Term Paper on

Comparison between AM,PM and FM

 ABSTRACT

Modulation is considered as the most important technique in telecommunication. It

is used for several purposes like convey a message and receiving as well.
Modulation is categorized into different form like Amplitude modulation,
frequency modulation and phase modulation.
This term paper enlightens the analysis and simulation of Phase modulation along
with different forms of modulation.

 MODULATION

Modulation is the process of varying one waveform in relation to another

waveform. In telecommunications, modulation is used to convey a message. Often
a high-frequency sinusoid waveform is used as carrier signal to convey a lower
frequency signal. A device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and
a device that performs the inverse operation of modulation is known as a
demodulator.
Modulation is the method of changing the carrier signal in according to the
message signal. The high-frequency sin wave signal is known as carrier signal in
the process of modulation. That output signal is called as modulating signal.
Modulation is a process which making a change of shift at the range with
frequencies of signal.
 Necessity Modulation Methods

 Signals which are engage the equal range of frequencies can be divided.
 Modulation used in noise resistance, attenuation which is depends upon the
communication channel.
 Modulating a sine wave carrier creates it suitable to maintain the frequency
content of the transfer signal as near as possible to the middle of the pass
band.

 Need for Modulation

 This process is mainly used to decrease the height an antenna.

 This process is applied to converting the low frequency signal to high
frequency signal.
 It is used for multiplexing of several signals during the same channel.
 To reduce noise & interference by modulation, this means shifting the signal
at which place noise is may be less.
 It is need for narrow banding of signals
 Need for an equipment limitation
  It is required to conveying the signal from transmitter to receiver.

 Types of Modulation

We can divide modulation in two parts  :-

(1)   Digital modulation.
(2)   Analog modulation.

 Digital Modulation
Digital modulation can be further divide into four parts :

1. Pulse code modulation :-

In this technique the modulating signal is first passed through a sampler to
which take samples of signal at discrete time intervals, then signal is passed
through the quantizes  its function is to convert signal into digital signal. Then
signal is passed through a encoder which assign n number of bits to each
samples, and the signal is transmitted over the channel.

2. Differential pulse code modulation :-

The signal does not change rapidly from one sample to next, so instead of
transmitting samples at each sampling instant , the difference between
sample and its predicted value is transmitted in this technique. Thus due to
this system efficiency is increased.
 3. Delta modulation :-
Delta modulation is a one-bit pulse code modulation system in which
staircase approximation of original signal is generated by oversampling the
signal. The original signal can be obtained by passing the approximation
signal through a low pass filter at the receiving end.

4. Adaptive delta modulation :-

The basic principal of ADM is to vary the step size in accordance with slope
of input signal i.e. when slope of input is steep, step size must be increased
and if input signal slope is small step size is reduced.

 Analog Modulation
 In analog modulation, the modulation is applied incessantly with respect to an
analog information signal.

Analog modulation can further divide in three parts :

Frequency modulation
In frequency modulation, the frequency of high frequency carrier signal is varied in
accordance with instantaneous value of modulating signal keeping amplitude
constant.

In frequency modulation (fm), the modulating signal combines with the carrier to
cause the frequency of the resultant wave to vary with the instantaneous amplitude
of the modulating signal. The modulating signal applied to a vertical causes the
reactance to vary. The vertical is connected across the tank circuit of the oscillator.
With no modulation, the oscillator generates a steady center frequency.

With modulation applied, the vertical causes the frequency of the oscillator to vary
around the center frequency in accordance with the modulating signal. The
oscillator output is then fed to a frequency multiplier to increase the frequency and
then to a power amplifier to increase the amplitude to the desired level for
transmission.
Frequency Modulation is the process of changing frequency of high frequency
carrier wave in accordance with the frequency of Modulating wave.
 Equation for Fm Modulation
Let us take a modulating signal or base band signal as ym(t) and the signal is
restricted with amplitude of
| ym(t)|  ≤ 1,
and let us take carrier
yc(t) = Accos(2Πfct)

where : Ac amplitude of carrier wave

fc =frequency of carrier wave

Then the FM modulated signal is given as

y(t) = Accos(2Πfct +2ΠfΔ∫ ym(t)dt)

Modulation index is given as

mfm = Δf/fm

Depending upon the modulation index we have narrow band fm and wide band fm,
if modulation index mfm <<1 then the modulation is called as narrow band
frequency modulation where as if modulation index m fm >>1 then the modulation
is called as wideband frequency modulation.
The band width for narrow band frequency modulation is 2fm, where as the band
width for wide band frequency modulation is 2fΔ.
 Frequency Modulation Circuit

The varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction capacitance changes

appreciably with d.c. bias voltage. This diode is shunted with the tuned circuit tank
circuit of the carrier oscillator as shown in the figure.
The capacitor C is kept much smaller than the diode capacitance (C d), in order to
keep the radio frequency (r.f.) voltage from oscillator across the diode small as
compared to V0.
V0 is the polarizing voltage to maintain a reverse bias across the varactor diode.
Also, reactance of C at the highest modulating frequency is kept large as compared
to R, so that the shunting of the modulating signal through the tank circuit is
avoided.

 Working Principle

The capacitance Cd of the diode is given by the relation

Cd=       __(1)

Where Vd is the total instantaneous voltage across the diode given by

Vd = V0 + f(t)

 And K is a constant of proportionality.

The total capacitance of the oscillator tank circuit is (C 0 + Cd) and, hence, the
instantaneous frequency of oscillation is given as
ωi = 1/    

Substituting Cd from equation (1), we get

ωi = [Lo(Co + KVd-1/2)]-1/2
This frequency is dependent on Vd which in turn depends on the modulating signal
f(t).
Therefore, the oscillator frequency is dependent on the modulating signal f (t) and
thus frequency modulation is generated.   

 Block Diagram of Frequency modulation

Frequency modulation is another significant process of modulation used for

message transmission. The frequency modulation has an important advantage over
amplitude modulation, i.e. interference due to noise is considerably reduced in the
former. However, this advantage of noise-immunity is at the cost of increased
bandwidth and, hence comparatively a less number of channels can be
accommodated in a given frequency space.

The modulator circuit uses parameter-variation method. A pre-emphasis circuit is

used to reduce the effect of noise at higher audio frequencies for threshold
improvement. Like the AM transmitter, the carrier oscillator generates sub-
harmonic of final carrier frequency to achieve frequency stability. A stable
oscillation frequency at a lower radio frequency (say 4 MHz) is generated by an
oscillator and then it is raised to the final carrier say 96 MHz by frequency
multipliers. It should be kept in mind that more frequency stability can be obtained
 if the carrier oscillator operates at low radio frequency. The multiplying circuit not
only increases the carrier frequency, but also the frequency deviation by the same
factor. The signal is amplified by a RF amplifier which is a class C tuned amplifier.
Then this signal is fed to a transmitting antenna for effective radiation. The length
of the antenna a conductor should be of the order of the wavelength for the
effective radiation.

 Need of Frequency Modulation

1. Various electrical machines and noises cause amplitude disturbance in the
transmission of amplitude-modulated wave. This makes the reception noisy.
So, there is a need for different type of modulation, which can reduce the
noise factor. Frequency modulation (FM) was proposed as a means of
improving the signals-to-noise ratio of a radio system.
2. Fidelity or audio quality of amplitude-modulated transmission is poor. This
types of transmission is also not good for musical programmes.

 Advantages of FM Modulation
1. The noise power decrease as signal power increase so the signal to noise
ratio of frequency modulation is high.
2. Frequency modulation uses line of sight communications so the range of
communication is around our planet.
3. Same frequency channels can be used around the world, as frequency
modulation is having number of sidebands.
4. Frequency modulation requires less radiated power.

 Disadvantages of FM Modulation
1. The bandwidth requirement for frequency modulation is very high as
compared with amplitude modulation, it is 2fm in the case of narrow band
frequency modulation where as 2fΔ  in the case of wide band frequency
modulation.
2. transmitter and receiver are more complex in frequency modulation.
3. Modulation  is the process of superimposing the information contents of a
modulating signal on a carrier signal by varying the characteristic of carrier
signal according  to the modulating signal.

Amplitude modulation
In amplitude modulation the amplitude of high frequency carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of baseband modulating signal keeping
frequency and phase of carrier signal constant. The frequency domain
representation of the resultant modulated signal contains carrier signal plus two
sidebands of modulating signal.
The instantaneous amplitude of the rf output signal is varied in proportion to them
modulating signal. The modulating signal may consist of many frequencies of
various amplitudes and phases, such as the signals making up your own speech
pattern. The oscillator, buffer amplifier, and power amplifier serve the same
purpose as those in the cw transmitter. The microphone converts the audio
frequency (af) input into corresponding electrical energy. The driver amplifies the
audio, and the modulator further amplifies the audio signal to the amplitude
necessary to fully modulate the carrier. The output of the modulator is applied to
the power.

In amplitude modulation, only the amplitude of the carrier wave is changed in

accordance with the intensity of the signal.
However, the frequency of the modulated wave remains the same as the carrier
frequency. The Below figure shows the principle of amplitude modulation

(a) shows the audio electrical signal,

(b) shows the carrier wave of constant amplitude and

(c) shows the amplitude-modulated wave.

The amplitude of both positive and negative half cycles of carrier wave are
changed in accordance with the signal. For instance, when the signal is
increasing in the positive sense, the amplitude of carrier wave also increases.
During negative half cycle of the signal, the amplitude of carrier decreases.
Amplitude modulation is done by an electronic circuit called modulator.

The basic concept surrounding what is amplitude modulation, AM, is quite

straightforward. The amplitude of the signal is changed in line with the
instantaneous intensity of the sound. In this way the radio frequency signal has a
representation of the sound wave superimposed in it. In view of the way the basic
signal "carries" the sound or modulation, the radio frequency signal is often termed
the "carrier".

Amplitude Modulation, AM

When a carrier is modulated in any way, further signals are created that carry the
actual modulation information. It is found that when a carrier is amplitude
modulated, further signals are generated above and below the main carrier. To see
how this happens, take the example of a carrier on a frequency of 1 MHz which is
modulated by a steady tone of 1 kHz.

The process of modulating a carrier is exactly the same as mixing two signals
together, and as a result both sum and difference frequencies are produced.
Therefore when a tone of 1 kHz is mixed with a carrier of 1 MHz, a "sum"
frequency is produced at 1 MHz + 1 kHz, and a difference frequency is produced
at 1 MHz - 1 kHz, i.e. 1 kHz above and below the carrier.

If the steady state tones are replaced with audio like that encountered with speech
of music, these comprise many different frequencies and an audio spectrum with
frequencies over a band of frequencies is seen. When modulated onto the carrier,
these spectra are seen above and below the carrier.

It can be seen that if the top frequency that is modulated onto the carrier is 6 kHz,
then the top spectra will extend to 6 kHz above and below the signal.

 Equation for Am Modulation

Let the carrier voltage and the modulating voltage be represented by:
ec=Ecsinωct,
em=Emsinωmt

where,
ec & em represent instantaneous voltages of carrier wave and modulating
wave respectively,
Ec and Em represent the amplitudes of carrier wave and modulating wave
respectively, 
ωc and ωm represent angular velocities at carrier frequency,
vc and modulating frequency vm respectively.

The amplitude Ec of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating
wave. For the modulated wave,
e = E sin wct
Here E is the amplitude of the modulated wave.
Now,
e = (Ec + em) sin wct
= (Ec + Em sin wmt) sin wct

= Ec sin wct+Em sin wmt
1 1
= Ec sinwct + mEc sinwmt sinwct = Ec sinwct + mEc[ 2 cos(wc -wm)t - 2 cos ⁡
(wc+wm)t]

It is clear from the above equation that the AM wave may be regarded as a
combination of three sinusoidal waves, one having amplitude E c and the other two
having amplitudes.

 Amplitude Modulation Circuit

The audio signal has frequency ranging from 20 Hz to 20 KHz and its small signal
power unable it to travel a longer distance. For a longer distance communication
audio signal is poor performer. The longer distance communication is possible
only with high frequency signal. But such a frequency is not audible. So the high
frequency wave is combined with audio signal for longer distance communication.

 The process of superimposition of audio signal over carrier wave is called

modulation. It can also be defined as the process by which high frequency wave is
changed in accordance with the instantaneous voltage of low frequency . When the
amplitude of the carrier wave is changed into the pattern of the amplitude of the
audio signal the modulation is termed amplitude modulation.

  
The circuit is simple amplitude modulator. It is a common emitter RC amplifier
having a gain A. R1, R2are the voltage divider biasing. RL is the load resistance
where the output is measured. The carrier wave is given to the base of the
transistor. The modulating audio signal is applied to the emitter resistance circuit.
 
The carrier wave voltage Vc is applied to the base of the circuit and audio signal
voltage Vs is applied at the emitter resistance circuit. The amplifier circuit
amplifies the input carrier wave by a factor A so that the output is AVc. Since the
modulating signal is at of the input signal there is variation of the gain and thus the
amplitude of the carrier wave is changed in accordance to the amplitude of the
modulating audio signal. The output is a amplitude modulated signal at the output
resistor

 Block diagram of amplitude modulation

Amplitude modulation process is completed in two stages, one is modulation and

other is demodulation. Modulation is performed at transmitter while demodulation
is done at receiver.
A transmitter not only performs the modulation process, but also raises the power
level of a modulated signal to the desired extent for effective radiation. 

(i) Low level modulation: 

(ii) High level modulation:

 Advantages of Amplitude Modulation

There are several advantages of amplitude modulation, and some of these reasons
have meant that it is still in widespread use today:

1. It is simple to implement
2. it can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few component.
3. AM receivers are very cheap as no specialized components are needed.

 Disadvantages of Amplitude modulation

Amplitude modulation is a very basic form of modulation, and although its
simplicity is one of its major advantages, other more sophisticated systems provide
a number of advantages. Accordingly it is worth looking at some of the
disadvantages of amplitude modulation.

1. It is not efficient in terms of its power usage

2. It is not efficient in terms of its use of bandwidth, requiring a bandwidth
equal to twice that of the highest audio frequency.
3. It is prone to high levels of noise because most noise is amplitude based
and obviously AM detectors are sensitive to it.
Phase modulation
In phase modulation, the phase of high frequency carrier signal is varied directly in
accordance with instantaneous value of modulating signal keeping amplitude
constant.
Phase modulation is a form of modulation that can be used for radio signals used
for a variety of radio communications applications. As will be seen later, phase
modulation, and frequency modulation are closely linked together and it is often
used in many transmitters and receivers used for a variety of radio communications
applications from two way radio communications links, mobile radio
communications and even maritime mobile radio communications.

Since voltage A begins its cycle and reaches its peak before voltage B, it is said
to lead voltage B. Voltage C, on the other hand, lags voltage B by 30 degrees.
In phase modulation the phase of the carrier is caused to shift at the rate of the af
modulating signal. The unmodulated carrier has constant phase, amplitude, and
frequency. The dotted wave shape represents the modulated carrier. Notice that the
phase on the second peak leads the phase of the unmodulated carrier. On the third
peak the shift is even greater; however, on-the fourth peak, the peaks begin to
realign phase with each other. These relationships represent the effect of 1/2 cycle
of an af modulating signal. On the negative alternation of the af intelligence, the
phase of the carrier would lag and the peaks would occur at times later than they
would in the unmodulated carrier.

 Phase Modulation Circuit

If the phase of the current in a circuit is changed there is an instantaneous
frequency change during the time the phase is being shifted.

The amount of frequency change or deviation depends on how rapidly the phase
shift is accomplished. It is also dependant on the total amount of the phase shift.
The rapidity of the phase shift is proportional to the frequency of the modulating
signal. Hence the deviation with phase modulation is proportional to both the
amplitude and the frequency of the modulating signal.

Modulation can be applied to a transmitter as phase modulation but if an audio

filter is inserted before the modulating stage which corrects for the increase in
frequency the net effect is the same as frequency modulation.

 Phase Diagram of Frequency modulation

The form of modulation that is widely used, especially for data transmissions, is
Phase Modulation (PM). As phase and frequency are inextricably linked frequency
being the rate of change of phase, both forms of modulation are often referred to
by the common term 'angle modulation'.
To explain how phase modulation works, it is first necessary to give an explanation
of phase. A radio signal consists of an oscillating carrier in the form of a sine
wave.

The amplitude follows this curve, moving positive and then negative, and returning
to the start point after one complete cycle. This can also be represented by the
movement of a point around a circle, the phase at any given
point being the angle between the start point.

Modulating the phase of the signal changes the phase from what it would have
been if no modulation were applied. In other words, the speed of rotation around
the circle is modulated about the mean value. To achieve this it is necessary to
change the frequency of the signal for a short time.
In other words, when phase modulation is applied to a signal there are frequency
changes and vice versa. Phase and frequency are inseparably linked, as phase is the
integral of frequency.
Frequency modulation can be changed to phase modulation by simply adding a CR
network to the modulating signal that integrates the modulating signal. As such,
the information regarding sidebands, bandwidth and the like also holds true for
phase modulation as it does for frequency modulation, bearing in mind their
relationship.

 ADVANTAGE OF PHASE MODULATION

1. Only 1 frequency used.

2. Easy to detect loss of carrier.
3. broadcast are a lower bandwidth and amplitude noise comes through.
 DISADVANTAGE OF PHASE MODULATION

1. Complex circuitry required to generate and detect phase changes

Conclusion

 Comparison of AM, FM, and PM Modulation

Parameter AM FM PM
Signal-to-Noise Moderate-
Low-to-Moderate High
Ratio High
Performance
Sensitive Tolerant Invariant
vs. Attenuation
Transmitter
Moderate-High Moderate High
Cost

Moderate-
Receiver Cost Moderate High
High
Receiver Gain
Often Required Not Required Not Required
Adjustment
No No
Adjustments
Installation Adjustments Adjustments
Requires
Required Required
Require
Multichannel Fewer
High Linearity Good
Capabilities Channels
Optics
Performance
Moderate Excellent Excellent
Over Time
Environmental
Moderate Excellent Excellent
Factors

Bibliography

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