ABSTRACTION FROM

PRECIPITATION
EVAPORATION (PART 2)

Prepared By: Engr. Neslyn E. Lopez

EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION
EQUATIONS
• A large number of empirical equations are available to estimate lake
evaporation using commonly available meteorological data.

• Most formulae are based on the Dalton’s type of equation and can be
expressed in the general form:

𝑬𝑳 = 𝑲 𝒇 𝒖 𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 𝐸𝑞. (3.2)
Where:
𝐸𝐿 = lake evaporation in mm/day
𝑒𝑤 = saturated vapour pressure at the water surface temperature in mmHg
𝑒𝑎 = actual vapour pressure of over-lying air at a specified height in mmHg
𝑓 𝑢 = wind speed correlation function
𝐾 = a coefficient

Note: The term 𝑒𝑎 is measured at the same height at which wind speed is
measured.
 Two Commonly Used Empirical
Evaporation Formulae
• MEYER’S FORMULA (1915)
𝒖𝟗
𝑬𝑳 = 𝑲𝑴 𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 𝟏+ 𝐸𝑞. (3.3)
𝟏𝟔
Where:
𝑬𝑳 , 𝒆𝒘 , 𝒆𝒂 are defined in Eq. (3.2)
𝒖𝟗 = monthly mean wind velocity in km/h at about 9 m above
ground
𝑲𝑴 = coefficient accounting for various other factors
0.36 for large deep waters
0.50 for small, shallow water
 Two Commonly Used Empirical
Evaporation Formulae
• ROHWER’S FORMULA (1931)
• It considers a correction for the effect of pressure in addition to the wind-
speed effect.
Eq.(3.4)
𝑬𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟏 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟐 𝒑𝒂 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟑 𝒖𝟎 𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂
Where:
𝑬𝑳 , 𝒆𝒘 , 𝒆𝒂 are defined in Eq.(3.2)
𝒑𝒂 = mean barometric reading in mmHg
𝒖𝟎 = mean wind velocity in km/h at ground level, which can be taken to be the
velocity at 0.6 m height above ground
 In using the empirical equations,
• 𝒆𝒘 can be obtained using the table below:

SATURATION VAPOUR PRESSURE OF WATER

Temperature 𝒆𝒘 A Temperature 𝐞𝐰 A
(° C) (mmHg) (mm/° C) (° C) (mmHg) (mm/° C)
0 4.58 0.30 22.5 20.44 1.24
5.0 6.54 0.45 25.0 23.76 1.40
7.5 7.78 0.54 27.5 27.54 1.61
10.0 9.21 0.60 30.0 31.82 1.85
12.5 10.87 0.71 32.5 36.68 2.07
15.0 12.79 0.80 35.0 42.81 2.35
17.5 15.00 0.95 37.5 48.36 2.62
20.0 17.54 1.05 40.0 55.32 2.95
45.5 71.20 3.66
17.27𝑡
𝑒𝑤 = 4.584 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ° 𝐶
237.3 + 𝑡
• Often, the wind-velocity data would be available at an elevation other
than that needed in the particular equation.

• However, it is known that in the lower part of the atmosphere, up to

a height of about 500 m above the ground level, the wind velocity can
be assumed to follow the 1/7 power law as:

𝟏
𝒖𝒉 = 𝑪 𝒉 𝟕 𝐸𝑞. (3.5)
Where:
𝑢ℎ = wind velocity at a height of h above the ground
𝐶 = constant

Note: This equation can be used to determine at any desired level if 𝑢ℎ

is known.
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION EQUATIONS
a) A reservoir with as surface area of 250 hectares had the following
average values of climate parameters during a week:
• Water temperature = 20°C
• Relative humidity = 40%
• Wind velocity at 1.0 m above ground surface = 16 km/h

Estimate the average daily evaporation from the lake by using

Meyer’s Formula. (Ans. 8.23 mm)

b) An ISI Standard evaporation pan at the site indicated a pan

coefficient of 0.80 on the basis of calibration against controlled
water budgeting method. If this pan is indicated an evaporation of
72 mm in the week under question,
i. Estimate the accuracy if Meyer’s method relative to the pan
evaporation measurements. (Ans. 9%)
ii. Also, estimate the volume of water evaporated from the lake
in that week. (Ans. 144,025 m3)
ANALYTICAL METHODS OF
EVAPORATIION ESTIMATION
 ANALYTICAL METHODS

1. Water-budget method
2. Energy-balance method
3. Mass-transfer method
WATER-BUDGET METHOD

• It is the simplest of the three analytical methods and

is least reliable.

• It involves writing the hydrological continuity

equation fro the lake and determining the
evaporation from a knowledge or estimation of other
variables.
 WATER-BUDGET METHOD

• Thus considering the daily average values for a lake, the continuity equation is
written as
𝑷 + 𝑽𝒊𝒔 + 𝑽𝒊𝒈 = 𝑽𝒐𝒔 + 𝑽𝒐𝒈 + 𝑬𝑳 + ∆𝑺 + 𝑻𝑳 Eq.(3.6)
Where:
𝑃 = daily precipitation
𝑉𝑖𝑠 = daily surface inflow into the lake
𝑉𝑖𝑔 = daily groundwater inflow
𝑉𝑜𝑠 = daily surface outflow from the lake
𝑉𝑜𝑔 = daily seepage outflow
𝐸𝐿 = daily lake evaporation Note: All quantities are in units of
∆𝑆 = increase in lake storage in a day
volume (m3) or depth (mm) over a
reference area.
𝑇𝐿 = daily transpiration loss
 WATER-BUDGET METHOD

• Eq.(3.6) can be written as

𝑬𝑳 = 𝑷 + (𝑽𝒊𝒔 −𝑽𝒐𝒔 ) + (𝑽𝒊𝒈 − 𝑽𝒐𝒈 ) − 𝑻𝑳 − ∆𝑺 Eq.(3.7)

• 𝑷, 𝑽𝒊𝒔 , 𝑽𝒐𝒔 and ∆𝑺 can be measured

• 𝑽𝒊𝒈 , 𝑽𝒐𝒈 and 𝑻𝑳 are possible to measure, therefore, estimated.
• Transpiration losses can be considered insignificant for some reservoirs.
• For better results of 𝑬𝑳 , longer time is recommended say weeks or months.
• Thus, water-budget equation method cannot be expected to give accurate
results, however, studies at Lake Hefner in USA (1952) have given fairly
accurate results by this method.
 ENERGY-BUDGET METHOD

• Ii is an application of the law of conservation of energy.

• The energy available for evaporation is determined by considering the incoming energy,
outgoing energy and energy stored in the water body over a known time interval.
𝑯𝒏 = 𝑯𝒂 + 𝑯𝒆 + 𝑯𝒈 + 𝑯𝒔 + 𝑯𝒊 Eq.(3.7)

Where 𝑯𝒏 = net heat energy received by the water surface = 𝑯𝒄 𝟏 − 𝒓 − 𝑯𝒃

 ENERGY-BUDGET METHOD

In which 𝑯𝒄 𝟏 − 𝒓 = incoming solar radiation into a surface of reflection coefficient

(albedo) 𝒓.
𝑯𝒃 = back radiation (long wave) from water body
𝑯𝒂 = sensible heat from water surface to air
𝑯𝒆 = heat energy used in evaporation
= 𝝆 𝑳 𝑬𝑳 , where 𝝆 = density of water,
𝑳 = latent heat of evaporation and
𝑬𝑳 = evaporation in mm
𝑯𝒈 = heat flux into the ground
𝑯𝒔 = heat stored in water body
𝑯𝒊 = net heat conducted out of the system by water flow (advected energy)
 ENERGY-BUDGET METHOD

• All energy terms are in calories per square mm per day.

• If the time periods are short , the terms 𝑯𝒔 and 𝑯𝒊 can be neglected as negligibly small.
• All the terms except 𝑯𝒂 can either be measured or evaluated indirectly.
• The sensible heat term 𝑯𝒂 which cannot be readily measured is estimated using Bowen’s ratio 𝜷
given by the expression
𝑯𝒂 𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻𝒂
𝜷= = 𝟔. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 × 𝒑𝒂 𝐸𝑞. (3.9)
𝝆 𝑳 𝑬𝑳 𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂
Where:
𝒑𝒂 = atmospheric pressure in mmHg
𝒆𝒘 = saturated vapour pressure in mmHg
𝒆𝒂 = actual vapour pressure in mmHg
𝑻𝒘 = temperature of water surface in °C
𝑻𝒂 = temperature of air in °C
 ENERGY-BUDGET METHOD

• Combining the Eq.(3.8) and Eq.(3.9) 𝑬𝑳 can be evaluated as

𝑯𝒏 − 𝑯𝒈 −𝑯𝒔 −𝑯𝒊
𝑬𝑳 = Eq.(3.10)
𝝆 𝑳 𝟏+ 𝜷

• Estimation of evaporation in a lake by the energy balance method has been

found to give satisfactory results, with errors of the order of 5% when applied
to periods less than a week.
 MASS-TRANSFER METHOD

• This method is based on the theories of turbulent mass transfer in boundary

layer to calculate the mass water vapour transfer from the surface to the
surrounding atmosphere.

• With the use of quantities measured by sophisticated (and expensive)

instrumentation, this method can give satisfactory results.
HOMEWORK #3
At a reservoir in the neighborhood of Delhi the following climatic data were
observed. Estimate the mean monthly and annual evaporation from the
reservoir using Meyer’s formula.
Month Temp (°C) Relative Wind velocity at 2 m
humidity (%) above GL (km/h)
Jan 12.5 85 4.0
Feb 15.8 82 5.0
Mar 20.7 71 5.0
Apr 27.0 48 5.0
May 31.0 41 7.8
Jun 33.5 52 10.0
Jul 30.6 78 8.0
Aug 29.0 86 5.5
Sep 28.2 82 5.0
Oct 28.8 75 4.0
Nov 18.9 77 3.6
Dec 13.7 73 4.0
RESERVOIR EVAPORATION
AND METHODS FOR
REDUCTION
• The water volume lost due to evaporation from a reservoir in a month is
calculated as
𝑽𝑬 = 𝑨 𝑬𝒑𝒎 𝑪𝒑
Where:
𝑉𝐸 = volume of water lost in evaporation in a month (m3)
𝐴 = average reservoir area during the month (m2)
𝐸𝑝𝑚 = pan evaporation loss in meters in a month (m)
= 𝐸𝐿 in mm/day × No. of days in the month × 10−3
𝐶𝑝 = relevant pan coefficient

Note: Evaporation from a water surface is a continuous process.

METHODS TO REDUCE
EVAPORATION LOSSES
REDUCTION OF SURFACE AREA
• The volume of water lost
by evaporation is directly
proportional to the surface
area of the water body.

• Measures like having deep

reservoirs in place of wider
ones and elimination of
shallow areas can be
considered under this
category.
MECHANICAL COVERS

• Permanent roofs over the reservoir

• Temporary roofs
• Floating roofs
 CHEMICAL FILMS
• Application of chemical such as Cetyl alcohol and stearyl alcohol
• The thin film formed has the following desirable feature:
1. The film is strong and flexible and does not break easily due to wave
actions.
2. If punctured due to the impact of raindrops or by birds, insects, etc., the
film closes back soon after.
3. It is pervious to oxygen and carbon dioxide; the water quality is therefore
affected by its presence.
4. It is colourless, odourless and nontoxic