High Impedance Busbar Protection

Principles and Calculations

The previous article left off with a single line drawing of our busbar protection.

The equivalent circuit of this busbar protection scheme would look like the
following:
That is far too complicated for our purposes. We can combine 52-2 CT, 52-3 CT,
and 52-4 into one CT to simplify the circuit to look like the following:

But we’re going to apply an external fault through two feeders to make it easier
to understand.
Any current flowing through the 52-1 CT (52-1CT IP1) is shown on the left hand
side of our two-feeder equivalent circuit below. The primary current creates a
magnetic field (Ie1, Ze1) that usually uses a small amount of current to inject the
secondary current (IS1) into the CT secondary circuit.

The secondary winding is made from a conductor that has resistance and is
coiled around a core to create inductance. That impedance is shown on the
drawing as ZCT1. The external conductors connecting the CT to the rest of the
circuit also have an impedance that is represented by ZL1.

Our high impedance busbar protective equipment has a 2000Ω impedance

represented by the Rs, 87, 87Z, and MOV (Metal Oxide Varistor) in the middle of
the circuit.

The 52-2 CT has the same characteristics as the 52-1 CT, which is represented
on the right-hand side of the equivalent circuit. The CTs are connected in parallel
with all polarity marks connected to the same point so that external faults
theoretically cancel each other out, and internal faults combine to create larger
currents during a fault for shorter trip times.

What Happens Inside a High Impedance

Busbar Protection Scheme During an
External Fault When One CT Saturates?
 This scenario is THE reason why busbar protection can’t use simple
instantaneous overcurrent elements (50). We have the same fault current as the
ideal example in the previous single line drawing, but the 52-2 CT has saturated.
The CT could have saturated because of:

 The DC Offset that commonly occurs during faults (You can get more info in
the What is DC Offset? Ask Chris post)
 Residual magnetism in the CT (Remanence) from previous faults or improper
testing

 Too much burden on the CT secondaries

A normal CT has a CT ratio (1200:5 in our example), which defines the turns-ratio
(240:1 in our example). 83.33 should be exported When 20,000A flows through
the 240 turns in a properly functioning CT, but:

 A normally insignificant amount of excitation current (0.035A) is used to create a

magnetic field inside the CT to maintain the current transformation, which means

 83.295A is injected out of the CT secondary terminals. (The actual CT ratio may
be slightly higher than the reported 240:1 to compensate for the excitation current
losses.)
When a CT saturates, the magnetic field requires more current than normal to
maintain the current transformation, which means that there is less current
injected into the CT secondary circuit. We’re showing the worst case scenario in
our example where ALL of the primary current is used in the magnetic field, and
zero amps is injected into the CT secondaries.

One hundred percent CT saturation is rare because the waveform becomes

distorted when a CT saturates (as shown below), and most CTs will have varying
degrees of saturation throughout a cycle, which makes the math in our equivalent
circuit extremely difficult. Therefore, most high impedance busbar differential
protection calculations use extremes to make the math easier.

High Impedance Busbar Differential

Protection Maximum Voltage Calculation
The high impedance differential busbar protection has an impedance of 2000Ω.
That means that the current will want to flow around the outside of the equivalent
circuit because the outside circuit has a lower impedance path during external
faults. When 52-2 CT fully saturates, its magnetic field impedance is effectively
0.00Ω. Let’s see what that does to our equivalent circuit.
We can combine the ZCT1 and ZL1 impedance to get Z1 = 0.5Ω (0.387Ω +
0.113Ω). Then we can simplify the ZL2, ZCT2, and Ze2 impedances to get Z2 =
0.5Ω (0.387Ω + 0.113Ω + 0.00Ω).

We can combine the Z2 and Z87 impedances to get 0.5Ω (2000Ω*0.5Ω /

(2000Ω+0.5Ω)).
The equivalent circuit impedance for the 52-1 CT is 1.0Ω when 52-2 CT is
saturating. Using Ohm’s Law, the voltage across 52-1 CT’s magnetic field with
83.33A of fault current is 83.33V.

Anyone designing or creating settings for a high impedance busbar differential

protection scheme should calculate the maximum voltage that will be applied
during an external fault with a 100% saturated CT as we just did in our example.
We will use this maximum voltage to make sure that the CTs are sized
appropriately for the application. Our CTs must operate normally with a
secondary voltage of 83.33V.

High Impedance Busbar Differential

Protection Minimum Allowable CT Saturation
Voltage Calculation
High impedance busbar differential protection will not work properly if the CTs are
not sized correctly for the connected circuit. We calculated that the voltage across
the non-saturated CT, when another CT saturates, is 83.33V. Any CT with a
saturation voltage greater than 83.33V should work correctly in our example.
However, electrical engineers should always err on the side of caution when
designing protection schemes; so we usually double the high impedance busbar
differential protection maximum voltage calculation to determine the minimum CT
saturation voltage to make sure that the CTs are adequately sized for the
application. Our CTs should operate normally when 166.66V (2 * 83.33V)
appears across the secondary terminals to be safe.

CT Ratings
 A protection class CT is usually defined by its ratio, accuracy, construction, and
burden. We’ve already discussed the CT ratio (1200:5 in our example). If you
look back to the single line drawing, you’ll see that there was another designation
beside the CTs (C200).

This designation defines:

 The accuracy class in percent (10% if no number appears in front of the letter)

 How the CT was constructed using a letter (C = Minimum leakage flux and CT
performance can be calculated)

 The burden and saturation voltage in volts (200)

How can a voltage define the burden, you might ask? All standard protection
class CT ratings are valid between 1 to 20x nominal current. If our CT’s have 5A
nominal secondary currents, they are allowed to be +/-10% accurate between 5
and 100A secondary. If the maximum burden is 200V, we can apply Ohm’s Law
to determine that the maximum impedance connected to the CT secondaries is
2.0Ω (200V / 100A). That’s the standard calculation that ALL CT testers should
know and apply when they are performing their CT tests. Did you?
 All protection class CTs also have a saturation curve like the graph below. The
200 in our rating means that if the voltage across the CT’s magnetic field is
greater than 200V, the CT is no longer guaranteed to operate within its 10% error.
200V is greater than 166.66V (our minimum allowable CT saturation voltage), so
the CTs in our example are appropriate for our application.

Determine CT Excitation Current

We can use the CT saturation curve to see how much excitation current will be
used to maintain the current transformation at 83.33V with these steps:

 Start by drawing a horizontal line from 83.33V until you reach the 1200:5 curve.

 Then draw a vertical line to the secondary excitation current x-axis.

 Determine the excitation current using the log scale on the x-axis (0.035A).

It is important to remember that this curve is a generic one, which gives an

approximation of what the CT characteristic should be, and not what it actually is.
Our class C CTs have a +/- 10% accuracy rating and when we get numbers from
this curve, there may be significant differences between the information we
calculate or obtain from the graph compared to actual CT operation. We would
have to isolate every CT in the circuit and measure their performance to get exact
performance numbers; or the design engineer could order a special class X CT
where the performance characteristics are built and measured to ensure they
meet exacting specifications.

Rodney Hughes (www.rodhughesconsulting.com) stresses that every high

impedance busbar differential scheme should use class X CTs with exacting
specifications to make sure we don’t get false trips due to CT mismatch. If you
use class X CTs, you don’t have to worry that your CTs from the 1980s might not
have the same operating characteristics as the new feeder CTs added to the
scheme in the 2010s; they should have almost identical operating characteristics.
The same CANNOT be said for standard class C CTs.
We don’t have the luxury of class X CTs in our example, so we’re going to use
the excitation current (0.035A) we measured from the graph for all future
calculations. The excitation voltage across the CTs will be less under normal
conditions, but we don’t want to constantly go back and forth to this chart for every
scenario. The chart states that the excitation current won’t exceed 25%; so let’s
use 0.035A (our number from the graph) for CT1 and 0.044A (0.035 * 1.25) for
CT2.

What Happens Inside a High Impedance

Busbar Protection Scheme During an
External Fault Without CT Saturation?
The following single line shows an external fault with CTs that are functioning as
per the excitation graph.
We have 20,000A flowing into the primaries of the CTs in the opposite direction.
A perfect CT would send 83.33A into the secondary circuit, but the CTs’ magnetic
field requires some current to make the current transformation (0.035A and
0.044A); so the actual CT output is 83.295A for 52-1 CT, and 83.286A for 52-2
CT. (The CT would normally have some hidden turns added to compensate for
the excitation current.) The difference in CT secondaries creates a differential
current of 0.009A that flows through the high impedance busbar differential
circuit. We can apply Ohm’s Law to calculate 18.00V across the 87Z high
impedance busbar protection circuit. This means that the 87Z pickup setting must
be greater than 18.00V to prevent mis-operations during external faults. (The
differential current would likely be higher in the real world due to CT mismatch.)
What should the high impedance busbar differential voltage setting be?

High Impedance Busbar Differential

Protection Minimum Pickup Setting
Calculation
The high impedance busbar differential protection scheme’s minimum pickup
setting is calculated using our first scenario with the saturated CT.
We can re-organize and simplify the equivalent circuit to:

How much voltage is across the 87Z element in this scenario?

The 87Z element is in parallel with Z2. The 87Z circuit has a much higher
impedance compared to the Z2 impedance, which makes the equivalent
impedance almost 0.5Ω. We can use Ohm’s Law to calculate that there will be
41.65V (83.295A * 0.5Ω) across Z2 and 87Z during this scenario. Remember, we
DO NOT want the relay to trip for external faults; so the setting should be higher
than 41.65V.

Let’s imagine that we set the relay to 50V. We can calculate how much differential
current will cause the relay to trip under normal conditions using Ohm’s Law. The
87Z is 2000Ω in our example with a 50V setting. That means that 0.025A (50V /
2000Ω) of differential current will cause the relay to trip. This setting might be OK
with class X CTs with specific operating characteristics, but we will probably get
a false trip with normal class C CTs, especially if we have different vintages of
CTs in our high impedance busbar differential circuit.

Most design engineers add a safety factor starting at 1.5x the minimum setting to
account for potential increases in fault current. We will increase the setting by a
factor of two and then round up to 100V. This means that the differential current
caused by CT mismatch (0.05A or 100V/2000Ω) must be twice our previous
setting, or higher, to cause a mis-operation during normal conditions or through-
faults.

What Happens Inside a High Impedance

Busbar Protection Scheme During an
Internal Fault With One Source?
Here is a single line displaying what happens during an internal fault.

We have 20,000A flowing into the 52-1 CT which should equal 83.333A flowing
out of its secondary terminals. However, the CT needs excitation current to create
secondary current. If we use our previously calculated 0.035A for this scenario
(that amount would not technically apply here, but we need to pick something and
I don’t want to do more math for such a small amount of current), 83.295A should
flow out of the CT secondaries.
Since the 52-2 CT has zero amps flowing in the primary windings, zero amps
should flow out of the secondaries. Without a magnetic field however, the 52-2
CT’s secondary winding is just a bunch of coiled wire with a low impedance. The
52-1 CT secondary current will want to flow through the low impedance in the 52-
2 CT secondaries, but once a small amount of current (0.044A from our previous
example) starts flowing in the secondary circuit, a magnetic field will be created
and the CT will try to maintain its turns-ratio. Zero amps of the primary should
equal zero amps on the secondary minus the excitation current. Once the
magnetic field is built, the 52-2 CT secondaries will become an open circuit (like
it does when you perform your saturation and ratio tests) and the remaining
current will flow through the 87Z circuit because it will now have a lower
impedance.

Using Ohm’s Law, 83.251A through 2000Ω should create 166,502V. The MOV
will protect the secondary circuits from damage by limiting the possible voltage to
a number much smaller than 166,502V, but the secondary voltage could rise to
the system voltage without the MOV. Either way, it is extremely unlikely that the
voltage will reach those heights because the CT should start saturating at 200V.
The CT is guaranteed to saturate during an internal fault and will produce a
waveform that looks like this:
Our relay better be able to operate when this waveform appears; so it is often
beneficial to use a single-purpose relay for a high impedance busbar differential
relay scheme to minimize the trip time. Some digital relays need extra time to
measure, apply filters, and analyze the waveform before they can operate, which
may mean that the fault may stay on the system longer than necessary. The
longer a fault stays on the system, the greater potential for system de-
stabilization, which could cause a larger system outage than necessary.

The voltage during an internal fault should always be larger than our setting and
the relay should trip in the shortest time possible.

What Happens Inside a High Impedance

Busbar Protection Scheme During an
Internal Fault With Multiple Sources?
Most distribution busses have multiple sources and we should look at this
scenario to see what happens:
The CT secondary currents are headed in the same direction in this scenario and
will combine at the 87Z circuit to theoretically produce 333,162V (166.581A *
2000Ω). Both CTs will drive the highest voltage they can while in parallel, which
will trip the relay.

Conclusion
The dirty little secret about all forms of differential protection is that we know the
relay will trip for all internal faults. When we’re designing and testing differential
schemes, we’re primarily concerned with making sure the relay will NOT trip
during external faults. Did you notice that all of the important calculations above
occurred during external fault scenarios? Have you noticed that most differential
tests try to find the point where the relay will operate during an external fault
(currents 180° apart), instead of applying single source or multiple source fault in
the same direction?

High impedance differential schemes can filter out non-sinusoidal differential

current that occurs when CTs saturate during external faults, but they cannot filter
out true error caused by CT mismatch. Therefore, it is important that you use
class X CTs when you are designing high impedance differential schemes, and
that you are aware that CT mismatch can cause mis-operations when using
standard protection class CTs.

I hope this article helped you better understand high impedance differential
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