Mechanization

TILLAGE AND
TILLAGE EQUIPMENT
Tillage
Function of tillage
1. To develop the proper soil tilth
2. To control weeds
3. To aerate the soil
4. To mix crop residues and fertilizers with the
soil
5. To conserve soil and water
6. To effect control of some pests and diseases
Machine Performance
What is Machine Capacity?

How efficient is the Machine?
What is the required size (Hp) of your machine?
Machine Performance
*Soil Specific Draft

SOIL TYPE SPECIFIC DRAFT, SD
Lbs/in2 Kg/cm2
Sandy soil 3 0.21
Sandy loam 3-6 0.21-0.42
Silty loam 5-7 0.35-0.49
Clay loam 6-8 0.42-0.56
Heavy clay 10-11 0.70-0.77
Virgin soil, clay 12-15 0.85-1.06
Gumbo, moist 16-18 1.13-1.27
Dry adobe 18-20 1.27-1.41
*Resistance of the soil is expressed as specific draft. This is the force
required to cut a unit cross-sectional area of soil
Machine Performance
Increase in Draft Due to Speed

SPEED DRAFT, %
MPH KPH
1 1.6 1.00
2 3.2 1.14
3 4.8 1.28
4 6.4 1.42
5 8.0 1.56
6 9.6 1.70
Machine Performance
Sample Problem 1
Determine the hectares plowed per hour when a tractor is
operating at 6.4 kph and is pulling four 36-cm moldboard bottoms
at a depth of 20 cm. Determine the capacity if field efficiency is 78
percent? If the soil is clay loam, what is the draft required to work
the soil? Draft hp requirement? Tractor hp requirement?
a. Capacity Where :
Ct = Field Capacity, Ha/hr
S = Speed, Kph
W = Width of cut, m
Eff = Field Efficiency, decimal
6.4 kph x 4 x 0.36 m x 0.78
10
Machine Performance
Sample Problem 1
Determine the hectares plowed per hour when a tractor is operating at 6.4
kph and is pulling four 36-cm moldboard bottoms at a depth of 20 cm.
Determine the capacity if field efficiency is 78 percent? If the soil is clay
loam, what is the draft required to work the soil? Draft hp requirement?
Tractor hp requirement?
b. Draft requirement based on soil type:
where:
Ds  SpecificDraftxWxd Ds = Draft, kg
Specific Draft = Kg/cm2 from Table 1
W = width of cut, cm
D = depth of cut, cm
Ds = (0.49 Kg/cm2)(4x36 cm)(20 cm) = 1,411 Kg
C. Adjusted draft requirement due to speed of plowing (from Table 2):
Da = 1,411 kgx1.42 = 2,004 Kg
Machine Performance
Sample Problem 1
Determine the hectares plowed per hour when a tractor is operating at 6.4
kph and is pulling four 36-cm moldboard bottoms at a depth of 20 cm.
Determine the capacity if field efficiency is 78 percent? If the soil is clay
loam, what is the draft required to work the soil? Draft hp requirement?
Tractor hp requirement?
d. Draft horsepower requirement:

D xS where:
Hp(draft)  a Da = Adjusted Draft, Kg
274 S = Speed, Kph
(2,004 Kg)(6.4 Kph)
Hp(draft) 
274
Hp (draft) = 46.8 hp
e. Tractor Horsepower:
Machine Performance
Problem 2 (Assignment)
A four-wheel tractor with 3 – 36 cm moldboard plow is to operate on
silty loam soil at a depth of 25 cm. Tractor efficiency is 80% at
operating speed of 3.2kph. Determine the hp requirement for the
tractor. If the field is 4.5 Ha, hour many hours needed to cover
plowing operation?
Machine Performance
Problem 3
A four-wheel tractor has a disc plow implement width of 1.2m and a 25 cm cutting
depth of 25 cm and operating speed of 3.2kph. If there is an average of 4.2 %
overlap in every passing was noted, 25 seconds turning time and around 20 min
refueling time, what is the actual field capacity and field efficiency of the machine
if the field area is 1 ha?
SWEff
Theoretical field capacity (CT ) = 10
Actual field capacity (CA ) = A
T
Where :
T = Effective Time + Ineffective Time
CA
Field efficiency (%) = x100
CT
Machine Performance
Problem 3
3.2 x 1.2 x 1
Theoretical field capacity (CT ) =
SWEff
10
  0.38ha / hr
10
A
Actual field capacity (CA ) = 
T
Machine Performance
Problem 3
SWEff 3.2 x 1.2 x 1
Theoretical field capacity (CT ) = 10
  0.38ha / hr
10
A
Actual field capacity (CA ) = 
T
Field efficiency (%) =0.27

x100  71%
0.38
PLANTING EQUIPMENT
(Planters/Seeders)
Planting Equipment
PLANTING EQUIPMENT
 A mechanical device used to place seeds or plants in the soil for crop
production.
Classification of planting equipment:
1. Row-crop planters – planters designed to plant seeds or plants in rows

far enough apart to permit the subsequent entry of
machinery.
a. Row-crop drill planter – designed to plant seeds continuously in

rows with row spacing greater than 36 cm.
b. Hill-drop planter – designed to plant one or more seeds or plants

in rows and in hills.
Planting Equipment
PLANTING EQUIPMENT
A mechanical device used to place seeds or plants in the soil
for crop production.
2.Solid planters – planters designed to plant seeds or plants

in patterns which do not allow subsequent
entry of machinery.
a. Solid drill planter – designed to plant seeds
continuously in rows with row spacing less
than 36 cm.
b. Broadcaster – designed to scatter the seeds uniformly
over the surface of the field without definite
rows and hills. Seeds are covered by
harrowing.
Planting Equipment
Mechanical functions of a planter
1.Make a furrow - Furrow opener

2.Meter the seeds - Metering device
3.Deposit the seeds - Seed tube
4.Cover the seeds - Furrow closer
Typical Planter
Planting Equipment
Different types of furrow openers

Planting Equipment
Calibration of planters
 a procedure of determining
the performance of a planter
under the different seeding
rates and row and hill
spacing it is designed to
operate.
 Planters are calibrated when
newly acquired and at
regular intervals.
Planting Equipment
Planting Equipment
Sample Problem 4
The fertility of a field is such that maximum corn yields are obtained with a
population of 54,000 plants per hectare. The rows are 0.75 m apart and an
average emergence of 85 percent is expected. How many seeds per hill
should be planted if the hills are 0.5 m apart?
Given:
Plant population = 54,000 plants/ha
Row spacing = 0.75 m
Ave. emergence = 85 %
Hill spacing = 0.5 m
Required:
No. of seeds per hill
Planting Equipment
Sample Problem 4
The fertility of a field is such that maximum corn yields are obtained with a
population of 54,000 plants per hectare. The rows are 0.75 m apart and an average
emergence of 85 percent is expected. How many seeds per hill should be planted if
the hills are 0.5 m apart?
Given:
Row spacing = 0.75 m Required:
Hill spacing = 0.5 m No. of seeds per hill
A = area per hill = RS X HS = 0.75 m X 0.5 m = 0.375 m2/hill
10,000 m 2 /ha
NH = No. of hills/ha =  26,667 hill / ha
2
0.375 m /hill
54,000 plants/ha
NS = No. of seeds/ha =  63,529 seeds / ha
0.85
63,529 seeds/ha
NS/H = No. of seeds/hill = 26,667 hills/ha  2.38seeds / hill
Or 2 to 3 seeds/hill
Planting Equipment
Given:
Row spacing = 0.75 m
Hill spacing = 0.5 m
Planting Equipment
Sample Problem 5
Using the specifications of the transmission system of the metering device of the
two-row corn planter, determine the hill spacings. If the row spacing is 0.75 m,
average seeds per hill is two and emergence is 90 percent, what are the expected
plant populations per hectare?
Given: Required:
Row spacing = 0.75 m a. Hill Spacings
Seeds per hill = 2 b. Expected plant populations
Emergence = 90 percent
No. of rows = 2
No. of cells of seed plate (SP) = 20
Ground wheel diameter (GW) = 0.60 m
No. of teeth Speed ratio (GW/SP)

T=6 6/1
T=8 5/1
T = 10 4/1
T = 12 3/1
CROP PROTECTION
EQUIPMENT
Crop Protection Equipment
Crop protection
The process of providing plants the conditions that will
make them free of weeds, pests and diseases.
 the growing stage between planting and flowering
constitutes the longest stay in the field and the most
vulnerable period of the crop.
 weeds compete with the available moisture and
nutrients if left uncontrolled.
 pests and diseases multiply above the economic
threshold levels if left uncontrolled.
Crop Pr0tection Equipment
Methods of Crop Protection
1. Cultural control
The modification of cultural practices such as time of planting
and crop rotation.
2. Ecological control
Changing the environment of the crop and the pest which favors
the survival of the crop such as flooding to kill insects and
weeds.
3. Biological control
The introduction of certain insects which feed on pests,
application of chemosterilants to render the male sterile, or planting of
certain plants whose odor drive pests away.
Methods of Crop Protection
4. Physiological control – breeding and planting of pest resistant
varieties.
5. Chemical control – application of chemicals to control weeds,

pests and diseases.
6. Flame control – use of flame for the selective burning of weeds

in crops whose stem is not injured by a short exposure to intense
heat.
7. Mechanical control – use of tools, implements and machines to

reduce or eliminate weeds and insects such as in land preparation,
cultivation and weeding.
MECHANICAL CONTROL:
Estimated Yield losses due to uncontrolled weeds

Crop Percent Yield Losses
Average Range
Lowland rice 69 37 – 97
Upland rice 79 41 – 100
Corn 50 18 – 80
Soybean 69 55 – 100
Peanut 65 35 – 94
MECHANICAL CONTROL:
Manual labor use by operation for lowland rice

Operation Man-days/ha
Seedling preparation 7.33
Irrigation 6.24
Land preparation (carabao) 27.98
Transplanting (hand transplanting) 15.52
Fertilizer application (broadcasting) 2.76
Weeding (push-type weeder) 75.0 – (38%)
Rodent control 1.84
Chemical application (spraying) 4.5
Harvesting 27.89
Threshing 11.40
Bagging and hauling 5.07
Drying 8.95
Milling 3.94
TOTAL: 198.42
MECHANICAL CONTROL:
CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDERS:
A. By design of soil working part:
1. Blade type – rectangular, triangular and trapezoidal shapes

with cutting edges sharpened and hardened for soil cutting
and weed uprooting.
2. Tine type – straight or curved, round or square cross-section

steel rods sharply pointed and hardened at the soil working end.
3. Rotary type – curved spikes or paddles attached radially to a

common axle which rotate when pushed forward to uproot and
bury weeds.
MECHANICAL CONTROL:
B. By power source:
1. Manual weeders – hand-held or push-type weeders for upland or

lowland.
2. Animal-drawn weeders – soil working parts are mounted on a frame or
tool bar pulled by an animal for upland weeding.
3. Tractor-drawn weeders – soil working parts are mounted on a

frame or tool bar pulled by a two-wheel or four-
wheel tractor for upland weeding.
4. Power weeders – rotary type weeder driven by its own engine for
lowland weeding.
MECHANICAL CONTROL:
Capacity and performance of some weeders tested in the Philippines
Weeding
Plant Damage
Name of weeder Hours per Ha Index
(%)
(%)
Lowland weeders (rice):
Spin tiller 63 93 3
Single-row rotary 70 91 5.4
Single-row rotary and paddle 80 88 5.5
Double-row rotary 45 88 5.6
Power weeder 99 78 4.3
Upland weeders (corn):
Light blade hoe 120 86 6.2
Blade hoe 114 86 6.0
V-blade 180 81 12.3
Wheel hoe 110 94 11.5
MECHANICAL CONTROL:
Types of hand held weeders Types of push-type weeders

CHEMICAL CONTROL:
 Most popular way of applying chemicals in the Philippines is with the use
of knapsack sprayers.
 Sprayers are used primarily for the application of herbicides, insecticides,

fungicides and plant nutrients.
Functions of a sprayer:
1. Break the liquid into droplets of effective size
2. Distribute the spray solution uniformly
3. Regulate the spraying rate
Basic components:
1. Chemical supply : Tank
2. Energy source : Pump and pressure chamber
3. Atomizer : Nozzles
4. Control device : Cut-off valve
5. Conductors : Flexible hose and rigid lance
CHEMICAL CONTROL:
Performance is dependent on hydraulic energy as
follows:
 The higher the pressure, the smaller the
droplets
 The higher the pressure, the higher the flow
rate
 The higher the pressure, the wider the spray
angle
For a given sprayer, the following factors should be measured:
 Nozzle discharge at different pumping rates (L/min)
 Effective working width or swath (m)
 Walking speed (m/min)
CHEMICAL CONTROL:
Sample problem 5
Using the results of the calibration test of a knapsack
sprayer, determine the application rate in l/ha. Effective
width or swath is 1.5 m, average walking speed is 20
m/min, and discharge rate is 1.5 l/min.
Given:
Effective width or swath = W = 1.5 m
Walking speed = S = 20 m/min
Discharge rate = q = 1.5 l/min
Required: Application rate (l/ha)

CHEMICAL CONTROL:
Sample problem 5
Using the results of the calibration test of a knapsack sprayer, determine the
application rate in l/ha. Effective width or swath is 1.5 m, average walking
speed is 20 m/min, and discharge rate is 1.5 l/min.
Given:
Effective width or swath = W = 1.5 m
Walking speed = S = 20 m/min Q = application rate = q X T
Discharge rate = q = 1.5 l/min
Required: Application rate (l/ha)
1.5 l/min X 333.33 min/ha
Solution: = 500 l/ha
A = area per minute = W X S = 1.5 m X 20 m/min = 30 m2/min

10,000 m 2 / ha
T = time per hectare = = 333.33 min/ha
30 m 2 /min
CHEMICAL CONTROL:
Sample problem 6:
The application rate of a certain insecticide is recommended at 4
l/ha. Using the results of the calibration test of a 16-liter
knapsack sprayer, determine the amount of insecticide to mix
with water per loading of the sprayer. Discharge rate of the
sprayer is 1.2 l/min, effective width or swath is 1.5 m, and
average walking speed is 20 m/min.
Given: Insecticide application rate = 4 l/ha
Sprayer capacity = 16 liters
Discharge rate = 1.2 l/min
Swath = W = 1.5 m
Required: Amount of insecticide to mix with water per sprayer loading
and number of loadings?
CHEMICAL CONTROL:
Sample problem 6:
The application rate of a certain insecticide is recommended at 4 l/ha. Using the
results of the calibration test of a 16-liter knapsack sprayer, determine the amount of
insecticide to mix with water per loading of the sprayer. Discharge rate of the sprayer
is 1.2 l/min, effective width or swath is 1.5 m, and average walking speed is 20 m/min.
Given: Insecticide application rate = 4 l/ha Required: Amount of

insecticide to mix with water
Discharge rate = 1.2 l/min
Swath = W = 1.5 m per sprayer loading and number
Walking speed = S = 20 m/min of loading?
A. T1 = Time per load

B. A1 = Area per load
C. X1 = Amount of insecticide per load (ratio and proportion)
D. NL = Number of loadings
CHEMICAL CONTROL:
Given:
Insecticide application rate = 4 l/ha
Required: Amount of insecticide to mix
with water per sprayer loading and
Discharge rate = 1.2 l/min Number of Loading?
Swath = W = 1.5 m
16 l/load
A. T1 = Time per load = = 13.33 min/load
1.2 l/min
B. A1 = Area per load = W X S X T1
= 1.5 m X 20 m/min X 13.33 min/load
= 400 m2/load
C. X1 = Amount of insecticide per load (ratio and proportion):
=
4 l/ha
X 400 m 2 /load = 0.16 l/load
10,000 m 2 /ha
CHEMICAL CONTROL:
Given:
Insecticide application rate = 4 l/ha
Required: Amount of insecticide to mix
with water per sprayer loading and
Discharge rate = 1.2 l/min Number of Loading?
Swath = W = 1.5 m
C. X1 = Amount of insecticide per load (ratio and proportion):
=
4 l/ha
X 400 m 2 /load = 0.16 l/load
10,000 m 2 /ha
D. How many Loads
10,000 m 2 /ha = 25 loads/ha
NL = Number of loadings =
400 m 2 /load
WATER PUMPING
EQUIPMENT
Water Pumping Equipment
WATER PUMPING EQUIPMENT
 Mechanical device used for transferring fluids from one place
to another
 The source of fluid is usually of lower elevation than the point
of delivery
 Source of water are usually wells, rivers, lakes, reservoirs and
canals
 Pumps are essential for good health and sustained agricultural
production
 Pumps are either hand-operated for domestic water supply or
power-operated for both domestic and irrigation purposes.
Pump Classification
A.Positive Displacement Pump

– discharges the same volume of water
regardless of the head against which they
operate.
B. Variable Displacement Pump
– inverse relationship between discharge rate and
pressure head. High pressure head will result in
low discharge rate and vice versa.
Pump Classification
A.Positive Displacement Pump

operate.
1. Reciprocating Pump
– having to-and-fro motion
Types of reciprocating pumps:
a. Lift Pump – single-acting pump

consisting of an open cylinder, piston
with built-in bucket valve. It lifts the
water to flow out from a spout Lift pump
Pump Classification
A. Positive Displacement Pump

operate.
1. Reciprocating Pump – having to-and-fro
motion
Basic parts:
 Piston or plunger
 Inlet or admission valve
 Outlet or discharge valve
Force pump
Pump Classification
– inverse relationship between discharge rate and pressure head.
High pressure head will result in low discharge rate and vice versa.
1. Centrifugal pump
– most commonly used type for
domestic and irrigation purposes.
Depends on centrifugal force for
their operation. Consists of an
impeller inside an involute casing
Centrifugal pump
Pump Classification

– inverse relationship between discharge
rate and pressure head. High pressure head
will result in low discharge rate and vice
versa.
2. Propeller Pump – used for

low pressure head and high
discharge. Extensively used for
drainage pumping and the
transfer of water from canals and
rivers to adjacent fields
Propeller pump
Sizing of Pumps
and Prime Movers
Sizing of Pumps and Prime Movers
 A criterion that is well accepted in computing the pump capacity is

to base it on the highest daily water requirement of the crop.
 According to the National Irrigation Administration (NIA), the
water requirement for rice production is 10 mm/day.
 Table 1 shows the combination of pump capacity, area to be
irrigated and time of irrigation that can supply the daily water
requirement for rice production.
Table 1. Area (ha) that can be irrigated at different capacities (gpm) and pumping time
(hrs/day)
Operating Hectare for different gpm
Hrs/day 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
8 0.33 0.50 0.67 0.85 1.00 1.17 1.33 1.50 1.67

12 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50
16 0.67 1.00 1.33 1.67 2.00 2.33 2.67 3.00 3.33
20 0.83 1.25 1.67 2.08 2.50 2.91 3.33 3.75 4.17
24 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
What size of Pump is Needed?

 The size of the pump can be determined by the pump
output using Table 2
Table 2. Sizes and outputs of centrifugal pumps
Pump Size, inches Pump output

(inlet and outlet diameter) (gpm)
1.25 20 – 30
1.50 30 – 50
2 50 – 70
2.50 70 – 100
3 100 – 200
4 200 - 300

 The horsepower needed to drive the pump is computed
as follows:
QXH
Hp =
3960 X Eff s
Where:
Q = pump output, gpm
H = total head, ft.
Effs = system efficiency = Effp X Efft X Effpm
Effp = pump efficiency
Efft = transmission efficiency
Effpm = prime mover efficiency

 The total head H may be estimated by adding the friction
and velocity head losses to the total static lift.
Pump efficiency varies with the size of the pump with bigger
ones being more efficient (Table 3).
Table 3. Normal efficiencies of centrifugal pumps
Pump Output (gpm) Efficiency (%)
20 32
30 37
40 40
60 45
100 50
150 55
 Table 4 gives the transmission efficiencies of four types of
transmission systems
Table 4. Normal efficiencies of transmission systems
Type of Transmission Efficiency (%)

Direct 100
Gear 98
V-belt 95
Flatbelt 90
 For continuous operation, electric motors and engines are expected to
deliver only a certain percentage of their rated power as shown in
Table 5.
Type of Power Unit Delivery Rating
Electric Motor
< 1 hp 65 – 72
> 1 hp 72 – 90
Internal Combustion Engine
Air-cooled gasoline 60
Air-cooled diesel 70
Water-cooled diesel 80
 The power unit for driving pumps may be electric motors or engines.
 Electric motors provide an economical installation when an adequate and

reliable source of electric power is available at reasonable cost.
 Engine should be used when the source of electric power is not reliable
or too costly.
 When an engine is considered, the decision is to use either a gasoline

engine or a diesel engine.
 Where the annual use is more then 800 hours, the high cost of the diesel
engine may be overcomed.
 Specific Yield of well – the discharge rate of a well per foot

drawdown.
Example:
Specific yield = 3 gpm/ft drawdown)

Discharge rate of pump = 30 gpm
Total drawdown = 10 ft
 Total drawdown is added to the total head for the computation of

power to drive the pump.
Sample Problem 7
Determine the size of the centrifugal pump and air-cooled diesel engine to
use for a 1.5-ha field planted to lowland rice. The field is to be irrigated for
12 hours every 2 days. Source of water is a well with the following data:
Given:
a. Static water level = 8 ft Area = 1.5 ha
b. Specific yield = 12 gpm/ft DD Operating time = 12 hr/2 days
c. Discharge head = 0 ft Static suction lift = 8 ft
d. Friction and velocity head = 2 ft Specific yield = 12 gpm/ft DD
e. Power transmission uses v-belt Friction/velocity head = 2 ft
Discharge head = 0 ft
Type of transmission = v-belt
Required:
a. Size of centrifugal pump
b. Size of diesel engine
Sample Problem 7
Solution:
a. Static water level = 8 ft
b. Specific yield = 12 gpm/ft DD
a. Size of centrifugal pump:
c. Discharge head = 0 ft
d. Friction and velocity head = 2 ft From Table 1, at 12 hr/day
and 1.5 ha,
e. Power transmission uses v-belt
the required pump capacity is 60 gpm.
Given:
Area = 1.5 ha Since pumping operation is to be
Operating time = 12 hr/2 days carried out every two days, then the
Static suction lift = 8 ft
Specific yield = 12 gpm/ft DD pump capacity should be doubled to
Friction/velocity head = 2 ft 120 gpm.
Discharge head = 0 ft
Type of transmission = v-belt
From Table 2, at 120 gpm, the required
pump size is 3X3 centrifugal pump.
Solution:
b. Size of diesel Engine
QXH
Hp =
3960 X Eff p X Eff t X Eff pm
Q = pump discharge = 120 gpm
H = Total head = static head + drawdown + friction/velocity head + discharge head
120 gpm
= 8 ft + 12 gpm/ft + 2 ft + 0 ft = 20 ft
Therefore
From Table 3 and interpolating, Effp = 0.52 120 gpm X 20 ft
From Table 4, Efft = 0.95 Hp = =1.75 hp
3690 X 0.52 X 0.95 X 0.70
From Table 5, Effpm = 0.70
Since power units are available in standard sizes
only, select the next higher standard size of air
cooled diesel engine.
HARVESTING AND THRESHING
EQUIPMENT
Harvesting and Threshing Equipment
 Harvesting – process of gathering the useful portion of the crop from the
field
 Threshing – process of separating the grains from the straw. Additionally,
it may include cleaning the grains
Rice Harvesting Methods
1. Manual Method
> Manual Cutting and Windrowing, Manual Hauling, and Manual Threshing
■ Manual Cutting using sickle, scythe, yatab, lingkao and
cradle.
Manual Cutting
Manual Hauling
Manual Threshing
2. Manual and Mechanical Method

> Mechanical Cutting and Windrowing, Manual
Hauling/Filing, and Mechanical Threshing.
• Reapers-windrower - a machine that cuts the standing
crop, conveys the cut crop to one side, and lays them
down in an orderly manner

Reaper-binder
- a machine that cuts the

standing crop, binds the cut
crop, and lays down the
bound crop to one side.
> Stripper Harvester

• It is a machine that combines harvesting and threshing into a
single operation.
• It differs with the combine in that it permits the removal of grain
directly from the head or
panicle without cutting the stalks.
3. Mechanical Method
>this combine the operations of harvesting and
threshing
Combine Harvester
Mobile grain-harvesting
machine for cutting, picking,
stripping or picking up crop,
threshing, separating, cleaning
and conveying grain into a
grain hopper and depositing
harvest residue on the ground
1. Manual harvesting Manual threshing
 Use of hand tools: sickle, scythe, yatab  Use of flails or sticks
 80 – 160 man-hrs/ha  Hampasan
 Foot threshing
 Animal treading
 140 – 220 man-hrs/ha
 Field losses = 5 – 16%
2. Manual harvesting Mechanized threshing
 Same as above  Use of pedal thresher at 100 man-hrs/ha
 Power thresher at 12 man-hrs/ha
 Field losses = 3 – 10 %
3. Mechanical harvesting Mechanical threshing
 Use of manually-operated harvester at 50  Same as above
man-hrs/ha
 Power harvester at 5 man-hrs/ha
4. Combine harvesting – both operations done by a single machine – combine
 3 – 21 man-hrs/ha
 Field losses – 1.5 – 6 %
5. Stripping harvesting – removal of grains from panicle without cutting the straw - stripper
 3 – 21 man-hrs/ha
 Factors affecting choice of system:
1. Kind of crop
2. Timeliness of operation
3. Topography
4. Farm size
5. Type of culture (row or broadcasted, upland or lowland)
6. Availability and cost of labor
7. Availability of capital
 A major factor affecting choice of system is timeliness of operation because it
affects field losses, time available for the next crop and grain quality
Time of harvesting Field losses (%)
One week before maturity 0.77
At maturity 3.35
One week after maturity 5.63
Two weeks after maturity 8.64
Three weeks after maturity 40.70
Four weeks after maturity 60.46
 If the crop is harvested too early, it will have a large percentage of imperfectly
formed kernels.
 The field should be drained 1 – 1.5 weeks before harvesting to harden the soil
HARVESTINBG EQUIPMENT:
1. Hand tools – include the sickle, scythe, yatab, lingkao and cradle
2. Reapers-windrower – a machine that cuts the standing crop, conveys
the cut crop to one side, and lays them down in an orderly manner.
3. Reaper-binder – a machine that cuts the standing crop, binds the cut
crop, and lays down the bound crop to one side
4. Rice Combine Harvester – a more sophisticated machine that employs
both cutting, threshing and bagging.
THRESHING EQUIPMENT:
Methods of threshing:
1. Rubbing action– grains are detached from their panicles because of a rubbing
action as in treading by man, animal and vehicle.
 Output of man treading is 14 kg/hr
2. Impact action – grains are accelerated faster than their panicles and are
detached as in hampasan and mechanical threshers.
 Output of hampasan is 34 kg/hr

 Output of mechanical threshers vary with size of machine and power
source.
3. Stripping action – grains are detached from their panicles when the straw is
pulled through a “V” configuration or a comb-like device is
passed through the panicles.
Mechanical threshers:
 Mechanical threshers employ the impact method
 Variability of threshers come from:
1. Power source – manual as in pedal thresher or power thresher as
in engine-driven thresher.
2. Type of feeding:
a. Hold-on feeding – Straws do not pass through the threshing section
 Low power requirement
 Lightweight construction
 Examples: Pedal thresher and Japanese combine
b. Throw-in feeding – Straws pass through the threshing section

 High power requirement
 Heavyweight construction
 Examples: Axial-flow thresher and US combine
3. Direction of threshing materials
a. Tangential-flow – Materials are feed between the revolving cylinder and
stationary concave and go straight out of the thresher tangentially.
 About 60% of the grains pass through the concave and the rest are
separated in subsequent operations.
b. Axial-flow – Materials are fed between the revolving cylinder and

stationary concave on one end, go around the cylinder several times
axially and discharge at the other end.
 About 90% of the grains are separated from the straw at the
cylinder.
4. Type of cylinder teeth
a. Wire-loop
b. Peg-tooth
c. Rasp-bar
4. Type of cylinder teeth
a. Wire-loop
b. Peg-tooth
c. Rasp-bar
Cleaning System:
 Separation of the bulky straw, chaff, empty kernels and very light
impurities from the grains.
 Light materials can be separated from the grains by winnowing

using natural wind or blower.
 For hold-on threshers, straws do not pass through the thresher

and only the removal of the chaff and light materials are needed
using blowers and screens
 For throw-in threshers, straws pass through the thresher and

cleaning is done using a straw walker, blower and screens.
Types of Losses During Harvesting:
1. Shatter Loss – Grain lying on the ground or out of reach of the

cutter bar
2. Cutter Bar Loss – Grain loss due to rough handling by the cutter
bar.
3. Threshing Loss – Grain lost out of the rear of the combine or the
thresher in the form of untreshed deads or still
attached to the stack
4. Separating Loss – Grain lost out of the rear of the combine or

thresher in the form threshed grain
5. Cleaning loss – loss in value of the crop due to the presence of

foreign matter in the grain tank
Harvesting hand tools Reaper-binder

Pedal thresher Axial-flow thresher

Pedal thresher
Rice Combine Harvester Rice Reaper

………………………………………..Harvesting and Threshing Equipment
Sample problem 8:
A 5-m self-propelled combine makes an average stop of 4 minutes everytime
its 2-ton grain tank is to be unloaded. The yield of the 20-ha field is 40 tons.
The operating speed is 4.8 kph. The time for turning on the headland at the
ends of the 500-m field is 15 seconds.
Find: a. theoretical field capacity

b. actual field capacity
c. Field efficiency

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TILLAGE AND

What is Machine Capacity?

*Soil Specific Draft

Increase in Draft Due to Speed

d. Draft horsepower requirement:

Field efficiency (%) =0.27

Classification of planting equipment:

1. Row-crop planters – planters designed to plant seeds or plants in rows

a. Row-crop drill planter – designed to plant seeds continuously in

b. Hill-drop planter – designed to plant one or more seeds or plants

2.Solid planters – planters designed to plant seeds or plants

Mechanical functions of a planter

1.Make a furrow - Furrow opener

Different types of furrow openers

No. of teeth Speed ratio (GW/SP)

5. Chemical control – application of chemicals to control weeds,

6. Flame control – use of flame for the selective burning of weeds

7. Mechanical control – use of tools, implements and machines to

Estimated Yield losses due to uncontrolled weeds

Manual labor use by operation for lowland rice

1. Blade type – rectangular, triangular and trapezoidal shapes

2. Tine type – straight or curved, round or square cross-section

3. Rotary type – curved spikes or paddles attached radially to a

1. Manual weeders – hand-held or push-type weeders for upland or

3. Tractor-drawn weeders – soil working parts are mounted on a

Types of hand held weeders Types of push-type weeders

 Sprayers are used primarily for the application of herbicides, insecticides,

Required: Application rate (l/ha)

A = area per minute = W X S = 1.5 m X 20 m/min = 30 m2/min

Given: Insecticide application rate = 4 l/ha Required: Amount of

A. T1 = Time per load

C. X1 = Amount of insecticide per load (ratio and proportion):

A.Positive Displacement Pump

A.Positive Displacement Pump

a. Lift Pump – single-acting pump

A. Positive Displacement Pump

B. Variable Displacement Pump

2. Propeller Pump – used for

 A criterion that is well accepted in computing the pump capacity is

8 0.33 0.50 0.67 0.85 1.00 1.17 1.33 1.50 1.67

What size of Pump is Needed?

Table 2. Sizes and outputs of centrifugal pumps

Pump Size, inches Pump output

What size of Pump is Needed?

What size of Pump is Needed?

Type of Transmission Efficiency (%)

 Electric motors provide an economical installation when an adequate and

 When an engine is considered, the decision is to use either a gasoline

 Specific Yield of well – the discharge rate of a well per foot

Specific yield = 3 gpm/ft drawdown)

 Total drawdown is added to the total head for the computation of

2. Manual and Mechanical Method

2. Manual and Mechanical Method

- a machine that cuts the

> Stripper Harvester

 Output of hampasan is 34 kg/hr

b. Throw-in feeding – Straws pass through the threshing section

b. Axial-flow – Materials are fed between the revolving cylinder and

 Light materials can be separated from the grains by winnowing