Final Output

DESIGN OF 15 SEATER BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT
AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT–I REPORT
Submitted by
CH PHANI DURGA PRASAD (16101039)

UDAYA KARTHIK P (16101071)
in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES

HINDUSTAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGYANDSCIENCE
CHENNAI – 603103
APRIL 2019
I
HINDUSTAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
CHENNAI- 603103.
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report “DESIGN OF 10-15 SEATER BUSINESS

JET AIRCRAFT” is the bonafide work of “CHPHANIDURGAPRASAD
(16101039) ,UDAYA KARTHIK P (16101071)” who carried out the project
work under my supervision. Certified further that to the best of my knowledge

the work reported here does not form part of any other project/research work on
the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this
or any other candidate.
Dr. ASOKAN R Ms. KRISHNAVENI G

Professor & Head of the department Assistant Professor
School of Aeronautical Sciences School of Aeronautical Sciences
Hindustan Institute of Technology Hindustan Institute of Technology
and Science and Science
Chennai – 603103 Chennai – 603103
Submitted for the project viva voice Examination held on __________
Internal Examiner External Examiner
II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It’s my extreme pleasure to thank our chairperson Dr Elizabeth Verghese,

Hindustan Institute of Technology & Science, for providing me with a good,
pleasing and safe environment in our college which helped me a lot to carry on
with my project.
I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr Kuncheria P. Issac, Vice-

Chancellor, Hindustan Institute of Technology & Science for providing me
with an excellent study environment.
I am thankful to Dr Dilip A Shah, Senior Professor, School of Aeronautical

Sciences &Dr Asokan R, Professor & Head of the Department, School of
Aeronautical Sciences for much of his valuable support, encouragement in
carrying out this work.
I would like to thank my internal guide Ms Krishnaveni, for continuously

guiding and actively participating in my project, giving valuable suggestions to
complete the project work.
I would like to thank all the technical and teaching staff of Aeronautical
Department, who extended their support directly or indirectly.
Last, but not the least, I am deeply indebted to my parents who have been the
greatest support while I worked day and night for the project to make it a success.
III
TABLE OF CONTENT
PAGE
CHAPTER TITLE
NO
ABSTRACT I
LIST OF TABLES II
LIST OF FIGURES III
LIST OF GRAPHS IV
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS V
1 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN 1
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF
2 6
AIRPLANES
COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATIONS AND
3 10
PERFORMANCE
4 PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE DATA SHEETS 13
5 COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION AND 35

SELECTION OF MAIN PARAMETERS FOR THE
DESIGN
6 WEIGHT ESTIMATION 52
7 POWERPLANT SELECTION 63
8 WING SELECTION 69
9 AEROFOIL SELECTION 77
10 TAIL PLANE SELECTION 88
11 LANDING GEAR SELECTION 91
12 FUSELAGE 94
13 LIFT AND DRAG CALCULATION 96
IV
14 PERFORMANCE 100
15 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 108
16 THREE VIEWS OF BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT 110
17 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS 111
18 REFRENCE 114
V
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO
5.1 Consolidation of data 35

5.2 Design parameters from graph 52
7.3 Regression line constant a & c 42
7.4 Comparison of different engines 66
9.1 Comparison of different airfoil 78
Aerofoil selection for root, tip and mean
9.1.2 80
chord
13.3 Lift and drag results 100
VI
ABSTRACT
My project is about the design of a multirole supersonic fighter aircraft. A

multirole supersonic fighter aircraft is designed to perform different roles in
combat. The air-to-air combat role has been normally performed by fighter
aircraft. In addition, a multirole fighter has secondary roles such as air-to-surface
attack. The term multirole has been reserved for aircraft designed with the aim of
using a common airframe for multiple tasks where the same basic airframe is
adapted to a number of differing roles. The main motivation for developing
multirole aircraft is a cost reduction in using a common airframe.
Keywords: Fighter aircraft, supersonic, airfoil, turbojet engine.
VII
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO
1.1 Design Methodology 1

1.2 Design process 2
1.3 Conceptual design 4
1.4 Aircraft design configuration 5
4.2.1 Embraer Legacy 600 14
4.2.2 Challenger 850 15
4.2.3 Falcon 900b 16
4.2.4 Lockheed Jetstar Ll 17
4.2.5 Embraer Legacy 650 18
4.2.6 Praetor 600 19
4.2.7 Falcon 900lx 20
4.2.8 Crj 100 21
4.2.9 Falcon 50 22
4.2.11 Praoter 500 24
4.2.12 Crj200 25
4.2.13 Challenger 601-3a 26
4.2.14 Legacy 650 27
4.2.15 Legacy 500 28
4.2.16 Falcon 2000ex 29
VIII
4.2.18 Gurmman Gulfstream Ll 31
4.2.19 Hawker 4000 32
7.5 Pratt & whitney Canada PW308c 67
8.4.1 Ellipitical wing 71
8.4.3 swept back wing 73
8.4.4 Tapper wing 73
9.2.1 Geometry of BOEING J Airfoil 81
9.2.2 Geometry of SD8020-010-88 Airfoil 82
9.2.3 Geometry of GILL BL45 Airfoil 83
Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil
9.3.1 BOEING J 84
Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil
9.3.2 SD8020-010-88 85
9.3.3 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil

GILL BL45 86
9.5 Types of flaps 87
12.1 Semi monocoque fuselage construction 95
14.1 Climb hodograph 104
16.3 Front view of Fighter Aircraft 110
16.1 Side view of Fighter Aircraft 110
16.2 Top view of Fighter Aircraft 110
IX
LIST OF GRAPHS
GRAPH NO TITLE PAGE NO

5.2.1 Max Speed Vs Aspect Ratio 41
5.2.2 Max Speed Vs Length 42
5.2.3 Max Speed Vs fuel capacity 42
5.2.4 Max Speed Vs Wing Area 43
5.2.4 Max Speed Vs Wing Span 44
5.2.5 Max Speed Vs Wing Loading 45
5.2.5 Max Speed Vs Empty Weight 46
5.2.6 Max Speed Vs Max Take Off Weight 47
5.2.9 Max Speed Vs Payload Weight 48
5.2.10 Max Speed Vs Thrust to Weight Ratio 49
5.11 Max Speed Vs Range 50
5.12 Max Speed Vs Rate of Climb 51
5.13 Max Speed Vs Service Ceiling 52
X
LISTOFSYMBOLS&ABBREVIATIONS
A.R - Aspect Ratio

b - Wing span(m)
C - Chord of the Aerofoil (m)
Croot - Chord at Root (m)
Ctip - Chord at Tip (m)
Cd - Drag Co-efficient
Cdo - Zero lift Drag co-efficient
- Specific fuel consumption (lbs /
CP
hp / hr)
CL - Lift Co-efficient
D - Drag(N)
E - Endurance (hr)
e - Oswald efficiency factor
L - Lift (N)
(L/D)Loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter
(L/D)Cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise
M - Mach number of aircraft
Mff - Mission fuel fraction
R - Range (km)
Re - Reynolds number
s - Wing area (m2)

Sref - Reference surface area
Swet - Wetted surface area
Sa - Approach distance (m)
Sf - Flare distance (m)
Sfr - Freeroll distance (m)
S.C - Service ceiling
A.C - Absolute ceiling
XI
T - Thrust (N)
Tcruise - Thrust at cruise (N)
Ttake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)

(T/W)Loiter - The thrust-to-weight ratio at
Loiter
(T/W)Cruise - The thrust-to-weight ratio at
cruise
(T/W)Take- - The thrust-to-weight ratio at
off take-off
vCruise - velocity at cruise (m/s)
vStall - velocity at stall (m/s)
vt - Velocity at touch down (m/s)
WCrew - Crew weight (kg)
- Empty weight of the aircraft
Wempty
(kg)
WFuel - Weight of fuel (kg)
WPayload - Payload of the aircraft (kg)
W0 - Overall weight (kg)
W/S - Wing loading (kg/m2)
ρ - Density of air (kg/m3)
μ - Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
λ - Tapered ratio
R/C - Rate of Climb
η - Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
XII
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN
1.1DESIGN METHODOLOGY
The aircraft design process is the engineering design process by which the
aircrafts are designed. These depend on many factors such as customer and
manufacturer demand, safety protocols, physical and economic constraints etc...
For some types of aircraft, the design process is regulated by national
airworthiness authorities. Among the fundamental elements of the design process
are the establishment of objectives and criteria, synthesis, analysis, construction,
testing and evaluation.
Aircraft design is a compromise between many competing factors and constraints
and accounts for existing designs and market requirements to produce the best
aircraft. The design method to be followed from the start of the project to the
nominal end can be considered to fall into three main phases. These phases are
illustrated in Figure. In some industrial organizations, this phase is referred to as
the ‘feasibility study’. At the end of the preliminary design phase, a document is
produced which contains a summary of the technical and geometric details known
about the baseline design. This forms the initial draft of a document that will be
subsequently revised to contain a thorough description of the aircraft. This is knon
as the aircraft ‘Type Specification’.
Figure 1-1 Design Methodology
1
1.2 DESIGN PROCESS
Figure 1-2 Design process.
2
1.3 PHASES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN
The complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that are
carried out in sequence. They are
Conceptual design
Preliminary design
Detailed design
1.3.1 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

The design process starts with a set of specifications (requirements)for a new
aeroplane, or much less frequently as the response to the desire to implement
some pioneering, innovative new ideas and technology. In either case, there is a
rather concrete good towards which the designers are aiming. The first steps
towards achieving that goal constitute the conceptual design phase. Here, within
a certain somewhat fuzzy latitude, the overall shape, size, weight and
performance of the new design are determined.
During the conceptual design phase, the designer is influenced by such qualitative
as the increased structural loads imposed by a high horizontal tail location
through the fuselage, and the difficulties associated with cut-outs in the wing
structure if the landing gear are to be retracted into the wing rather than the
fuselage or engine nacelle.
1.3.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN

In the preliminary design phase, only minor changes are made to the
configuration layout (indeed, if major changes were demanded during this phase,
the conceptual design process have been actually flawed, to begin with. It is in
the preliminary design phase that serious structural and control system analysis
and design take place.
1.3.3 DETAIL DESIGN

The detail design phase is literally the nuts and bolts phase of aeroplane design.
The aerodynamic, propulsion, structures performance and flight control analysis
have all been finished with the preliminary design phase. The aeroplane is now
simply a machine to be fabricated. The pressure design of each individual rib,
spar and section of skin now take place. The size of number and location of
fasteners are determined. At the end of this phase, the aircraft is ready to be
fabricated.
3
1.3.4 BLOCK ARRAY FOR CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
Figure 1-3 Conceptual design
4
Figure 1.4ircraft design configuration
5
CHAPTER 2
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT
TYPES OF AIRPLANE
2.1TYPES OF AIRCRAFT:
The following types of aircraft are taken for the study
• HOMEBUILT PROPELLER DRIVEN

• SINGLE ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN
• TWIN ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN
• AGRICULTURAL AIRPLANES
• BUSINESS JETS
• REGIONAL TURBO PROPELLER DRIVEN
AIRPLANE
• TRANSPORT JETS
• MILITARY TRAINERS
• FIGHTERS
• MILITARY PATROL BOMB AND TRANSPORT
AIRPLANES
• FLYING BOATS, AMPHIBIANS AND FLOAT
AIRPLANES
• SUPERSONIC CRUISE AIRPLANES
Among this one aircraft is chosen for the study on its specification and
performance.
2.1.1 HOMEBUILT AIRCRAFT
Homebuilt aircraft, also known as amateur-built aircraft or kit planes, are

constructed by persons for whom this is not a professional activity. These
aircraft may be constructed from "scratch," from plans, or from assembly kits.
Homebuilt aircraft are generally small, one to four- seat sportsplanes which
employ simple methods of construction. Fabric-covered wood or metal frames
and plywood are common in the aircraft structure. Fiberglass and other
composites as well as full aluminium construction techniques are also being used.
6
2.1.1 SINGLE ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT
Single engine propeller aircraft are well-suited for short missions under 300
miles. They can easily access smaller airports with shorter runways, increasing
the number of airstrips they’re able to reach within their ranges. They are also
known as light aircrafts. They are mainly used for freight transport, sightseeing,
photography and other similar roles as well as personal use.
These aircrafts are nowadays used for training of pilots for the commercial
passenger aircrafts. Using these aircrafts these aircrafts they acquire their pilot
license
2.1.2 TWIN ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT
Causal observation of twin-engine propeller aircraft reveals that most

configurations consist of a forward wing with nacelle-mounted engines on
each side and a single tail empennage. However, about a third of the aircraft
are of various engine and airframe arrangements. The alternative ways in
which a twin-engine propeller-driven aircraft can be put together (excluding
bi-planes and helicopters.). Aircraft are arranged in nine categories, as much
as possible, with similar configuration traits. Each configuration category is
identified with a sample aircraft.
2.1.3 AGRICULTURAL AIRPLANES
An agricultural aircraft is an aircraft that was built for agricultural use usually
the aerial application of pesticides (crop-dusting) or fertilizer in these roles
they are referred to as "crop dusters" or "top dressers". Agricultural aircraft
are also used for hydroseeding. Agricultural aircraft are typically small,
simple, and rugged. Most have spraying systems attached to the trailing edges
of their wings, and pumps are usually driven by wind turbines.
2.1.4 BUSINESS JETS
A business jet, private jet or bizjet is a jet aircraft designed for transporting small
groups of people. Business jets may be adapted for other roles, such as evacuation
of casualities or express parcel deliveries, and some are used by public bodies,
government officials or the armed forces.
7
2.1.6 REGIONAL TURBO PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANE
A regional airliner or a feederliner is a small airliner that is designed to fly up to

100 passengers on short-haul flights, usually feeding larger carriers' airline hubs
from small markets. This class of airliners are typically flown by the regional
airlines that are either contracted by or subsidiaries of the larger airlines.
Regional airliners are used for short trips between smaller towns or from a
larger city to a smaller city. Feederline, commuter, and local service are all
alternative terms for the same class of flight operations.
2.1.7 COMMERCIAL TRANSPORT AIRPLANE
An airliner is a type of aircraft for transporting passenger and air cargo. Such
aircraft are most often operated by airlines. An airliner is typically defined as an
aeroplane intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in commercial
service. The largest of them are widebody jets which are called also twin-aisle.
These are usually used for long-haul flights between airline hubs and major cities.
A smaller, more common class of airliners is the narrow-body or single-aisle used
for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers than their wide-body
counterparts.
2.1.8 MILITARY TRAINER
A trainer is a class of aircraft designed specifically to facilitate flight training of
pilot and aircrews. The use of a dedicated trainer aircraft with additional safety
features—such as tandem flight controls, forgiving flight characteristics and a
simplified cockpit arrangement—allows pilots-in-training to safely advance their
real-time piloting, navigation and warfighting skills without the danger of
overextending their abilities alone in a fully featured aircraft.
2.1.9 FIGHTER AIRCRAFT
A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat

against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main
mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed,
manoeuvrability, and small size relative to other combat aircraft.
8
2.1.10 MILITARY PATROL BOMB AND TRANSPORT AIRPLANES
Military transport aircraft or military cargo aircraft are typically fixed wing
and rotary wing cargo aircraft which are used to airlift troops, weapons and
other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military
operations around the surface of the planet, usually outside the commercial
flight routes in uncontrolled airspace.
Originally derived from bombers, military transport aircraft were used for
delivering airborne forces during World War II and towing military gliders.
Some military transport aircraft are tasked to perform multi-role duties such
as aerial refuelling and, rescue missions, tactical, operational and strategic
airlifts onto unprepared runways, or those constructed by engineers.
2.1.11 FLYING BOATS, AMPHIBIANS AND FLOAT AIRPLANES

A flying boat is a fixed-winged seaplane with a hull, allowing it to land on
water, that usually has no type of landing gear to allow operation on land. It
differs from a floatplane as it uses a purpose-designed fuselage which can float,
granting the aircraft buoyancy. Flying boats may be stabilized by underwing
floats or by wing-like projections (called sponsons) from the fuselage. Their
advantage lay in using water instead of expensive land-based runways, making
them the basis for international airlines in the interwar period. They were also
commonly used for maritime patrol and air-sea rescue.
2.1.12 SUPER CRUISE AIRCRAFT

Supercruise is sustained supersonic flight of a supersonic aircraft with a
useful cargo, passenger, or weapons load performed efficiently, which
typically precludes the use of highly inefficient afterburners or "reheat".
Many well-known supersonic military aircraft not capable of supercruise
must maintain supersonic flight in short bursts typically with afterburners.
Aircraft such as the SR-71 Blackbird is designed to cruise at supersonic speed
with afterburners enabled.
9
CHAPTER 3
COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATIONS
AND PERFORMANCE
CREW:
A group of people who work on and operate an aircraft.
PASSENGERS:
A traveler on a public or private conveyance other than the pilot and

crew.
EMPTY WEIGHT:
The empty weight of an aircraft is the weight of the aircraft without including
passengers, baggage, or fuel.
PAYLOAD:
The payload is what the airplane is intended to transport – passengers, baggage,

freight etc.
TAKE OFF WEIGHT:
It is the maximum weight at which the pilot is allowed to attempt to take off due
to structural or other limits.
LANDING WEIGHT:
It is the maximum aircraft gross weight due to design or operational limitations

at which an aircraft is permitted to land.
WING LOADING:
It is the total weight of an aircraft divided by the area of its wing .
WING AREA:
It is the projected area of the wing planform and is bounded by the leading trailing
edges and the wing tips.
10
WING SPAN:
The maximum distance between the two wing tips and id denoted by b.
THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO:
It is a dimensionless ratio of thrust to weight or a vehicle propelled by such an

engine that indicates the performance of the engine or vehicle.
WINGSWEEP BACK ANGLE:
The angle at which a wing is either swept backward or occasionally forward from
its root.
ASPECT RATIO:
It is the ratio of wing span to its mean chord. It is also equal to the square of the
wing span divided by the wing area.
Aspect ratio = b2/s
THRUST:
It is the force exerted by the engines on the airframe to overcome drag and is
measured in Newton (N).
POWER:
It is the rate at which work is done.
WET THRUST:
It is the augmented thrust with the usage of afterburners or liquid injection .
CRUISE SPEED:
The speed at which combustion engines have an optimum efficiency level for fuel
consumption and power output.
RATE OF ASCENT (CLIMB):
The rate of positive altitude changes with respect to time or distance.

RATE OF DESCENT (SINK):
The rate of negative altitude changes with respect to time or distance.
11
ABSOLUTE CEILING:
It is the altitude where maximum rate of climb is zero is the highest altitude
achievable in steady, level flight.
SERVICE CEILING:
It is the altitude where the maximum rate of climb is 100 ft/min and it’s
represented the practical upper limit for steady, level flight.
RANGE:
It is the maximum distance an aircraft can fly between take-off and landing, as
limited by fuel capacity in powered aircraft.
ENDURANCE:
It is the maximum length of time that an aircraft can spend in cruising flight as
long as the fuel is available.
STALLING VELOCITY:
It is the velocity below which an aircraft will descend, or ‘stall’, regardless of its
angle of attack.
TAKEOFF DISTANCE:
It consists of two parts, the ground run and the distance from where the vehicle
leaves the ground until it reaches 50 ft or 15 m. The sum of these two distances
is considered the take-off distance.
LANDING DISTANCE:
It is the distance required to bring the aircraft to a stop under ideal conditions,
assuming the aircraft crosses the runway threshold at a height of 50 ft, at the
correct speed.
12
CHAPTER 4
PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE
DATA SHEETS
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
It’s the collection of data of various airplanes to consolidate the data for the
Aeroplan . Around 20 aircraft with their design parameters are compared.
4.2 AIRCRAFT FOR REFERENCE:
1. EMBRAER LEGACY 600

2. CHALLENGER 850
3. FALCON 900B
4. LOCKHEED JETSTAR II
5. EMBRAER LEGACY 650
6. PRAETOR 600
7. FALCON 900LX
8. CRJ 100
9. FALCON 50
10.CHALLENGER 604
11.PRAOTER 500
12.CRJ 200
13.CHALLENGER 601-3A
14.LEGACY 650
15.LEGACY 500
16.FALCON 2000EX
17.CHALLENGER 650
18.GURMMAN GULFSTREAM II
19.HAWKER 4000
20.CHALLENGER 350
13
4.2.1 EMBRAER LEGACY 600 SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.1 Embraer Legacy 600
PARAMETERS EMBRAER LEGACY 600

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 26.3
FUEL CAPACITY(kg) 8241.77
WING AREA (m^2) 51.2
WING SPAN (m) 21.17
ASPECT RATIO 8.75
MTOW (kg) 22500
EMPTY WEIGHT (kg) 13797
PAYLOAD WEIGHT (kg) 1450
THRUST (kn) 35.38
SERVICE CEILING (m) 12497
RANGE (km) 6297
RATE OF CLIMB (m) 15.44
WING LOADING (kg/m2) 439.4
MAX.CRUISE (km/hr) 850
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 2 x Turbofan
(Roll-Royce
AE3007A1E)
14
4.2.2 CHALLENGER 850 SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.2.2 Challenger 85

PARAMETERS CHALLENGER 850
CREW 3
LENGTH(m) 26.77
WING SPAN (m) 21.21
ASPECT RATIO 9.3
MTOW (kg) 24040
THRUST (kn) 38.84
RANGE (m) 5206
RATE OF CLIMB(m/s) 17.24

WING LOADING kg/m2) 497.2
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 2X
TURBO-FAN(GENERAL
ELECTRIC CEF34-3B1)
4.2.3 FALCON 900B SPECIFICATION
15
PARAMETERS FALCON 900B
CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 20.21
WING AREA (m^2) 49
WING SPAN (m) 19.33
ASPECT RATIO 7.62
MTOW (kg) 20640
THRUST (kn) 21.13
RANGE (km) 7400
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 3x turbofan (HONEY
WELL-TFE 731-5BR-
1C)
4.2.4 LOCKHEED JETSTAR ll SPECIFICATION
16
Figure 4.2.4 Lockheed Jetstar Il
PARAMETERS LOCKHEED JETSTAR ll

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 18.41
WING SPAN (m) 16.59
ASPECT RATIO 5.460
MTOW (kg) 20185
THRUST (kn) 16.5
RANGE (km) 4820
Turbo fan(GARRETT TFE731-3_
4.2.5 EMBRAER LEGACY 650 SPECIFICATION
17
Figure 4.2.5 Embraer legacy 650
PARAMETERS EMBRAER LEGACY 650

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 26.3
WING SPAN (m) 21.7
ASPECT RATIO 9.1
MTOW (kg) 24300
THRUST (kn) 40.1
RANGE (km) 7223
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 2x turbofan (ROLL
ROYCE AE3007 A2)
18
4.2.6 PRAETOR 600 SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.2.6 Praetor 600
PARAMETERS PRAETOR 600

FUEL CAPACITY(kg) 7251
CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 20.74
WING SPAN (m) 21.5
ASPECT RATIO 10.2
MTOW (kg) 20150
THRUST (kn) 33.5
RANGE (km) 7223
WING LOADING (kg/m2 ) 448.7
WELL(HTF7500E))
19
4.2.7 FALCON 900LX SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.2.7 Falcon 900LX
PARAMETERS FALCON 900LX

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 20.11
WING AREA (m^2) 49
WING SPAN (m) 21.43
ASPECT RATIO 7.625
MTOW (kg) 22226.6
EMPTY WEIGHT (kg) 13999.6
THRUST (kn) 35.5
MAX. SPEED (km/hr) 1074.16
SERVICE CEILING (m) 15544.8
RANGE (km) 8797
WELL TFE731-60)
20
4.2.8 CRJ 100 SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.2.8 CRJ100
PARAMETERS CRJ 100

CREW 3
LENGTH(m) 26.77
WING SPAN (m) 21.21
ASPECT RATIO 9.3
MTOW (kg) 23133
THRUST (KN) 38.84
RANGE (km) 3056
RATE OF CLIMB (m/s) 15.24
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 2 x turbofan(GECF34-3A1)
21
4.2.9 FALCON 50 SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.2.9 Dassault falcon 10
PARAMETERS DASSAULT FALCON 10

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 18.52
FUEL 7039
CAPACITY(kg)
WING SPAN (m) 18.86
ASPECT RATIO 7.59
MTOW (kg) 18008
EMPTY WEIGHT 9889
(kg)
PAYLOAD WEIGHT 1540
(kg)
THRUST (kn) 16.46
SERVICE CEILING 14936
(m)
RANGE (km) 5695
RATE OF CLIMB 10.43
(m/s)
WING LOADING 384.5
(kg/m2)
MAX.CRUISE 903
(km/hr)
NO. OF ENGINE , 3x
TYPE turbofan(HONEYWELL
TFE 731-40)
22

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 20.72
WING SPAN (m) 19.58
ASPECT RATIO 9.3
MTOW (kg) 21863.2
THRUST (kn) 38.84
RANGE (km) 7628.3
MAX.CRUISE (km/hr) 903.7
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 2x turbofan
(GENERAL
ELECTRIC(CF34-
3B))
23
4.2.11 PRAOTER 500 SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.2.11 Praoter 500
PARAMETERS PRAOTER 500

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 19.69
WING SPAN (m) 21.5
ASPECT RATIO 11.52
MTOW (kg) 18200
PAYLOAD WEIGHT 1580
(kg)
THRUST (kn) 29.1
SERVICE CEILING 13716
(m)
RANGE(km) 6019
WING LOADING 453.86
(kg/m2)
NO. OF ENGINE , 2 x turbofan
TYPE (HONEYWELL
HTF7500E)
24
4.2.12 CRJ200 SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.2.12 CRJ 200
PARAMETERS CRJ200
CREW 4
LENGTH(m) 26.77
WING SPAN (m) 21.21
ASPECT RATIO 9.3
MTOW (kg) 24041
THRUST (kn) 38.84
RANGE (m) 3148
TURBOFAN
(GECF34-
3B1)
25
4.2.13 CHALLENGER 601-3A SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.2.13 Challenger 601-3a
PARAMETERS CHALLENGER 601-3A

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 20.85
WING SPAN (m) 19.99
ASPECT RATIO 8.8
MTOW (kg) 20457.01
THRUST (kn) 41
RANGE (km) 6648.68
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 2X TURBOFAN
(GENERAL ELECTRIC
CF34-3A)
26
4.2.14 LEGACY 650 SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.2.14 legacy 650
PARAMETERS LEGACY 650

CREW 3
LENGTH(m) 26.36
WING SPAN (m) 21.15
ASPECT RATIO 8.7
MTOW (kg) 24299.85
THRUST (kn) 40.9
RANGE (km) 7222.8
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 2 x Turbofan (Rolls Royce(AE3007
A2))
27
4.2.15 LEGACY 500 SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.2.15 legacy 500
PARAMETERS LEGACY 500

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 20.74
WING SPAN (m) 21.5
ASPECT RATIO 10.2
MTOW (kg) 20150
THRUST (kn) 33.5
RANGE (km) 7223
WING LOADING(kg/m2) 448.7
TURBOFAN (HONEYWELL
HTF7500E)
28
4.2.16 FALCON 2000EX SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.2.16 falcon 2000EX
PARAMETERS FALCON 2000EX

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 20.21
WING SPAN (m) 19.32
ASPECT RATIO 8.58
MTOW (kg) 20136
THRUST (kn) 31.11
RANGE (km) 7491.5
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 2 x turbofan (Pratt & Whitney
CanadaPW308C)
29
Figure 4.2.17 challenger 650

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 20.9
WING SPAN (m) 19.6
ASPECT RATIO 8.46
MTOW (kg) 21863
THRUST (kn) 41
RANGE (km) 7408
RATE OF CLIMB (m/s) 22.07
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 2 x turbofan (GENERAL
ELECTRIC CF34-3B)
30
4.2.18 GURMMAN GULFSTREAM ll
Figure 4.2.17 Gurmman gulfstream II
PARAMETERS GURMMAN
GULFSTREAM ll
CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 24.35
WING SPAN (m) 20.98
ASPECT RATIO 5.85
MTOW (kg) 28122.72
THRUST (kn) 51
RANGE(km) 5089.29
WING LOADING(kg/m2) 373.9
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 2 x turbofan (Rolls
Royce (SPEY 511-8))
31
4.2.18 HAWKER 4000 SPECIFICATION
Figure 4.2.18 Hawker 4000
PARAMETERS HAWKER 4000

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 21.08
FUEL CAPACITY(KG) 6622
WING AREA (m^2) 45
WING SPAN (m) 18.8
ASPECT RATIO 7.8
MTOW (kg) 18500
THRUST (kn) 15.56
RANGE (m) 5741.2
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 2 x turbofan(,Pratt & Whitney
Canada (PW308A))
32

CREW 2
LENGTH(m) 20.92
FUEL CAPACITY(KG) 6418
WING SPAN (m) 21
ASPECT RATIO 9.09
MTOW (kg) 18416
THRUST (kn) 33
RANGE (km) 5926
NO. OF ENGINE , TYPE 2 x turbofan
33
CHAPTER 5
COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION AND SELECTION
OF MAIN PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN
5.1CONSOLIDATION OF DATA
EMBRAER
PARAMETER LEGACY 600 CHALLENGER 850 FALCON 900B
LENGTH(m) 26.3 26.77 20.21
WING SPAN(m) 21.17 21.21 19.33
WING AREA(m2) 51.2 48.35 49
WING LOADING(kg/m2) 439.4 497.2 421.2
ASPECT RATIO 8.753298828 9.304324716 7.625487755
SERVICE CEILING(m) 12497 12500 15500
RATE OF CLIMB(m/s) 15.44 17.24 19.07

MAX CRUISE
SPEED(kmph) 850 850 950
NO OF ENGINES, 2,(Roll-Royce 2,(GENERAL ELECTRIC 3,HONEY WELL(TFE
TYPES AE3007A1E) CEF34-3B1) 731-5BR-1C)
EMPTY WEIGHT(kg) 13797.82 15440 10255

MAX TAKE-OFF
WEIGHT (MTOW)(kg) 22499.99 24040 20640
THRUST(kN) 35.38 38.84 21.13
CREW 2 3 2
RANGE(km) 6297 5206 7400
FUEL CAPACITY(KG) 8241.77 8288.9 8693.09
PASSENGERS 14 16 19
PAYLOAD 1450 1600 1540
34
LOCKHEED EMBRAER
PARAMETER JETSTAR ll LEGACY 650 PRAETOR 600
LENGTH(m) 18.41 26.3 20.74
WING SPAN(m) 16.59 21.7 21.5
WING AREA(m2) 50.4 51.2 44.9
WING LOADING(kg/m2) 400.4 474.6 448.7
ASPECT RATIO 5.460875 9.197070313 10.29510022
SERVICE CEILING(m) 13105 12497 13716
RATE OF CLIMB(m/s) 21.1 16.21
MAX CRUISE SPEED(kmph) 883 850 863
2,Roll-Royce AE3007 2,HONEY

NO OF ENGINES, TYPES 4,Garrett TFE731-3 A2 WELL(HTF7500E)
EMPTY WEIGHT(kg) 11226 14160 11040

MAX TAKE-OFF WEIGHT
(MTOW)(kg) 20185 24300 20150
THRUST(kg) 16.5 40.1 33.5
CREW 2 2 2
RANGE(km) 4820 7223 7223
FUEL CAPACITY(kg) 8149.24 9344.1 7251
PASSENGERS 10 13 12
PAYLOAD 1445 1695 1895
35
PARAMETER FALCON 900LX CRJ 100 FALCON 50
LENGTH(m) 20.11 26.77 18.52
WING SPAN(m) 21.43 21.21 18.86
WING AREA(m2) 49 48.35 46.83
WING LOADING(kg/m2) 453.06 478.44 384.5
ASPECT RATIO 7.625 9.304324716 7.595549861
SERVICE CEILING(m) 15544.8 12496 14936
RATE OF CLIMB(m/s) 10.43 15.24 10.43
MAX CRUISE SPEED(kmph) 1074.16 860 903
2,GECF34- 3,HONEYWELL TFE

NO OF ENGINES, TYPES 3, HONEY WELL TFE731-60 3A1 731-40
EMPTY WEIGHT(kg) 13999.6 14016 9889

MAX TAKE-OFF WEIGHT
(MTOW)(kg) 22226.6 23133 18008
THRUST(kN) 38.84 16.46
CREW 2 3 2
RANGE(km) 8797 3056 5695
FUEL CAPACITY(kg) 9525.43 6305 7039
PASSENGERS 12 18 19
PAYLOAD 1540 1560 1540

36
PARAMETER CHALLENGER 604 PRAOTER 500 CRJ200
LENGTH(m) 20.72 19.69 26.77
WING SPAN(m) 19.58 21.5 21.21
WING AREA(m2) 41.2 40.1 48.35
WING LOADING(kg/m2) 530.06 453.86 497.2
ASPECT RATIO 9.305252427 11.52743142 9.304324716
SERVICE CEILING(m) 12496.8 13716 12496
RATE OF CLIMB(m/s) 22.07 15.24

MAX CRUISE
SPEED(kmph) 903.7 856 860
2,GENERAL 2,HONEYWELL 2,GECF34-

NO OF ENGINES, TYPES ELECTRIC(CF34-3B) HTF7500E 3B1
EMPTY WEIGHT(kg) 14514.95 10400 14016

MAX TAKE-OFF WEIGHT
(MTOW)(kg) 21863.2 18200 24041
THRUST(kN) 38.84 29.1 38.84
CREW 2 2 4
RANGE(km) 7628.3 6019 3148
FUEL CAPACITY(kg) 9003.8 5923
PASSENGERS 9 9 15
PAYLOAD 1530 1580 1525
37
CHALLENGER 601-
PARAMETER 3A LEGACY 650 LEGACY 500
LENGTH(m) 20.85 26.3652 20.74
WING SPAN(m) 19.99 21.1582 21.5
WING AREA(m2) 45.4 51.2 44.9
WING LOADING(kg/m2) 450.59 474.06 448.7
ASPECT RATIO 8.801764317 8.743543501 10.29510022
SERVICE CEILING(m) 12496.8 12496.8 13716
RATE OF CLIMB(m/s) 21.63 16.21536 21.2
MAX CRUISE
SPEED(kmph) 850.068 829 863
NO OF ENGINES, 2,GENERAL 2,Rolls 2,HONEYWELL

TYPES ELECTRIC CF34-3A Royce(AE3007 A2) HTF7500E
EMPTY WEIGHT(kg) 11906.8 13675 11040
MAX TAKE-OFF
WEIGHT (MTOW)(kg) 20457.016 24299.85 20150
THRUST(kN) 41 40.9 33.5
CREW 2 3 2
RANGE(km) 6648.68 7222.8 7223
FUEL CAPACITY(kg) 7999.1014 9344 7251
PASSENGERS 9 13 12
PAYLOAD 1565 1575 1875
38
GURMMAN
FALCON CHALLENG GULFSTREA HAWKE CHALLENG
PARAMETER 2000EX ER 650 M ll R 4000 ER 350
LENGTH(m) 20.2184 20.9 24.3586 21.082 20.92

WING
SPAN(m) 19.3294 19.6 20.9804 18.8214 21
WING
AREA(m2) 43.6 45.4 75.21 45 48.5
WING
LOADING(kg/
m2) 461.8 481.6 373.9 411.1 397.7
ASPECT
RATIO 8.58 8.46 5.85 7.87 9.09
SERVICE
CEILING(m) 14325.6 12497 13716 13716 13716
RATE OF
CLIMB(m/s) 22.225 22.0726 22.09 8.9408 25.4
MAX CRUISE
SPEED(kmph) 892.6 854 879.7 827.844 850
2,Pratt &
2,Pratt &
Whitney
Whitney
NO OF 2,GENERAL Canada
CanadaPW30
ENGINES, ELECTRIC 2,Rolls Royce (PW308A 2,Honeywell
8C
TYPES CF34-3B (SPEY 511-8) ) HTF7350
EMPTY 10659.42
10518.2
WEIGHT(kg) 12315 16576 1 11249
MAX TAKE-
OFF WEIGHT
(MTOW)(kg) 20136 21863 28122.727 18500 18416
THRUST(kN) 31.11 41 51 30.69 33
CREW 2 2 2 2 2
RANGE(km) 7491.5 7408 5089.296 5741.2 5926

FUEL
CAPACITY(kg
) 7556.8 9072 10489.324 6622 6418
PASSENGERS 10 19 12 12 9
PAYLOAD 1725 1455 1655 1745 1475
39
5.2COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION
5.2.1 MAX SPEED vs ASPECT RATIO
MAX SPEED vs ASPECT RATIO

14
12
10
aspect ratio
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
max speed
Graph 5.2.1 max speed vs aspect ratio
Aspect ratio – 8
5.2.2 MAX SPEED vs LENGTH
MAX SPEED VS LENGTH

30
25
20
length
15
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
max speed
Graph 5.2.2 max speed vs length
Length -22m
40
5.2.3 MAX SPEED vs FUEL CAPACITY
MAX SPEED VS FUEL CAPACITY(KG)

12000
10000
fuel capacity
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
max speed
Graph 5.2.2 max speed vs fuel capacity

Fuel capacity:7666.7kg
5.2.4MAX SPEED vs WING AREA
MAX SPEED VS WING AREA(M2)

80
70
60
50
wing area
40
30
20
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
max speed
Graph 5.2.1 max speed vs wing area

Wing Area – 42 m 2
41
5.2.5 MAX SPEED vs WING SPAN
MAX SPEED VS WING SPAN(M)
25
20
15
wing span
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
max speed
Graph 5.2.1 max speed vs wing span
Wing span – 19m
5.2.6 MAX SPEED vs WING LOADING
MAX SPEED VS WING LOADING(KG/M2)

600
500
wing loading
400
300
200
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
max speed
Graph 5.2.6 max speed vs wing loading

Wing loading – 433.3 kg/m2
42
5.2.7MAX SPEED vs EMPTY WEIGHT
MAX SPEED VS EMPTY WEIGHT(KG)

18000
16000
14000
empty weight
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
max speed
Graph 5.2.6 max speed vs empty weight

Empty Weight – 12333.3kg
5.2.8MAX SPEED vs MAX TAKE OFF WEIGHT
MAX SPEED VS MAX TAKE-OFF WEIGHT (MTOW)(KG)

30000
25000
20000
mtow
15000
10000
5000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
max speed
Graph 5.2.8 max speed vs mtow
Max Take Off Weight – 21000 kg
43
5.2.9MAX SPEED vs PAYLOAD WEIGHT
MAX SPEED VS PAYLOAD(KG)

2000
1800
1600
1400
payload
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
max speed
Graph 5.2.9 max speed vs payload

Payload Weight –1590kg
5.2.10 MAX SPEED vs RANGE
max speed vs Range(km)

10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
range
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
max speed
Graph 5.2.10 max speed vs range
44
5.2.11MAX SPEED vs RATE OF CLIMB
max speed vs Rate of Climb(m/s)
30
25
Rate of Climb
20
15
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
max speed
Graph 5.2.11 max speed vs rate pf climb
Rate of Climb – 20.5 m/s
5.2.12 MAX SPEED vs SERVICE CEILING
Service Ceiling(m)
18000
16000
14000
service ceiling
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
max speed
Graph 5.2.12 max speed vs service ceiling
Service Ceiling – 13666.6m

45
5.2DESIGN PARAMETERS FROM GRAPH
FLIGHT SI Unit Value Imperial Value

PARAMETERS Unit
LENGTH m 22 ft 72.17
FUEL WEIGHT kg 7666.7 lb 16902.18
WING AREA m2 42 ft2 285.2
WING SPAN m 19 ft 62.336
ASPECT RATIO 8 8.25
MTOW kg 21000 lb 46297.07
EMPTY WEIGHT kg 12333.3 lb 27190.27
PAYLOAD WEIGHT kg 1590 lb 3505.35
THRUST kn 35 lbf 7.86
SERVICE CEILING M 13666.6 miles 8.492
RANGE km 6333.3 miles 3935.33
RATE OF CLIMB m/s 20.5 Miles/ hr 45.85
WING LOADING Kg/m2 433.26 lb/ft2 88.73
MAX.CRUISE Km/hr 866.6 Miles/ hr 538.48
46
CHAPTER 6
WEIGHT ESTIMATION
5.3INTRODUCTION:
To find the weight of the following parameters of an aircraft.
• Takeoff Weight (WTO)
• Fuel Weight (WF)
• Empty Weight (WE)
The following are the data which is obtained from the graph to proceed for the
Weight estimation.
• Max Speed = 538.48 miles/hr

• Takeoff weight = 46297.070 lbs
• Service ceiling (S.C) = 8.492 miles
• Range = 3935.33 miles
• Takeoff Distance (T.D) = 0.98731 miles
• Landing Distance (L.D)= 0.45663 miles
• Payload = 3505.5 lbs
RCR = R – [T.D + L.D + 2 x (S.C)]
Rcr = [3935.33 – (0.98731 + 0.45663 + (17))]
Where,
R – total range = 3935.33miles
T – Take off distance = 0.98731 miles
L – Landing distance = 0.45663 miles
Service ceiling = 8.492 miles
Rcr = 3916.8miles
47
6.2 MISSION PROFILE:
4 5 6
1 2 3 7 8
Description:
• 0-1 - Engine Start & Warm up
• 1-2 - Taxing
• 2-3 - Take off
• 3-4 - Climb
• 4-5 - Cruise
• 5-6 - Loitering
• 6-7 - Descent
• 7 - 8 - Landing, Taxi, Shutdown
6.3 MISSION FUEL FRACTION:
The following tables 6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6.3.3 will be used for getting the values for the
specified aircraft types.
Table 6.1 Suggested Fuel Fraction for Several Mission P
48
Table 6.2 Suggested value for L/D, Cj, Cp, ηp for several mission phases
Table 6.3 Regression line constant A & B
49
6.4 CALCULATION
Phase 1: Engine start and Warm-up
Begin weight is W0. End weight is W1 . The ratio = 0.97
Phase 2: Taxi
Begin weight is W1. End weight is W2. The ratio = 0.995
Phase 3: Take-off
Phase 4: Climb
Phase 5: Cruise
Begin weight is W4. End weight is W5. The amount of fuel used during cruise
can be found from Brequet’s range equation mentioned below.
Rcr
Rcr = [ R – (T + L + (2 X service ceiling))] = 3916.8
Rcr
3916.8=538.48 [12] ln [
0.5
Where,
V – speed (from graph) = 546.81 mph
𝐶𝑗 = 0.5
𝑊5
= 0.74
𝑊4
50
Phase 6: Loitering
Begin weight is W5. End weight is W6. The ratio W6/W5 can be estimate
from the
Brequet’s endurance equation which is mentioned below.
Elt
0.5 = 1/0.6 [12] ln [
The mission profile assumes no range credit during loiter.
𝑊6
= 0.983
𝑊5
Phase 7: Descent
Begin Weight is W6. End Weight is W7. No credit is taken for range.
However, a penalty for fuel used during descents from high altitudes needs
to be assessed. Typically, the ratio
= 0.990
Phase 8: Landing, Taxi and Shutdown

Begin Weight is W14. End Weight is W15. Typically, the ratio
Mission Fuel – Fraction (𝑴𝒇𝒇):

The Overall mission fuel-fraction, Mff can now be computed as
51
= (0.990) (0.995) (0.995) (0.980) (0.74) (0.983) (0.990)(0.992)
Mff=0.77
Maximum Take-off Weight ( WTO):
WTO =46297.070lbs
Payload Weight (WPayload):

WPayload = 3505.5lbs
Crew Weight (WCrew):

WCrew = (170 + 25) * Number of crew
= (175 + 25) * 4
WCrew = 820 lbs
Weight of Fuel (Wf):

Wf = Wf used Wres
i. Wf used:
Wf used = (1 - 𝑀𝑓𝑓) * WTO
Where, 𝑀𝑓𝑓 = 0.7
WTO = 46297.70 lbs
Wf used = (1 - 0.7) * 46297.70

Wf used =13889.1225 lbs
ii. Weight of Fuel Reserve (Wres):
Wres = 10-15 % of fuel used

= 10 % of fuel used
Wres = 276.8 lbs
Wf = Wfused + Wres
13889.1225 + 276.8
Wf = 17361.40 lbs
Weight of Trapped Fuel Oil (WTFO):

WTFO = 0.5 % of WTO
WTFO = 2374.85 lbs
52
Weight of Operative Empty (WOE Tent):
WOE Tent = WTO - Wf – WPayload
=46297.07–17361.40–3500 , WOE Tent = 27635.675 lbs
Weight of Empty (WE Tent):

WE Tent = WOE Tent – WTFO – WCrew - WFE
= 46297.07 – 2374.85 – 820 – 231.48
WE Tent = 24878.86 lbs
Weight of Actual (WE Actual):

WE Actual = inv log
A = 0.2678; B = 0.9979
46297.070−0.26789
=inv log1010log⁡ 0.9979
WE Actual = 24928.72lbs
Difference Between WE Actual and WE Tent:

WE Actual - WE Tent = 24928.72-24878.86
WE Actual - WE Tent =49.86 lbs
Percentage of Error:
% Error = [ ] * 100
24928.72−24878.86
= * 100
24928.72
% Error = 0.20 %
RESULT
PARAMETERS SI UNIT (Kg) IMPERIAL UNIT (Lbs)

Take-off Weight (WTO) 21000 46297.070
Fuel Weight (WF ) 7874.99 17361.40
Empty Weight(WE ) 12333.29 27190.27
53
CHAPTER 7
POWERPLANT SELECTION
7.1 INTRODUCTION
An airplane, an object which is Airborne. It is the multidisciplinary
area where Aerodynamics, Structures, Propulsion, control & stability
place a major role in the formation of an aircraft. Unlike automobile
engines, these engines are Air-breathing engines which use atmospheric
air as the medium for airborne. There is a different kind of engines
equipped with an aircraft,
7.2 TYPES OF ENGINES
1. Piston engine 2. Turbofan

3. Turboprop 4. Turbojet
5. Ramjet 6. Scramjet
7.2.1 Piston Engine

The reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically
a heat engine (although there are also pneumatic and hydraulic
reciprocating engines) that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to
convert pressure into a rotating motion.
7.2.2 Turbofan
Turbofan engines, which power the majority of Turbofan commercial
aircraft, are turbine engines that have been fitted with a powerful front-end
fan. The fan sends air into the combustor, similar to a turbojet engine.
However, the fan also sends a second stream of air through a larger cylinder
entirely outside (and around) the engine core. This second stream of air
provides additional thrust, cools the engine, and also serves to reduce
engine noise. Turbofans are interchangeably referred to as bypass engines,
in reference to this airflow that bypasses the combustor.
7.2.3 Turbojet
Turbojets are jet engines that depend exclusively on Turbojet the thrust of jet
exhaust expelled by the engine for propulsion. Turbojet engines are
extraordinarily powerful and only efficient at extremely high speeds. As
such, they are more likely to be found in a missile, although the now defunct
Concorde jet is an example of a turbojet powered commercial aircraft.
7.2.4 Turboprop
Like turbojet and turbofan engines aircraft, Turboprop engines rely on a gas
turbine for power. However, in the case of a turboprop aircraft, the turbine
drives a rotating shaft, which in turn drives a reduction gear, which
ultimately drives a propeller. The reduction gear is necessary to convert
the high-speed shaft rotation into slower, functional propeller speed. Most
of the power generated in a turboprop aircraft is used to drive the propeller
7.2.5 Ramjet
The Ramjet uses the open Brayton cycle. No rotating machinery is used and
compression is achieved by the intake and diffuser. As such they require
speed to compress air enough that good efficiency can be achieved. Ramjets
are inefficient at subsonic speeds and their efficiency improves at
supersonic speeds.
7.2.6 Scramjet
The scramjet ("supersonic combustion ramjet") is a variant of a ramjet air-
breathing jet engine in which combustion takes place in supersonic airflow.
As in ramjets, a scramjet relies on high vehicle speed to compress the
incoming air forcefully before combustion (hence ramjet), but whereas a
55
ramjet decelerates the air to subsonic velocities before combustion, the
airflow in a scramjet is supersonic throughout the entire engine. That allows
the scramjet to operate efficiently at extremely high speeds.
7.2.7 Pulsejet
A pulsejet engine (or pulse jet) is a type of jet engine in which combustion
occurs in pulses. A pulsejet engine can be made with few or no moving
parts and is capable of running statically (i.e. it does not need to have air
forced into its inlet typically by forward motion). Pulsejet engines are a
lightweight form of jet propulsion, but usually have a poor compression
ratio, and hence give a low specific impulse.
7.3 THRUST REQUIRED CALCULATION
Table 0.3 From Chapter 5, Table.no-5.3
Jet trainer 0.488 0.728

Jet fighter (dogfighter) 0.648 0.594
Jet fighter (other) 0.514 0.141
Military cargo/ bomber 0.244 0.341
Jet transport 0.267 0.363
From above table for Jet Transport,
=0.267 ; c =0.363
From Result of Weight Estimation,
From Graph, Umax=240.722

T=217K
Speed of sound(a)=√𝜸𝑹𝑻
(a)=√𝟏. 𝟒 ∗ 𝟐𝟖𝟕 ∗ 𝟐𝟏𝟕=295.28
W.K.T,
56
𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 240.722
Mmax = = = 0.81
295.28 295.28
𝑇(𝑅)
=0.267*0.810.363
𝑊(0)
⇒ 𝐓𝐑 = 51.07 KN
CALCULATION:
T 51.07 × 103
⇒ =
W 21000*9.81
𝐓
𝐖
= 𝟎. 247
The thrust produced should be 10% more than the required thrust.
Hence, Thrust required is T= 51.07KN
Therefore, Thrust required for single engine is 25.53 KN.
7.4 SELECTION OF ENGINE

Choice of the engine is a Turbofan for obvious reasons such as higher
operating fuel economy & efficiency for high payloads.
A list of engines with weight and thrust matching our requirements

are chosen and are tabulated below
The preferable choice of engine, from the above, would Pratt & Whitney
CanadaPW308C engine which meets our demand of weight and power.
7.5 DETAILS ABOUT THE ENGINE:

The Pratt & Whitney CanadaPW308C is a series of medium thrust turbofan
engines designed specifically for business jet applications.
57
S.NO Name of the Name of the Engine Dry SFC Total
Aircraft Engine type Thrust Thrust
(KN) (lb/hrlbf) ( KN)
1 Dassault Pratt & Whitney Turbofan 23.24 0.407 23.24
Falcon CanadaPW308C
2000EX/DX/LX
2 Citation Honeywell Turbofan 31 0.73 31
XLS+ HTF7350
3 Citation III Pratt & Whitney Turbofan 21.4 0.407 21.4

CanadaPW308A
4 British Honeywell Turbofan 33 0.65 33
Aerospace 125 HTF7350
5 Citation CJ4 Roll-Royce Turbofan 33.7 0.7 33.7
AE3007A1E
Table 7.5.1 Comparison of different engines
Figure 7.5.2Pratt & Whitney Canada PW308c
The PW530 has a single stage fan, driven by a 2-stage LP turbine, supercharging
a 2A/1CF axial-centrifugal HP compressor, driven by a single stage HP turbine.
Rated at 2,887 pounds of thrust, it entered service in February 1997.
58
Although similar in configuration, the PW535 has a T-stage, mounted on
the LP shaft behind the fan, to increase overall pressure ratio and core flow.
It entered service in September 2000
Similar to the PW535, the PW545 has an additional LP turbine stage to

drive a larger diameter fan. It entered service in July 1998
7.6 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS:
PW545C ENGINE:
• Thrust (lb) : 5260.52
• Specific Fuel Consumption
((lb/h)/lbf) : 0.407
• Bypass Ratio : 4.5
• Overall Pressure Ratio :15:1
• Overall Length (in) : 81.2
• Approximate Fan Diameter (in) :38.20
7.7 CONCLUSION:
7.5.2 Pratt & Whitney Canada PW308c engine is selected and it gives 23.24 of
thrust with Twin turbofan engines equipped
59
CHAPTER 8
WING SELECTION
8.1 Selection of Number of wings:
There are three types of wings that exists based on the number of wings of
an aircraft.
• Monoplane,
• Biplane,
• Triplane.
8.1.1 Monoplane:
A monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with a single main wing plane, in
contrast to a biplane or other multiplane, each of which has multiple
planes. A monoplane has inherently the highest efficiency and lowest drag
of any wing configuration and is the simplest to build.
The monoplane has been the most common form for a fixed-wing aircraft.
8.1.2 Biplane:
A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main wings stacked one above
the other. The Biplanes offer several advantages over conventional
cantilever monoplanes designs: they permit lighter wing structures, low
wing loading and smaller span for a given wing area. However, interference
between the airflow over each wing increases drag substantially, and
biplanes generally need extensive bracing, which causes additional drag.
8.1.3 Triplane:
A Triplane is a fixed-wing aircraft equipped with three vertical
stacked wing planes. Tail planes and canard fore planes are not normally
included in this count, although they may be occasionally. A Triplane
60
arrangement has a narrower wing chord than a biplane of similar span and
area.
Selected Type: Monoplane. A monoplane is very efficient and less heavy

than a biplane especially when the aircraft has higher cruise speeds. The
monoplane design eliminates lift induced drag and it also eliminates extra
structural support mass needed to support extra set of wings.
8.2 Wing support:
To support itself a wing has to be rigid and strong and consequently may
be heavy. By adding external bracing, the weight can be greatly reduced.
Two types of wing support available: Cantilever and semi-cantilever.
8.2.1 Cantilever support:

Self-supporting, All the structure is buried under the aerodynamic skin,
giving a clean appearance with low drag.
8.2.2 Semi-Cantilever support:

Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which
transmit the flight and landing loads through the struts to the main fuselage
structure. Since the wing struts are usually attached approximately halfway
out on the wing, this type of wing structure is called semi-cantilever.
Selected Type: Cantilever. The wings of most naval aircraft are of all
metal, full cantilever construction. The wing can be fastened to the fuselage
without the use of external bracing, such as wires or struts. A complete
wing assembly consists of the surface providing lift for the support of the
aircraft.
61
8.3 Wing location:
The wing may be mounted at various positions relative to the
fuselage:
• Low wing: mounted near or below the bottom of the fuselage.

• Mid wing: mounted approximately halfway up the fuselage.
• Shoulder wing: mounted on the upper part or "shoulder" of the
fuselage, slightly below the top of the fuselage. A shoulder wing is
sometimes considered a subtype of high wing.
• High wing: mounted on the upper fuselage. When contrasted to the
shoulder wing, applies to a wing mounted on a projection (such as the
cabin roof) above the top of the main fuselage.
• Parasol wing: raised clear above the top of the fuselage, typically by ca
bane struts, pylon(s) or pedestal(s).
Selected Type: Low Wing. A low wing enchases take off performance of
an aircraft. It lowers the drag of the aircraft as it a low wing design has a
lower cross-sectional area than a high wing design. Low wing design is also
lighter as the wing need not to be as structurally reinforced as in a high wing
design, struts are also eliminated.
8.4 Wing planform:

The wing planform is the silhouette of the wing when viewed from above or below.
8.4.1 Elliptical:
Leading and trailing edges are curved such that the chord
length varies elliptically with respect to span.
Theoretically the most efficient, but difficult to make.
Famously used on the Supermarine Spitfire. (Note that in
aerodynamics theory, the term "elliptical" describes the
optimal lift distribution over a wing and not its shape). Figure 8.4.1 Elliptical
62
8.4.2Delta:
Triangular planform with swept leading edge and straight trailing edge.
Offers the advantages of a swept wing, with good structural efficiency and
low frontal area. Disadvantages are the low wing loading and high wetted
area needed to obtain aerodynamic stability. Variants are:
1. Tailless delta: a classic high-speed design, used for example
in the Dassault Mirage III series.
2. Tailed delta: adds a conventional tail plane, to improve
handling. Used on the Mikoyan- Gurevich MiG-21.
3. Cropped delta: wing tips are cut off. This helps avoid tip drag
at high angles of attack. The Fairey Delta 1 also had a tail. At
the extreme, merges into the "tapered swept" configuration.
4. Compound delta or double delta: inner section has a
(usually) steeper leading edge sweep as on the Saab Draken.
This improves the lift at high angles of attack and delays or
prevents stalling. By contrast, the Saab Viggen has an inner
section of reduced sweep to avoid interference from its canard
foreplane.
5. Ogival delta: a smoothly blended "wineglass" double-curve

encompassing the leading edges and tip of a cropped
compound delta.
Seen in tailless form on the Concorde supersonic transports.
63
8.4.3 Swept:
Wings may be swept back, or occasionally forwards, for a
variety of reasons. A small degree of sweep is sometimes
used to adjust the centre of lift when the wing cannot be
attached in the ideal position for some reason, such as pilot's
visibility from the cockpit. Other uses are described below.
1. Straight: extends at right angles to the line of flight.

The most structurally-efficient wing, it has been common for
low-speed designs since the very first days of the Wright Flyer.
2. Swept back (aka "swept wing"): The wing sweeps rearwards
from the root to the tip. In early tailless examples, such as the
Dunne aircraft, this allowed the outer wing section to act like a
conventional empennage (tail) to provide aerodynamic stability.
At transonic speeds swept wings have lower drag, but can handle
badly in or near a stall and require high stiffness to avoid
aeroelasticity at high speeds.
3. Forward swept: the wing angles forward from the root. Benefits
are similar to backwards sweep, also it avoids the stall problems
and has reduced tip losses allowing a smaller wing, but requires
even greater stiffness to avoid aeroelastic flutteras on the Sukhoi
Su-47.
8.4.4 Tapper wings

Tapered Wings. Not all wings are rectangular. Another
way to reduce drag while increasing strength is with a
trapezoid-shaped wing. Another name for this wing is a
tapered wing.
Figure 8 4 Tapered Wing

-
64
"To taper" means to make something gradually smaller at one end.
Selected Type: Tapper Wing. The wing is tapered at the end to avoid
creation of high vortices which causes drag and reduce the efficiency of the
wing.
8.5 Selection of Angle:

Angling the wings up or down spanwise from root to tip can help to resolve
various design issues, such as stability and control in flight.
• Dihedral: the tips are higher than the root as on the Santos-Dumont 14-
bis, giving a shallow 'V' shape when seen from the front. Adds lateral
stability.
• Anhedral: the tips are lower than the root, as on the first Wright Flyer;
the opposite of dihedral. Used to reduce stability where some other
feature results in too much stability.
Selected Type: Dihedral. Dihedral

improves lateral (roll) stability of the
aircraft. The placement of wings at
lowers side decreases the lateral
stability to a small extent, this is to be
compensated by dihedral and additional lateral stability is to be provided, as
for a civil aviation aircraft stability is a desired feature.
8.6 WING DESIGN CALCULATION:

8.6.1 WING AREA (S):
S = 20.41 𝑚2 ( from graph)

Where,
65
𝑊𝑇𝑂 = 21,000 kg (From Weight estimation)
Wing loading = 433.6 kg/m2 (From Graph)
8.6.2 ASPECT RATIO (A.R):

A.R = 8 (From Graph)
Wing span, b = 19 m
Where,
Wing Area, S = 42 m2
8.6.3 ROOT CHORD (CR):
𝑊𝐼𝑁𝐺⁡𝑆𝑃𝐴𝑁 19
CR= = =2.2
𝐴𝑆𝑃𝐸𝐶𝑇⁡𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑂 8
8.6.4 TAPER RATIO (𝝀):
Where,
Taper ratio, 𝜆0.5
CT=0.5*2.2=1.105
Ct = 1.105 m
8.6.5 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD – MAC (𝑪̂):
MAC, x CR x (
Where,
CR = 2.2 m
𝜆 = 0.5
MAC, 𝐶 = 1.71 m
8.6.6 VOLUME OF FUEL WEIGHT:
𝑊𝐸𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇⁡𝑂𝐹⁡𝐹𝑈𝐸𝐿 7874.998573
Volume of fuel weight = = =9.84
800 800
𝑘𝑔
Volume of fuel weight = 9.84
𝑚3
Where,
66
Weight of fuel = 7874.99 kg
Density of fuel = 800 kg/m3
8.6.7 THICKNESS OF ROOT CHORD (CR) AND TIP CHORD (Ct):

2
20 % of Volume of fuel weight = x 0.375 x b
Where,
20 % of Volume of fuel weight = 0.3448 m3
𝐶 = 1.118 m b =19m
𝑡
=0.09=0.1
𝑐
Thickness of Root chord (TR): TR = 0.0566 x CR

= 0.0566 x 2.21
TR 0.125m
Thickness of Tip chord (Tt): Tt = 0.0566 x Ct
= 0.0566 x 1.105
Tt = 0.062m
67
CHAPTER 9
AIRFOIL SELECTION
9.1 AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE:

The aerofoil is the main aspect and is the heart of the aeroplane. The
aerofoil affects the cruise speed, landing distance and take off distance, stall
speed and handling qualities and aerodynamic efficiency during all phases of
flight.
Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions,

design/selection, families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio, lift
curve slope, characteristic
curves.
Chord line: It is the straight line

connecting leading edge (LE)
and trailing edge (TE).
Chord (c): It is the length of

chord line.
Thickness (t):measured
perpendicular to chord line as a % of Figure 9.1 Aerofoil it
(subsonic typically 12%).
Camber (d): It is the curvature of the section, perpendicular distance of section
mid-points from chord line as a % of it (sub sonically typically 3%).
The angle of attack (α): It is the angular difference between the chord line and
airflow direction.
The following are aerofoil categories:
1. Early it was based on trial & error.
2. NACA 4 digit is introduced during 1930’s.

3. NACA 5-digit is aimed at pushing position of max camber forwards
for increased
68
CLmax.
4. NACA 6-digit is designed for lower drag by increasing region of
laminar flow.
5. Modern it is mainly based on the need for improved aerodynamic
characteristics at speeds just below the speed of sound.
S.N Name Thick Camb Cl Cl (L/D) (Cl/Cd) Cd Cm (t/c) Stall

O of the ness% er% max max max max min Quality
Aerofoil angle
of
attack
1 BOEING 10.1 1.7 15.0 0.796 20.03 67.191 0.006 0.01 2.7 Good
J
2 FX 79-2- 14.9 3.5 14 1.597 60.013 60.013 0.008 0.01 4.2 Better
100
3 GILL 15 4 14 1.643 55.43 55.43 0.007 0 3.75 Good
BL45
4 NACA 13.1 5.4 9 1.634 86.544 86.544 0.007 0 2.42 Better
0010-34
5 SD8020- 11.7 4 12 1.517 62.266 62.266 0.007 0.02 2.9 Good
010-88
Table 9.1 Comparison of different airfoil
NACA 4 Digit:
 1st digit: maximum camber (as % of chord).
 2nd digit (x10): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from

leading edge (LE)).
 3rd & 4th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).
NACA 5 Digit:
 1st digit (x0.15): design lift coefficient.
69
 2nd & 3rd digits (x0.5): location of maximum camber (as % of chord
from LE).
 4th & 5th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).
NACA 6 Digit:
 1st digit: identifies the series type.
 2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from

leading edge (LE)).
 3rd digit: indicates an acceptable range of CL above/below design

value for satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of CL).
 4th digit (x0.1): design CL.
 5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)
From the above list of aerofoils, the one chosen is the EPPLER 396
AIRFOIL which have the suitable lift coefficient for the current design.
In order to obtain better span-wise distribution of lift and to have better

stalling characteristics (the root should stall before the tip so that the
pilot may realize and avoid a stall by sensing the vibrations on his
control stick), it is usually necessary to provide a lower t/c to the tip
section and a higher t/c to the root section.
Hence,
-EPPLER
Section used at the mean aerodynamic chord
396AIRFOIL
The section used at the tip -SG6042
The section used at the root -NACA 4415
70
CHORD AIRFOIL CLmax
ROOT BOEING J 0.796
MEAN SD8020-010-88 0.797
TIP GILL BL45 0.790
Table 9.1 Aerofoil selection for root, tip and mean chord
0.796+0.797+0.790
CLMAX= =0.794
3
CLMAX(Avialable)=0.79*0.9=0.712
9.2 AEROFOIL GEOMETRY SELECTION
9.2.1 BOEING J:
Figure 9.2.1 Geometry BOEING J Airfoil
9.2.2 SD8020-010-88 AIRFOIL
71
Figure 9.2.2 Geometry of SD8020-010-88 Airfoil
9.2.3 GILL BL45
Figure 9.2.3 Geometry of GILL BL45 Airfoil
72
9.3 PERFORMANCE CURVES
9.3.1 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil BOEING J
Figure 9.3.1 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil BOEING J

73
9.3.2 Performance curves for the chosen SD8020-010-88 AIRFOIL
Figure 9.3.2 Performance curves for the chosen SD8020-010-88 AIRFOIL
74
9.3.3 Performance curves for the chosen GILL BL45
Figure 9.3.2 Performance curves for the chosen GILL BL45

75
9.4 HIGH LIFTING DEVICES:
In aircraft design and aerospace engineering, a high-lift device is a
component or mechanism on an aircraft's wing that increases the amount
of lift produced by the wing. The device may be a fixed component or a
movable mechanism which is deployed when required. Common
movable high-lift devices include wing flaps and slats. Fixed devices
include leading-edge root extensions and boundary layer control
systems, which are less commonly used.
9.5 Types of devices:
• Flaps
• Slots & Slats
• Boundary layer control and blown flaps • Leading edge root
extension.
Figure 9-5 Types of flaps
76
CHAPTER 10
TAIL PLANE SELECTION
10.1 Conventional-Tail
The conventional tail design is the most common form. It has one vertical
stabilizer placed at the tapered tail section of the fuselage and one horizontal
stabilizer divided into two parts, one on each side of the vertical stabilizer.
For many airplanes, the conventional arrangement provides adequate
stability and control with the lowest structural weight. About three-quarters
of the airplanes in operation today, including the Airbus A300, the Boeing
777 and 747, and the Beech Bonanza A-36, use this arrangement.
10.2 Cruciform-Tail
The horizontal stabilizers are placed midway up the vertical stabilizer,

giving the appearance of a cross when viewed from the front. Cruciform
tails are often used to keep the horizontal stabilizers out of the engine wake,
while avoiding many of the disadvantages of a T-tail.
Examples include the Hawker Sea Hawk and Douglas A-4 Skyhawk.
10.3 T-tail
The horizontal stabilizer is mounted on top of the fin, creating a "T" shape
when viewed from the front. T-tails keep the stabilizers out of the engine
wake, and give better pitch control. Ttails have a good glide ratio, and are
more efficient on low speed aircraft. However, T-tails are more likely to
enter a deep stall, and are more difficult to recover from a spin. T-tails must
be stronger, and therefore heavier than conventional tails. T-tails also have
a larger radar cross section.
77
10.4 V-Tail
The V-Tail, sometimes called the “butterfly” tail, has had limited
application in airplane design, the most significant of which has been by
the Beech Company in the Beech-craft Bonanza V35. Clearly, the usual
definition of horizontal and vertical stabilizers has no application to the V
tail. The intended advantage of the V-tail design is that two surfaces might
serve the same function as the three required in the conventional tail and its
variants. Removal of one surface then would reduce the drag of the tail
surfaces as well as the weight of the tail region.
10.5 Triple-Tail
The triple-tail design, with two vertical stabilizers placed at the ends of
the horizontal stabilizers and one mounted on the fuselage, is attractive
when the height of the vertical stabilizer must meet certain restrictions,
such as hangar-door height.
Certainly, this was the important consideration in the design of the
Lockheed
Constellation, one of the most significant passenger airplanes of the late
1940′s.
Another well-known example of the triple-tail design is the Grumman E-2
Hawkeye.
10.6 Twin boom
A twin-boom aircraft is characterized by two longitudinal booms (extended

nacellelike bodies) fixed to its main wing on either side of its centre line.
The booms may contain ancillary items such as fuel tanks and/or provide a
78
supporting structure for external ancillary items. Typically, twin tail booms
provide mounting points for one or more tail surfaces, although on some
types such as the Rutan Model 72 Grizzly the booms run forward of the
main wing.
10.7 H-Tail
The vertical tail end-plate effect improves the aerodynamic performance

of the horizontal tail.
The H-tail allows the twin vertical tail span to be shorter. The aircraft
―Lockheed constellation‖ had to employ an H-tail configuration to be
able to park inside short height hangars.
10.8 Tailless
A tailless aircraft has no tail assembly and no other horizontal surface

besides its main wing. The aerodynamic control and stabilization functions
in both pitch and roll are incorporated into the main wing. A tailless type
may still have a conventional vertical fin (vertical stabilizer) and rudder.
Theoretical advantages of the tailless configuration include low parasitic
drag as on the Horten H.IV soaring glider and good stealth characteristics
as on the Northrop B-2 Spirit bomber.
10.9 Y-Tail
Keeps the prop off the ground and the propwash from interfering with the
optics. The outer ends of the horizontal stabilizers are lower than the ends
attached to the fuselage.
Selected Type: Cruciform Tail. Horizontal stabilizers is present in
midway of vertical stabilizers and cruciform empennage configuration is
used. The tail which is more efficient and produces less drag.
79
CHAPTER 11
LANDING GEAR SELECTION
11.1 Types Of Landing Gear
11.1.1 Fixed
Landing gear employing a rear-mounted wheel is called fixed landing gear.
Fixed gear is designed to simplify design and operation. The advantages
are that it is always deployed and its initial installments cost is low.
Whereas its disadvantage is that produces constant drag.
11.1.2 Retractable
A retractable gear is designed to streamline the airplane by allowing the
landing gear to be stowed inside the structure during cruising flight. The
primary benefits of being able to retract the landing gear are increased climb
performance and higher cruise airspeeds due to the resulting decrease in
drag. Retractable landing gear systems may be operated either hydraulically
or electrically, or may employ a combination of the two systems. Warning
indicators are provided in the cockpit to show the pilot when the wheels are
down and locked and when they are up and locked or if they are in
intermediate positions. Systems for emergency operation are also provided.
Selected Type: Retractable. The retractability adds to overall efficiency of

the aircraft. The retractable gear produces lower drag than fixed ones and
also permit aircraft to cruise at high speeds.
11.2 Landing Gear Configuration
11.2.1 Single wheel landing Gear
The single-wheel configuration, defined as a main gear of having a total of

two wheels, one on each strut, the dual-wheel configuration, defined as a
80
main gear of having a total of four wheels, two on each strut, and the dual-
tandem configuration, defined as two sets of wheels on each strut.
11.2.2 Bicycle
A relatively uncommon landing gear option is the bicycle undercarriage.
Bicycle gear features two main gear along the centerline of the aircraft, one
forward and one aft of the center of gravity. Preventing the plane from
tilting over sideways are two small outrigger gear mounted along the wing.
11.2.3 Tricycle
The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the tricycle-type
landing gear. It is comprised of main gear and nose gear. Tricycle-type
landing gear is used on large and small aircraft. It allows more forceful
application of the brakes without nosing over when braking, which enables
higher landing speeds.
11.2.4 Quadricycle
Quadricycle gear are also very similar to the bicycle arrangement except
there are four main gear roughly equal in size and mounted along the
fuselage. Like bicycle gear, the quadricycle undercarriage also requires a
very flat attitude during takeoff and landing. This arrangement is also very
sensitive to roll, crosswinds, and proper alignment with the runway. The
most significant advantage of quadricycle gear is that the plane's floor can
be very close to the ground for easier loading and unloading of cargo.
However, this benefit comes at the price of much higher weight and drag
than bicycle gear.
11.2.5 Multi-bogey
A final variation that is worth mentioning is the use of multiple wheels per
landing gear strut. It is especially common to place two wheels on the nose
strut of the tricycle arrangment to provide safety and steering control in case
of a tire blowout. This additional tire is particularly useful on carrier-based
aircraft where two nosewheels are a requirement
81
CHAPTER 12
FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION
12.1 Construction Type:
12.1.1 Monocoque
The monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on the strength of the
skin or covering to carry the primary loads. Monocoque construction uses
stressed skin to support almost all loads much like an aluminum beverage
can. Because most twisting and bending stresses are carried by the external
skin rather than by an open framework, the need for internal bracing was
eliminated or reduced, saving weight and maximizing space.
12.1.2 Semi-Monocoque
To overcome the strength/weight problem of monocoque construction, a
modification called semi monocoque construction was developed. It also consists of
frame assemblies, bulkheads, and formers as used in the monocoque design but,
additionally, the skin is reinforced by longitudinal members called longerons. They
usually extend across several frame members and help the skin support primary
bending loads. Stringers are also used in the semi-monocoque fuselage. These
longitudinal members are typically more numerous and lighter in weight than the
longerons.
12.1.3 Geodesic Truss Construction
Geodesic airframe is a type of construction for the airframes of aircraft
developed by British aeronautical engineer Barnes Wallis in the 1930s. It
makes use of a space frame formed from a spirally crossing basket-weave
of load-bearing members. The principle is that two geodesic arcs can be
drawn to intersect on the fuselage in a manner that the torsional load on
each cancel out that on the other.
82
Selected type: Semi-Monocoque Structure. Semi-Monocoque structure offers
higher strength to weight ratio than other forms of aircraft structure. It distributes
the load between the skin and the structure it is lighter than the monocoque aircraft
structure and it is most preferred aircraft structure.
Figure 12-1 Semi-Monocoque Fuselage structure
83
CHAPTER 13
LIFT AND DRAG CALCULATION
13.1 LIFT ESTIMATION:
13.1.1 Lift at Take-off:
ρ = Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/m3

Vstall = stalling speed = 101.64 m/s
V = 0.7*1.2*Vstall = 85.377 m/s
𝐶𝐿⁡𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 1.512
CLTAKE OFF= = =1.56
𝐶𝑂𝑆𝛿 0.965
s = wing area = 41.21 m2

CLmax = coefficient of lift = 1.56
1
𝐿= 2
X 1.225 X (85.37) 2 X 41.21 X 1.56
L = 286974.8 N
L = 286.9748 KN
13.1.2 Lift at Cruise:
= Density at 14400 m = 0.2Kg/m3

V = Vcruise = cruising speed =0.25*240.7=60.185 m/s
W0*g=0.5*0.24*101.642*41.21*cl
CLmax = Cruising Lift Coefficient = 0.79
84
CLTOTAL=CLAVAIL+∆𝐹𝐿𝐴𝑃
=0.712+0.8=1.512.
1 2
𝐿= 2
X 0.24 X (60.18) X 41.21 X 0.79
L = 14148.66 N
L= 14.1486 KN
13.1.3 Lift at Landing:
= Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/m3

Vstall = stalling speed = 101.64 m/s
V = 0.7*1.3*Vstall =
92.49m/s s = wing area =
41.21 m2
𝐶𝐿⁡𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 1.512
CLTAKE OFF= = =1.74
𝐶𝑂𝑆𝛿 0.866
CLmax = Maximum coefficient of lift = 1.74
X 1.225 X (92.49)2 X 41.21 X 1.74

L = 375705.46 N
13.2 DRAG ESTIMATION:
h = service celing =16500 m

b = Wing span = 11.07 m
16 𝑋 16500 2
(
∅= 11.07 )
16 𝑋 16500
1 + ( 11.07 )2
∅ = 0.99
85
13.2.1 Drag at Take-Off:

Vstall=stallingspeed101.1m/s
V=0.7*1.2*Vstall=85.377m/s
CLmax = coefficient of lift = 1.56

CDO = 0.0066
Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.8

AR = Aspect Ratio = 8.25
0.9∗1.562
=0.5*1.225*85.37*85.37*41.21[0.0066+( )]
3.14∗0.8∗8
D = 21253.35 N
13.2.2 Drag at Cruise:
= Density at max altitude = 0.622 Kg/m3

Vcruise=cruisingSpeed=0.25*24
0.7 m/s
CL = cruising lift coefficient = 0.79
CDO = 0.0066
Oswald efficiency factor e = 0.8 , AR = Aspect Ratio = 8
D=0.5*0.24*60.182*41.21[0.0066+(0.9*0.792/3.14*0.8*8)]
D = 618.53 N
86
13.2.3 Drag at Landing:

Vstall=stallingspeed=101.1
V=0.7*1.2*Vstall=92.49 m/s
s=wingarea=41.21 m2
CLmax = Maximum coefficient of lift = 1.74
CDO = 0.0066
Oswald efficiency factor

e = 0.8
AR = Aspect Ratio = 8
D=0.5*1.225*92.492*41.21(0.0066+(0.9*1.742/3.14*0.8*8))
D = 30687.45 N
13.3 Result:
Table 13-3 Lift and Drag Results
Condition Lift (KN) Drag (KN)
Take off 286.9748 21.25
Cruise 14.1486 0.6185
Landing 375.705 30.68
87
CHAPTER 14
PERFORMANCE CALCULATION
14.1 Rate of climb and Rate of Sink:
 Thrust Available:
 Thrust required:
6.566 KN
 Power Available:
 Power Required:
 Rate of Climb:
 Rate of Sink:
0.096
2 𝑋 6123 1 0.096 3
R⁄𝑆 = ( 1.225
)2 𝑋 (1.390 )2
R/S = 4.87m/s
88
14.2 TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE:
Distance from rest to clearance of obstacle in flight path and usually
considered in two parts:
• Ground roll - rest to lift-off (SLO)

• Airborne distance - lift-off to specified height (35 ft FAR, 50 ft others).
The aircraft will accelerate up to lift-off speed (Vlo = about 1.2 x VStall)
when it will then be rotated.
A first-order approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be made
from:
This shows its sensitivity to W (W2) and (1/ since T also varies with
). Slo may reduce by increasing T, S or Cl, max (high lift devices relate to
latter two).
An improved approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be
made by including drag, rolling resistance and ground effect terms.
The bracketed term will vary with speed but an approximation may be
made by using an instantaneous value for when V = 0.7 x Vlo In the above
equation:
Where accounts for drag reduction when in ground effect:
29Where h = height above ground, b = wingspan.
89
= 0.02 for smooth paved surface, 0.1 for grass.
CALCULATION:
N
1.44∗(21000∗9.81)2
Slo =⁡⁡ s
, lo=2949.67m
9.81∗1.225∗42∗1.512(46780−(21250+(0.02(21000∗9.81−286974.8)
14.3 LANDING PERFORMANCE:

APPROACH & LANDING
 Consists of three phases:

• Airborne approach at constant glide angle (around 30) and constant
speed.
• Flare - transitional manoeuvre with airspeed reduced from about 1.3

VStall down to touch-down speed.
• Ground roll - from touch-down to rest.
 Ground roll landing distance (s3 or s1) estimated from:

Where Vav may be taken as 0.7 x touch-down speed (Vt or V2) and Vt is
assumed as
1.3 x Vstall
 is higher than for take-off since brakes are applied - use = 0.4 for
the paved surface.
 If thrust reversers (Tr) are applied, use:
90
CALCULATION:
1.69∗(21000∗9.81)2
Slo=
9.81∗1.225∗42∗1.512∗(46780+(375705+(0.02(21000∗9.81−30680)))
Slo=1268.9m
14.4 CLIMB HODOGRAPH:
From the diagram, it is observed that in a climb, the vertical velocity is

the rate of climb VC and the horizontal velocity is VH. From the
discussion in the diagram it is observed that for a chosen altitude, the
vertical velocity VC and the horizontal velocity VH change with the
flight speed V. A plot of the values of VC and VH at a particular altitude,
in which VC is plotted on y-axis and VH is plotted on the xaxis is called
‘Climb hodograph’. The diagram shows a hodograph, based on the sea
level climb performance of a jet aeroplane.
Figure 14-1 Climb Hodograph

In a hodograph the line, joining the origin to a point on the curve, has
the length proportional to the flight velocity (V) and the angle this line
makes to the horizontal axis (VH- axis) is the angle of climb (γ). This
91
becomes evident when it is noted that VC and VH are the components of
the flight velocity (V).
A line from the origin which is tangent to the hodograph gives the value
of γmax and also the velocity corresponding to the diagram. Actually, a
climb hodograph gives complete information about the climb
performance at the chosen altitude especially γmax, Vγmax, (R/C)
γmax, (R/C) max, V(R/C) max, γ(R/C) max and Vmax
Calculation:
92
14.4.1 Performance graph for Climbing Hodograph:
Figure 14-2 Climbing Hodograph
14.5 Glide hodograph

In the section 12.1, the climb hodograph was discussed. Similarly, a glide
hodograph is obtained when horizontal velocity Vh is plotted on the x-axis
and the rate of sink Vd is plotted on the y-axis. A typical diagram is shown.
Such a the diagram gives complete information about glide performance
at an altitude especially, γmin, Vγmin, (R/S) min, V(R/S) min, γ(R/S)
min
93
Figure 14-3 Glide Hodograph
Calculation:
(R/S)min = 4.87
m/s
m/s
= (0.003/0.048)^1/2 = 0.25
94
14.5.1 Performance graph for Gliding Hodograph:
Figure 14-4 Glide Hodograph
95
CHAPTER 15
RESULT AND CONCLUSION
15.1 Basic parameters:
Table 15.1 Final Basic Parameters
S.no Main Parameters Optimum value

1. Crew 2
2. Length 22 m
4. Wing Span(b) 19m
5. Wing area(s) 42 m2
6. Aspect ratio 8
15.2 Weight:
 Take-off weight WTO = 21000 Kg
 Fuel weight WF = 7874.99kg
 ActualweightWE=11284.86 Kg
15.3 Wing type:

Tapered wing with dihedral monoplane configuration mounted as a low
wing.
15.4 Airfoil chosen:

• Section used at the mean aerodynamic chord
EPPLER396AIRFOIL
• The section used at the tip - SG6042 The section used
at the root - NACA 4415
15.5 Fuselage type:

A semi-monocoque fuselage has been constructed.
96
15.6 Empennage type:
Tailless tail plane configuration with vertical stabilizers is mounted.
15.7 Engine type:

Twin Turbofan Engine with Engine mounted.
15.8 Landing Gear:

Retractable Tri-cyclic landing gears is constructed.
15.9 Lift calculation:

• Lift during takeoff: Lto= 286974.8 N
• Lift during cruise Lc = 14148.6N
• Lift during landing Ll= 375705N
15.10 Drag calculation:

• Drag during takeoff Dto = 21250N
• Drag during cruise Dc = 618.5N
• Drag during landing Dl = 30680N
15.11 Performance Calculation:

• Rate of climb = 20.5 m/s
• Take-off distance = 2949.67 m
• Landing distance = 1268.9 m
DISCUSSION
The Takeoff Weight estimated as 21000 Kg which most efficient for
business aircraft. Monoplane design was selected since it can carry payload
below wing without any disturbance. Tapered wing design configuration was
selected since it reduce drag and lift distribution increases. Low wing
configuration was selected to carry more payloads. Triple tail configuration was
selected with vertical stabilizer mounted.
The lift at takeoff was evaluated as 286974.8N which is most required fo
takeoff among other conditions such as cruise and landing. Drag at takeoff was
evaluated as 21250 N which should be less than landing condition. The takeoff
distance was 2949.67 m and landing distance was 1268.9 m.
97
16 THREE VIEWS OF BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT
Figure 16-1 Side View of Business Jet Aircraft
Figure 16-2 Top View of Business Jet Aircraft
Figure 16-3 Front View of Business Jet Aircraft
98
17 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS
The preliminary design of single engine business jet aircraft is done and the
various design considerations and performance parameters required are
calculated and found out. The obtained design values are not necessarily a
define reflection of the airplane’s true and conceptualized design, but the basic
outlay development has been obtained.
The final design stays true to the desired considerations of the business jet
aircraft that can provide high performance and considerable reduction in run-
way distance. Also, it has a considerable value of TSFC as well. This is no
ideal design and is highly subjected to improvisations and innovations to make
the design as ideal as possible.
During the onset of our work we faced various phases of the project that
made us understand how challenging the process of designing is so as to
make a perfect design. A lot of efforts have been put into this project and
as much as we have learnt at the same time.
FUTUTRE WORK
In the future the design elements will be put into more of tests. The structure of the
aircraft will be more refined. Analysis of various components of the aircraft will be
performed. A finite element analysis (FEA) on aircrafts structure is to be done and
various structural materials and components will be undertaken to find ideal
elements and material for aircrafts performance.
Computational fluid simulations will be conducted on the wings and the whole
aircraft as well to further refine the design. The next step would be wind tunnel
testing of the aircraft at various flight regimes. Then the final structure and
specification of the aircraft will be finalized which will be ideal first prototype.
We will also be continuing the structural analysis in the next year in aircraft design
project 2
99
REFERENCES
1. Ajay Kumar Kundu “Aircraft Design”, Cambridge University Press, ISBN -

9780511844652 (2010)
2. Daniel P. Raymer “Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach”

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. 2nd Edition ISBN 0-
930403-51-7 (1992)
3. Egbert Torenbeek “Synthesis of subsonic Airplane design”, Delft University Press, 1st
Edition ISBN - 9789024727247, 90-247-2724-3 (1982)
4. Gerard Frawley & Jim Thorn “International Directory of Military Aircraft” Australian
Aviation, ISBN – 187567120X, 9781875671205 (1996)
5. Ira H. Abbott & Albert E. von Doenhoff, “Theory of Wing Section – Including
summary of Airfoil data” Dover publications, ISBN - 0486605868 9780486605869
(1959)
6. Dr Jan Roskam “Airplane Design” Roskam aviation & engineering, Vol. 8 ISBN -
127-126-125-1 (2009)
7. John D.Anderson Jr.“Aircraft Performance and Design” WCB/McGraw-Hill, ISBN -

9780070019713, 0-07-001971-1 (1999)
8. John D. Anderson Jr. “Fundamentals of Aerodynamics” McGraw-Hill Education, 6th

Edition ISBN - 1259129918, 9781259129919 (2016)
9. John D. Anderson Jr. “Introduction to Flight” McGraw-Hill Education, ISBN

0073380245, 9780073380247 (2011)
10.Lloyd R. Jenkinson & James F. Marchman III “Aircraft Design Projects: for
engineering students”, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN - 0-75065772-3 (2003)
11.Paul Jackson (Editor-in-Chief), “Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft”
12. Jane's Publishing, 95th Sub Edition, ISBN - 9780710626141, 0710626142 (2004)
13.William Green “The Observer’s World Aircraft Directory” Frederick Warne & Co.
Ltd, ISBN - 978-1125857120 (1961)
100
14.http://www.airliners.net/aircraft-data
15.https://www.faa.gov/airports/engineering/aircraft_char_database/
16.http://airfoiltools.com/
17.http://www.combataircraft.com/
18.https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aircraft/a
mt_airframe_handbook/media/ama_Ch13.pdf
19.https://www.military.com/equipment/fighter-aircraft
20.http://www.airfoildb.com/
21.https://www.dassault-aviation.com/en/
22.https://www.militaryfactory.com/
23.https://www.lockheedmartin.com/
24.https://www.geaviation.com/commercial/engines
25.https://www.rolls-royce.com/products-and-services/civil-aerospace.aspx
26.http://getdrawings.com/aircraft-drawing
101

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DESIGN OF 15 SEATER BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT

AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT–I REPORT

CH PHANI DURGA PRASAD (16101039)

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES

Certified that this project report “DESIGN OF 10-15 SEATER BUSINESS

work under my supervision. Certified further that to the best of my knowledge

Dr. ASOKAN R Ms. KRISHNAVENI G

Submitted for the project viva voice Examination held on __________

Internal Examiner External Examiner

It’s my extreme pleasure to thank our chairperson Dr Elizabeth Verghese,

I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr Kuncheria P. Issac, Vice-

I am thankful to Dr Dilip A Shah, Senior Professor, School of Aeronautical

I would like to thank my internal guide Ms Krishnaveni, for continuously

5 COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION AND 35

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

5.1 Consolidation of data 35

My project is about the design of a multirole supersonic fighter aircraft. A

Keywords: Fighter aircraft, supersonic, airfoil, turbojet engine.

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 Design Methodology 1

9.3.3 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil

GRAPH NO TITLE PAGE NO

A.R - Aspect Ratio

s - Wing area (m2)

Ttake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)

Figure 1-1 Design Methodology

Figure 1-2 Design process.

1.3.1 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

1.3.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN

1.3.3 DETAIL DESIGN

Figure 1-3 Conceptual design

The following types of aircraft are taken for the study

• HOMEBUILT PROPELLER DRIVEN

Homebuilt aircraft, also known as amateur-built aircraft or kit planes, are

2.1.2 TWIN ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT

Causal observation of twin-engine propeller aircraft reveals that most

2.1.3 AGRICULTURAL AIRPLANES

2.1.4 BUSINESS JETS

A regional airliner or a feederliner is a small airliner that is designed to fly up to

2.1.7 COMMERCIAL TRANSPORT AIRPLANE

2.1.9 FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat

2.1.11 FLYING BOATS, AMPHIBIANS AND FLOAT AIRPLANES

2.1.12 SUPER CRUISE AIRCRAFT

A traveler on a public or private conveyance other than the pilot and

The payload is what the airplane is intended to transport – passengers, baggage,

TAKE OFF WEIGHT:

It is the maximum aircraft gross weight due to design or operational limitations

It is the total weight of an aircraft divided by the area of its wing .

It is a dimensionless ratio of thrust to weight or a vehicle propelled by such an

WINGSWEEP BACK ANGLE:

It is the rate at which work is done.

It is the augmented thrust with the usage of afterburners or liquid injection .

RATE OF ASCENT (CLIMB):

The rate of positive altitude changes with respect to time or distance.

The rate of negative altitude changes with respect to time or distance.

4.2 AIRCRAFT FOR REFERENCE:

1. EMBRAER LEGACY 600