kai Shek. In the beginning there was an
understanding between the Kuomintang and the Communists. But, soon both
became rivals. Chiang wanted to exterminate Mao’s Communist Party. Mao retired
to northern China. It is known as the Long March. There the
Communists established their control. In 1945 a civil war broke
out between the Communists and the Kuomintang. Finally,
Mao established the People’s Republic of China in October
1949. Chinag Kai Shek fled to Taiwan, which is known as
Nationalist China. During the Cold War Era the USA supported
the Nationalist China . Hence, the Nationalist China became a
member of the UNO until 1971.The Peoples Republic of
China was admitted as a member in the UNO only in 1971.
Mao Tse T
ung
234

Mao Tse Tung introduced the economic reform known as the Great Leap
Forward. In 1966, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution. During the Cultural
Revolution those who were against Mao were removed from the Communist Party
and imprisoned.
After Mao’s death in 1976 and the Gang of Four were arrested. Following
this Deng Xiaoping quickly captured power from Mao’s successor Hua Guofeng.
Deng introduced many economic reforms including the relaxation of government
control over the Chinese economy. Thus China moved from a planned economy to
a mixed economy. As a result of the changing economic scene China formally joined
the World Trade Organization in 2001.
JAPAN
Japan was the only country which was not colonized by the European
countries in Asia. Though it was geographically a small country, it became a
powerful country. Japan like the western countries followed a policy of imperialism in
Asia. It possessed great military strength. Today Japan is an economic giant.
Japan followed a policy of isolation for more than 200 years. It was broken
by Commodore Perry of the U.S.A. on 8th July 1853. His mission paved the way for
Japan’s trade with the West. During this period the Tokugawa Shoguns controlled
Japan. Perry’s mission led to the restoration of the Japanese Emperor to full
authority. This is known as the Meiji Restoration.
The Meiji Restoration had initiated many reforms in Japan. The feudal system
was abolished. Western legal system was adopted. Constitutional Monarchy,
as in Britain, was introduced according to the Meiji Constitution. Japan was fully
modernized.
Soon Japan followed a policy of militarism and imperialism. Japan defeated

China in 1894-95. Subsequently, it defeated the biggest European country Russia
in 1904-05. During the First World War Japan captured the Chinese territory
of Shantung which was leased to Germany. It also imposed the 21 Demands on
China. Thus, at the end of the First World War Japan emerged as a superior military
power. Hence, in order to control Japan’s Navy the Washington Naval Conference
was held in 1921-22. But this was only a temporary measure.
In 1931 Japan invaded Manchuria and established a puppet regime. In 1937

once again Japan invaded China. Finally, it joined with Germany and Italy and
formed the axis. In 1941 Japan attacked the Pearl Harbour and the U.S.A. entered
the Second World War in support of Britain and France and Russia.
On August 6th and 9th two atom bombs were dropped by the U.S.A. on the
Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan surrendered to the U.S.A.
235

General MacArthur and Emperor Hirohito
After the war, Japan was placed under control of the Supreme Commander,
Gen. Douglas MacArthur. The new constitution took effect on 3rd May 1947. The
United States and 45 other Allied nations signed the San
Francisco Peace Treaty in September 1951. Following the
treaty, Japan was made an independent nation once again.
From the 1950s to the 1980s, Japan’s history consists

mainly of its rapid development into a major economic power.
The U.S.A. provided the latest technology to Japan. Thus, Japan
rapidly rebuilt its heavy industrial sector. Japan soon emerged
M
as a significant power in many economic spheres, including
acarthur
steel making, car manufacture and the manufacture of electronic goods.
Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the cooperation
of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely-knit groups called
keiretsu emerged. For examples Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Mitsui, Dai-Ichi
Kangyo and Sanwa are some of the powerful companies.
Politically, the postwar Japan has been dominated by one party - the Liberal
Democratic Party. The party remained practically invincible for almost half a century.
Emperor Hirohito died in 1989 and his son Akihito succeeded.
In the 21st century Japan emerged as a strong economic power. Japan is the
only Asian country to be included in the group of developed countries. Japan is a
member of the G8 (Group of developed countries).
Learning Outcome
1. The rise of modern China and a brief history.
2. The emergence of the People’s Republic of China and the role of

Mao.
3. The rise of modern Japan and its role in world politics.
4. Growth of Japan as an economic giant in 20th century.
236

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The sick man of Asia
(a) Turkey (b) Japan
(c) Korea (d) China
2. The First Opium War came to an end by the treaty of ________
(a) Nanking (b) Peking
(c) Tienstein (d) Shantung
1. The Kuomintang Party was founded by _________
2. The San Francisco Peace Treaty was signed in the year_______
1. Hung Hsiu-Chuan a. Cultural Revolution
2. Dr. Sun Yat Sen b. Japanese Emperor

3. Mao Tse Tung c. US Mission
4. Commodore Perry d. Morning Star of China
5. Hirohito e. Taiping Rebellion
1. Dr. Sun Yat Sen led the Taiping Rebellion.
2. Mao Tse Tung became the President of China after 1911 Revolution.
3. Japan was modernized after Meiji Restoration.
4. Japan is not a member of the G 8.
1. China was controlled by queen Tzu hsi from 1860 to 1908.
2. After Sun Yat Sen Kuomintang party was led by Mao Tse Tung.
3. Japan was the only country which was not colonized by the Europeans in
Asia.
4. Japan imposed 21 demands on China during the First World War.

237

1. Taiping Rebellion
2. Long March
3. Meiji Restoration
1. Write a note on Mao Tse Tung.
2. Discuss the developments in post-war Japan.
1. Estimate the role of Dr. Sun Yat Sen in the establishment of modern China.
2. Give an account of the rise of Japan in the modern world.
238

LESSON 33
UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION
Learning Objectives
1. The foundation of the UNO.
2. Aims of the UNO.
3. Organization of the UNO.
4. Achievements of the UNO.
5. Non-Political functions of the UNO.
The Second World War proved to be more destructive than the First
World War. For the first time atomic weapon was used. The people of the whole
world were afraid of the consequences of such wars in future. In order to bring
the quarreling countries to talks and negotiate for peace countries like the USA,
the USSR and the UK wanted a world forum. Although they had failed in their first
experiment during the First World War yet they were firmly committed to peace. The
result of their tireless effort was the birth of the United Nations Organization.
Foundation of the UNO
After a series of conferences such as the Atlantic Charter, Yalta

Conference and Potsdam Conference finally in 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks in USA
the creation of UNO was finalized. The Charter of the United Nations (U.N.) was
signed by the representatives of fifty one nations at San Francisco on 26th June
1945.
Delegates of fifty one countries after a long discussion, accepted the scheme
and they published a U.N. Charter. On 24th October 1945, the United Nations came
into being. The UN Headquarters is located in New York, USA.
Aims of the UNO
The fundamental aims of the U.N.O. as set forth in the Charter are :
(i) To maintain and preserve international peace and security.
(ii) To develop friendly relations and harmony among the countries.
(iii) To grant equal rights and self-determination to all countries.
239

(iv) To solve economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems through

international cooperation.
(v) To promote respect for human rights, dignity and freedom.
(vi) Not to intervene in the matters which are directly related with the domestic
jurisdiction of any country.
Organization of the U.N.O.
The U.N.O. consists of six main bodies which are as follows :
(i) The General Assembly.
(ii) The Security Council
(iii) The Economic and Social Council
(iv) The Trusteeship Council.
(v) The International Court of Justice
(vi) The Secretariat.
The General Assembly
It is a deliberative body of the United Nations Organization. This body

consistis of five representatives of each member state. But each member state
has only one vote. The main function of this organ is to consider issues relating to
Organs of U.N.O.
General Assembly
International Security
Court of Council
Justice
Economic
Secretariat and Social
Council
Trusteeship
Council
240

international peace and security and to discuss important international problems.

UNO has a Secretary General. The official languages of UNO are English, French,
Spanish, Russian, Chinese and Arabic. Now [2006] UN has 192 member countries.
The Security Council
It is the chief executive body of the U.N.O. It consists of fifteen members -

five permanent and ten temporary. Russia, China, U.S.A., France and Great Britain
are the permanent members of the Security Council of the U.N.O. Its main function
is to preserve peace and security in the world. It can take diplomatic and economic
steps against those nations who violate the constitution of the U.N.O. Each of the
five permanent members has a powerful vote known as veto.
The Economic and Social Council
This council is composed of eighteen members (there are twenty-seven

members at present). All members of this council are elected by the General
Assembly. It is directly responsible to the General Assembly. The fundamental
principle of this body is to create a spirit of universal respect for human rights and to
promote a higher cultural educational standard. Its function is to raise the standard
of living of the people, to assure them employment. The UNO believes that world
peace could be maintained only when the people enjoy a high economic and social
standard of living.
The Social and Economic Council works through the cooperation of several
special committees and commissions. such as, The United Nations Education,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), The United Nations Relief and
Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), Food and Agricultural Organization (F.A.O.),
International Labour Organization (I.L.O.), International Bank, World Health
Organization (W.H.O.) etc. This organ has rendered undoubtedly great services to
the mankind since 1945.
The Trusteeship Council
This Council is composed of the representatives of permanent members

of the Security Council, representatives of all those states which hold the
administration of colonies and some other representatives elected by the General
Assembly. The main function of the Trusteeship Council is to preserve the interests
of the territories handed over to it and to help the General Assembly in the
administration of those countries over which the U.N.O. holds Trusteeship.
The International Court of Justice
It is the judicial organ of the U.N.O. It has its headquarters at The Hague
(Netherlands). It is composed of fifteen judges elected by the General Assembly and
the Security Council for nine years. Its main function is to solve the legal disputes of
the member states of UNO.
241

The Secretariat
It consists of the working staff of the U.N.O. The chief of the Secretariat is
called the Secretary General who is appointed by the General Assembly on the
recommendation of the Security Council. The main function of this body is to assist
all bodies of the U.N.O.
Achievements of the U N O
From the very beginning, the United Nations Organization had to deal with
a large number of conflicts and problems in the international field. The Security
Council of the U.N.O. made several efforts to solve those problems. But the efforts
of the Security Council had been greatly hampered by the free use of the veto
power. During the year 1946-47, Russia exercised the right of veto on twenty-two
occasions. But in spite of this serious handicap U.N.O. has achieved success in
solving many problems. some of them are as follows:
Decolonisation
UNO assisted the colonized countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America
to attain their independence from the colonial masters. This process is known as
decolonization. After the establishment of UNO the process of decolonization was
quickly achieved.
Maintenance of Peace
The main function of UNO had been the maintenance of peace in the world.
UNO achieved peace in the following conflict situations.
The Problem of Iran
On 1st January 1946, Iran presented a complaint against Russia before

the U.N.O. The root cause of the conflict was stationing of Russian troops in Iran.
U.N.O. took a very strong line as a consequence of this, the Russian troops were
withdrawn from Iran, which had been stationed there for many years. This was the
first and the most important achievement of the U.N.O.
Syria and Lebanon
Similar complaint was also made by Syria and Lebanon before the U.N.O.
Both of them requested the U.N.O. that British and French troops should be
immediately removed from their respective states. The Security Council, therefore,
made its efforts and at last it succeeded in securing the withdrawal of British and
French troops from those states.
Indonesia
After the end of the Second World War, the nationalists living in Indonesia
established a republican government. But the Dutch living in the colonies of Java
242

and Sumatra rose in rebellion against the nationalists. The Security Council issued
a cease-fire order to both sides. The Dutch agreed to grant full independence to
Indonesia.
The Palestine Problem
After the end of the First World War, Palestine had been handed over to
Great Britain under the mandate system. But the struggle arose between the Arabs
and the Jews which created disturbance and tension in Palestine. After the Second
World War U.N.O. appointed a special committee to study the problem of Palestine.
The Committee recommended immediate partition of Palestine into three parts - an
Arab State, a Jewish State and the City of Jerusalem which was to be governed
by the Trusteeship Council of the U.N.O. Thus, an independent state of Israel was
established for the Jews in 1948.
The Arabs bitterly opposed the plan of the partition of Palestine. They rose
in revolt against the Jews. Consequently, a civil war broke out in Palestine between
the Arab League and the newly established Israel. The UNO took effective steps to
diffuse the tension in Palestine.
The Kashmir Problem
This problem arose between India and Pakistan. Both of them fell into a state
of great rivalry on this issue. This problem was brought to the notice of the U.N.O. It
made its best efforts to remove hostility and differences between them. As a result
of its mediation, the war was stopped between India and Pakistan. But this problem
could not be solved permanently. It still awaits a peaceful and permanent solution.
The Problem of Korea
Before the beginning of the Second World War, the whole of Korea was
under the control of Japan. After the Second World War, Russia and America
decided to divide Korea on the 38th parallel line. On 24th June 1950 the army of the
North Korea made a fierce attack over South Korea. The matter was again brought
before the U.N.O. Hence, the Security Council decided to take some strong steps
against North Korea. UNO sent its army under the command of an American,
General Douglas MacArthur. A treaty was signed on July 27, 1953 by which the
U.N.O. withdrew its military action.
Other Important Problems
UNO tried to bring peaceful conclusion of many other problems such as Suez
Crisis [1956], Cyprus issue [1960], Congo problem [1960], Gulf War [1990].
Besides, UNO was concerned about arms control and disarmament,

particularly the nuclear disarmament and control of nuclear weapons.
243

Non-Political Achievements
UNO has achieved considerable success in non-political matters. Such as

ending racial discrimination [called Apartheid] in South Africa, protecting human
rights and providing financial assistance to many developing countries from World
Bank, IDA and IMF.
The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims

are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic
development, and social equity. UNO was successful in its main objectives, in spite
of difficulties and set backs.
Learning Outcome
1. The foundation of the UNO after the Second World War.
2. The aims and objectives of the UNO as an international

organization.
3. The structure of the UNO and its mode of functioning.
4. The achievements of the UNO in settling issues between nations

and promoting world peace.
5. The non-political achievements of the UNO.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The headquarters of the United Nations is located in
(a) Geneva (b) The Hague (c) New York (d) San Francisco
1. The United Nations was founded on _________
2. The judicial organ of the United Nations is_________
1. United Nations Charter a. 1956
2. Suez Crisis b. 1960

3. Cyprus Issue c. 1990
4. Gulf War d. 1945
244

a. UNO is the first world organization to be established to maintain world peace.
b. International Labour Organisation has its Headquarters at Rome.
c. International Court of Justice has 15 Judges.
d. WHO is one of the six main organs of the UNO.
1. The Charter of the UNO was signed by 51 countries at San Francisco in

1945.
2. Both the Permanent Members and Non-Permanent Members of the Security

Council have Veto power.
1. Security Council
2. Kashmir Dispute
3. Arab-Israel Conflict
1. State the aims of the United Nations.
2. Write a note on the functions of the UNESCO.
1. Briefly mention the various functions of the U.N.O.
2. Estimate the role of U.N.O. in maintaining the world peace.
245

LESSON 34
THE COLD WAR
Learning Objectives
1. The beginning of the Cold War.
2. The formation of military alliances.
3. The mounting tensions between the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R.
4. The end of the Cold War.
The end of the Second World War saw the rise of the U.S.A. and U.S.S.R.
as Super Powers. The strained relationship between these two countries till the
collapse of the U.S.S.R is known as the Cold War. The term ‘Cold War’ was used for
the first time by Bernard Baruch. Thereafter this term gained popularity through the
journalist Walter Lippman.
The Cold War may be described as the existence of continued tensions and
conflicts between the western world and the Communist countries in general and
between the United States and the Soviet Union in particular. The Cold War was
otherwise an ideological war or a propaganda war or a diplomatic war. It was neither
a condition of war nor a condition of peace. It was a state of uneasy peace.
Beginning of the Cold War
Even before the end of the Second World War the Soviet Union had imposed
Communist regimes in the East European countries of Poland, Bulgaria, Rumania,
Hungary and Yugoslavia. Immediately after the War the Soviet Union brought East
Germany under her influence. West Germany came under the influence of the
U.S.A. The Soviet Union blocked all roads to the west-occupied zones in Berlin.
This is known as Berlin Blockade. Thus, a tense situation developed between
the two blocs of the Cold War groups. The West was now concerned about the
Russian influence. The U.S.A. had then assumed the responsibility of containing
Communism. On 5th June 1947, the Marshall Plan was announced by the U.S.A.
by which economic assistance was to be provided to the western European
nations. It was a step to save the European Continent from the growing influence
of Communism. In response to American Marshall Plan, the Soviet Union initiated
Molotov Plan. On 12th March 1948, Truman Doctrine [Truman was the President
of USA] was announced and accordingly the U.S.A. provided economic and the
military aid to Greece and Turkey to the tune of 400 million dollars in order to stop
the Soviet influence in those countries.
246

NATO
The U.S.A. had created a military alliance to prevent further spread of

communism into Western Europe. A beginning in this direction was made by the
signing of the Brussels Treaty in March 1948. Britain, France, Holland, Belgium
and Luxemburg signed this treaty promising military collaboration in case of war.
On 4th April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed thus forming a military
power bloc, commonly known as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO.
The U.S.A., Canada, Britain, France, Holland, Belgium and Luxemburg, Portugal,
Denmark, Italy and Norway became its members. They had agreed to mutually
extend military help in case of an attack on any one of them. It was formed against
the Soviet Union.
Warsaw Pact
Between 1955 and 1958, West Asia remained the centre of the Cold War. In
the series of western military pacts, the Baghdad Pact was concluded in 1955,
later known as Central Treaty Organization (CENTO). In response to these
western military pacts, the Soviet Union concluded the Warsaw Pact on 14th May
1955 with her satellite powers. During this phase a number of military pacts were
concluded, but the tension between East and West was somewhat reduced.
China
The establishment of People’s’ Republic of China by Mao-Tse Tung in

October 1949 strengthened the Soviet bloc. The U.S.A. refused to recognize the
Communist Government of China. On the other hand the U.S.A. helped Chiang
Kai-Sheik to establish his Nationalist Government in Taiwan. The U.S.A. recognised
the Nationalist Government as the legal Government of China and made her as
a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council. The Communist China or the
People’s Republic of China was prevented by the U.S.A. to become a member in
the UNO.
Korean Crisis
In 1950, the arena of the cold war was changed from Europe to East Asia.
After the Second World War Korea was split into north and south Korea. In the North
Korea the Soviet - supported communist government was formed, while the South
Korea had an American - sponsored government. The two Korean governments
were in conflict with each other. On 25th June 1950 North Korea attacked South
Korea. North Korea was fighting with Soviet weapons and Chinese troops, while the
U.S.A. in the name of U.N. force was fighting on behalf of South Korea. The Korean
War turned the Cold War into an open armed conflict.
247

Vietnam War
Cold War was extended to Vietnam also. The fall of Dien Bien Phu on 7th May
1954 brought the final collapse of France in Indo-China. By Geneva Agreement,
Vietnam was partitioned at the 17th parallel between North Vietnam and South
Vietnam. A conflict developed between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. The
U.S.A. entered the war supporting South Vietnam. Further, in order to contain
Communism in South East Asia, the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)
was formed in 1954.
Regional Security Arrangement
▼ ▼ ▼
NATO SEATO WARSAW PACT
Expansion: North Atlantic Expansion: South East Year: 1955

Treaty Asian Treaty
Organization Organization
Year: 1949 Year: 1954 Members : Russia, Poland,
Czechoslovakia,
Hungary and
Rumania
Members: 12 + Greece, Members : U.S.A., U.K.,
West France, Australia,
Germany, Newzealand,
Turkey Paksitan,
Thailand and
Phillipines
The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
The Soviet Union stationed her nuclear missiles in Cuba, which was a
communist country and Soviet ally. The U.S.A. considered this as a great threat to
her security. John F. Kennedy sent the 7th Nuclear fleet towards Cuba. This literally
brought the two super - powers to the verge of war. However, the good sense
prevailed on both the sides and the crisis was averted. Subsequently, the U.S.S.R.
dismantled missiles in Cuba.
Decline of Cold War- Détente (Reduction of Tension)
After 1960, the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. had developed equality in nuclear
weapons. Thus any nuclear war would lead to co-destruction. This awareness led
both the super powers to believe in the inevitability of peaceful co-existence. They
were, therefore, prompted to conclude the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. This
treaty was followed by a ‘Hot Line Agreement’ between Washington and Kremlin.
248

After the 1970s, the friction between the Soviet Union and Communist China
led to Sino-Soviet rift. The People’s Republic of China was admitted into the UN.
President Nixon of U.S.A. visited Moscow in May 1972 and concluded the SALT -I
Treaty (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty). In June 1973, Brezhnev paid a nine-day
visit to the United States and further progress was made in the direction of strategic
arms limitation. This reduction of tension between the U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. is known
as era of détente.
End of the Cold War
With the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the collapse of Communism in

the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe occurred. The bi-polar world became unipolar
world. On 31st July 1991, American President George Bush and Soviet leader
Michael Gorbachev signed the ‘historic’ START - I Treaty in the Moscow Summit.
This marks the end of the Era of Cold War.
The ideological war otherwise known as Cold War was fought for about five
decades since 1945. The world saw the vertical division of nation states. Military
alliances were made. Arms race developed. Nuclear holocaust threatened the
world on many occasions. However, after the 1970s détente resulted in the gradual
relaxation of tension between the two super powers which ultimately ended with the
dissolution of Soviet Union.
Learning Outcome
1. The meaning of the Cold War and its beginning.
2. The formation of military blocs such as the NATO, CENTO, SEATO

and the Warsaw Pact.
3. The turning of Cold War into real military conflicts such as the
Korean War and the Vietnam War.
4. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The term Cold War was first used by :
(a) Bernard Baruch (b) F.D. Roosevelt
(c) Stalin (d) Churchill

1. The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty was signed in the year _________
249

1. NATO a. 1955
2. CENTO b. 1947
3. SEATO c. 1948
4. Warsaw Pact d. 1949
5. Truman Doctrine e. 1954
IV. Find out the Correct Statement. One Statement alone is correct.
a. On 5th June 1947, the Truman Doctrine was announced by the U.S.A.
b. On 4th April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed.
c. Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) is also known as Warsaw Pact.
d. When Dien Bien Phu was attacked the Korean War started.
1. During the Cuban Missile Crisis 7th Nuclear Fleet was sent by U.S.A.
2. USA and USSR concluded the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1960.
1. Cold War
2. Warsaw Pact
3. NATO
4. Vietnam War
5. Korean Crisis
1. Trace the beginning of the Cold War.
2. Briefly mention the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
1. Give an account of the formation of Military Blocs during the Cold War.
2. Critically examine the impact of the Cold War.
250

LESSON 35
WORLD TODAY
Learning Objectives
1. The emerging New World Order.
2. The Nuclear Disarmament.
3. The process of Globalization and the WTO.
4. The menace of Terrorism.
5. The environmental issues facing the world today.
New World Order
The Year 1945 is a landmark in the history of modern world. It marked the
end of multi-polar world and balance of power. The World saw the emergence of bi-
polar world and the rise of Super Powers, the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. In the 1990s
the collapse of Soviet Union once again changed the existing world order. The New
World Order is witnessing a Uni-polar world, Globalisation, new technologies, age of
information and also global terrorism.
Fall of Soviet Union
Mikhail Gorbachev became the President of the Soviet Union

in March 1985. He instituted a number of political reforms under
the name of “glasnost”. However, Gorbachev’s relaxation
of censorship and attempts to create more political openness
had the unintended effect of re-awakening long suppressed
nationalist and anti-Russian feelings in the Soviet Union’s
constituent republics.
Mikhail
G Domestically, Gorbachev implemented economic reforms that he
orbachev
hoped would improve living standards and worker productivity
as part of his Perestroika program. This new Economic Policy permitted private
ownership.
All these reforms led to revolutionary changes in the U.S.S.R. On 8th

December 1991, the leaders of the Russian, Ukrainian, and Byelorussian republics
issued a declaration that the Soviet Union was dissolved and replaced by the
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Gorbachev became president without
a country. On 25th December 1991, he resigned as president of the U.S.S.R. and
returned the powers of his office over to Boris Yeltsin. The next day, the Supreme
251

Soviet voted to dissolve itself and repealed the declaration written in 1922 that had
officially established the U.S.S.R. Thus, the collapse of the Soviet Union took place.
German Reunification
After the Second World War, Germany was divided into two separate nations.
East Germany was fully under the control of the U.S.S.R. West Germany was
supported by the U.S.A. and her allies. A wall was erected across Berlin to separate
these two German territories. It was the famous Berlin Wall. But with the collapse
of U.SS.R, the German reunification took place on October 3, 1990. The areas of
the former German Democratic Republic (East Germany) were incorporated into
the Federal Republic of Germany [FRG] (West Germany). After the GDR’s first free
elections on 18th March 1990, negotiations between the GDR and FRG culminated
in a Unification Treaty.
Nuclear Disarmament
In the history of warfare, nuclear weapons have been used only twice on
6 and 8th of August 1945, when the United States dropped atom bombs on the
th
Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since then, nuclear weapons have
been detonated on over two thousand occasions for testing and demonstration
purposes. The countries known to have detonated such weapons are the United
States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, France, People’s Republic of China, India,
Pakistan, and North Korea.
In order to minimize the risk of future nuclear war the Non- Proliferation
Treaty (NPT) was proposed. The NPT is the most extensive inspection and control
system ever devised to prevent the diversion of nuclear material form civilian
nuclear programmes for weapon purposes. The idea of Nuclear Weapon Free
Zone (NWFZ) was mooted to convince the countries refusing to join NPT club. The
concept of nuclear weapon free zone means that countries without nuclear weapons
should agree not to produce nuclear weapons and declare their region free from
nuclear weapons. It was followed by the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
to tighten the control over nuclear weapons programme.
Globalisation
Globalisation has become an important issue in the national and international
economic field. Globalisation has assumed great importance in the recent changes
in global business environment. Now business has global-orientation and the
whole world has become just like a global village. Globalisation implies integration
of economy of one nation with the rest of the world economy and liberalising the
rules and regulations for foreign investment in economy. Broadly speaking the
term Globalisation means integration of economies and societies through cross-
country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance
and people. Cross border integration can have several dimensions- cultural, social,
political and economic.
252

India and Globalization
The economic policy of India since 1991 proved to be a turning point in the
history of Indian economy. In 1991 Indian government introduced a series of reforms
to liberalize and globalize the Indian economy. These economic reforms move
towards the market economy and globalization. These policies of economic reforms
were intended to integrate the Indian economy with the world economy.
World Trade Organization (WTO)
The origin of World Trade Organization could be traced from the Bretton
Woods Conference of 1944. In this conference, it was proposed for the creation
of an International Trade Organization to establish rules and regulations for trade
between countries. It finally succeeded in creating the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under the
GATT. The eighth round - known as the Uruguay Round — which began in 1986
and concluded in 1995 established the WTO. The main aim of WTO is to increase
international trade by promoting lower trade barriers and providing a platform for the
negotiation of trade.
The World Trade Organization sets the rules for the global trading system
and resolves disputes between its member states. The WTO headquarter is located
in Geneva, Switzerland. There are 149 members in the organization with Vietnam
set to join in January, 2007. The General Council of the WTO is highest decision-
making body. This meets regularly to carry out the functions of the WTO.
One of the criticisms against the WTO is that it favours rich countries and
multinational corporations which affect the smaller states. Another criticism is the
introduction of Trade-Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property Rights [TRIPs] into
the WTO rules and regulations.
European Economic Community
The European Economic Community (EEC) was an organization established

(1958) by the treaty between Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
and West Germany, known informally as the Common Market. The EEC was the
most significant of the three treaty organizations that were consolidated in 1967
to form the European Community. It is known as the European Union since 1993.
The European Union or EU is an intergovernmental and supranational union of 25
European countries, known as member states.
Global Terrorism
The term terrorism means politically motivated violence carried out against
mostly unarmed civilian population by a group of terrorists. The term international
terrorism means terrorism involving citizens of more than one country. Today,
terrorism is globalised. Hence, the UN Security Council, on 28th September 2001
253

passed a resolution against terrorism. The

UN Resolution condemned all forms of
terrorism such as political, ideological,
ethnic, religious or any other form.
There are several acts of terrorism

committed all over the world. The most
violent terrorist attack was made on the Twin WTC Attack September 11, 2001
Towers of the World Trade Centre, New York on September 11, 2001 in the U.S.A.
On the morning of September 11, 2001, nineteen terrorists affiliated with al-Qaeda
terrorist organization hijacked four commercial passenger jet planes in U.S.A. Each
team of hijackers included a trained pilot. The hijackers crashed two of the planes
into the World Trade Center in New York City, one plane into each tower. As a result
both buildings collapsed. A third plane was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington
County, Virginia. In this terrorist attack 2,973 people died. They belonged to many
countries.
India has been witnessing terrorist violence since 1980, first in Punjab and
then in Jammu and Kashmir and other parts of India. Nearly 20,000 people have
been killed in terrorist violence in Jammu and Kashmir, involving both shootings and
bombings. In the Jammu and Kashmir India is experiencing cross border terrorism.
The 1992 serial bomb blasts in Bombay were one of the major incidents of
terrorism in India in recent years. The bomb blast in Lajpat Nagar in Delhi in 1996
had also resulted in a large number of civilian causalities. There have been many
more incidents of bomb blasts in different parts of the country. An Indian Airlines
aircraft was hijacked to Kandahar, the headquarters of the Taliban. 178 innocent
passengers were held hostage there for a week. Indian government had to make
a very difficult decision. It was forced to release three terrorists from Indian prisons
to secure the safety of the hostages. On 13th December, 2001 there was an attack
on the Indian Parliament. Hence, India along with U.N. has condemned terrorism
because it violates the human rights of the innocent citizens.
Environmental Threats
Today the world is much more worried about the environmental changes that
are taking place around the globe. The major threats identified are: Global warming,
Green House Effect and Ozone depletion. There is awareness among the educated
public as well as general population to reduce the environmental pollution and make
the earth a safe place to live.
254

Learning Outcome
1. The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the emerging New World
Order.
2. The Efforts taken to control the proliferation of Nuclear Arms.
3. The Process of Globalization and its impact on the

contemporary world.
4. The growth of terrorism and its impact on India.
5. The environmental issues that affect the life on earth.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. The proposal for an International Trade Organization was made at the
(a) Washington Conference
(b) Vienna Conference

(c) U N Conference
(d) Breton Woods Conference
1. The New York Twin Towers of the World Trade Center was attacked by the
terrorists in the year ___________
2. The headquarters of the WTO is located in ___________
III. Match the Following
1. Gorbachev a. Environmental threat
2. NPT b.1958
3. EEC c. Perestroika
4. Green House Effect d. Nuclear disarmament
a) Michael Gorbachev became the President of the Soviet Union in 1990.
b) Gorbachev’s economic policy criticized private ownership.
255

c) He instituted a number of political reforms under the name ‘Glasnost’.
d) He resigned as the President of the USSR in 1995.
1. In 1991 Indian government introduced a series of reforms to liberalize and

globalize the Indian economy.
2. On 13th December, 2000 there was an attack on the Indian Parliament.
1. Nuclear Disarmament
2. World Trade Organization
3. Global Terrorism
1. Discuss the events that led to the fall of the Soviet Union.
2. Describe the reunification of Germany.
3. State the main features of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
1. Explain the process and impact of Globalization.

2. Examine the role of WTO in the regulation of global trading system.
3. Evaluate the impact of Global Terrorism.
256

NATIONAL MOVEMENT
TIME LINE
1 Unit = 10 Years
1880
1885 - Foundation of the Indian National Congress
1890
1895
1900
1905 - Partition of Bengal / Swadeshi Movement

1906 - Establishment of the Muslim League
1907 - Surat Split
1910
257

1910
1914 - Outbreak of the First World War

1915
1916 - Home Rule Movement
1919 - Jallianwalabagh Massacre

1920 - Non-co-operation Movement
1922 - Swaraj Party
1925
1928 - Simon Commission / Nehru Report
1929 - Poorna Swaraj Declaration (Lahore Congress)

1930 - Civil Disobedience Movement / Dandi March
1932 - Poona Pact
1935 - Government of India Act
1939 - Outbreak of the Second World War

1940 - August Offer
1942 - Cripps Mission / Quit India Movement
1945
1946 - Cabinet Mission Plan
1947 - Indian Independence Act
258

MODERN WORLD IN THE 20TH CENTURY
TIME LINE
1 Unit = 10 Years
1900
1905 - Russo - Japanese War
1910
1914 - Beginning of First War

1915
1917 - Russian Revolution

1918 - End of First World War
1920 - Foundation of League of Nations
1925
1929 - Great Economic Depression

1930
259

1930
1931 - Japanese Invasion over Manchuria
1935
1937 - Rome - Berlin - Tokyo Axis
1939 - Outbreak of the Second World War

1940
1945 - Foundation of the UNO
1949 - Creation of NATO

1950
1954 - SEATO (Manila Pact)

1955 - WARSAW Pact
1960
1963 - The Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
1965
1970 - The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

260

Bibliography
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University Press, 1976.
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Nationalism and Colonialism in Modern India. New Delhi : Orient Longman ,

1984.
Desai, A.R. Social Background to Indian Nationalism. New Delhi : Vikas,

1978.
Eugene, Irschick. F. Politics and Social Conflicts in South India: The Non-
Brahmin Movement and Tamil Separatism, 1916-1929. Berkeley: University of
Chicago, 1964.
Tamil Revivalism in the 1930s. Madras: Cre-A, 1986.
Grover, B.L. & S.Grover. A New look at Modern Indian History. New Delhi : S.
Chand & Company Ltd. 1995.
Majumdar, R.C. H.C. Raychaudhuri & Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced History

of India. New Delhi: Mac Millan India Ltd., 2003.
Mehrotra, S.R. The Emergence of the Indian National Congrees, Reprint.

New Delhi: Rupa, 2004.
Nambi Arroran. Tamil Renaissance and Dravidian Nationalism. Madurai:

Koodal Publishers, 1980.
Pillay, K.K. Social History of the Tamil. Madras: University of Madras, 1975.
Rajendran, N. National Movement in Tamil Nadu: Madras: Oxford University

Press, 1994.
Rajaraman, P. The Justice Party, Madras, 1988
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Seal, Anil. The Emergence of Indian Nationalism. Cambridge: Cambridge

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Sumit, Sarkar. Modern India 1885-1947, Delhi: MacMillan, 1983.
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World History
Charles Downer Hazen. Modern Europe Since 1789. New Delhi: S. Chand &
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STANDARD XII - HISTORY

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I. India Under the English East India Company. 1

2. Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793) 10

3. The Marquess of Wellesley ( 1798-1805) 16

4. Lord Hastings (1813-1823) 25

5. Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835) 31

6. Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) 38

7. Revenue Administration and Economic Policy of the British 45

8. Educational and Social Reforms 52

10. Vellore Mutiny 65

11. The Great Revolt of 1857 70

12. British India After 1858: Lord Lytton (1876-1880), 78

13. Socio-Religious Reform Movements 86

14. Indian National Movement (1885-1905) 96

15. Indian National Movement (1905-1916) 103

16. The Indian National Movement (1917-1947) 110

17. Role of Tamil Nadu in the Indian National Movement 124

18. The Justice Party Rule 130

19. Constitutional Development (1858- 1947) 135

20. India After Independence 142

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MODERN WORLD HISTORY

22. Geographical Discoveries 161

23. The Reformation and Counter Reformation 167

24. The American War of Independence (1776-1783) 174

25. French Revolution 181

26. Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions 189

27. First World War 197

28. Russian Revolution of 1917 204

29. The League of Nations 210

30. Rise of Fascism and Nazism 217

31. Second World War 226

32. Growth of Asian Nations: China And Japan 233

33. United Nations Organisation 239

34. The Cold War 246

35. World Today 251

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SOME OF THE IMPORTANT GOVERNOR-GENERALS

Warren Hastings 1774-1785

GOVERNORS-GENERAL AND VICEROYS

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The English East India Company

The English East India Company was established on 31 December 1600

In 1639, Francis Day established the city of Madras

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Reforms of Warren Hastings

When Warren Hastings assumed the administration of Bengal in 1772, he

Abolition of the Dual System

After the abolition of the Dual System, the responsibility of collecting