CHAPTER IV- THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN

DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

It is a belief of Hindu Philosophy that the beginning of chain of Karma and its fruits of
birth & rebirths, is running on from beginning less time has somewhere its end.

In this section of my thesis I will give a general introduction to the terms Moksha
according to Hinduism. There are two ideas first God is the giver of salvation to the
worshipper if the worshipper obeys his commandment & surrender. The other idea is
man by own effort attains to salvation by his good works. “Ramanuj’s marjar theory.
Where the off spring is taken to a different place by the mother cat (self surrender).

In Geeta it is said vkxPN 'kj.ka ee%.

Other is markat theory (were monkey the off spring stick to mothers stomach to be
carried to another place. Man by his own good work attains to heaven this is also
what the natural religious propagate against revealed religions.

Not only we have two different theories one based on faith of surrender and other
based on self effort but what is Moksha is also very differently defined by some of
our schools of philosophy. To some moksha means cessation of births & rebirths &
the soul of man obtains to Jnan & the darkness dispels. To Ramanuj Vishishtadvait.
Moksha means fellowship with God, snigdhta, vaikuntha. In Jainism by tap spirit
become light it is complete solitude kaivalya. To Buddhism moksha means going out
of existence as the lamp blow soul Nirvaan. In yog darshan it is defined as samadhi.
According to Shankar “moksha man falling back to the universal soul, merger, the
loss of Identity & Igoity. Sankhya also like Jain believe in the theory of Kaivalya the
only difference is the Purush is real. reflection sattava guru comes to end and prakriti
devaluate.

“The nature of moksha differs widely, as conceived in the various systems. It may
generally be represented as achieving self-perfection, and it will suffice for the
present to draw attention to but one point about it. While some Indian thinkers
maintained that could be achieved in this very life (jivanmukti). This distinction
persists in the age of the systems also. But whether here or elsewhere, the ideal of

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moksha is assumed in all the systems to be actually attainable. It may, or course, be
held that a goal like self-perfection is never actually reached, but is significant only in
so far as its deliberate choosing and its persistent pursuit are concerned. A modern
thinker writes, “the ultimate values are not of the realm of fact, but are merely ideals
which should regulate our conduct.” The view of Indian philosophers, however, is
1.
that it can undoubtedly be realized-that “ought” means “can.” The important point
of agreement among the various schools of indian philosophy is the recognition of
liberation or release (Moksha) from the cycle of rebirths as the highest of human
ends or values. The Indians generally speak of four values-artha, kama, dharma and
moksa. Of these, the first two, which respectively mean “wealth” ahnd “pleasure”, are
secular or purely worldly values. The other two, whose general meaning has already
been indicated, may, in contrast, be described as spiritual.

If karma is the cause of births & rebirths, pain & pleasure. Then moksha is the
supreme goal of worshipper in all the religion as I have defined moksha is the
greatest good. Release from birth & rebirths or knowing your own trueself.

Now after giving a small introduction to what moksha means, I will discuss some of
the methods prescribed by different school of philosophy to obtain moksha. It should
be remembered that each school of Indian philosophy has not only discussed the
problem of life, its pain and suffering, but also has prescribed how to get rid of it &
obtain to an existence which is free from all suffering and pain for example in Geeta
we are told that there are three paths that leads to Moksha the path of knowledge
jnanyog. The path of nishkaam karma & the path of grace Bhaktiyog. Similarly
Buddhism describes the path of ashtang marg & Jainism describes panch mahavrit.
Ramanuj samarpan Similarly we find that Hinduism has the credit as it flows on from
century to century that it has simplified the way of moksha to millions of innocent
from Jnan to Karma from Karma to Grace (kripa), and from Grace to simple people
for example Darshana, Tirthyatra, Taking bath in some holy rivers, Listening katha,
Gurukripa. This is the greatness of Hinduism to save the simplest who is not capable
to practice Jnan yog, Karma yog, or Bhakti yog Salvation for all. Hindu Philosophy
rejects the concept of sin and accept the concept of ignorance, as a traveler
forgotten his path to the true destination.

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THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN VEDAS:- In Vedas it is clearly shown
that the “Atman” and “Brahmann” are two synonyms terms. If we see four
mahavakyas (important quotes) of Vedas, they are “Ahm bramhasmi”, “Ayamatma
Brahmann” “Tattvamasi” and “Pragyanam Bramhan, they all Indicates knowing pure
form of Atman as Brahman is the chief aim of human life.

“The diversity given in everyday experience may only be an appearance of

Brahmann and therefore false, as one school of interpreters of the Upanishads
holds; but, even according to the other school, it is not the whole of truth, for unity
also is equally real. And yet it appears to be the sole truth, owing to an inveterate
habit of our mind which should be traced to our ignorance (avidya) of the ultimate
reality. This is what is meant by Maya-the power or the principle that conceals from
us the true character of reality. When maya functions it hide bramhan and it presents
what is not real. If ignorance is the cause of birth and rebirth than Jnan is the only
way to obtain moksha. The ignorance may be regarded as negative, that is as
merely a lack of knowledge of the unity underlying the diversity given in common
experience; or it may be looked upon as positive in the sense that it gives rise to a
misapprehension, making us see the manifold world where there is Brahmann and
only Brahmann.” 2

The goal of life as conceived in the Upanishads is in either case, to overcome this
congenital ignorance, by attaining full enlightenment or jnan. The enlightened state is
called release or moksha. It is attaining one’s true selfhood in Brahmann “Moksha is
infinite peace, freedom from sorrow, eternal bliss. Extinction of desire is extinction of
sorrow. Realization of the Atman extinguishes sorrow. Moksha is merging of the
3.
individual soul in Brahmann” It indicates moksha means knowing your own true
self. This concept is better explained in Upanishads but the central theme of Vedas
is soul+bramhan is one. one+one=1. Bramhan+Atman= Bramhan. moksha here
means achieving which is already there and leaving which is not there. “The self
(Atman) is spoken of in one place as the essence of the world, and when we trace
the idea in the Brahmanns and the Aranyakas we see that Atman has begun the
mean the supreme essence in man as well as in the universe, and has thus
4
approached the great Atman doctrine of the upnishad”. ^^czãoSncZegSo Hkofr**.

71
 thoks czã uk ijk%A “we are all divinities”

“The Universe could not be apprehended by a mere enumeration of its contents; that
which constituted it as its self could only be reached through thought. This was
present, therefore, everywhere, alike without and within, in the cosmos and in the
heart, incapable of multiplication or of partition. A true view of life required us to
merge our individuality in the universal self. The distinction between subject and
object then disappears. The self transcends both the knower and the known. As it
cannot be differenced from anything else, it is unconditioned, and its only marks are
‘no, no’; if it is represented in symbols, it is infinite like space, but as it is without
dimensions, it may equally well be called a point. This lay behind all successional
existence, and the realization of union with it brought deliverance from the
samsara”.5 “Observation of the physical world suggested cycles of origin and
decay; the dawn was reborn daily, and this rebirth (punarbhava) was the
mythological statement of the maxim that whatever has a beginning in time must
also have an end. Connection with material form (however refined) thus involved
production and dissolution, where re-death (punarmrityu) corresponded to rebirth.
But what regulated these processes for any given individual? There are indications
that this problem was at first withheld from open discussion, and was treated as a
secret mystery. The answer was finally reached along the line of the continuity of the
product of a man’s life. This was the doctrine of the ‘deed’ (karma). Every deed was
regarded as producing something; it had a value, and this value remained even
when the physical form of the agent and the external content of the action
disappeared. The value might be only ritual or ceremonial, but it might also be moral.
Accordingly it was laid down that ‘the deed does not perish’ (karma na kshiyate), and
still more explicitly ‘a man is born into the world that he has made’ (Shatapatha Br.,
VI. II. 2, 27). This is applied first to the world of sacrifice, but it was soon extended to
the whole world of conduct, including that of thought and feeling, so that death
conveyed each person into a new environment of happiness or suffering suitable to
its case”.6. In Vedas relation of Atman & Brahman is shown by verses Ahm
Bramhasmi, Tattvamasi etc. It means, I am that- that I am, realizing it is moksha. In
the Rig veda, we find the concept of maya which is - which is not. The ignorance is
the cause of births and rebirths. When with the help of ‘Tap’ the ajnan is destroyed
and jnan shines, that is moksha. Sinha writes “Moksha is infinite peace, freedom

72
from sorrow, eternal bliss. Extinction of desire is extinction of sorrow. Realization of
the Atman extinguishes sorrow. Moksha is merging of the individual soul in
Brahmann”. 7 Sinha at another place says that “meditation on god leads to union with
him, which dispels avidya and appearance of the world”. I am in fix what Sinha
means by god at some places I have said the law of karma and the eternity of the
soul leads to a very poor concept of god & in some books like Ramayan and
Mahabharat even the god’s are under the law of karma therefore the law of karma is
supreme.

Therefore in Geeta we read the theory of nishkam karma as a way to moksha.

Arjun thought by Krishna that any action done with no desire its fruit will have no
merit & demerit.

THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN UPANISHADS:- So far as I read I find

there is not much difference between what Veda says and Upanishad says about
moksha however I have already said that the Upanishads are different from Vedas.
As Vedas consist of two parts poorva mimansa (Karmkand) & Uttarmimansa.
(jnankand). Vedas are more concerned about karma whereas Upanishad about jnan.

In Upanishad teachings knowing the true nature of self or Atman as bramhan

is moksha. In the Chhandogya Upanishad there is a dialogue between Uddalak and
Svetketu. The father teaches his sons Svetketu in the beginning sat alone was
without a second. Sat thought “may I be many” then it evolved itself in to this
manifold world, thou, O Svetaketu! art that, tat tvam asi, Svetketu. This teaching
blends the subject with the object the inhabitable with the infinite the microcosm with
the macrocosm, the self with the not self, None of them can be taken as independent
and separate both are relative terms and like the two sides of the same coin, both
are manifestations of the same sat.

It is clearly mentioned in Upanishads that knowing ourselves as bramhan is the only

way of liberation or moksha.

Moksha in Upanishads is freedom from bondage. Avidya is bondage vidya is

moksha. Vidya is knowledge of Brahman and Atman as one and in all creatures,
moksha is becoming bramha (Bramha Bhavna) becoming all (sarva bhavna) vision

73
of the self of the universe (ek atma darsana) it is complete autonomy (svarajya) or
freedom (ananda).

It is said in Shevatashvar “He who knows Brahman becomes Brahman. This is the
secret teaching. Only by knowing it can one cross the ocean of birth and death; there
is no other way of liberation.” 8 It is said in Mundaka “The eye does not go there,
nor does speech, nor does mind we cannot know it. We cannot teach it.9 Also just as
rivers, leaving their names and forms, merge in the ocean, so a wise man, arising
above name and form, becomes one with the absolute. 10

THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN GEETA:- The supreme experience is

freedom, and the word jnana is employed to refer to both the goal of the adventure
as well as the path leading to it. On account of this confusion some have been led to
think that jnana as a path is superior to the other methods of approach, and that
cognition alone persists, while the other elements of emotion and will fall out in the
supreme state of freedom. There does not seem to be any justification for such an
opinion. Freedom or moksa is unity with the supreme self. It is called by different
names: mukti, or release; brahmi sthiti being in Brahman, naiskarmya, or non-action;
nistraigunya, or the absence of the three qualities; kaivalya, or solitary salvation:
Brahmanbhava, or the being of Brahman. In the absolute experience there is a
feeling of the oneness of all. “The Atman is in all being, and all beings are in the
Atman.” The sate of perfection exceeds the fruits of righteousness, resulting from the
observance of Vedic rites, performances of sacrifices and all other methods.

The freed soul is beyond all good and evil. Virtue is transcended in perfection. The
mukta rises above any mere ethical rule of living to the light, largeness and power of
spiritual life. Even if he should have committed any evicts which would in ordinary
circumstances necessitate another birth on earth no such thing is necessary. He is
freed from ordinary rules and regulations.

THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN CHARVAAK:-Charvaak is philosophy of

nirishvarvad not only its writer denies the existence of Atman a pure spiritual
immortal being but also denies an existence of any supreme immortal being for
charvaak death is moksha.

74
They denies the existence of any permanent immortal soul in man. He also denies
the existence of god. Causasui denies the Causasui and denies the morality.

The question of moksha does not denies in eve cause of charvak philosophy as
brahm spirit. The writer denies is the existence of soul existence of god of morality is
illusion.

u LoxksZ ukioxksZ ok uSokRek ikjykSfdd% A

uSo o.kZJeknhuka fØ;k'oz Qynkf;dk% AA 11-

THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN JAINISM:- Jainism denies the existence

of any supreme being but it retains the idea of the divine as representing perfection
in man. The concept of moksha or mukti in Jainism stands for realization of fullest
perfection and absolute bliss.

False knowledge is accepted as the cause of bondage. There are two steps for
freeing soul from bondage. First is check of flow of new karma, it is called sanvar
and second is destroying the past accumulated binding karmas by tap it is called
nirjara. With the destructions of binding karmas one automatically obtains moksha
and soul gets light and goes up in the sky.

feF;kn'kZuknhuka cU/kgsrquka fujks/ks∙fHkuodekZHkkokfUutZjkgsrqlfUu/kkusukftZrL; deZ.kksa

fujluknkR;fUrddeZeks{k.ka eks{k% A rnkg&cU/kgsRoHkofutZjkH;ka d`RLudeZfoizeks{k.ka eks{k%
¼r-lw- 10@2½A

It is explained by the example of dry hollow gourd. As we cover dry hollow gourd by
wet soil to make it heavy and when if falls in water soil removes from it and dry
hollow gourd comes up, similarly, when karma are destroyed by tap soul becomes
light and it goes up to a place called Siddha Shila and their lives in loneliness and in
solitude.

;Fkk ok e`frdkysid`rxkSjoeykcqnzO;a tys·/k% irfr] iqujisre`fRrdkcU/kew/oZa xPNfr] rFkk deZjgr

vkRek vlXM+Roknw/oZa xPNfr A 12- “Moksha in jainism is called kaivalya. It is a gradual and
graded achievement having fourteen stages (gunasthahal). Mukta Jiva rest on

75
siddha sila. A place reminiscent of the Vedic Param vyoman. The individual selves
retain their distinct existence and become pure it is a state of absolute peace and
absolute bliss”. 13

It is important to mention here that according to Jainism right knowledge, which is

cause of removal of ignorance, is produced by the faith in teachings of the jain
Tirthankaras only. It is described by right faith in Jainism.

“ lE;x n'kZu Kku pkfj=kf.k eks{k ekxZ%.”

It is also a state of pure and infinite knowledge (anantjnan) and infinite perception
(anant darsana).

Madhavacharya commenting on Jainism concept of Moksha, writes in his book

Sarvadharma Sangrih:-

vkL=o% L=ksrlks }kja lao`.kksrhfr laoj%A

izos'k% deZ.kka cU/kks futZjLrf};kstue~AA

v"VdeZ{k;kUeks{kk∙FkkUrHkkZoJo dSJoA
iq.kL; laojs ikiL;kL=os fdz;rs iqu%AA

yC/kkuUrprq"dL; yksdkxw<L; pkReu% A

{kh.kkd”VdeZ.kksa eqfäfuZO;ko`fRrftZuksfnrkAA

Means “Asrava is the source of bondage and the thing which covers it is sanvar.
Infiltration of karma is bondage and separating from them is moksha, when eight
type of karmas destroyed one attains moksha. By the jain philosophy it seems that
evil exists somewhere outside man and soul draws evil. Like a peace of iron drawn
to itself by peace of magnet. Some people collects good karma (Punya) in their inner
feelings (sanvar) and some destroys bad karmas (Pap) nirjara. Person who gets four
things jnan, darshan, Veerya and sukkha is not bound and soul whose eight karmas
are destroyed gets infallible liberation”.

Similarly Dasgupta Writes – “It may not be out of place to mention here that though
the karmas of man are constantly determining him in various ways yet there is in him

76
infinite capacity or power for right action (anantvirya), so that karma can never
subdue this freedom and infinite capacity, though this may be suppressed from time
to time by the influence of karma, it is thus that by an exercise of this power man can
overcome all karma and become finally liberated. If man had not this ananatvirya in
him he might have been eternally under the sway of the accumulated karma which
secured his bondage (bandha). But since man is the repository of this indomitable
power the karmas can only throw obstacles and produce suffering, but can never
prevent him from attaining his highest good”. 14.

THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN BUDDHISM:- In Buddhism moksha is

shown as nirvana. In Upanishad & Vedas moksha means know your true self but
according to Buddhism nirvana means “going out” i.e. to mean complete
nothingness.

Nirvaan is often compared with the extinction of the flam of a lamp. As oil of lamp
consumed the flame of lamp ends. Similarly when the desires (r`".kk) and the
passions consumed a person obtains nirvana. According to Buddha’s third and
fourth Nobel truths are (iii) there is cessation of suffering & (iv) there is a way leading
to this cessation of suffering this state is called Nirvaan. In the state of nirvana, False
individuality that disappeared while the true being remains as the rainbow is a
mixture of fact and imagination, so is individuality a combination of being and non
being.

Radhakrishnan says according to Buddhism in his book “The horizon of being is

extended to the limits of reality. It is kinds of existence devoid of egoify, a timeless
existence, full of confidence, peace, calm, bliss, happiness, delicacy, parity,
freshness”.15 “Buddha does not attempt to define nirvaan, since it is the root
principle of all and so is indefinable. It is said that in nirvana, which is compared to
deep sleep, the soul loses its individuality and lapses into the objective whole”, “The
individual consciousness enters into a state where all relative existence is dissolved.
It is the silent beyond. In one sense it is self extinction in another absolute
freedom”16.

According to fourth nobel truth right knowledge is the means of removing evil. Avidya
or false knowledge is accepted as cause of evils as we have seen in upanisiadic

77
philosophy also. In Upanishad we find bramhan as indefinable here in Buddhism
Nirvaan is said to be indefinable. I have avoided to discuss the concept of Nirvaan as
stated in Mahayan and Heenyan the two schools of Buddhism.

Some where, I have also mentioned that Buddha does not believe in existence of
soul, then Nirvaan only means going out of the chain of births & rebirths and ending
in to nothingness or going out of existence. Buddha has rightly used the world
nirvaan which means blowing out”.

The Buddhist notion of nirvana is not annihilation as some scholars described it. In
the Therarada tradition it is realization of the state of perfect peace and in the
Mahayana it is realization of perfect bliss. It is described as “amatapadam.” Nirvana
is deliverance from suffering and suffering is symbolic representation of imperfection
of life.

Here, I will like to mention what C.D. Sharma says in his book Bhartiya Darshan,
“according to Buddha cessation of avidya (false knowledge) & its works happen not
of “Nirvaan” or “Mukta”. In the Upanishads the adjectives which sages have used for
Atman (pure self), Buddha has used for nirvaan. Atman is neti-neti, Nirvaan is also
defined by negative terms. Atman & nirvaan are beyond the range of senses &
intellect and it is anirvachniya (unelectable). Neti-Neti negates matters related with
Atman, not of Atman, negative terms negates matters related with Nirvaan not of
nirvaan. Atman & nirvaan both are calm. Complete cessation of avidya is accepted in
both Atman & Nirvaan”. 17

As we read through Buddhism we find the main thrust is on universal salvation rather
than individual. For example Buddha preach “O Monks, move around for the well
being of every one, for the happiness of every one showering compaction on the
entire world, for the good for the welfare, for the happiness of divine and human.18
Buddha insisted on sangha jivan. He prescribed the practice of bramhaam vihars
and advocated yog sutra of patanjali. He advocated the pursuit of pragyan and
practice of sila some time Buddha says Nirvaan is freedom from psychophysical
wants and mundane existence. 19

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THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN SANKHYA :- When we study sankhya we
don’t find concept of moksha as stated in other schools of Indian philosophy.
According to sankhya salvation is only phenomenal since bondage does not belong
to purush. Bondage and release refers to the conjunction and the disjunction of
purusha and prakriti resulting from non-discrimination and discrimination. Prakriti
does not bind the purusha but itself in various shapes.

Though the sankhya and patanjals philosophy are complementary and suplemantry
to each other yet on the problem of moksha they slightly differs. Same may raise a
question about jivanmukta that when he had attain moksha why he has to suffer for
his bad deeds? The writer of the Sankhya Karika has explained it that as the wheel
of the pot maker continues to move after the potter has taken away the completed
pot because of its previous speed and stops automatically after some time.

According to samkhya philosophy complete cessation of suffering is liberation of

moksha. Types of sufferings are already mentioned in this thesis.

THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN YOG PHILOSOPHY:- Patanjali say in

his yog sutra:- iq:"kkFkZ'kwU;kuka xq.kkuka izfrizlo% dSoY;a Lo:iizfrf"Bk ok fpfr'käsfjfrAA ¼34&
dSoY;ikn½. Here it said cessation of avidhya is moksha or kevalya. By the purusharth
(efforts) of man qualities (satva, Rajas & tamas) becomes nil, means, it goes there
from where it came (pratiprasav). Chitishakti (Atman) knows and enjoys its own form
is kaivalya. According to patanjali after attaining kaivalya man has no rebirth alike
baked seeds as they cannot grow again when they are baked.

It is explained by Madhavacharya in his book Sarvadarshan Sangrih,

^^fojkeizR;;kH;kliwoZ% laLdkj'ks"kks∙U;%* ¼ikr- ;ks- lw- 1@18½ bfrA ,oa p loZrks fojT;ekuL; rL;
iq:"k/kkSjs;L; Dys'kchtkfu funZX/k'kkfychtdYikfu izlolkeFkZ;fo/kqjkf.k eulk lk/kZa izR;Lra
xPNfUrAA 20

Kaivalya state is explained as absolute independence. It is not a mere negation but

is the eternal life of purusha when it is freed from prakriti. Avidya is earlier explained
as the cause of bondage of purusha. It can be destroyed by true knowledge. When
one acquires true knowledge of self, all false notions disappears. In this state it

79
remains untouched by worldly affairs. In yoga philosophy we get the concept of jivan
21
mukta also. “The disciple in the form of Samadhi remains conscious (as shown by
its description as samprajnat) of having attained the discriminative knowledge which
is the means to release, but in the next step (asamprajnat) he transcends it and the
condition has been described as sleepless sleep. As in sleep, one becomes here
oblivious of the world and even of his own existence. As an individual but yet it is not
a blank since. Purusha exists then with its effulgence all un obscured. In this final
stage, all operations of the internal organs are suspended and spirit returns to itself,
so to speak. The disciple than becomes a jivanmukta.

In the stage of jivanmukta the fruit of good and bad actions which has already
ripened has to suffer by the sage. It is the cause by the sage when attained true
knowledge and is yet suffering mundane life in order to experience the karma that is
already ripened. (tisthati samsakaravasat akrabraivaddhrtasarirah).

THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN VAISHESHIK:-According to Vaishashik

absolute cessation of all the pain is liberation. Atman does karma due to false
knowledge. Karma (action) is the source of all Pap (Sin) and Punya (auspicious).
When Atman gets true knowledge it stops action. Now pap, punya & karma worn out
then soul separates from body & mind and realizes its own nature. In moksha the
liberated soul retain its own peculiar individuality and particularity and remains as it is
knowing nothing, feeling nothing, doing nothing. The concept of moksha in the
schools of vaisheshika and nyay is not different. So I will discuss it in detail in the
next paragraph.

THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN NYAY:- “Upvarg or liberation is absolute

cessation of pain and rebirth. Commenting on nyay concept of moksha. J.N. Sinha
writes “liberation is the complete extinction of the special qualities of the soul viz.
cognition, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, volition, merit, demerit and impression.
The soul is free from cognition in the state of liberation. Cognition is produced by the
intercourse of a sense organ with an object, the conjunction of manas with the soul.
But the body, the sense organs and manas are destroyed in liberation. So there can
be no cognition in it. In liberation the soul is devoid of merits and demirts and

80
consequently free from pleasure and pain”. 22. According to nyay Ignorance is the
root of all suffering and rebirth and only complete knowledge (jnana) of the true
nature of things will bring aparvarga or deliverance. Error is thus seen to be the
cause of pain and eradication of error is the goal of man. Moksha is not the
destruction of self but only of bondage. Whereas Shankar delieved that moksha is
merger of self I have universal soul. In the nyay philosophy preexistence is proved
by the logic that there must be a future where we can experience the fruits of our
deeds and past to account for the difference in our lots in the present. According to
vatsayayan. The commentator on nyay sutra. “The fruition of all one’s act comes
about in the last birth preceding release”. 23. Nyay philosophy does not accept joy
(anand) in the state of liberation it says liberation is release- from pain. Radhakrishan
commenting on nyaya view of moksha “It is defined negatively as the cessation of
pain and not as the enjoyment of positive pleasure for pleasure is always tainted with
pain it is caused as much as pain”. , 24. Uddgotakara another commentator on nyay
sutra urges that if the released soul is to have everlasting body, since experiencing is
not possible with out the bodily mechanism.

The state of mukti is neither a state of pure knowledge nor of bliss but a state of
perfect qualitylessness in which the self remains in itself in its own purity.

The nyay vaishesika tradition uses the terms moksha, upavarg and nihsreyasa to the
state of perfection. Upavarg may be understood as going beyond the trivargas of
darma, artha and kama comprehending them after their fulfillment nihsreyasa can
also be understood in the some way as discussed earlier. Through tatvajnana
(knowledge of real) at there is atmalabh (self realization) but divine grace is also
helpful. Perhaps this is the first school of philosophy which educates the grace of
god and somewhat reflection on the concept of law of karma.

They firmly belief in the existence of god and they have also given proof for
existence of god.

1- The world is an effect and hence it must have an efficient cause. This
intelligent agent is God. The order, design, co-ordination between
different phenomena comes from God (karyat).

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 2- The atoms being essentially inactive cannot form the different power,
the Adrasta, requires the intelligence of God. Without God it cannot
supply motion to the atoms (ayojanat).

3- The world is sustained by God’s will. Unitelligent Adrsta cannot do this.

And the world is destroyed by God’s will (dhrtyadeh).

4- A word has a meaning and signifies an object. The power of words to

signify their objecs comes from God (padat).

5- God is the author of the infallible Veda (pratyayatah).

6- The Veda testifies to the existence of God (shruteh).

7- The Vedic sentences deal with moral injunctions and prohibitions. The
Vedic commands are the Divine commands. God is the creator and
promulgator of the moral laws (vakyat).

8- According to Nyaya-Vaishesika the magnitude of a dyad is not

produced by the infinitesimal magnitude of the two atoms each, but by
the number of the two atoms. Number ‘one’ is directly perceived, but
other numbers are conceptual creations. Numerical conception is
related to the mind of the perceiver. At the time of creation, the souls
are unconscious. And the atoms and the Unseen Power and space,
time, minds upon the Divine Consciousness. So God must exist
(sarikhyavishesat).

9- We reap the fruits of our own actions. Merit and demerit accure from
our actions and the stock of merit and demerit is called adrsta, the
Unseen power. But this Unseen Power, being unintelligent, needs the
guidance of supremely intelligent God (adrstat). 25.

“Gautama composer of Nyay sutra accordingly terms it “escape” (apavarga). The

underlying idea is that evils is as much a fact as good, and that we cannot have one
of them without the other- a view which the materialist also, holds, although he
differs very much from the present doctrine in the conclusion he draws from it. The
self must therefore be subject to both pain and pleasure or neither. The former is

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samsara, characterized by tension of mind which is relieved only off and on by some
evanescent pleasure; the latter is moksha or perfect repose. Provided a state bereft
of consciousness, as we shall see it is here, may be so described. If to avoid evil is
desirable, then we must make up our mind to forgo the good as well. The recognition
of the intimacy of evil, it should be added, does not make the system pessimistic, for
it admits the possibility of individuals passing beyond evil. That is, though evil is here
taken to be a fact, it is not regarded as inevitable, for any person, who seriously
wants to escape from it, can do so”.26

27
nq%[ktUeizo`fRrnks"kfeF;kKkukukeqRrjksRrjkik;s rnuUrjkik;knioxZ%A

“According to nyaya moksha is not self transcendent pain & pleasure but all its
specific qualities that is devoid at thought, feeling and will. Moksha thus becomes a
condition of perfect gloom from which there will be no reawaking”.28

THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN MIMANSA:- Self itself can only be

cognized by mental perception. Or at the time of salvation there being none of the
senses nor the manas the self remains in pure existence as the potency of
knowledge without any actual expression or manifestation. So the state of salvation
is the state in which the self remains. Devoid of any of is not characteristic qualities
such as pleasure, pain, knowledge, willing, etc. , for the self itself is not knowledge
nor is it bliss or ananda as Vedanta supposes; but these are generated in it by its
energy and the operation of the senses. The self being divested of all its senses at
that time, remains as a mere potency of the energy of knowledge, a mere existence.
This view of salvation is accepted in the main by Prabhakara also.

Salvation is brought about when a man enjoys and suffers the fruits of this good and
bad actions and thereby exhausts them and stops the further generation of new
effects by refraining from the performance of kamya-karmas (sacrifices etc.
performed for the attainment of certain beneficent results) and guarantees himself
against the evil effects of sin by assiduously performing the nitya-karmas (such as
the sandhya prayers etc. By the performance of which there is no benefit but the
non-performance of which produces sins). This state is characterized by the
dissolution of the body and the non-production of any further body or rebirth.

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Jaimini and Sabara did not face the problem of ultimate release. They pointed the
way to a life in heaven, but not to freedom from samsara. But the later writers could
not avoid the problem, since it occupied the attention of the thinkers of the other
schools. According to Prabhakara, liberation consists in the total disappearance of
dharma and adharma, whose operation is the cause of rebirth. It is defined as “the
absolute cessation of the body, causes by the disappearance of all dharma and
adharma. The individual, finding that in samsara pleasures are mixed up with pain,
turns his attention to liberation. Mere knowledge cannot give us freedom from
bondage, which can be attained only by the exhaustion of action. Knowledge
prevents further accumulation of merit and demerit. Evidently the followers of
Prabhakara do not regard karma by itself as sufficient for effecting release.
Liberation is the cessation of pleasure as well as of pain. It is not a state of bliss,
since the attributeless soul cannot have even bliss. Moksa is simply the natural form
of the soul. According to kumarila, moksa is the state of Atman in itself, free form all
pain. Some regard moksa as experience of the bliss of Atman. This, however, is
against the view of Kumarila, who asserts that liberation cannot be eternal unless it
is of a negative character. Parthasarathi also holds that the state of release is one of
freedom from pain, and not enjoyment of bless. Kumarila, however regards moksa
as a positive state the realization of the Atman, and this comes very near to the
Advaita view. He thinks that knowledge is not enough for liberation. He believes that
release can be attained through karma combined with jnana.

THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN ADVAIT VEDANT:- Shankar has given

us a theory of concept of maya (illusion) or adhyas (superimposition). According to
advait vedant philosophy this world is adhyas of bramha it is not result of world is
only illusion is real & changeless. Because of maya or avidhya (false knowledge) jiva
comes in bondage. Pure soul or Atman is mixed with beginningless avidhya like milk
& water in such away that the natures of both do not appear separate. Mind etc. are
maya’s product but jiva believes that these are his attributes. It does not separate
itself from it and does not feel its true form.

According to Shankar moksha is realization of one’s own true form which is eternal
and which can not be seen because of maya or avidhya.

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Radhakrishnan commeting on Shankar’s view of avidhya & moksha. Writes “Moksha
is a matter of direct realization of some thing which is existent from eternity, though it
is hidden from our view when the limitations are removed the soul is liberated”.29

Avidhya, maya or adhyas is said to be the cause of bondage. Avidhya is

beginningless but not eternal. By true knowledge (jnan) avidhya vanishes and one
attains moksha according to my view, in shankars philosophy we do not find any
state called moksha because knowing your own form is not a different state.
“According to Shankar “the freed soul assumes the form of his true self. Moksha is
not the abolition of self but the realization of its infinity and absoluteness by the
expansion and illumination of consciousness”.30 In Brahman sutra Shankar declares
in many passages that the nature of liberation is as state of oneness with Brahman
by moksha world as said earlier as maya or addhyas does not destroys but ones
view according to world changes. It can be explained by an example when we watch
a play, we know we are not the part of play we are just seer of the play. Same way
after attaining jnan of one’s own self one becomes seer of the worldly affairs
explained by Shankar as drishta.

Says Hiryanna “The individual self is Brahman itself, and its supposed distinction
from it is entirely due to the illusory adjuncts with which it identifies itself”.31
According to Shankar moksha is oneness with Brahman. Here it means that the
identity of the self with is not to be newly attained, it is already there and has only to
be realized in one’s own experience.

The main idea of Shankar’s schools of philosophy about moksha is that the ultimate
and absolute truth is the self which is one though appearing as many in different
individuals.

It is said in Upanishads “that art thou” tat-tvam-asi it means that he is truth.

It is the state of advait (non-dualism) between and jiva “jivo Brahman aaiv na parah”.

According to Shankar moksha means one attains one’s own form, in the state of
salvation, the true form of self is “sat, chit, anand” its nature is truth which is
unchangeable in all the course of time, which is consciousness and not jad and
anandghan. According to Shankar anand means a state of soul, where except anand

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no other state or feeling exists. Mandayk Upanishad says ^^czãosn czãSo Hkofr**A
Through knowledge of Brahman one becomes Brahman.

Radhakrishna commencing on the Mandukya Upanisad writes, “samkara observes

that the turiya or the fourth (intergral experience) is realized by merging the three
others (waking, dreaming and dreamless sleep) in it. The highest includes the rest,
while transcending them. The phrase used “prapancopasamam” means the sinking
of the world in Brahman, and not its denial. We posess faculties capable of
responding to orders of truth, the use of which would change the whole character of
our universe. When we attain to the state of turiya, we shall have reality from another
angle, lit by another light; only this angle and this light are absolute. 32

THE CONCEPT OF MOKSHA IN VISHISHTADVAIT:- Ramanuja insists

that the karmas should be performed in an absolutely disinterested manner simply to
please God. When the soul performs these actions, it will realize that only this
performance con not lead to liberation. Hence it will turn towards the study of the
Jnanakanda, the Vedanta, which teaches the nature of God, soul and matter. The
soul will now realize that matter and souls qualify god who is their inner ruler, that
they form the body of God who is the real soul. Ramanuja admits that knowledge is
the immediate cause of liberation, but this knowledge is real knowledge and not the
ordinary verbal knowledge. Otherwise all those who studied Vedanta would obtain
liberation. The real knowlege3e is identified by Ramanuja with the highest bhakti or
devotion which is obtained by prapatti or self surrender and by constant
remembrance of God as the only object of devotion (dhruva smrthi) which
remembrance is also called pure meditation (upasana) or dhyana or nididhyasana
(concentrated contemplation). It is very important to note that constant meditaion
itself is not the highest bhakti (which is the me thing as real jnana), but only a means
to realize it. Enjoined actions (karma) and ordinary knowledge (jnana) are means to
realize ordinary bhakti which may be indentified with prapatti or flinging oneself on
the absolute mercy of God and with constant remembrance and contemplation of
God called smrti, upsana or nidhyasana. This ordinary bhakti which means prapatti
and upasana is itself a means to realize the highest bhakti which is pure jnana or the
immediate intuitive knowledge of God which is the direct cause of liberation and
which dawns only by the grace (prasada) of God.

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Salvation, according to Ramanuja, is not the disappearance of the self, but its
release from the limiting barriers. For disappearance of the self will be the
destruction of the real self (satyAtmanasa) .

One substance cannot pass over into another substance. The released soul attains
the nature of God, though not identity with him. It is egoity that is opposed to
salvation, and not individuality. For Ramanuja there is no Jivanmukti. One attains to
fellowship with God after exhausting all karma and throwing off the physical body. In
the state of release the souls are all of the same type. In the released condition the
souls have all the perfections of the Supreme except in two pints. They are atomic in
size, while the supreme spirit is all pervading. Though of atomic size, the soul can
enter into several bodies and experience different worlds created by the Lord but it
has no power over the creative movements of the world, which belong exclusively to
Brahmann. The Vishishtadvaita philosophy distinguishes two classes of the
released: those who are intent on service to God on earth and so do it in heaven and
those (kaivalins) who are altogether isolated from the rest, since they achieved their
end by constant meditation on the real nature of their won soul. The picture of the
heaven where the redeemed souls dwell is not much deferent form the usual
description. It only differs in details of dress, custom and landscape from the
paradise of the popular imagination. In his theory of moksa, Ramanuja does not do
justice to the mystics, who thus hunger for becoming one with the supreme reality.

87
REFERENCES FOR THIS CHAPTER

1. Hiryanna, The essential of Indian philosophy, Page 50

2. Hiryanna, The essential of Indian philosophy, Page 25

3. Jadunath Sinha, History of the Indian philosophy, vol. 1, Page 38

4. Surendranath Dasgupta, A history of Indian philosophy, Volume-I Page 27

5. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, Vol.II, edited by

J. M. Baldwin, mackmilan & co., Page 230

6. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, Vol.II, edited by

J. M. Baldwin, mackmilan & co., Page 228)

7. Jadunath Sinha, History of the Indian philosophy, vol. 1, page 35

8. Shevatashvar Upanishad-6-15

9. Mundaka Upanishad 2.1

10. Mundaka Upanishad 3.2.8

11. Madhvacharya, Sarvadarshan Sangrih, Page-20

12. Madhvacharya, Sarvadarshan sangrih, Page-145

13. S. R. bhatt, History of science, philosophy and culture in

Indian civilization, volume vii, part- 3, Hinduism -1,Page 495

14. Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian philosophy, Volume-I, Page 207

15. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Volume-I, Page- 448

16. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Volume-I, Page- 449

17. Chandradhar Sharma, Bhartiya darshan, Alochan Aur Anushilan, Page 58

18. Vinay Patak i.23

19. S. R. bhatt, History of science, philosophy and culture in

Indian civilization volume vii, part- 3, Hinduism -1, Page 494

20. Madhavacharya, Sarvadarshan Sangrih, Page 627

21. Hiryanna, The essential of Indian philosophy, page 124

22. Jadunath Sinha, History of the Indian philosophy, vol. 1, Page 656

23. M.d. iv, i.64

24. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Volume-II, Page-151

25. Chandradhar Sharma, A critical survey of Indian Philosophy, Page-209

26. Hiryanna, The essential of Indian philosophy, Page 102 & 103.

27. Madhavacharya, Sarvadarshan Sangrih, Page- 419.

28. Hiryanna, The essential of Indian philosophy, Page-103.

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29. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Volume-II, Page 636

30. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Volume-II, Page 636

31. Hiryanna, The essential of Indian philosophy, Page 69

32. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Volume-II, Page-639

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