Data Structures and Algorithms

Data Structure and Algorithm Design Goals

 Correctness
 Efficiency

Implementation Goals

 Robustness
 Adaptability
 Reusability

Data Representation

 The behavior of the algorithm when input is in already in order.

 For example in sorting, if elements are already sorted for a specific algorithm.

 The best case running time rarely occurs in practice comparatively with the first and second
case.

Data

 Data Encapsulation or Information Hiding – the concealing of the implementation details of

data object from the outside world

 Data Abstraction – the separation between specification of a data object and its
implementation

 Data Type – a collection of objects and set of operations that act on those objects

 Primitive

 Composite

What is Data Structure?

 In computer science, a data structure is a particular way of storing and organizing data in a
computer so that it can be used efficiently.

 Data may be organized in many different ways, the logical or mathematical model of a particular
organization of data in memory or on disk is called Data Structure.

 Algorithms are used for manipulation of data.

Data Structure Operation

 The data appearing in our data structure is processed by means of certain operations. In fact,
the particular data structure that one chooses for a given situation depends largely on the
frequency with which specific operations are performed. The following four operations play a
major role:
  Traversing

 Accessing each record exactly once so that certain items in the record may be
processed.(This accessing or processing is sometimes called 'visiting" the records.)

 Searching

 Finding the location of the record with a given key value, or finding the locations of all
records, which satisfy one or more conditions.

 Inserting

 Adding new records to the structure.

 Deleting

 Removing a record from the structure.

Usage of Data Structures / Data Structures +Algorithms

 Used by OS, compilers, DBMS, data communications

 Image processing, digital signal processing, simulations, numerical computations, cryptography,

data compressions and genetic studies

Types of Data Structure

Characteristics of data structure

What is an Algorithm?

 An algorithm is a finite set of instructions that takes some raw data as input and transforms it in
to refined data.

 An algorithm is a well-defined list of steps for solving computational problem.

1. Input: Zero or more quantities are externally supplied

2. Output: At least one quantity is produced

3. Definiteness: Each instruction is clear and unambiguous

4. Finiteness: If we trace out the instructions of

an algorithm, then, for all cases, the algorithm terminates after a finite number of steps

5. Effectiveness: every instruction must be basic enough to be

carried out, in principle, by a person using only pencil and paper. Its not enough that each opera
tion be definite as in (3): it also must be feasible.
How to express algorithm?

Many solutions

 Natural language: must be well defined and unambiguous

 Graphic representations: flowcharts

 Programming languages: low level implementation

Recursive Algorithms

 A recursive algorithm calls itself which usually passes the return value as a parameter to the
algorithm again. This parameter is the input while the return value is the output.

 Limitation of recursion (only factorials, ackermann, fibonacci, ...)?

 A tool for theorician?

 Example: Fibonacci – f(0)=0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55

Complexity of Algorithm

 Efficiency or complexity of an algorithm is stated as a function relating the length to the number
of steps (time complexity) or storage location (space complexity). f (n)

 In simple words complexity of an algorithm is the time and space it uses.

Performance Analysis

How to judge a program?

 Does it do what we want it to do?

 Does it work correctly according to original specifications of the task?

 Is there documentation that describes how to use it and how it works?

 Are the functions created in such way that they perform logical subfunctions?

 Is the code readable?

Performance Analysis

 From a performance point of view, we define two criteria:

 Space complexity: the amount of memory needed by a program to run to completion

 Time complexity: the amount of computer time needed by a program to run to comple
tion

 Two phases in performance evaluation

 performance analysis: a priori estimates;

 performance measurement: a posteriori testing.

Space Complexity

 The space needed by a program is seen to be the sum of two components

 fixed part: independent of the characteristics (e.g. number, size) of the inputs and outp
uts

 instruction space (space of the code itself)

 space for constants, ... –

 variable part: dependent on the particular problem instance being solved, hence on the
inputs and outputs characteristics

 variables whose size depends on inputs/outputs,

 recursion stacks (when it depends on inputs/outputs).

Time Complexity

 Try to guess the time complexity experimentaly

 program is typed, compiled and run on a specific machine. Execution time is physically c
locked,

 TP(n) is measured...


But, the value measured is inaccurate (multiuser systems, system load, number of runni
ng programs, ...)

Asymptotic Notation

 Helps to compare algorithms.

 Suppose we are considering two algorithms, A and B, for solving a given problem. Furthermore,
let us say that we have done a careful analysis of the running times of each of the algorithms
and determined them to be Ta(n) and Tb(n),respectively, where n is a measure of the problem
size. Then it should be a fairly simple matter to compare the two functions and to determine
which algorithm is the best!

Types of Analysis

 Worst case running time

 Average case running time

 Best case running time

Worst case Running Time

 The behavior of the algorithm with respect to the worst possible case of the input instance.

 The worst-case running time of an algorithm is an upper bound on the running time for any
input. Knowing it gives us a guarantee that the item does not occur in data.

 There is no need to make an educated guess about the running time.

Average case Running Time

 The expected behavior when the input is randomly drawn from a given distribution.

 The average-case running time of an algorithm is an estimate of the running time for an
"average" input.

 Computation of average-case running time entails "knowing all possible input sequences, the
probability distribution of occurrence of these sequences, and the running times for the
individual sequences”.

 Often it is assumed that all inputs of a given size are equally likely.

Best case Running time

 The behavior of the algorithm when input is in already in order.

 For example in sorting, if elements are already sorted for a specific algorithm.

 The best case running time rarely occurs in practice comparatively with the first and second
case.

Time-Space Tradeoff

 In computer science, a space-time or time-memory tradeoff is a way of solving a problem or

calculation in less time by using more storage space (or memory), or by solving a problem in
very little space by spending a longtime.

 So if your problem is taking a long time but not much memory, a space-time tradeoff would let
you use more memory and solve the problem more quickly.

 Or, if it could be solved very quickly but requires more memory than, you can try to spend more
time solving the problem in the limited memory.
Arrays

 is a collection of Homogenous, Ordered and Finite set of elements.

o -Homogenous implies all elements must be of the same type and have the same
structure
o -Ordered means that elements are organized in sequence.
o -Finite means that each array contains a fixed number of elements.
 -is a Linear data Structure
 -Its data type can be Primitive, Composite or Other Data Types.

Accessing Array

In an array the position of an element is identified by a variable called Index.

 -The range of values for the index is referred to as Index Set.

 -Smallest value in of index is called Lower Bound and largest Upper Bound.
 -Individual elements of an array are identified by Array Name and Array Index.
 -Programming Languages normally use Bracket Notation.

Ex. x[0],x[1], x[2],x[3], x[4]……x[9]

Declaring Array

Before an array is used in a program, it must be declared.

-Compiler reserves necessary storage space for the array on the basis of declaration

-Declaration specifies array name, data type, and optionally size

-Ex intArray = new int[20]

Array Storage Structure

 Storage Structure represents arrangement of data elements in the memory.

 -Array is stored in contiguous memory locations.
 -Number of storage cells allocated depends on the data type.
 -Address of the first element is called Base Address.
Array Operations

Four Basic Array Operations

-Retrieving

-Adding

-Deleting

-Inserting

Retrieving

o -It is also called Accessing

o -To retrieve an element we must know the Index value
o -As computer can directly retrieve an element, accessing is very fast.
o -Ex. X[3] would access the 3rd index.

Adding

 -Adding operation inserts new element in a position specified by the index

 -Adding operation is also sometimes referred to as Assigning.
 -If the array already contains some data, the exiting element is overwritten.
 -Ex. x[2]= 10
Deleting

 -Deleting operation removes an existing element with the given index.

 -To delete x[index], all elements following x[index] are moved one position to the left.
 -In this way the element to be deleted is overwritten by the element to its right.
 -Thus, x[index],x[index+1],x[index+2]….. X[n-1] are shifted to the left.
 -In this way the element to be deleted is overwritten by the element to its right.
 -Thus, x[index],x[index+1],x[index+2]….. X[n-1] are shifted to the left.

Inserting

o -It adds new element in a specified position, without replacing any existing element
o -The position is specified in terms of index value or position relative to an existing
element.
o -Ex. We want to insert element z before x[index] The elements
x[index],x[index+1],x[index+2]….. x[n-1] are moved to the right position
Array Traversing

o -Traversing involves accessing and processing an array element exactly once

o -It is also called Visiting.
o -To traverse, we set up a loop varying from lower to upper bound.
o -Ex. Finding the largest element
 Finding smallest element
 Computing average of all elements
 Printing contents on an array

Advantages of an Array

 An array uses a single variable to represent a large set of homogenous data collection.

 An array provides direct access to a storage address for an element. Therefore, retrieval of an
element is extremely fast.

 The elements on an array can be manipulated easily using an index. Thus, processing of array is
flexible.

 It is easy to create and initialize an array.

 Arrays are good at implementing iterative algorithms.

 Multi-dimensional arrays facilitate grouping of data collection into hierarchical structure

Disadvantages of an Array

 Array size cannot be increased or decreased during runtime.

 Insertion and deletion operations on arrays are not efficient.

 For very large data sets, the program may run out of the storage space