INTRODUCTION

Geology is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is
composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also include the
study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or the
Moon.

Slope failures are essentially natural hazards that occur in many areas over the world.
Popularly known as landslides, slope failures describe a wide variety of mechanisms that
cause the outward or downward movement of slope-forming materials like rock, soil or
landfills. Landslide can result either from rock failure or soil failure.

While in rock the failure plane is predetermined, in soil failure, the failure plane
occurs along the line of maximum stress. Apart from external triggers like heavy rains,
earthquakes, construction projects, there are also internal causes for slope failures. The rock
slope failure could arise from a single discontinuity, a pair of intersecting discontinuities or a
pattern of multiple discontinuities that form a failure mode. It also divided into a several parts
which are circular failure, plane failure, wedge failure and toppling failure.

Rock failure or known as rock fall is when a rock mass of any size is detached from a
steep slope or cliff where there is very little shear resistance. One detached, it descends
mostly by air and could cause significant damage. It could dislodge and collide with other
rocks in its trajectory, further initiating other falls and landslides. Rock falls are usually
initiated by a change in the forces acting on the rock. This is triggered by climatic or biologic
events such as rainfall. Rainwater infiltration causes an increase in the pore water pressure.
Heavy rains could also erode the surrounding materials, releasing constraining pressure on
the rock. Chemical degradation or weathering gives rise to the same effect.
METHODOLOGY

Plotting poles and contouring of structural geology data (Lab 4a)

Equipment and Materials:

 Equal-area for plotting poles and great circles

 Equal-area polar net
 Kalsbeek counting net
 Tracing paper
 Pencil

Procedure:

 Poles can be plotted on the polar stereonet on which the dip direction is indicated on
the periphery of the circle, and the dip is measured along radial lines with zero
degrees at the center.
 The procedure for plotting poles is to lay a sheet of tracing paper on the printed polar
net and mark the north direction and each quadrant position around the edge of the
outer circle. A mark is then made to show the pole that represents the orientation of
each discontinuity as defined by its dip and dip direction. Poles for shallow dipping
discontinuities lie close to the center of the circle, and poles of steeply dipping
discontinuities lie close to the periphery of the circle.
 Concentrations of poles orientations can be identified using Kalsbeek counting net.
The Kalsbeek net is made up of mutually overlapping hexagons, each with an area of
1/100 of the full area of the stereonet.
 Contouring is performed by overlaying the counting net on the pole and counting the
number of poles in each hexagon; this number is marked on the net. These numbers of
poles are converted into percentages dividing each by the total number of poles and
multiplying by 100. Once a percentage is written in each hexagon, contours can be
developed by interpolation.
Determine the discontinuities sets and modes of failures of structural geology data due to
slope (Lab 4b)

Equipment and Materials:

 Equal-area equatorial net

 Tracing paper

Procedure:

Plotting great circle:-

Great circles are plotted on the equatorial net, but they cannot be plotted directly on this net
because the true dip can only be scaled off the horizontal axis. The plotting procedure for
great circles consists of the following steps:

 Lay a piece of tracing paper on the net with a thumbtack through the center point so
that the tracing paper can be rotated on the net.
 Mark the north direction of the net on the tracing paper.
 Locate the dip direction of the plane on the scale around the circumference of the net
and mark this point on the tracing paper. Note that the dip direction scale on the
equatorial net for plotting great circles starts at the north point at the top of the circle
and increases in a clockwise direction.
 Rotate the tracing paper until the dip direction mark coincides with one of the
horizontal axes of the net, that is, the 90° or 180° points of the dip direction scale.
 Locate the arc on the net corresponding to the dip of the plane and trace this arc into
the paper. Note that a horizontal plane has a great circle at the circumference of the
net, and a vertical plane is represented by a straight line passing through the center of
the net.
 Rotate the tracing paper so that the two north points coincide and the great circle is
oriented correctly.

The slope data was given as 90° (dip direction) and 60° (dip angle), Rock friction angle =
30°
Plane and wedge factor of safety (Lab 4c)

Equipment and Materials:

 Equal-area equatorial net

 Tracing paper

Procedure:

 Determine the mode of failures

 Used appropriate formula of planar or wedge given in appendix A and B
 The other information/properties from the site study and laboratory works are given as
following:-
i. Rock unit weight, 𝛾𝑟 = 25 kN/m3
ii. Rock friction angle,𝜙 = 𝜙𝑎 = 𝜙𝑏 = 30°
iii. Water unit weight,𝛾𝑤 = 9.81 kN/m3
iv. Cohesion of discontinuities, Ca = Cb = 50 kPa
v. Height of slope = Height of wedge = Height of plane, H = 50 m
vi. Tension crack depth, Z = Tension crack height, Zw = 1 meter
vii. Upper slope data = 100° (dip direction) and 20° (dip angle)
viii. Inclined angle of anchor (Ω) = (Ψ𝑇 ) = 20°
ix. Bars for Y25 = 10 ton =100 kN

Joint set Dip direction Dip angle

J1 208 62
J2 93 48
J3 314 36
J4 265 50
J5 351 82
J6 170 82
Determine the discontinuities sets and modes of failures of structural geology data due to
slope (Lab 4b)

Mode of failure Joint set and data Criteria Stability

Planar 1. J 2 i. Dip direction 93°. Design slope  Unstable
90°.

(90° ± 20° = 110°, 70°)

– satisfied

ii. Slope angle > plane angle >

friction plane
(60° > 48° > 30°)
-satisfied
Wedge 2. J2 & J4 i. Slope angle > intersection of 2  Unstable
3. J2 & J5 plane angle > friction angle
4. J2 & J1  (60° > 59° > 30°)
 (60° > 46° > 30°)
 (60° > 38° > 30°)

Toppling 5. J4 i. (90° + 180° ± 10° = 280°, 260°)  Safe

265° between 280° and 260°
Satisfied

ii. (90° + 60° ± 30° = 0°, 60°)

50° between 0° and 60°
Satisfied

Calculation :

Planar factor of safety (Lab 4b)

𝐴 = (𝐻 − 𝑍). 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛽
= (50 − 1). 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (48°)
 = 49. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 48°
1
= 49 ( )
sin 48°
= 65.94

1 2
𝑍 2
𝑊 = 𝛾𝑟. 𝐻 [(1 − ( ) ) cot 𝛽 − cot 𝛼]
2 𝐻
1 2
1 2
= (25)(50) [(1 − ( ) ) cot 48° − cot 60°]
2 50
= 10084.18

1
𝑈 = 𝛾𝑊 . 𝑍𝑊 . (𝐻 − 𝑍). 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛽
2
1
= (9.81)(1)(50 − 1)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 48°
2
= 323.416

1
𝑉= 𝛾 .𝑍 2
2 𝑊 𝑊
1
= (9.81)(1)
2
= 4.905

𝑐𝐴 + (𝑊 cos 𝛽 − 𝑈 − 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 (Ω + 𝛽)) tan 𝜙

𝑭𝑶𝑺 =
𝑊 sin 𝛽 + 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠(Ω + 𝛽)
50(65.936) + (10084.18 cos 48° − 323.416 − 4.905 sin 48) tan 30°
=
10084.18 sin 48° + 4.905 cos 48°
= 0.934 < 1

Let FOS = 1.5

 𝑐𝐴 + (𝑊 cos 𝛽 − 𝑈 − 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 (Ω + 𝛽)) tan 𝜙
𝑭𝑶𝑺 =
𝑊 sin 𝛽 + 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠(Ω + 𝛽)
50(65.936) + (10084.18 cos 48° − 323.416 − 4.905 sin 48 + 𝑇 sin(68°)) tan 30°
1.5 =
10084.18 sin 48° + 4.905 cos 48° − 𝑇 cos(20° + 48°)
3296.8 + 3706.919 + 0.429𝑇
1.5 =
7497.288 − 0.374𝑇

11245.932 − 0.561𝑇 = 7003.719 + 0.429𝑇

4242.213 = 1.1T

T = 3866.3

3866.3
T=
1000

T = 3.866

Wedge factor of safety (Lab 4c)

I. Wedge failure J2 and J6

sin 𝜃24
𝑋=
sin 𝜃45 cos 𝜃2 . 𝑛𝑎

sin 42
𝑋=
sin 51 cos 22
= 0.929

sin 𝜃13
𝑌=
sin 𝜃35 cos 𝜃1 . 𝑛𝑏

sin 44
𝑌=
sin 41 cos 76
= 4.377
 cos 𝜓𝑎 − cos 𝜓𝑏 cos 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏
𝐴=
sin 𝜓5 . sin2 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

cos 82 − cos 48 cos 48

𝐴=
sin 59(sin 48)2

= −0.651

cos 𝜓𝑏 − cos 𝜓𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

𝐵=
sin 𝜓5 . sin2 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

cos 48 − cos 82 cos 48

𝐵=
sin 59 (sin 48)2

= 1.216

3 𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤
𝑭𝑶𝑺 = (𝐶𝑎 . 𝑋 + 𝐶𝑏 . 𝑌) + (𝐴 − . 𝑋) tan 𝜙𝑎 + (𝐵 − . 𝑌) tan 𝜙𝑏
𝛾𝐻1 2𝛾 2𝛾

3
𝑭𝑶𝑺 = (50(0.929) + 50(4.377))
25(50)
9.81 9.81
+ (−0.651 − (0.929) )tan 30 + (1.216 − ( 4.377)) tan 30
2(25) 2(25)

= 0.362 < 1 (𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒)

II. Wedge failure J2 and J5

sin 𝜃24
𝑋=
sin 𝜃45 cos 𝜃2 . 𝑛𝑎

sin 30
𝑋=
sin 52 cos 74
= 2.302

sin 𝜃13
𝑌=
sin 𝜃35 cos 𝜃1 . 𝑛𝑏
 sin 38
𝑌=
sin 26 cos 32
= 1.656

cos 𝜓𝑎 − cos 𝜓𝑏 cos 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

𝐴=
sin 𝜓5 . sin2 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

cos 82 − cos 48 cos 52

𝐴=
sin 46(sin 52)2

= −0.714

cos 𝜓𝑏 − cos 𝜓𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

𝐵=
sin 𝜓5 . sin2 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

cos 48 − cos 82 cos 52

𝐵=
sin 46 (sin 52)2

= 1.526

3 𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤
𝑭𝑶𝑺 = (𝐶𝑎 . 𝑋 + 𝐶𝑏 . 𝑌) + (𝐴 − . 𝑋) tan 𝜙𝑎 + (𝐵 − . 𝑌) tan 𝜙𝑏
𝛾𝐻1 2𝛾 2𝛾

3
𝑭𝑶𝑺 = (50(2.302) + 50(1.656))
25(50)
9.81 9.81
+ ((−0.714 − (2.302)) tan 30 + (1.526 − (1.656)) tan 30
2(25) 2(25)

= 0.496 < 1 (𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒)

III. Wedge failure J2 and J1

sin 𝜃24
𝑋=
sin 𝜃45 cos 𝜃2 . 𝑛𝑎

sin 60
𝑋=
sin 20 cos 28
 = 2.868

sin 𝜃13
𝑌=
sin 𝜃35 cos 𝜃1 . 𝑛𝑏

sin 31
𝑌=
sin 21 cos 83
= 11.793

cos 𝜓𝑎 − cos 𝜓𝑏 cos 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

𝐴=
sin 𝜓5 . sin2 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

cos 82 − cos 48 cos 41

𝐴=
sin 38(sin 41)2

= −1.182

cos 𝜓𝑏 − cos 𝜓𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

𝐵=
sin 𝜓5 . sin2 𝜃𝑛𝑎.𝑛𝑏

cos 48 − cos 82 cos 41

𝐵=
sin 38 (sin 41)2

= 1.822

3 𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤
𝑭𝑶𝑺 = (𝐶𝑎 . 𝑋 + 𝐶𝑏 . 𝑌) + (𝐴 − . 𝑋) tan 𝜙𝑎 + (𝐵 − . 𝑌) tan 𝜙𝑏
𝛾𝐻1 2𝛾 2𝛾

3
𝑭𝑶𝑺 = (50(2.868) + 50(11.793)
25(50)
9.81 9.81
+ ((−1.182 − (2.868)) tan 30 + (1.822 − (11.793)) tan 30
2(25) 2(25)

= 0.468 < 1 (𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒)

 QUESTION

Lab 4a

1) Give two methods to draw the structural geology data and discuss based on what
situation we choose that methods.
- Cross-section:
Geologic cross-section is an interpretation of a vertical section through the Earth’s
surfaces, most usefully a profile, for which evidence was acquire by geologic and
geophysical techniques or from a geologic map. Cross-sections sometimes are trial
sections, drawn to solve structural problems, or are drawn to supplement a fair copy
map or illustrate a report. They are also drawn to site boreholes in the searches in the
search. They are also drawn to site boreholes in the search for a lost aquifer or ore
body. The geological cross sections drawing are not a small or trivial undertaking and
methods for their generation have become sophisticated.

2) Explain the type of geological structure plotted in the stereonet with the aid of
diagram.
- A stereonet is a lower hemisphere graph on to which a variety of geological data can
be plotted. All stereonets will be plotted by hand using card stereonets and tracing
paper. This is best done learning to plot by hand. In the field, for those using
notebooks, it is useful to be able to draw a sketch stereonet to test a theory on the
geometry of a structure being mapped.

3) Explain the methodology to determine the discontinuities survey data.

- According to the geological structure that has been plotted in this experiment by the
stereonet, we can determine the earth terrain such as the hill, mountain and many
other earth surface that represent by the contour. There are several data that required
in this experiment such as the dip directions and dip angles in the geological map. It
can be plotted on polar stereonet which dip direction and dip degree is being used. In
this experiment, we have 120 data to be plotted. Using the tracing paper, we have
plotted 120 dotes on it which is requires focus on the plotting work or else the result
will be slightly unaccurate base on the data. After the data were plotted, there are
groups of plotted dotes then calculated. After that, another tracing paper was used to
plot the contour. By using this kind of plotting contour method, the slope stability and
 the failure of slope can be determined. The failure of slope is whether planar, wedge,
circular or toppling.

Lab 4b

1) Explain the mode of failure for rock slope for each type.
i) Planar failure
- A planar failure of rock slope occurs when a mass of rock in a slope slides down
along a restively planar failure surface. The failure surfaces are usually structural
discontinuities such as bedding planes, faults, joints or the interface between bedrock
and overlying layer of weathered rock.
 The dip direction of the planar discontinuity must be within 20 degree of the dip
direction of the slope face
 The dip planar discontinuity must be less than the dip of the slope face
 The dip of the planar discontinuity must be greater than the angle of friction of the
surface

ii) Wedge failure

- Wedge failure can occur in rock mass with two or more sets of discontinuities whose
lines of intersection are approximately perpendicular to the strike of the slope and dip
toward the plane of the slope. This mode of failure requires that the dip angle of at
least one joint surface and that the line of joint intersection intersects the plane of
slope
 The trend of the line of intersection must approximate the dip direction of the
slope face
 The plunge of the line of intersection must be less than the dip of the slope face.
The line of intersection under this condition is said to daylight on the slope
 The plunge of the line of intersection must be greater than the angle of friction of
the surface
 iii) Toppling failure
- Toppling failure occur when columns of rock, formed by steeply dipping
discontinuities in the rock rotates about an essentially fixed point at or near the base
of the slope followed by slippage between the layers. The center of gravity of the
column or slab must fall outside the dimension of its base in toppling failure. The
removal of overburden and the confining rock, as is the case in mining excavations,
can result in a partial relief of the constraining stresses within the rock structure,
resulting in a toppling failure. The type of failure depends on a categorised mode such
as flexural toppling, block toppling and block flexural toppling.

2) Identify which discontinuities sets that have some potential to fail and what are their
failure modes.
- Sets that have a same potential to fail is all set but different failure mode.

3) What are the others criteria that must be met in order to promote the slope failure?
- The criteria that must be met in order to promote the slope failure is gravity, water
and ground mineral. All of this factor were contribute to slope failure.

Lab 4c

1) For some cases, give the recommended value of safety factors for the rock slope in
civil engineering / construction industry with some justifications.
- Factor of Safety (FOS)
- FOS value is 1.3 to 1.5, however based on engineering judgement, value outside of
this range may be appropriate, depending on the circumstances. The minimum FOS to
be used in stability analysis for a specific rock slopes depends on factor such as:
 The level of investigation and data collection
 Cost of constructing the slope to be more stable.
 Whether the slope is temporary or permanent.
 Cost, risk to be travelling with public, consequences should the slope fail.
 The degree of uncertainty in the stability analysis inputs the most important
being the amount intact rock, rock mass strength, discontinuity spacing,
discontinuity shear strength and groundwater condition.
2) Describe and explain the rock slope stabilization methods.
a. excavation and filling technique
Include excavating of earth flow until successive result in a stable slope, removing and
replacing failed material with lighter more stable materials, or recompacted, excavating
the upload upper portions of a mass failure and filling to load the load the lower portions
of a mass failure.

b. drainage technique
Include effort to remove surface water, drainage of tension cracks, using rock fill
underlain by filter cloth to prevent upward migration of water into the road prism,
intersection of trench drain and so on.

c. restraining structure
Include retaining wall, piles, buttresses, counter weight fill, cribs, bin wall reinforced
earth, and pile stressed or post tensioned soil or rock anchors, organizations such as
highway departments and railroads have developed charts and table giving earth pressure
of the design of retaining wall that requires a minimum if computation. Nearly these
charts and table are based on Rankine formula.

d. miscellaneous techniques
Grouting can be used to reduce soil permeability. There by prevent the ingress of
groundwater into failure zone. Chemical stabilization, generally in the form of exchanged
method, is accomplished by high pressure injection of specification exchange solution
into failure zone or into closely spaced predrilled holes throughout the movement zone.
Suppression of natural electro osmosis can be used to reduce unfavorable ground water
pressure blasting to sometime to disrupt failure surface and to improve drainage.
 3) Explain the main differences about the assessment of the Rock Slope and Soil Slope.
- Finer details of landscape are usually determined by differential erosion for example
strata provide rocks layers dipping away radially from central high point, differential
erosion produces inward facing (O) outward-facing develops (D) and radial strike
valleys (SV)

i. Strength and Stress

- Ability to resist being moved by erosional processes, which normally operate in a
downslope direction. The forces exerted by erosional processes are a shear stress
directed downslope and causing a mass of rock soil to shear over the under-laying
material.

ii. Controls of Soil Characteristic

- The characteristic of soil depends on, porent materials, climate, vegetation, slope
 potent material influences
 the rate of soil development
 soil composition shales produce a lot of clay, sandstone produces sandy soil

DISCUSSION

Based on the result of plotting, we calculated the failure of planar at joint 2. By using
the given formula, we get the FOS of planar at J2 is 0.934 < 1. Which means the factor of
safety at J2 is not safe.

We also calculated the failure of wedges at every intersection of 2 planes. For J2 &
J6, we get the FOS is 0.362. Meanwhile, for J2 & J5, we get the FOS id 0.496. Besides, for
J2 & J1, we get the FOS is 0.468. All of the FOS for failure of wedges we get less than 1
which means all of them is not safe and the failure can happen at any time.
CONCLUSION

From this experiment, we learn how to plotting poles and contouring of structural
geology data and plotting by using dip direction and dip angle. It is because it can help to
identify of the rock that we survey on the site. After plotted the great circle, we can see the
major discontinuity such as fault, dip direction and angle of the cut face.

After doing some calculation based on the formula given, we realise the FOS is very
important to analyse the safety at certain places. It is because the value of FOS can show us
the safety for a certain joint. It also can show us which places are easily to fail when doing
some site work. When the FOS are less than 1, the failure easily to happen and the condition
are not safe but when the FOS are more than 1, the failure difficult to happen and the
condition are safe.