Principles and methods of

weed control

Surinder Singh Rana

Department of Agronomy,
CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur 176062, HP, India
Email: [email protected]
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.34267.12320
Understand

Weed control?

Weed eradication?

Weed management?

Kadam or Neolamarckia cadamba

 Weed control

— Weed control is the process of limiting weed

infestations so the crops could be grown
profitably and other activities of man
conducted efficiently
 Aim

— Manage the vegetation on land and water bodies in

such a way as will encourage the growth of plants
beneficial to humans and will suppress the
remaining unwanted plants
— Indiscriminate application of control measures
against plants is not the objective of weed control
 Control v/s eradication

— Weed eradication is the complete removal of all live

plant parts and seeds from an area
— It is an expansive adventure since it costs more than
that of the land
— Besides complete elimination of all vegetation is not
warranted as many of them are useful
— Eradication of some noxious weeds such as Cuscuta
and Lantana needed
— Eradication should start when the weeds are small
and limited in growth and spread
 Weed control v/s weed management

— Concept of weed management instead of control is

important
— Weed control aims at putting down the weeds
already present
— Weed management is a system approach whereby
whole land use planning is done in advance to
minimize the invasion of weeds in aggressive forms
and give crop plants a very strong competitive
advantage over the latter
— The systems approach is called integrated weed
management (IWM)
 Forces behind adoption of IWM

— Build up of previously minor species (perennials)

into dominant levels because of repeated use of the
same methods to control existing dominant species
(annuals)
— Increasing concern over pesticide effects on human
health and the environment and
— Development of resistant weeds
 IWM-definition

— Management system of weed populations aiming

to keep infestation levels below those causing
economic injury by combining any two or more of
preventive, cultural, chemical or biological
methods.
— The definition implies that IWM is largely a
decision making process involving 1) when to apply
control measures with use of critical thresholds
and 2) what combination will provide best control
at greatest profits
 Long-term objective of IWM

— To avoid or reduce any adverse

environmental impact of control methods
and
— Prevent build up of any one weed species
 Pre-requisite of a successful weed
management programme

— One must gain knowledge of the biology of weeds

under attack before choosing a system for their
control
— The nature of weed problems must be surveyed in
the target area
— Weed control measures must be planned for the
whole farm and not just against weeds in a field
— Weed control system must follow up programme of
weed prevention measures
Success of control effort – points to consider

— Habits of weed plants

— Life cycle of the weed
— Susceptibilities
— Dormancy period
— Resistance to adverse conditions without
losing viability
— Methods of reproduction
— Dispersal of seeds
 Propagation and dispersal of weeds

— Many weeds propagate by seed. Annuals are prolific seed

producers (a few to one lakh/plant). Perennials produce
less seeds.
— Dormancy under unfavourable conditions and remain
viable in soil for years. Weed seed bank ensure their
progeny year after year. Under stress conditions they
terminate their vegetative growth and ensure production
of at least a few seeds before withering away.
— Perennials propagate by rhizomes, root stocks, suckers,
offsets, tubers, bulbs, bulbils.
— Encroachment of new areas by wind dispersal.
— Dispersal is also by farm produce, silage, dung and FYM
with wind water, birds and man.
 Propagation and dispersal of weeds contd.

— Vegetative propagules are disbursed by improper tillage.

Man also spread certain weeds unknowingly eg. Water
hyacinth and lantana.
— Weeds are hardy and persistence.
— Weeds differ in soil and climatic requirements; every soil
is a seed bank.
— Most of the weed seeds are distributed in 30 cm soil. Of
these, only the ones present in the top 3-5 cm soil
germinate at a time, while the deeper ones continue to be
in a state of dormancy waiting for their turn to get into
the top soil layer.
— Weed seeds may germinate even after 100 years
(extended longivity)
 Propagation and dispersal of weeds contd.

— C4 physiology of weeds help them confer advantages

under field conditions (withstand high light intensity
and high temperature; free of photorespiration)
— Classified: annual, biennial or perennial; woody or
herbaceous; grasses, sedges or broadleaf (control
measures are different)
— Climate, soil moisture, soil type and agronomic
factors influence the growth of weeds (control
strategies should be taken into consideration)
 Crop-weed interference

— Weeds are better competitors with crops for light,

nutrients, moisture and space (process of the
survival of the fittest under vagaries of nature)
— Factors affecting weed-crop interference are
- period of crop-weed competition (early stage is
more critical)
- effect of weed and crop densities
- weed and crop species effects
- cropping practices effects and
- climate influences
 Crop-weed interference-important aspects

— Increasing weed density reduces crop yield (sigmoidal relationship)

— Crop density also affects crop-weed competition. Increasing crop
seed density in a community decreases weed growth (seeding
vigour, canopy development, allelopathic effects, rooting depth and
root volume etc).
— There are differences in both weeds and crops with regard to their
competitive abilities.
— Some crop varieties also have allelopathic effects
— Cropping practices such as time and method of seeding, fertilizer
application, irrigation etc have got influence on weed-crop
interference.
— Adverse weather conditions like drought, incessant rainfall and
extremes of rainfall put crops under stress without disturbing
weeds.
 Methods of weed control

— Preventive- prevent entry into an area

— Good crop husbandry- ecological methods. Give advantage
to the crop plants rather than weeds.
— Physical methods-conserves soil moisture and enhances
aeration in heavy soils.
— Biological methods- environmental friendly, slow and
climate dependent
— Chemical methods – not the substitutes but act as added
production tools in agriculture. Should be economical and
safe to man, animals and to rotation crops, free of
interaction with herbicides applied to soil during the
previous season and resistance to changes in weather
 Weed prevention

— Weed prevention comprises all measures which deny the

entry and establishment of weeds in an area
— All practices that help discourage the weeds from becoming a
problem over time form the subject of weed prevention
— Any physical or chemical method adopted with the main
objective of not allowing the weeds to set viable seeds is to be
considered as a part of weed prevention
— Weed prevention reduces the farmers efforts in controlling
weeds later by physical, chemical or other methods
— Weed prevention is essential against noxious weeds which
once allowed to establish, become extremely difficult to
control
 Important aspects of weed prevention

— Use of weed free crop seeds

— Avoid contamination of manure pits
— Keep non-cropped areas clean
— Prevent movement of weeds along with
other farm resources
— Legal measures
One year of seeding is seven years of weeding

— Nature has provided weeds with a number of

devices that help them to be disseminated
widely
— The troubles that weeds create in crops, soil
and water bodies are therefore, summed in
the adage ‘one year of seeding is seven
year of weeding’.
 Prevention is better than cure

— To avoid a situation of one year of seeding is

seven years of weeding, a wise step is to
follow the principle of ‘Prevention is
better than cure’.
— Keeping in view the economic and practical
feasibility, the preventive weed management
measures should be followed to check their
menace
 Use Weed Free Crop Seeds

— Avena fatua and Brassica in

small grains
— Cuscuta in lucerne
— Chichory in berseem
— Other weed seeds in grasses
Weed species designated as objectionable according to
seed act 1966

Crop Weed Permissible seed admixture limits

Objectionable Total weed
Paddy Wild rice or red rice 0.01% 0.1
Wheat Bindweed (Convolvulus) 0.01% 0.1%
Rape and Mustard Mexican poppy 0.1% 0.5%
(Argimone)
Egyptian clover Chicory 0.05% 0.5%
Lucerne Dodder 0.5% 0.5%
Methi Senji (Melilotus) 0.1% 0.2%
Lettuce Wild lettuce 0.1% 0.2%
Cucurbit Wild Cucurbit 0.0 0.0
Okra Wild Okra 0.0 0.0
Rice and wild rice
Wheat and Convolvulus arvensis
Brassica and Argimone maxicana
Berseem and Cichorium intybus
Lucerne and Dodder
 Weed Free Crop Seeds Can Be
Achieved By
— Production of weed free crop
seeds at Government farms or at
farmers field itself with frequent
inspection
— Cleaning the crop seeds before
storage as well as at sowing time,
using seed cleaning devices
— Use farm machinery free from
weed seeds
 Mimicry

— The resemblance of one organism to another or to

an object in its surroundings for concealment or
protection from predators
— Crop mimicry is defined as the phenomenon
whereby weeds develop morphological and or
biochemical close resemblance to the life history of
crop as to be mistaken for the crop and thus evade
eradication
 Types of crop mimicry

Vegetative: a situation where close similarity

in appearance occurs between weeds and
crops at seedling and vegetative stages e.g.
1. wild rice (Oryza longistaminata) in
cultivated rice;
2. wild sorghum (Sorghum halepense) in
cultivated sorghum;
3. wild sugarcane (Saccharum spontaneous )
in sugarcane
Sorghum halepense

— Growth trial of Sorghum

species at seedling stage.
Note the broader leaf (far
left) of the Eu-sorghum, S.
propinquum compared
with the Para-Sorghum,
Stiposorghum and
Heterosorghum species.
Saccharum spontaneum
 Types of mimicry (contd.)

Seed mimicry is a situation whereby the

similarities between weeds and crops is
observed in seed weight, size and appearance
e.g.
similarity in seeds of upland rice and those of
itch grass (Rottboellia cochinchinensis)
Rottboellia cochinchinensis
 Types of mimicry (contd.)

— Biochemical mimicry: this is a situation in

which a weed develops resistance to a
herbicide that has been used
Contamination of Manure Pits
— FYM serves as notorious source
— Composting temperature of 65-
95ºC maintained for 4-5 months to
devitablize weed seeds
— Vermicompost may also be a
potential source/medium of weed
seed dispersal
Weeds infesting FYM
Vermiweeds
 Movement of Weeds with other farm
resources
— Livestock
— Farm machinery
— Nursery stock (Echinochloa Sp.
& Oryza sativa var. fatua)
— Gravel, sand, Soil
Xanthium sp
Bidens pilosa

Spiny pigweed
Achyranthes aspera L
 Keep Non Crop Areas
Clean
— Irrigation & drainage ditches
— Fence lines
— Farm boundaries
— Terrace risers and Bunds
— Non-cropped area
— Paths, roads and railway lines
 Keep Vigilance

Parthenium hysterophorus - Non

crop areas
Phalaris minor, Poa annua,
Polygonum sp. - Wheat
Water hyacinth - Aquatic weed
Alternanthera – moist places
Alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides)
 Legal Measures

— Check inter-state and inter-country

movement of noxious weeds
— Very recently the Indian Plant
Quarantine Authorities made it
compulsory to declare plants before
entry
Fire weed (wind dissemination)
 SCHEDULE-VIII [See Clause 3 (12) and 8 (1)]
List of Quarantine Weed Species

1. Abutilon theophrasti
10, Apera-spica-venti
2. Agrostemma githago
11. Arceuthobiumoxycedri
3. Alectra sp.
12. Avena sterilis
4. Allium vineale
13. Baccharis halimifolia
5 Ambrosia artemisiifolia
14. Bromus diandrus
6. Ambrosia maritima
15. Bromus rigidus
7. Ambrosia psilostachya
16. Bromus secalinus
8. Ambrosia trifida
17. Cardus pycnocephalus
9. Ammi visnaga
 Quarantine Weed Species (Contd.)

18. Cenchrus tribuloides 29. Cynoglossum officinale

19.Centaurea diffusa 30. Desmodium tortuosum
20. C. maculosa 31. Echinochloa crus-
21. C. melitensis pavonis
22. C. solstitialis 32. Echium plantagineum
23. Chondrilla juncea 33. Emex australis
24. Cichorium endivia 34. Emex spinosa
25. C. pumilum 35. Froelichia floridana
26. C. spinosum 36. Helianthus californicus
27. Cordia curassavica 37. H. ciliaris
28. Cuscuta australis 38. H. petiolaris
 Quarantine Weed Species (Contd.)
39. H. scaberrimus 51. Raphanus raphanistrum
40. Heliotropium 52. Rumex crispus
amplexicaule 53. Salsola vermiculata
41. Ipomoea coccinea 54. Senecio jacobaea
42. Leersia japonica 55. Solanum carolinense
43. Lolium rigidum 56. Striga hermonthica
44. Matricaria perforatum 57. Thesium australe
45. Mimosa pigra 58. T.humiale
46. Orobanche cumana 59. Vicia villosa
47. Phalaris paradoxa 60. Viola arvensis
48. Polygonum cuspidatum 61. Xanthium spinosum
49. P. perfoliatum
50. Proboscidea lovisianica
 3. Permits for Import of plants, plant
products etc.
(12) No consignment of seed or grain shall be permitted to be
imported with contamination of quarantine weeds, which are
listed in Schedule-VIII unless the said consignment has been
devitalized by the exporting country and a certificate to that
effect has been endorsed in the phytosanitary certificate issued
by the exporting country. Every application for quarantine
inspection and clearance shall be made in Form PQ 15.

8. Permit required for import of plants and plant products –

(1) No consignment of plants and plant products, if found infested or
infected with a quarantine pest or contaminated with noxious weed
species shall be permitted to be imported.
 Good crop husbandry methods

— Crop competition
— Proper crop stand
— Selective crop stimulation
— Proper sowing time and method
— Companion cropping and crop rotation
— Fertility manipulation
— Stale seed bed
— Smother cropping
— Summer fallowing
— Minimum tillage
— Flooding and drainage
 Physical methods

— Deep tillage- effective in controlling shallow

rooted perennial weeds
— Soil solarization
— Microwave irradiation
— Flame weeding
— Mowing and cutting
— Mulching
 Biological

— Insects, pathogens and fish

— Bio-herbicides - fungal preparations called
myco-herbicides are used. They control only
the weeds existing
— Noxious weeds like water hyacinth, alligator
weed, Salvinia are controlled by classical
approach
 Herbicides

— Narrow spectrum and broad spectrum

— Soil acting and foliage acting
— Contact and translocated
— Residual or non-residual
— Soil sterilants and fumigants

Their use depends upon the type of weed flora and

the requirements of weed control
Herbicides – narrow and broad spectrum

— Narrow spectrum herbicides are to be used when

the target weed is a big problem in a crop. Phalaris
minor and Avena fatua are controlled by
metoxuron and diclofop.

— Broad spectrum herbicides are used when there is

a mixed weed flora.
 Soil and foliage active herbicides

— Soil active herbicides are applied to make the fields

weed free for initial 4-8 weeks. These herbicides
inhibit germination of seeds, rhizomes, stolons and
tubers e.g. alachlor, butachlor
— A foliage acting herbicide is applied to the weeds
after their germination e.g. Paraquat, diquat,
amitrole, MCPB. These are absorbed by foliage and
are translocated to the other plant parts.
 Contact and translocated herbicides

— Contact herbicides kill the plants by contact. Hence

complete wetting of weeds is needed e.g. paraquat,
propanil and diquat.
— Translocated herbicides kill plants when a portion is
wetted. Hence, when perennial weeds are problems
they are to be used e.g. glyphosate. Some herbicides
like atrazine exhibit both contact and translocation
action.
 Soil sterilants

— Temporary soil sterilants (soil fumigants) are active

upto 16 weeks. These are used for treatment of
seedbeds and pot soil e.g. MB, metham and diazanet.
— Permanent soil sterilants are used in bacground in
industrial and other non-crop areas e.g. Sodium
chlorate, substituted ureas, symmetrical triazines,
arsenicals and borates.
 Pre and post emergent herbicides

— Pre-emergence herbicides are applied before the

emergence of weeds. For effective working of these
herbicides fine trash free soil tilth is the prerequisite. The
soil should be adequately moist to induce weed seed
germination and move the herbicide 1-1.5 cm deep into
the soil in a uniform film. The land should be levelled
and without any undulation.
— Post-emergence herbicides are to be applied after
emergence of weed seedlings. They work effectively when
there is uniform germination of weed seedlings in the
soil. These herbicides are mostly non-residual e.g.
paraquat and diquat.
 Selectivity

— Herbicide selectivity is due to morphological

features of plants such as waxy and narrow leaves
which tend to repel aqueous spray liquids, depth
protection in case of pre-emergence herbicides,
innate physiological tolerance of plants to
herbicides, rapid rate of metabolism and
conjugation with the plants etc.
 Formulations

— Granular formulations of herbicides are beneficial

and preferred in crop like transplanted rice. They are
safe to the crop because of their freedom from drift
hazards and are non-selective to the standing crop
than sprays since the granules bounce off the foliage.
But granular herbicides require more moisture than
spray liquids for activation. Only soil acting
herbicides are used as granular formulations.
 Rotational use

— Repeated use of the same herbicide in the same field

is beset with problems of development of resistant
weed species and races. The use of two or more
herbicides in the form of either a rotation or a
combination can obviate such chemoshifts in weed
flora to a great extent.
 References

Rana SS and MC Rana. 2016. Principles and Practices of Weed

Management. Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, CSK
Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, 138 pages. (DOI:
10.13140/RG.2.2.33785.47207)
Rana SS and MC Rana. 2015. Advances in Weed Management. Department
of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, 183 pages (DOI:
10.13140/RG.2.2.26235.72487)
Rao VS. 2000. Principles of Weed Science. Oxford & IBH.
Zimdahl Robert L. 2007. Fundamentals of Weed Science, Academic Press
(an imprint of Elsevier)
Chandrasekaran B., Annadural K. and Somasundaram E. 2010. A Textbook of
Agronomy, New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi.
Walia US. 2003. Weed Management. Kalyani Publishers, 396p.
Zimdahl Robert L. 2004. Weed-Crop Competition, Blackwell Publishing
Khan M. J., G. Brodie, D. Gupta. 2017. THE EFFECT OF MICROWAVE
SOIL TREATMENT ON RICE PRODUCTION UNDER FIELD
CONDITIONS. Article in Transactions of the ASABE (American Society
of Agricultural and Biological Engineers) · May 2017. Vol. 60(2): 517-
525 (DOI 10.13031/trans.12125).
Khan M. J., G. Brodie, D. Gupta. (2016) Effect of microwave (2.45 GHz)
treatment of soil on yield components of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.),
Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy, 50:3, 191-
200, DOI: 10.1080/08327823.2016.1228441