SDLC MODEL

The Waterfall Model was the first Process Model to be introduced. It is also referred to as a linear-
sequential life cycle model. It is very simple to understand and use. In a waterfall model, each phase must
be completed before the next phase can begin and there is no overlapping in the phases.
The Waterfall model is the earliest SDLC approach that was used for software development.
The waterfall Model illustrates the software development process in a linear sequential flow. This means
that any phase in the development process begins only if the previous phase is complete. In this waterfall
model, the phases do not overlap.

Waterfall Model - Design

Waterfall approach was first SDLC Model to be used widely in Software Engineering to ensure success
of the project. In "The Waterfall" approach, the whole process of software development is divided into
separate phases. In this Waterfall model, typically, the outcome of one phase acts as the input for the next
phase sequentially.
The following illustration is a representation of the different phases of the Waterfall Model.

The sequential phases in Waterfall model are −

 Requirement Gathering and analysis − All possible requirements of the system to be developed
are captured in this phase and documented in a requirement specification document.
 System Design − The requirement specifications from first phase are studied in this phase and the
system design is prepared. This system design helps in specifying hardware and system
requirements and helps in defining the overall system architecture.
  Implementation − With inputs from the system design, the system is first developed in small
programs called units, which are integrated in the next phase. Each unit is developed and tested
for its functionality, which is referred to as Unit Testing.
 Integration and Testing − All the units developed in the implementation phase are integrated into
a system after testing of each unit. Post integration the entire system is tested for any faults and
failures.
 Deployment of system − Once the functional and non-functional testing is done; the product is
deployed in the customer environment or released into the market.
 Maintenance − There are some issues which come up in the client environment. To fix those
issues, patches are released. Also to enhance the product some better versions are released.
Maintenance is done to deliver these changes in the customer environment.
All these phases are cascaded to each other in which progress is seen as flowing steadily downwards (like
a waterfall) through the phases. The next phase is started only after the defined set of goals are achieved
for previous phase and it is signed off, so the name "Waterfall Model". In this model, phases do not overlap.

Waterfall Model - Application

Every software developed is different and requires a suitable SDLC approach to be followed based on the
internal and external factors. Some situations where the use of Waterfall model is most appropriate are −
 Requirements are very well documented, clear and fixed.
 Product definition is stable.
 Technology is understood and is not dynamic.
 There are no ambiguous requirements.
 Ample resources with required expertise are available to support the product.
 The project is short.

Waterfall Model - Advantages

The advantages of waterfall development are that it allows for departmentalization and control. A schedule
can be set with deadlines for each stage of development and a product can proceed through the
development process model phases one by one.
Development moves from concept, through design, implementation, testing, installation, troubleshooting,
and ends up at operation and maintenance. Each phase of development proceeds in strict order.
Some of the major advantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
 Simple and easy to understand and use
 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific deliverables and a review
process.
 Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.
 Clearly defined stages.
 Well understood milestones.
  Easy to arrange tasks.
 Process and results are well documented.

Waterfall Model - Disadvantages

The disadvantage of waterfall development is that it does not allow much reflection or revision. Once an
application is in the testing stage, it is very difficult to go back and change something that was not well-
documented or thought upon in the concept stage.
The major disadvantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
 No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.
 High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of changing. So,
risk and uncertainty is high with this process model.
 It is difficult to measure progress within stages.
 Cannot accommodate changing requirements.
 Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a project.
 Integration is done as a "big-bang. at the very end, which doesn't allow identifying any
technological or business bottleneck or challenges early.

Iterative Model
In the Iterative model, iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a small set of the software
requirements and iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the complete system is implemented and
ready to be deployed.
An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full specification of requirements. Instead,
development begins by specifying and implementing just part of the software, which is then reviewed to
identify further requirements. This process is then repeated, producing a new version of the software at
the end of each iteration of the model.

Iterative Model - Design

Iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a subset of the software requirements and
iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the full system is implemented. At each iteration, design
modifications are made and new functional capabilities are added. The basic idea behind this method is to
develop a system through repeated cycles (iterative) and in smaller portions at a time (incremental).
The following illustration is a representation of the Iterative and Incremental model −
Iterative and Incremental development is a combination of both iterative design or iterative method and
incremental build model for development. "During software development, more than one iteration of the
software development cycle may be in progress at the same time." This process may be described as an
"evolutionary acquisition" or "incremental build" approach."
In this incremental model, the whole requirement is divided into various builds. During each iteration, the
development module goes through the requirements, design, implementation and testing phases. Each
subsequent release of the module adds function to the previous release. The process continues till the
complete system is ready as per the requirement.
The key to a successful use of an iterative software development lifecycle is rigorous validation of
requirements, and verification & testing of each version of the software against those requirements within
each cycle of the model. As the software evolves through successive cycles, tests must be repeated and
extended to verify each version of the software.

Iterative Model - Application

Like other SDLC models, Iterative and incremental development has some specific applications in the
software industry. This model is most often used in the following scenarios −
 Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood.
 Major requirements must be defined; however, some functionalities or requested enhancements
may evolve with time.
 There is a time to the market constraint.
 A new technology is being used and is being learnt by the development team while working on the
project.
 Resources with needed skill sets are not available and are planned to be used on contract basis for
specific iterations.
 There are some high-risk features and goals which may change in the future.

Iterative Model - Pros and Cons

The advantage of this model is that there is a working model of the system at a very early stage of
development, which makes it easier to find functional or design flaws. Finding issues at an early stage of
development enables to take corrective measures in a limited budget.
The disadvantage with this SDLC model is that it is applicable only to large and bulky software
development projects. This is because it is hard to break a small software system into further small
serviceable increments/modules.
The advantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as follows −
 Some working functionality can be developed quickly and early in the life cycle.
 Results are obtained early and periodically.
 Parallel development can be planned.
 Progress can be measured.
 Less costly to change the scope/requirements.
 Testing and debugging during smaller iteration is easy.
 Risks are identified and resolved during iteration; and each iteration is an easily managed
milestone.
 Easier to manage risk - High risk part is done first.
 With every increment, operational product is delivered.
 Issues, challenges and risks identified from each increment can be utilized/applied to the next
increment.
 Risk analysis is better.
 It supports changing requirements.
 Initial Operating time is less.
 Better suited for large and mission-critical projects.
 During the life cycle, software is produced early which facilitates customer evaluation and
feedback.
The disadvantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as follows −
 More resources may be required.
 Although cost of change is lesser, but it is not very suitable for changing requirements.
 More management attention is required.
 System architecture or design issues may arise because not all requirements are gathered in the
beginning of the entire life cycle.
 Defining increments may require definition of the complete system.
 Not suitable for smaller projects.
 Management complexity is more.
 End of project may not be known which is a risk.
 Highly skilled resources are required for risk analysis.
 Projects progress is highly dependent upon the risk analysis phase.
SPIRAL MODEL
The spiral model combines the idea of iterative development with the systematic, controlled aspects of
the waterfall model. This Spiral model is a combination of iterative development process model and
sequential linear development model i.e. the waterfall model with a very high emphasis on risk analysis.
It allows incremental releases of the product or incremental refinement through each iteration around the
spiral.

Spiral Model - Design

The spiral model has four phases. A software project repeatedly passes through these phases in iterations
called Spirals.

Identification
This phase starts with gathering the business requirements in the baseline spiral. In the subsequent spirals
as the product matures, identification of system requirements, subsystem requirements and unit
requirements are all done in this phase.
This phase also includes understanding the system requirements by continuous communication between
the customer and the system analyst. At the end of the spiral, the product is deployed in the identified
market.

Design
The Design phase starts with the conceptual design in the baseline spiral and involves architectural design,
logical design of modules, physical product design and the final design in the subsequent spirals.

Construct or Build
The Construct phase refers to production of the actual software product at every spiral. In the baseline
spiral, when the product is just thought of and the design is being developed a POC (Proof of Concept) is
developed in this phase to get customer feedback.
Then in the subsequent spirals with higher clarity on requirements and design details a working model of
the software called build is produced with a version number. These builds are sent to the customer for
feedback.

Evaluation and Risk Analysis

Risk Analysis includes identifying, estimating and monitoring the technical feasibility and management
risks, such as schedule slippage and cost overrun. After testing the build, at the end of first iteration, the
customer evaluates the software and provides feedback.
The following illustration is a representation of the Spiral Model, listing the activities in each phase.
Based on the customer evaluation, the software development process enters the next iteration and
subsequently follows the linear approach to implement the feedback suggested by the customer. The
process of iterations along the spiral continues throughout the life of the software.

Spiral Model Application

The Spiral Model is widely used in the software industry as it is in sync with the natural development
process of any product, i.e. learning with maturity which involves minimum risk for the customer as well
as the development firms.
The following pointers explain the typical uses of a Spiral Model −
 When there is a budget constraint and risk evaluation is important.
 For medium to high-risk projects.
 Long-term project commitment because of potential changes to economic priorities as the
requirements change with time.
 Customer is not sure of their requirements which is usually the case.
 Requirements are complex and need evaluation to get clarity.
 New product line which should be released in phases to get enough customer feedback.
 Significant changes are expected in the product during the development cycle.
Spiral Model - Pros and Cons
The advantage of spiral lifecycle model is that it allows elements of the product to be added in, when they
become available or known. This assures that there is no conflict with previous requirements and design.
This method is consistent with approaches that have multiple software builds and releases which allows
making an orderly transition to a maintenance activity. Another positive aspect of this method is that the
spiral model forces an early user involvement in the system development effort.
On the other side, it takes a very strict management to complete such products and there is a risk of running
the spiral in an indefinite loop. So, the discipline of change and the extent of taking change requests is
very important to develop and deploy the product successfully.
The advantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −
 Changing requirements can be accommodated.
 Allows extensive use of prototypes.
 Requirements can be captured more accurately.
 Users see the system early.
 Development can be divided into smaller parts and the risky parts can be developed earlier which
helps in better risk management.
The disadvantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −
 Management is more complex.
 End of the project may not be known early.
 Not suitable for small or low risk projects and could be expensive for small projects.
 Process is complex
 Spiral may go on indefinitely.
 Large number of intermediate stages requires excessive documentation.

V-model
The V-model is an SDLC model where execution of processes happens in a sequential manner in a V-
shape. It is also known as Verification and Validation model.
The V-Model is an extension of the waterfall model and is based on the association of a testing phase for
each corresponding development stage. This means that for every single phase in the development cycle,
there is a directly associated testing phase. This is a highly-disciplined model and the next phase starts
only after completion of the previous phase.

V-Model - Design
Under the V-Model, the corresponding testing phase of the development phase is planned in parallel. So,
there are Verification phases on one side of the ‘V’ and Validation phases on the other side. The Coding
Phase joins the two sides of the V-Model.
The following illustration depicts the different phases in a V-Model of the SDLC.
V-Model - Verification Phases
There are several Verification phases in the V-Model, each of these are explained in detail below.

Business Requirement Analysis

This is the first phase in the development cycle where the product requirements are understood from the
customer’s perspective. This phase involves detailed communication with the customer to understand his
expectations and exact requirement. This is a very important activity and needs to be managed well, as
most of the customers are not sure about what exactly they need. The acceptance test design planning is
done at this stage as business requirements can be used as an input for acceptance testing.

System Design
Once you have the clear and detailed product requirements, it is time to design the complete system. The
system design will have the understanding and detailing the complete hardware and communication setup
for the product under development. The system test plan is developed based on the system design. Doing
this at an earlier stage leaves more time for the actual test execution later.

Architectural Design
Architectural specifications are understood and designed in this phase. Usually more than one technical
approach is proposed and based on the technical and financial feasibility the final decision is taken. The
system design is broken down further into modules taking up different functionality. This is also referred
to as High Level Design (HLD).
The data transfer and communication between the internal modules and with the outside world (other
systems) is clearly understood and defined in this stage. With this information, integration tests can be
designed and documented during this stage.

Module Design
In this phase, the detailed internal design for all the system modules is specified, referred to as Low Level
Design (LLD). It is important that the design is compatible with the other modules in the system
architecture and the other external systems. The unit tests are an essential part of any development process
and helps eliminate the maximum faults and errors at a very early stage. These unit tests can be designed
at this stage based on the internal module designs.

Coding Phase
The actual coding of the system modules designed in the design phase is taken up in the Coding phase.
The best suitable programming language is decided based on the system and architectural requirements.
The coding is performed based on the coding guidelines and standards. The code goes through numerous
code reviews and is optimized for best performance before the final build is checked into the repository.

Validation Phases
The different Validation Phases in a V-Model are explained in detail below.

Unit Testing
Unit tests designed in the module design phase are executed on the code during this validation phase. Unit
testing is the testing at code level and helps eliminate bugs at an early stage, though all defects cannot be
uncovered by unit testing.

Integration Testing
Integration testing is associated with the architectural design phase. Integration tests are performed to test
the coexistence and communication of the internal modules within the system.

System Testing
System testing is directly associated with the system design phase. System tests check the entire system
functionality and the communication of the system under development with external systems. Most of the
software and hardware compatibility issues can be uncovered during this system test execution.

Acceptance Testing
Acceptance testing is associated with the business requirement analysis phase and involves testing the
product in user environment. Acceptance tests uncover the compatibility issues with the other systems
available in the user environment. It also discovers the non-functional issues such as load and performance
defects in the actual user environment.
V- Model ─ Application
V- Model application is almost the same as the waterfall model, as both the models are of sequential type.
Requirements have to be very clear before the project starts, because it is usually expensive to go back and
make changes. This model is used in the medical development field, as it is strictly a disciplined domain.
The following pointers are some of the most suitable scenarios to use the V-Model application.
 Requirements are well defined, clearly documented and fixed.
 Product definition is stable.
 Technology is not dynamic and is well understood by the project team.
 There are no ambiguous or undefined requirements.
 The project is short.

V-Model - Pros and Cons

The advantage of the V-Model method is that it is very easy to understand and apply. The simplicity of
this model also makes it easier to manage. The disadvantage is that the model is not flexible to changes
and just in case there is a requirement change, which is very common in today’s dynamic world, it becomes
very expensive to make the change.
The advantages of the V-Model method are as follows −
 This is a highly-disciplined model and Phases are completed one at a time.
 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.
 Simple and easy to understand and use.
 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific deliverables and a review
process.
The disadvantages of the V-Model method are as follows −
 High risk and uncertainty.
 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of changing.
 Once an application is in the testing stage, it is difficult to go back and change a functionality.
 No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.