CHAPTER 2

ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND INTERATOMIC BONDING

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Fundamental Concepts
Electrons in Atoms

2.1 Cite the difference between atomic mass and atomic weight.

Solution

Atomic mass is the mass of an individual atom, whereas atomic weight is the average (weighted) of the
atomic masses of an atom's naturally occurring isotopes.
 2.2 Chromium has four naturally-occurring isotopes: 4.34% of 50Cr, with an atomic weight of 49.9460
amu, 83.79% of 52Cr, with an atomic weight of 51.9405 amu, 9.50% of 53Cr, with an atomic weight of 52.9407 amu,
and 2.37% of 54Cr, with an atomic weight of 53.9389 amu. On the basis of these data, confirm that the average
atomic weight of Cr is 51.9963 amu.

Solution

The average atomic weight of silicon (ACr ) is computed by adding fraction-of-occurrence/atomic weight

products for the three isotopes. Thus

ACr = f50 A + f52 A + f53 A + f54 A

Cr 50Cr Cr 52Cr Cr 53Cr Cr 54Cr

= (0.0434)(49.9460 amu)+ (0.8379)(51.9405 amu)+ (0.0950)(52.9407 amu)+ (0.0237)(53.9389 amu)= 51.9963 amu
 2.3 (a) How many grams are there in one amu of a material?

(b) Mole, in the context of this book, is taken in units of gram-mole. On this basis, how many atoms
are there in a pound-mole of a substance?

Solution

(a) In order to determine the number of grams in one amu of material, appropriate manipulation of the
amu/atom, g/mol, and atom/mol relationships is all that is necessary, as

æ 1 mol ö æ 1 g / mol ö
# g/amu = ç 23 ÷ç ÷
è 6.022 ´ 10 atoms ø è 1 amu / atom ø

= 1.66 ´ 10-24 g/amu

(b) Since there are 453.6 g/lb m ,

1 lb - mol = (453.6 g/lb m ) (6.022 ´ 10 23 atoms/g - mol)

= 2.73 ´ 1026 atoms/lb-mol

 2.4 (a) Cite two important quantum-mechanical concepts associated with the Bohr model of the atom.
(b) Cite two important additional refinements that resulted from the wave-mechanical atomic model.

Solution

(a) Two important quantum-mechanical concepts associated with the Bohr model of the atom are (1) that
electrons are particles moving in discrete orbitals, and (2) electron energy is quantized into shells.
(b) Two important refinements resulting from the wave-mechanical atomic model are (1) that electron
position is described in terms of a probability distribution, and (2) electron energy is quantized into both shells and
subshells--each electron is characterized by four quantum numbers.
2.5 Relative to electrons and electron states, what does each of the four quantum numbers specify?

Solution

The n quantum number designates the electron shell.

The l quantum number designates the electron subshell.
The ml quantum number designates the number of electron states in each electron subshell.
The ms quantum number designates the spin moment on each electron.
 2.6 Allowed values for the quantum numbers of electrons are as follows:

n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

l = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n – 1

ml = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . . , ±l

1
ms = ±
2

The relationships between n and the shell designations are noted in Table 2.1. Relative to the subshells,

l = 0 corresponds to an s subshell

l = 1 corresponds to a p subshell

l = 2 corresponds to a d subshell

l = 3 corresponds to an f subshell

For the K shell, the four quantum numbers for each of the two electrons in the 1s state, in the order of nlmlms, are
1 1
100( ) and 100( - ). Write the four quantum numbers for all of the electrons in the L and M shells, and note
2 2

which correspond to the s, p, and d subshells.

Solution

For the L state, n = 2, and eight electron states are possible. Possible l values are 0 and 1, while possible ml
1 1
YDOXHV DUH DQG DQG SRVVLEOH ms values are ±
2
. Therefore, for the s states, the quantum numbers are 200 ( )
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
and 200 (- ) . For the p states, the quantum numbers are 210 ( ) , 210 (- ) , 211 ( ) , 211 (- ) , 21 (-1)( ) , and
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
21 (-1)(- ) .
2
For the M state, n = 3, and 18 states are possible. Possible l YDOXHVDUH DQG SRVVLEOHml values are 0,
1 1
DQG DQG SRVVLEOH ms values are ± . Therefore, for the s states, the quantum numbers are 300 ( ) ,
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
300 (- ) , for the p states they are 310 ( ) , 310 (- ) , 311 ( ) , 311 (- ) , 31 (-1)( ) , and 31 (-1)(- ) ; for the d
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
states they are 320 ( ) , 320 (- ) , 321 ( ) , 321 (- ) , 32 (-1)( ) , 32 (-1) (- ) , 322 ( ) , 322 (- ) , 32 (-2)( ) ,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
and 32 (-2) (- ) .
2
 2.7 Give the electron configurations for the following ions: Fe2+ , Al3+ , Cu + , Ba 2+ , Br -, and O2-.

Solution

The electron configurations for the ions are determined using Table 2.2 (and Figure 2.6).

Fe2+: From Table 2.2, the electron configuration for an atom of iron is 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 3d 6 4s2 . In order to
become an ion with a plus two charge, it must lose two electrons—in this case the two 4s. Thus, the electron
configuration for an Fe2+ ion is 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 3d 6 .
Al3+: From Table 2.2, the electron configuration for an atom of aluminum is 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 1 . In order to
become an ion with a plus three charge, it must lose three electrons—in this case two 3s and the one 3p. Thus, the
electron configuration for an Al3+ ion is 1s2 2s2 2p 6 .
Cu +: From Table 2.2, the electron configuration for an atom of copper is 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 3d 10 4s1 . In order
to become an ion with a plus one charge, it must lose one electron—in this case the 4s. Thus, the electron
configuration for a Cu + ion is 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 3d 10 .
Ba2+: The atomic number for barium is 56 (Figure 2.6), and inasmuch as it is not a transition element the
electron configuration for one of its atoms is 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 3d 10 4s2 4p 6 4d 10 5s2 5p 6 6s2 . In order to become an ion
with a plus two charge, it must lose two electrons—in this case two the 6s. Thus, the electron configuration for a
Ba2+ ion is 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 3d 10 4s2 4p 6 4d 10 5s2 5p 6 .
Br-: From Table 2.2, the electron configuration for an atom of bromine is 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 3d 10 4s2 4p 5 . In
order to become an ion with a minus one charge, it must acquire one electron—in this case another 4p. Thus, the
electron configuration for a Br- ion is 1s2 2s2 2p 6 3s2 3p 6 3d 10 4s2 4p 6 .
O2-: From Table 2.2, the electron configuration for an atom of oxygen is 1s2 2s2 2p 4 . In order to become an ion
with a minus two charge, it must acquire two electrons—in this case another two 2p. Thus, the electron
configuration for an O2- ion is 1s2 2s2 2p 6 .
 2.8 Sodium chloride (NaCl) exhibits predominantly ionic bonding. The Na + and Cl- ions have electron
structures that are identical to which two inert gases?

Solution
+
The Na ion is just a sodium atom that has lost one electron; therefore, it has an electron configuration the
same as neon (Figure 2.6).
-
The Cl ion is a chlorine atom that has acquired one extra electron; therefore, it has an electron
configuration the same as argon.
 The Periodic Table

2.9 With regard to electron configuration, what do all the elements in Group VIIA of the periodic table
have in common?

Solution

Each of the elements in Group VIIA has five p electrons.

 2.10 To what group in the periodic table would an element with atomic number 114 belong?

Solution

From the periodic table (Figure 2.6) the element having atomic number 114 would belong to group IVA.
According to Figure 2.6, Ds, having an atomic number of 110 lies below Pt in the periodic table and in the right-most
column of group VIII. Moving four columns to the right puts element 114 under Pb and in group IVA.
 2.11 Without consulting Figure 2.6 or Table 2.2, determine whether each of the electron configurations
given below is an inert gas, a halogen, an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, or a transition metal. Justify your
choices.
(a) 1s22s22p 63s23p 63d 74s2
(b) 1s22s22p 63s23p 6
(c) 1s22s22p 5
(d) 1s22s22p 63s2
(e) 1s22s22p 63s23p 63d 24s2
(f) 1s22s22p 63s23p 64s1

Solution

(a) The 1s22s22p 63s23p 63d 74s2 electron configuration is that of a transition metal because of an incomplete d
subshell.
(b) The 1s22s22p 63s23p 6 electron configuration is that of an inert gas because of filled 3s and 3p subshells.
(c) The 1s22s22p 5 electron configuration is that of a halogen because it is one electron deficient from having
a filled L shell.
(d) The 1s22s22p 63s2 electron configuration is that of an alkaline earth metal because of two s electrons.
(e) The 1s22s22p 63s23p 63d 24s2 electron configuration is that of a transition metal because of an incomplete d
subshell.
(f) The 1s22s22p 63s23p 64s1 electron configuration is that of an alkali metal because of a single s electron.
2.12 (a) What electron subshell is being filled for the rare earth series of elements on the periodic table?
(b) What electron subshell is being filled for the actinide series?

Solution

(a) The 4f subshell is being filled for the rare earth series of elements.
(b) The 5f subshell is being filled for the actinide series of elements.
 Bonding Forces and Energies

2.13 Calculate the force of attraction between a K+ and an O2- ion the centers of which are separated by a
distance of 1.5 nm.

Solution

The attractive force between two ions F A is just the derivative with respect to the interatomic separation of

the attractive energy expression, Equation 2.8, which is just

æ Aö
dç- ÷
dE A è rø A
FA = = =
dr dr r2

The constant A in this expression is defined in footnote 3. Since the valences of the K+ and O2- ions (Z1 and Z2 ) are
+1 and -2, respectively, Z1 = 1 and Z2 = 2, then

(Z1e) (Z2 e)
FA =
4pe0r 2

(1)(2)(1.602 ´ 10 -19 C) 2
=
(4)(p) (8.85 ´ 10 -12 F/m) (1.5 ´ 10 -9 m) 2

= 2.05 ´ 10-10 N
 2.14 The net potential energy between two adjacent ions, EN, may be represented by the sum of Equations
DQG that is,
A B
EN = - + n
r r
Calculate the bonding energy E0 in terms of the parameters A, B, and n using the following procedure:
1. Differentiate EN with respect to r, and then set the resulting expression equal to zero, since the curve of
EN versus r is a minimum at E0.
2. Solve for r in terms of A, B, and n, which yields r 0, the equilibrium interionic spacing.
3. Determine the expression for E0 by substitution of r 0 into Equation 2.11.

Solution

(a) Differentiation of Equation 2.11 yields

æ Aö æ Bö
dç- ÷ dç n ÷
dEN è rø èr ø
= +
dr dr dr

A nB
= - (n + 1) = 0
r (1 + 1) r

(b) Now, solving for r (= r 0 )

A nB
2
= (n + 1)
r0 r0

or

æ A ö1/(1 - n)
r0 = ç ÷
è nB ø

(c) Substitution for r 0 into Equation 2.11 and solving for E (= E0 )

A B
E0 = - + n
r0 r0

A B
= - 1/(1 - n)
+ n/(1 - n)
æ Aö æ Aö
ç ÷ ç ÷
è nB ø è nB ø
 2.15 For a K+ –Cl– ion pair, attractive and repulsive energies EA and ER, respectively, depend on the

distance between the ions r, according to

1.436
EA = -
r

5.8 ´ 10 -6
ER =
r9

For these expressions, energies are expressed in electron volts per K+ –Cl– pair, and r is the distance in
nanometers. The net energy EN is just the sum of the two expressions above.
(a) Superimpose on a single plot EN, ER, and EA versus r up to 1.0 nm.
(b) On the basis of this plot, determine (i) the equilibrium spacing r 0 between the K+ and Cl– ions, and (ii)
the magnitude of the bonding energy E0 between the two ions.
(c) Mathematically determine the r 0 and E0 values using the solutions to Problem 2.14 and compare these
with the graphical results from part (b).

Solution

(a) Curves of EA, ER, and EN are shown on the plot below.

(b) From this plot

r 0 = 0.28 nm
E0 = – 4.6 eV
 (c) From Equation 2.11 for EN

A = 1.436
B = 5.86 ´ 10-6
n =9
Thus,

æ A ö1/(1 - n)
r0 = ç ÷
è nB ø

é 1.436 ù1/(1 - 9)
=ê ú = 0.279 nm
ë (8) (5.86 ´ 10 -6 ) û

and

A B
E0 = - 1/(1 - n)
+ n/(1 - n)
æ Aö æ Aö
ç ÷ ç ÷
è nB ø è nB ø

1.436 5.86 ´ 10 -6
= - +
é ù1/(1 - 9) é ù 9 /(1 - 9)
ê 1.436 ú ê 1.436 ú
êë (9)( 5.86 ´ 10 -6 ) úû êë (9)( 5.86 ´ 10 -6 ) úû

= – 4.57 eV
 2.16 Consider a hypothetical X+ -Y- ion pair for which the equilibrium interionic spacing and bonding
energy values are 0.35 nm and -6.13 eV, respectively. If it is known that n in Equation 2.11 has a value of 10,
using the results of Problem 2.14, determine explicit expressions for attractive and repulsive energies EA and ER of
Equations 2.8 and 2.9.

Solution

This problem gives us, for a hypothetical X+-Y- ion pair, values for r 0 (0.35 nm), E0 (– 6.13 eV), and n (10),

and asks that we determine explicit expressions fo r attractive and repulsive energies of Equations 2.8 and 2.9. In
essence, it is necessary to compute the values of A and B in these equations. Expressions for r 0 and E0 in terms of n,

A, and B were determined in Problem 2.14, which are as follows:

æ A ö1/(1 - n)
r0 = ç ÷
è nB ø

A B
E0 = - 1/(1 - n)
+ n/(1 - n)
æ Aö æ Aö
ç ÷ ç ÷
è nB ø è nB ø

Thus, we have two simultaneous equations with two unknowns (viz. A and B). Upon substitution of values for r 0
and E0 in terms of n, these equations take the forms

æ A ö1/(1 - 10) æ A ö-1/9

0.35 nm = ç ÷ = ç ÷
è 10 B ø è 10 B ø

and

A B
- 6.13 eV = - 1/(1 - 10)
+ 10/(1 - 10)
æ A ö æ A ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
è 10 B ø è 10 B ø

A B
= - -1/ 9
+
æ A ö æ A ö-10/ 9
ç ÷ ç ÷
è 10B ø è 10B ø

We now want to solve these two equations simultaneously for values of A and B. From the first of these two
equations, solving for A/8B leads to
 A -9
= (0.35 nm)
10B

Furthermore, from the above equation the A is equal to

A = 10B(0.35 nm)-9

When the above two expressions for A/10B and A are substituted into the above expression for E0 (- 6.13 eV), the

following results

A B
-6.13 eV = = - -1/ 9
+
æ A ö æ A ö-10/ 9
ç ÷ ç ÷
è 10B ø è 10B ø

10B(0.35 nm) -9 B
= - +
-9 -1/ 9 -10/ 9
[(0.35 nm) ] [(0.35 nm) -9]

10B(0.35 nm) -9 B
= - +
0.35 nm (0.35 nm) 10

Or

10B B 9B
-6.13 eV = = - 10
+ 10
= - 10
(0.35 nm) (0.35 nm) (0.35 nm)

Solving for B from this equation yields

B = 1.88 ´ 10 -5 eV - nm10

Furthermore, the value of A is determined from one of the previous equations, as follows:

A = 10B(0.35 nm)-9 = (10)(1.88 ´ 10-5 eV - nm10)(0.35 nm)-9

= 2.39 eV - nm

Thus, Equations 2.8 and 2.9 become

 2.39
EA = -
r

1.88 ´ 10 -5
ER =
r 10

Of course these expressions are valid for r and E in units of nanometers and electron volts, respectively.
 2.17 The net potential energy EN between two adjacent ions is sometimes represented by the expression
C æ rö
EN = - + D expç- ÷ (2.12)
r è rø
in which r is the interionic separation and C, D, and ρ are constants whose values depend on the specific material.
(a) Derive an expression for the bonding energy E0 in terms of the equilibrium interionic separation r 0
and the constants D and ρ using the following procedure:
1. Differentiate EN with respect to r and set the resulting expression equal to zero.
2. Solve for C in terms of D, ρ, and r 0.
3. Determine the expression for E0 by substitution for C in Equation 2.12.
(b) Derive another expression for E0 in terms of r 0, C, and ρ using a procedure analogous to the one
outlined in part (a).

Solution

(a) Differentiating Equation 2.12 with respect to r yields

æ Cö é æ r öù
dç- ÷ dêD expç- ÷ú
dE è rø ë è r øû
= -
dr dr dr

C De- r / r
= -
r2 r

At r = r 0 , dE/dr = 0, and

C De-(r0 /r)
2
= (2.12b)
r0 r

Solving for C and substitution into Equation 2.12 yields an expression for E0 as

æ r ö
E0 = De-(r0 /r) ç1 - 0 ÷
è rø

(b) Now solving for D from Equation 2.12b above yields

Cr e (r0 /r)
D =
r02
Substitution of this expression for D into Equation 2.12 yields an expression for E0 as

C ær ö
E0 = ç - 1÷
r0 è r0 ø
 Primary Interatomic Bonds

2.18 (a) Briefly cite the main differences between ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding.
(b) State the Pauli exclusion principle.

Solution

(a) The main differences between the various forms of primary bonding are:
Ionic--there is electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Covalent--there is electron sharing between two adjacent atoms such that each atom assumes a
stable electron configuration.
Metallic--the positively charged ion cores are shielded from one another, and also "glued"
together by the sea of valence electrons.
(b) The Pauli exclusion principle states that each electron state can hold no more than two electrons, which
must have opposite spins.
 2.19 Compute the percents ionic character of the interatomic bonds for the following compounds: TiO2,
ZnTe, CsCl, InSb, and MgCl2.

Solution

The percent ionic character is a function of the electron negativities of the ions XA and XB according to

Equation 2.10. The electronegativities of the elements are found in Figure 2.7.

For TiO2 , XTi = 1.5 and XO = 3.5, and therefore,

é 2ù
%IC = ê1 - e(- 0.25)( 3.5- 1.5) ú ´ 100 = 63.2%
ë û

For ZnTe, XZn = 1.6 and XTe = 2.1, and therefore,

é 2ù
%IC = ê1 - e (- 0.25) (2.1- 1.6) ú ´ 100 = 6.1%
ë û

For CsCl, XCs = 0.7 and XCl = 3.0, and therefore,

é 2ù
%IC = ê1 - e(- 0.25)( 3.0- 0.7) ú ´ 100 = 73.4%
ë û

For InSb, XIn = 1.7 and XSb = 1.9, and therefore,

é 2ù
%IC = ê1 - e(- 0.25)(1.9- 1.7) ú ´ 100 = 1.0%
ë û

For MgCl2 , XM g = 1.2 and XCl = 3.0, and therefore,

é 2ù
%IC = ê1 - e(- 0.25)( 3.0- 1.2) ú ´ 100 = 55.5%
ë û
 2.20 Make a plot of bonding energy versus melting temperatu re for the metals listed in Table 2.3. Using
this plot, approximate the bonding energy for copper, which has a melting temperature of 1084°C.

Solution

Below is plotted the bonding energy versus melting temperature for these four metals. From this plot, the
bonding energy for copper (melting temperature of 1084°C) should be approximately 3.6 eV. The experimental value is
3.5 eV.
 2.21 Using Table 2.2, determine the number of covalent bonds that are possible for atoms of the following
elements: germanium, phosphorus, selenium, and chlorine.

Solution

Fo r germanium, having the valence electron structure 4s24p 2, N' W

KXV W
KHUH DUH – N' = 4 covalent
bonds per atom.
For phosphorus, having the valence electron structure 3s23p 3, N' W
KXV W
KHUH LV – N' = 3 covalent
bonds per atom.
For selenium, having the valence electron structure 4s24p 4, N' W
KXV W
KHUHDUH – N' = 2 covalent bonds
per atom.
For chlorine, having the valence electron structure 3s23p 5, N' W
KXV W
KHUH DUH – N' = 1 covalent bond
per atom.
 2.22 What type(s) of bonding would be expected for each of the following materials: brass (a copper-zinc
alloy), rubber, barium sulfide (BaS), solid xenon, bronze, nylon, and aluminum phosphide (AlP)?

Solution

For brass, the bonding is metallic since it is a metal alloy.

For rubber, the bonding is covalent with some van der Waals. (Rubber is composed primarily of carbon and
hydrogen atoms.)
For BaS, the bonding is predominantly ionic (but with some covalent character) on the basis of the relative
positions of Ba and S in the periodic table.
For solid xenon, the bonding is van der Waals since xenon is an inert gas.
For bronze, the bonding is metallic since it is a metal alloy (composed of copper and tin).
For nylon, the bonding is covalent with perhaps some van der Waals. (Nylon is composed primarily of
carbon and hydrogen.)
For AlP the bonding is predominantly covalent (but with some ionic character) on the basis of the relative
positions of Al and P in the periodic table.
 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding

2.23 Explain why hydrogen fluoride (HF) has a higher boiling temperature than hydrogen chloride (HCl)
(19.4 vs. – 85°C), even though HF has a lower molecular weight.

Solution

The intermolecular bonding for HF is hydrogen, whereas for HCl, the intermolecular bonding is van der
Waals. Since the hydrogen bond is stronger than van der Waals, HF will have a higher melting temperature.