Conf. univ. dr.

Ana-Maria Chisega Negrilă

IMPROVING MILITARY SPEAKING SKILLS

 Contents

Introduction
1. The Communication Process
1.1. Communication
1.2. Verbal vs. Non-verbal communication
2. Text organization
2.1. Introduction to text organization
2.2. Introduction
2.3. Body and conclusion
3. Tips to improving speeches
4. Register
5. Classical Rhetoric
5.1. Introduction to classical rhetoric
5.2. Rhetorical devices
6. Emphasis
7.1. Emphatic means
7.2. The inversion
7. Speeches
7.1. The informative speech
7.2. The problem-solution speech
7.3. The persuasive speech
8. Introduction to STANAG – level 2-3 (Speaking)
8.1. Topics for STANAG Level 2 and 3
8.2. STANAG 2-3
8.3. STANAG 3
 Introduction

In a society that is continuously changing, we have reevaluated the way in

which education is offered so that the market requirements will be fulfilled. In
order to train students to function efficiently in this modern world, universities
have to reanalyze their position, elaborate new strategies and increase the
efficiency and the quality of the services provided.

Teaching English for the military should follow one of the well-tried
approaches to language learning, but it should also depart from the model as it
involves the development of communicative skills and intercultural awareness.
The sequence presentation – practice – production (PPP), considered
effective by some researchers, but so discredited by others (Stern 1983) has been
replaced by more modern approaches. In the past, PPP was mainly based on the
common belief that learners should acquire the language they were exposed to in
the order provided by the teacher. However, it has been noticed that learning is
constrained by an internal process (Wilkins, 1996), in other words, the teacher can
be sure only that the learners will make use of the language they are exposed to,
but he/she will never know how they are going to make use of it as the processes
leading to this are hidden and beyond teacher’s control.
 In addition, SLA has concluded that the teacher cannot determine the way
in which learner’s language will develop. Learners should be exposed to language
so that, as Krashen (1985) stated, the learner’s language system will develop
without language-focus interaction. Lang (1983, 1988) also states that instruction
is efficient, but its effects are rather long-term than immediate, as learners will
follow their own developmental sequence, and not the one offered by the teacher.
However, as both approaches seemed to have drawbacks the answer came
in the form of the task-based approach, which relies on tasks that bear some
resemblance to real-life situations and involves language acquisition by “the
learning-through-doing process”. As communication is of paramount importance
to the military, teachers concentrate on developing communicative skills as a
whole, and particularly, the speaking skills that enable learners to get the message
across with maximum clarity and accuracy. Speaking involves mastering both
motor-perceptive and interaction skills. The former involves perceiving, recalling
and articulating (in a correct order) sounds and structures of a language (Bygate,
1993), while the latter is regarded, according to Wilkins (1974), as the ability to
control one’s own language production and to make one’s own choices. Both
aspects are important as far as the military are concerned as they favour
communication and interaction.
In Romania, learning foreign languages has become an important objective
for all institutions in the context of NATO and UE integration. The Romanian
military need not only to attend specialized courses, but also to train in
intercultural issues in order to be fully functional, more interoperable, and more
communicative. To raise awareness of the cultural identity, courses should focus
on developing intercultural communication competences by analyzing cultural
behaviour in critical situations and by building awareness of culturally determined
perceptions of time, space, and social norms. Furthermore, they should develop
professional sub-skills specific of the military environment in Western cultures:
discourse analysis, presentation skills, social interaction etc. in order to cultivate
the appropriate attitudes and develop the ability of perceiving events from a
global perspective, thus emphasising universal values.
It is imperious to assist student officers in acquiring notions of multi- and
inter-culturality, with a view to knowing and understanding other cultural patterns
and differences, so as to finally accept them. Given the specific relations that arise
while functioning in a multinational environment, communicative skills
(vocabulary, communicative strategies) have to equally reflect both a
multicultural attitude (understanding and acceptance) and an intercultural
approach (meaning the ability of interacting with other cultures). This is the
primary aspect of communication: establishing life and work relations despite the
(sometimes sharp) differences in attitudes, traditions and ways of thinking.
 1

The Communicative Process

1.1. Communication

Communication is a two-way process that involves transmitting information,

thoughts or feelings so that they are satisfactory received. It involves the
sender, the encoded message, the receiver who decodes it, and the feedback
from the receiver to the sender. All these elements are important and
interrelated, as effective communication cannot exist without one of the four.
Moreover, both the sender and the receiver should have knowledge of the
codes used for delivering the message. When the message is written, the letters
of the alphabet combined into words will form a code. When the message is
verbal, not only sounds forming words, but also gestures and facial
expressions (non-verbal communication) will be important and should be
known in order to decode the message.
To communicate means to make another or others participate and transmit
ideas, or to administer communication so that the others will take part in.
There are three basic models of communication according to Carey:
1. Rhetorical or Dramatistic Perspective which involves making others

participate in communication. People communicate through symbols

 (Kenneth Burke—man is “the symbol-using animal”) which induce
cooperation in others and influence them to change their values, beliefs and
attitudes.
2. Transmission Model is a more static model of communication in which

how the message is transmitted and the message itself become more
important than the person who sent it and the one who received it.
3. Ritual Model which is, according to James Carey:

“A ritual view of communication is directed not toward the extension of messages

in space but toward the maintenance of society in time; not the act of imparting
information but the representation of shared beliefs … the archetypal case under a
ritual view is the sacred ceremony that draws persons together in fellowship and
commonality”

(James Carey, Communication as Culture Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989, p. 18.)

However, other commentators consider communication an active, on-going

process and a symbolic action which has the power to modify reality.

Communication can be:

4. written

- More elaborated as style

- Longer
- Containing more explanations

b. oral
- Brief
- Organized
 - Factual

1.2. Verbal vs. Non Verbal Communication

Speech delivery involves how the information will be conveyed in an effective

way.

1. Verbal Communication involves communicating using words, spoken so

that they will become effective.

When presenting, consider the following:

a. Rate of speech which means how fast you speak. There is no ideal rate, but
when speaking in front of a larger audience, bear in mind the fact that your
message has to be comprehensible. Therefore, you must speak at a slower
rate, and emphasise key words.
b. Volume which means how loud you speak. The volume should be adjusted
both according to the location selected for your speech and to the audience.
c. Pitch which means modulating your voice in order to emphasise certain
aspects of your speech.
d. Pause which means stopping for a short while before or after the words or
sentences you want to stress.
e. Articulation and pronunciation which means that you should master them
and speak intelligibly. Unfortunately, mispronunciation may be hilarious
and ruin a good presentation.
Non-verbal Communication involves other ways to convey the meaning and it
could be more persuasive than verbal communication. It is usually a matter of
subconscious connections that lead to decoding a message that could sometimes
contradict the one transmitted verbally.

Nonverbal Codes deal with different uses of the space to communicate

(proxemics - Anglo-Saxon culture), and of the time, seen by some cultures as
layered, allowing more events to happen simultaneously (polychronic), and by
others, as linear with just one event at a time (monochromic).

When delivering a speech, consider the following:

a. Appearance should be appropriate to the occasion and audience.
b. Eye contact should create the impression of real communication between
the speaker and the members of the audience.
c. Facial expressions should be carefully chosen especially if the audience is
made of foreigners.
d. Gestures should be also carefully chosen. Take into account the fact that
gestures can bear a different meaning in different cultures. Use gestures to
reinforce your ideas, but do not overuse them as they will end up
distracting and confusing the audience.
e. Visual aids are materials presented to the audience in order to make the
message more comprehensible and the presentation more persuasive. They
consist of pictures, graphs, diagrams, maps, outlines, realia etc. and are
useful especially when presenting statistics, data or any facts involving
numbers.
1.3. Intercultural communication

culture n [ME, fr. MF, fr. L cultura, fr. cultus, pp.] (15c) 1:
CULTIVATION, TILLAGE 2: the act of developing the
intellectual and moral faculties esp. by education 3: expert
care and training 4 a: enlightenment and excellence of taste
acquired by intellectual and aesthetic training b:
acquaintance with and taste in fine arts, humanities and
broad aspects of science as distinguished from vocational
and technical skills 5 a: the integrated pattern of human
knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon man's
capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to
succeeding generations b: the customary beliefs, social
forms and material traits of a racial, religious, or social
group 6: cultivation of living material in prepared nutrient
media; also: a product of such cultivation.

(Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate dictionary, 1990)

Culture is also regarded as social, political, economic etc. relations

established in an area over a certain period of time, which give individuals the
sense of belonging to a group. Gerry Philipsen defined cultured as: "a socially
constructed and historically transmitted pattern of symbols, meanings, premises,
and rules." However, culture is based on a set of symbols people choose to share
and which ends up influencing their behavior and mind-set so that they will form
cultural groups. Culture plays an important role not only in establishing groups,
but also in preserving group cohesion and identity. Being a set of symbols
negotiated among people, culture seems to be static as, on the one hand, it is
learned by infants and newcomers in order to be accepted within the group, but on
the other hand, it is also dynamic as it is changed and renegotiated over time.
 Deborah Cameron1 considers that "... we live in what might be called a
'communication culture'. By that I do not mean merely a culture that
communicates, nor one that regulates communication behavior (all cultures do
those things). Rather I mean a culture that is particularly self-conscious and
reflexive about communication, and that generates large quantities of
metadiscourse about it. For the members of such a culture it is axiomatically
'good to talk' - but at the same time it is natural to make judgments about which
kinds of talk are good and which are less good. People aspire, or think they ought
to aspire, to communicate 'better'; and they are highly receptive to expert advice."

Intercultural communication means learning about other cultures’ history,

customs, language etc. in order to accept them by breaking down stereotypes
which represent a standardized picture of a group. This mental image is an
oversimplified opinion, affective attitude or uncritical judgment (Webster’s Ninth
New Collegiate dictionary, 1990) which bears no resemblance to reality, being
sometimes negative and extremely detrimental to relations between groups.

Sverre Lysgaard argues that people experiencing a foreign culture may pass
trough different processes of anticipation (first), than shock and finally, adaptation
following a “U-Curve”.

1
Cameron, D. (2000). Good to talk? Living and working in a
communication culture. London, UK: Sage, p. viii
 Others argue that the anxiety of encountering unfamiliar cultures may result
not only in the cultural shock, but also in adjustment, leading in time to accepting
that culture.

Conflict is also part of communication within the same culture or with

other cultures. Western cultural groups accept conflict as a necessary ingredient of
communication as it leads to change, renegotiation and reconciliation. Other
cultures regard conflict as destructive as it disturbs peace and the established
social system.

Language plays an important role in intercultural contacts. It is true that

foreigners will be accepted quicker in another culture if they have very good
command of the target language and they have acquired cultural awareness.
Beside the language knowledge, a person who wants to understand another
culture should possess information which deals with political, social, and cultural
issues. In many respects, it is not enough to learn a language in order to know
how to communicate with the native speakers. For example, English native
speakers have a different way to conduct a discussion. In Romania, people
interrupt each other during talk as if they were fighting over a ball in a game of
rugby. This may sound annoying or even rude to those who are used to waiting for
their turn in order to present their opinion.
The British and the Americans are also involved in another game -- basketball, in
which they follow each other, support each other during conversation, but they
rarely interrupt. Beside these, they have rules for expressing opinion, for agreeing
and disagreeing, for interrupting a conversation etc. that are different from what
we, as Romanians, use in the same situation:
1. Sorry to interrupt you…
2. I totally agree with you…
 3. You may be right, but…
4. You have a point, but also consider this…

Understanding another culture is a long and difficult process which begins at an

early stage when people learn about another culture from books and travel guides.
They may also visit the country as tourists, but their understanding of the culture
will be shallow and they will tend to idealize it for its exotic nature. However,
learning more about another country and having sporadic contacts with it may
result not in deepening the cultural awareness, but beginning to experience
negative feelings towards it. This second stage may lead to rejection because the
differences between the two cultures overwhelm the commonalities. Only at a
later stage, will people begin to acquire cultural awareness by accepting the target
culture and perceiving it as if it were their own.
 2

Text Organization

2.1. Introduction to text organization

A good speech means not only providing accurate and valuable information, but
also good organization and delivery.

A text is a succession of main ideas developed into paragraphs. Transitional words

(e.g. however, therefore, in addition etc.) are used to connect the main ideas and
the sub points in a logical way. They help the audience to identify the main ideas
and the relation between them.

A speech (as well as any article or essay) consists of:

1. Introduction
2. Body
3. Conclusion
2.2. The Introduction

The introduction is an important part of the speech as it will make the audience
listen to the whole speech. Its purpose is to:
- get the attention of the audience
- introduce the topic of the speech
- make the audience motivated to listen to the speech

The introduction consists of an attention-getting opening statement and a preview

of main points. The introduction of the persuasive speech also contains elements
(a smile, appropriate gestures etc.) or statements that will help create a good
rapport with the audience. Sometimes words like we, our, you will assist in
identifying a common experience.

E.g. We all know what could happen when a criminal is on the loose.

Types of attention getting opening statements:

a. illustration – will indicate the central idea of the speech and will get the
attention of the audience.

E.g. The Battle of Trafalgar was one of the turning points in the history of The
Great Britain.

b. arousing curiosity – will make the audience curious and eager to learn more
things.
E.g. Today I am going to tell you about a real deal which will make you save
money in no time. This deal is the M&B Mall.

c. questions – will not only get the attention of the audience, but will also
make them want to participate in answering them.

E.g. What is the group therapy? What are their characteristics and how does it
function?

d. expression of pleasure – will give the audience a sense of beginning

especially if the topic of the speech is known.

E.g. I am pleased to have the opportunity to present my opinions on military

education.

Exercises

A. Put the following sentences in the right order to form the introduction of a
briefing:

1. My aim is to brief you on ...

2. My name is Captain Bill Johnson, S-3 of 2/28 Tank Bn.
3. If you have any questions during my briefing, could you please hold
them until the end?
4. The classification of this briefing is Restricted.
5. Good afternoon, ladies and gentlemen.
Key

1. Good afternoon, ladies and gentlemen.

2. My name is Captain Bill Johnson, S-3 of 2/28 Tank Bn.
3. My aim is to brief you on ...
4. The classification of this briefing is Restricted.
5. If you have any questions during my briefing, could you please hold them
until the end?

B. Match the following parts of an introduction with the given labels:

a. Greetings
b. Attention getting opening statement
c. Identifying a common experience with the audience
d. Preview of main points

A. Tonight, I want to talk to you about why I'm even more proud to be an
American -- why I am proud to be a Republican, and why I believe that this
country is in good hands.
B. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you very much. Thank you.
What a greeting. What a greeting. Wow!
C. This -- This is like winning an Oscar. As if I would know! Speaking of acting,
one of my movies was called "True Lies." And that's what the Democrats should
have called their convention.
You know, on the way up here to the podium, a gentlemen came up to me and
said, "Governor, you are as good a politician as you were an actor." What a cheap
shot. Cannot believe it.
D. My fellow Americans, this is an amazing moment for me. To think that a once
scrawny (Having unattractive thinness) boy from Austria could grow up to
become Governor of the State of California and then stand here -- and stand here
in Madison Square Garden and speak on behalf of the President of the United
States. That is an immigrant's dream! It's the American dream.

You know, I was born in Europe and I've traveled all over the world, and I can tell
you that there is no place, no country, that is more compassionate, more generous,
more accepting, and more welcoming than the United States of America.

As long as I live -- As long as I live, I will never forget the day 21 years ago when
I rose my right hand and I took the oath of citizenship. You know how proud I
was? I was so proud that I walked around with the American flag around my
shoulder all day long.

(Arnold Schwarzenegger, delivered 2004)

Key

A. d
B. a
C. b
D. c

C. Match the following statements with the type of introduction. Write the
correct letter in the space after the example.
 a. illustration
b. arousing curiosity
c. questions
d. expression of pleasure

1. I would like to take this opportunity to thank you for giving me the
possibility to talk about our firm. _____ d
2. I am here today to tell you about a great business opportunity that will
allow you to work flexible hours and earn a lot of money. __ b
3. On September the 11th, 2001, we found that problems originating in a
failed and oppressive state 7,000 miles away could bring murder and
destruction to the United States. ___ a
4. When the tragedy stroke, people were not prepared for what was to come.
What can be done in order to avoid further disasters? Could you have been
more vigilant? ____ c
5. Today I would like to tell you about a book that has changed the lives of
thousands of people. ___ b
6. I am delighted to be here today and to have the opportunity to speak about
our latest products. ___ d

2.3. The Body and the Conclusion

The body consists of a number of paragraphs that develop the main ideas
mentioned in the introduction. Each paragraph will contain the main idea and
supporting details. Some speeches contain in the body: arguments, supporting
evidence, opposing arguments and counter response.
The conclusion usually contains a summary of the main ideas and a memorable
conclusion that will reinforce the idea of the speech and provide a sense of
closure.

E.g. Fellow citizens, we have been called to leadership in a period of

consequence. We have entered a great ideological conflict we did nothing to
invite. We see great changes in science and commerce that will influence all our
lives. Sometimes it can seem that history is turning in a wide arc, toward an
unknown shore. Yet the destination of history is determined by human action, and
every great movement of history comes to a point of choosing.

Lincoln could have accepted peace at the cost of disunity and continued slavery.
Martin Luther King could have stopped at Birmingham or at Selma and achieved
only half a victory over segregation. The United States could have accepted the
permanent division of Europe and been complicit in the oppression of others.

Today, having come far in our own historical journey, we must decide: Will we
turn back or finish well? Before history is written down in books, it is written in
courage. Like Americans before us, we will show that courage and we will finish
well. We will lead freedom's advance. We will compete and excel in the global
economy. We will renew the defining moral commitments of this land. And so we
move forward optimistic about our country, faithful to its cause and confident of
the victories to come.

May God bless America.

(George W. Bush: 2006 State of the Union Address, delivered 31 January 2006)
 3

Tips to Effective Speeches

Know Your Audience

Take into account:

- How you want the audience to react to your communication
- If the audience could be basically receptive, sceptical or hostile
- Your audience’s prerequisites
- The appropriate tone (warm, stern etc.)
- If you could tailor your communication to the individual (if the message is
to a general, sergeant, congressman or contractor)

Use Rhetoric (if necessary)

 Have in-depth information on the subject

 Draft your speech, message or article taking into account the capacity of
persuasion which is given to you by rhetoric and rhetorical devices.
“A flattering speech is honeyed poison. It tends to disarm the person to whom it is
addressed.”
-Latin Proverb

Get Organized

 Organize your ideas in a logical way, and avoid overlapping.

 Organize your speech or article taking into account the fact that it should
have an introduction, a body and a conclusion.
 Organize your speech so that you will not waste the audience’s time – be
brief and concise.

Draft and Edit

When writing the outline, try to avoid the following:

Tips for Writers

 Don’t use double negatives.

 Make each pronoun agree with their antecedent.
 Join clauses correctly, like a conjunction should.
 About them sentence fragments.
 When dangling, watch your participles.
 Verbs has to agree with their subjects.
 Just between you and I, case is important.
 Don’t write run-on sentences they are hard to read.
  Don’t use commas, which aren’t necessary.
 It is important to use apostrophe’s correctly.
 Try not to ever split infinitives.
 Correct speling is essential.
 Proofread your writing to see if any words out.
 A preposition is a poor word to end your sentence with.
 Don’t be redundant.

-Anonymous

(The Tongue and Quill, AFH 33-337, 30 June 1997)

Consider the agreement – the subject-verb agreement may be difficult if the

subject has not been identified correctly. Usually plural subjects take plural verbs,
and singular subjects take singular verbs. However, some subjects are
uncountable nouns which may seem to have a plural form (news) but actually
agree with a singular verb.

Collective Nouns – are nouns that represent a group or a unit: e.g. team, crew,
family, jury etc. Collective nouns can take a singular or a plural verb. They take a
singular verb when they mean a unit or group. They take a plural verb when all
the members of the group are considered.
E.g. Our family is the best in town. (as a group)
The family are all at home. (as individuals)

The Plural of Compound Nouns

In a compound noun, the last word is usually made plural:
E.g. classroom - classrooms, forget-me-not – forget-me-nots, merry-go-round –
merry-go-rounds
etc.
Occasionally, even the first or both words can be made plural:
E.g. mother-in-law – mothers-in-law, passer-by – passers-by
or woman doctor – women doctors, man driver – men drivers etc.
These nouns agree with a singular or a plural verb, according to the meaning they
convey.

The Plural of Countable Nouns

a. Regular nouns form the plural by adding –s or –es at the end of the word.
The Plural is
No. Singular nouns ending in: The Agreement
formed by adding:
- almost all the consonants - the -s e.g. cars, houses, These nouns agree with a
vowel –e and the vowel -o in photos, pianos, singular or plural verb. e.g. The
1.
nouns of foreign origin and Eskimos, Filipinos, car is in the street. The cars are
abbreviated words etc. in the street.
- s, - z, - ch, - sh, - x and –o in -es e.g. crosses, These nouns agree with a
2.
words of English origin quizzes, watches, singular or plural verb.
y > i + es; e.g. These nouns agree with a
3. - y preceded by a consonant
babies, ladies, etc. singular or plural verb.
-s; e.g. plays, days, These nouns agree with a
4. - y preceded by a vowel
etc. singular or plural verb.
b. Irregular nouns have specific forms for the plural.
How the plural is
No. Examples The Agreement
formed:
 Some nouns ending in -f leaf-leaves, loaf-loaves,
These nouns agree with a singular
1. and –fe drop them and wolf-wolves, wife-wives
or plural verb.
add –ves etc.
These nouns agree with a singular
man-men, woman-women,
Some nouns form the or plural verb e.g. The woman is
2. foot-feet, mouse-mice,
plural by vowel change crossing the street. The women are
tooth-teeth, goose-geese,
crossing the street.
These nouns agree with a singular
A few nouns form the ox-oxen, child-children
3. or plural verb e.g. He has one
plural by adding -en etc.
child. He has two children.
Some nouns seem to
barracks, means, These nouns agree with a singular
have a plural form but, in
4. headquarters, species, or plural verb e.g. That is an army
fact, they can be either
series, works etc. barracks. Those are army barracks.
singular or plural

Some countable nouns of Latin or Greek origin preserve their original plurals:
E.g.millennium–millennia
Datum-data
Phenomenon–phenomena

Alga–Algae
Stimulus–stimuli

Appendix-appendices

Hypothesis–hypotheses
Crisis–crises
Basis – bases

The Plural of Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns do not have a plural form and agree with the verb either in the singular or in
the plural.

No. The Uncountable nouns Examples The Agreement

These nouns agree with
tea, sugar, butter, bread, rice,
1. Nouns names of substances a singular verb e.g. The
ham, gold, silver etc.
tea is too sweet.
information, knowledge,
These nouns agree with
suspicion, experience, advice,
2. Abstract nouns a singular verb e.g. The
beauty, death, mercy, work, help,
information is correct.
hope, relief etc.
luggage, furniture, weather, These nouns agree with
rubbish, money, homework, a singular verb e.g. The
3. Other uncountable nouns
damage, shopping, parking, furniture is new, but
baggage, pollution etc. very expensive.
This noun agrees with a
Uncountable nouns ending in
4. news singular verb e.g. His
-s
news is good.
These nouns agree with
mathematics, physics, politics,
Uncountable nouns ending in a singular verb e.g.
5. ethics, acoustics, aesthetics,
-ics Mathematics is a
gymnastics etc.
science.
6. Uncountable nouns names of pants, pyjamas, breeches, These nouns agree with
articles of clothing made of trousers, flannels etc. a plural verb e.g. The
 two parts pyjamas are new.
These nouns agree with
Uncountable nouns names of scissors, binoculars, scales,
7. a plural verb e.g. Her
instruments glasses, spectacles etc.
glasses are very useful.
Other uncountable nouns arm-arms ( part of the body -
ending in –s formed from a countable noun) but arms These nouns agree with
8. countable noun or an (weapons – mass noun) green a plural verb e.g. The
adjective but having a (colour – adjective) greens greens are healthy.
different meaning. (vegetables – mass noun) etc.
These nouns agree with
Uncountable nouns singular
9. police, gentry, clergy etc. a plural verb e.g. The
in form
Police are coming.
The following example shows an uncountable noun preceded by another noun
that can be made plural and can take the article a/an.
“While they were sitting and enjoying a cup of tea, they discovered that they were
growing very fond of that house.”
Otherwise, the uncountable nouns are never used with the indefinite article a/an.
They can be preceded by some, any, no etc. or by a bit, a piece, a grain, a drop, a
cake, a cup, a glass, a bag, a slice, a spoon etc. + of:
E.g. a piece of cake, a drop of oil, a glass of wine, a cup of coffee, a grain of
sand etc.
Some nouns are uncountable when they are abstract or refer to something in
general, and countable when they refer to a particular thing. When the nouns are
countable they will be used with the indefinite article a/an.
E.g. Hope is what we have left. (uncount)
He has high hopes of promotion. (count)
They won a victory. (count)
 Victory is an abstract concept. (uncount)
This is a terrible experience. (count)
He needs three years experience. (uncount)
Some uncountable nouns that refer to food or drinks can be count nouns when
they refer to quantities.
E.g I would like two coffees, please.
I don’t drink coffee.

Pronouns
Certain pronouns such as: another, anybody, anything, each, everyone,
everybody, neither, nothing, one, no one, someone, somebody agree with a
singular verb, while all, any, none and some may be used with a singular or plural
verb depending on the context.
E.g. Everyone comes early in the morning.
None of them is here now.

Compound Subjects
A compound subject consists of two or more nouns or pronouns connected with
conjunctions. Those connected with and will usually take a plural verb if their
meaning is plural as well.

E.g. John and Mary are my best friends.

Both john and Mary have passed the test.

However, they may take a singular verb if their meaning is singular or if the parts
are preceded by each and every.
E.g. Bread and butter is what I eat in the morning.
Every pilot and his aircraft is ready to take off.

When but, or, nor, either…or, neither, nor are used the verb will agree with the
subject that is nearer.

E.g. Neither John nor his friends are coming.

Either my friends or John is coming.

Misplaced Modifiers

a. Modifiers which are placed illogically at the beginning of the

sentence.

E.g. Seeing the pedestrian in the middle of the street, the accident could
not be avoided by the driver. (incorrect)
The driver could not avoid the accident when he saw the pedestrian in
the middle of the street. (correct)

b. Modifiers which seem to refer to two different words.

E.g. People going to the gym occasionally will not become fit.
(incorrect)
People who occasionally go to the gym will not become fit. (correct)

Parallelism
Words from a list or any type of enumeration should be of the same kind.
E.g. It is extremely difficult to deal with multiple tasking and getting all things
ready in no time. (incorrect)
It is extremely difficult to deal with multiple tasking and to get all things ready in
no time. (correct)

Pronoun Reference
Pronouns and the nouns they refer to should be wither singular or plural.

E.g. People participating in this lecture will have to present its papers in front of
an audience of researchers. (incorrect)
People participating in this lecture will have to present their papers in front of an
audience of researchers. (correct)

Misrelated Participles
The participle also functions as adjective and refers to the noun that was placed
before it. Avoid placing it far from the noun it refers to or the resulting structure
will be hilarious and confusing.

E.g. John finally accepted the suggestion being pleased with the result of his
research. (incorrect)
Being pleased with the result of his research, John accepted the suggestion.
(correct)

False Friends
They are words that seem to have the same form with a Romanian word, but in
fact they have a different meaning.
Adept = proficient, expert <an adept at chess>
Advertisement = commercial = ads =/ announcement
Affluent = wealthy (not an effluent river/tributary of a river)
To allure = the power to attract
Americano = a type of coffee
Apology = a formal justification
Ark = 1. boat or ship held to resemble that in which Noah and his family were
preserved from the Flood
2. the sacred chest representing to the Hebrews the presence of God among
them
Assorted = to distribute into groups of a like kind : CLASSIFY
To assist = help
Actually = in fact
Eventually = in the end
To ban = to prohibit
Block = a usually rectangular space (as in a city) enclosed by streets and
occupied by or intended for buildings
Cognate = of the same or similar nature: generically alike; related by blood; also:
related on the mother's side
Collaterals = relatives
To confect = to put together from different materials
Confection = 1 : the act or process of confecting
2 : something confected : as a : a fancy dish or sweetmeat; also : a sweet food b : a
medicinal preparation usually made with sugar, syrup, or honey c : a work of fine
or elaborate craftsmanship d : a light but entertaining theatrical, cinematic, or
literary work
Contest = competition
Corn = a small hard seed
Crayon = a stick of white or colored chalk or of colored wax used for writing or
drawing
Creature = an animal in an affectionate sense
Curse = a prayer or invocation for harm or injury to come upon one :
IMPRECATION
Data = factual information (as measurements or statistics) used as a basis for
reasoning, discussion, or calculation; information in numerical form that can be
digitally transmitted or processed
Deception/ = causing to accept as true or valid what is false or invalid; to
mislead, to deceive
Fabric = cloth
Figure = a number symbol
Fumes – poisonous gases
Fin = an external membranous process of an aquatic animal
Fir = any of a genus of north temperate evergreen trees of the pine family
Gymnasium/gym = a place where people practice sports
Consequent = following as a result or effect
Cot = a small house
Library = a place in which literary, musical, artistic, or reference materials (as
books, manuscripts, recordings, or films) are kept for use but not for sale
Trivial = of little worth or importance
Magazine = an illustrated paper
Mare = the female horse
Momentous = important, consequential
Momentum = a property of a moving body that determines the length of time
required to bring it to rest when under the action of a constant force or moment
Impetus = a driving force, stimulus, impulse
Novel = an invented prose narrative that is usually long and complex and deals
especially with human experience through a usually connected sequence of events
Phrase = a word or group of words forming a syntactic constituent with a single
grammatical function
Prospect = the act of looking forward : ANTICIPATION b : a mental picture of
something to come : VISION c : something that is awaited or expected :
POSSIBILITY d. plural (1) : financial expectations (2) : CHANCES
Raft = a collection of logs or timber fastened together for conveyance by water

Resort = a spa
Roman = a native or resident of Rome
Scholar = a person who has done advanced study in a special field
Sympathetic = 1 : existing or operating through an affinity, interdependence, or
mutual association
2 a : appropriate to one's mood, inclinations, or disposition b : marked by kindly
or pleased appreciation <the biographer's approach was sympathetic>
3 : given to, marked by, or arising from sympathy , compassion, friendliness, and
sensitivity to others' emotions <a sympathetic gesture>
4 : favorably inclined : APPROVING <not sympathetic to the idea>
5 a : showing empathy b : arousing sympathy or compassion <a sympathetic role
in the play>

Exercises
Study the list above and decide whether the following sentences are true or
not. Write R for right and W for wrong.

1. John is still in high school. He is a scholar.

2. He wrote a very good roman.
3. Their project has gained momentum in the last ten days.
4. A phrase can be made of two or more sentences.
5. Let’s stick to the main issue! Don’t waste your time with such trivial
things!
6. He has such impetus behavior. I can’t stand him being so agitated.
7. I’m not sympathetic to the idea of giving up your studies.
8. This fabric is attuned to the new market requirements.
9. Actually, he is not my friend.
10.The fumes of cologne from the shop lured her inside.

Key:

1. W (He is a student/pupil.)
2. W (He wrote a very good novel.)
3. R
4. W (A clause can be made of two or more sentences.)
5. R
6. W (He has such impetuous behavior.)
7. R
8. W (This factory is attuned to new market requirements.)
 9. R
10. W (The scent of cologne from the shop lured her inside.)

Transitions

The purpose of the transitional words and phrases is to connect the main ideas and
the subpoints in a logical way so that the audience will notice and understand
them.

E.g. Role models are those who shape the minds and souls of young generations.
However, their influence is sometimes detrimental as some of them are more
giants with feet of clay than real heroes.

Types of transitions:

1. to contrast ideas

E.g. but, yet, nevertheless, however, on the one hand, on the contrary, in contrast
etc.

2. to compare ideas

E.g. like, just as, similar

3. To show results

E.g. therefore, as a result, thus, consequently, hence etc.

 4. to show time

E.g. immediately, presently, meanwhile, etc.

5. to relate thoughts

E.g. indeed, anyway, above all, in other words, for instance, in fact, yet, in reality
etc.

Exercises

Choose the best transitions that will complete the gaps:

1. Our offensive against terror involves more than military action.

_____________, the only way to defeat the terrorists is to defeat their dark
vision of hatred and fear by offering the hopeful alternative of political
freedom and peaceful change.
a. Ultimately
b. First
c. Second

2. The enemy has not lost the desire or capability to attack us.
____________, this nation has superb professionals in law enforcement,
intelligence, the military and homeland security.

a. Anyway
b. On the one hand
c. Fortunately

3. ________, I propose to double the federal commitment to the most critical

basic research programs in the physical sciences over the next 10 years.
This funding will support the work of America's most creative minds as
they explore promising areas such as nanotechnology, supercomputing and
alternative energy sources.
a. First
b. Than
c. However

4. Fellow citizens, we have been called to leadership in a period of

consequence. We have entered a great ideological conflict we did nothing
to invite. We see great changes in science and commerce that will influence
all our lives. Sometimes it can seem that history is turning in a wide arc,
toward an unknown shore. ______the destination of history is determined
by human action, and every great movement of history comes to a point of
choosing.
a. Yet
b. Moreover
c. In addition
5. No one can deny the success of freedom, ________ some men rage and
fight against it. And one of the main sources of reaction and opposition is
radical Islam; the perversion by a few of a noble faith into an ideology of
terror and death. Terrorists like bin Laden are serious about mass murder
and all of us must take their declared intentions seriously. They seek to
 impose a heartless system of totalitarian control throughout the Middle
East and arm themselves with weapons of mass murder.

a. Thus
b. However
c. Although

6. Our work in Iraq is difficult, because our enemy is brutal. _________that

brutality has not stopped the dramatic progress of a new democracy.

a. Still
b. In conclusion
c. Therefore

7. It is said that prior to the attacks of September the 11th, our government
failed to connect the dots of the conspiracy. We now know that two of the
hijackers in the United States placed telephone calls to Al Qaida operatives
overseas. _________ we did not know about their plans until it was too
late.

a. Second
b. But
c. Then

(from George W. Bush: 2006 State of the Union Address, delivered 31st January
2006)
Key.
1. a
2. c
3. a
4. a
5. b
6. a
7. b

4
 The Register

The register is a variety of language that is appropriate to a particular subject or

situation.

 Formal (official)
 Informal (everyday talk)

Formal language means obeying grammar rules, and a more careful choice of
vocabulary. It also involves avoiding colloquial language, slang and contractions.

Informal language means conversational, more casual style.

The formal vocabulary involves the use of:

1. words of Greek or Latin origin:

E.g. phenomenon, crisis, thesis, basis, criterion, millennium etc.

2. newly acquired words, usually having abstract meaning:

E.g. abundant, ambition, active, conform, effective, prominent, substantial,

supremacy, utility, valuable etc.
 3. words that have changed their meaning and category:

to bridge - to create a link towering to harbour

to weld – to connect
a must (to be)– something mandatory

4. most prepositional verbs, adjectives and nouns:

E.g. to be interested in
To be different from
To depend on
To succeed in
To be dedicated/devoted to + V ing
To participate in

5. words which are politically correct:

Instead of Use
Chairman chairperson
Fireman fire fighter
Mankind human race
Manmade manufactured
Manpower workforce, personnel
Salesman sales representative
Steward flight attendant
6. some expressions that have turned into clichés:

E.g. wealth of information, storm of protest, prestigious firm, pinpoint the cause,
burning issue, intensive investigation, pillar of (church, society) etc.

The informal vocabulary consists of:

1. every day, concrete words:

E.g. house, car, tree etc.

2. some abstract words:

E.g. love, hatred, wish, fear, beauty etc.

3. idioms:

E.g. to bury the hatchet - to make peace

to kick the bucket – to die

4. most phrasal verbs as they are particularly common to informal writing and
speech, even if some of them (look forward to, look into etc.) can be used
in more formal contexts:

E.g. to run out of – have no more of

to put up with – accept without complaining
to keep up with – move at the same speed as
 5. colloquial language and slang:

E.g. boss man - the man in charge.

The boss man’s coming. Watch out!
bow wow – a dog
A bow wow bit me.

The right register has to be appropriate to the occasion, the types of speech/article
and audience. The two registers should not be mixed unless one wants to use them
in order to emphasise one’s ideas.
The following text is an example of inappropriate register, as the vocabulary
chosen for this children’s poem is too formal.
Three blind mice – translated for bureaucrats
A triumvirate of optically deficient rodents observed how they perambulate!
They all perambulate after the horticulturist's spouse,
Who removed their posterior appendages with a culinary instrument.
Have you ever observed such a visual phenomenon in your cumulative metabolic
process,
As a triumvirate of optically deficient rodents?
- The Tongue and Quill, AFH 33-337

Exercises:

A. Match the words with their formal synonyms:

1. help assistance
 2. want wish
3. say state
4. buy purchase
5. let enable
6. then subsequently
7. worries concerns
8. now currently
9. a lot of many
10.couldn’t was unable to

B. Match the formal words with their informal synonyms:

1.envisage picture
2. equitable fair, just
3. evaluate, assess check, rate
4. difficult hard
5. deprive smb. of smth take away, remove
6. elucidate explain
7. elapsed (time has) passed
8. emphasize stress, point out
9. disclose reveal, show
10. encounter meet, find
11. envisage picture

C. Write the formal synonyms of the given words:

1. choose
2. remove
3. try, effort
4. use
5. start
6. question
7. cheap
8. send
9. let
10.earlier

Key:

1. elect
2. eliminate
3. endeavour
4. employ
5. initiate
6. interrogate
7. inexpensive
8. forward
9. permit
10.previous

D. Write the informal synonyms of the given words:

 1. reflect
2. rationale
3. recapitulate
4. remedy
5. relocate
6. prior to
7. proficiency
8. provide
9. reiterate
10.proximity

Key:

1. show, say
2. reason
3. sum up, summarize, report
4. cure
5. move
6. before
7. skill, ability
8. give
9. repeat
10.nearness, distance
E. Change the following sentences from informal English into formal:

1. Sorry I couldn’t make it to the meeting.

2. I’ll send you more information about the topic.
3. I will help you.
4. I just want to tell you that you need to give up your plans now.
5. Time has passed quickly.
6. You should not let the cat out of the bag.
7. It is obvious that you should spread the news.

Key:

1. I regret I was unable to attend the meeting.

2. I will forward you more information regarding the issue.
3. I will assist you.
4. I wish to inform you on your need to abandon your/the current plans.
5. Time has elapsed rapidly.
6. I advise you not to disclose the secret.
7. It is evident that you disseminate the information.

F. Change the following sentences from informal English into formal:

1. It is not fair to choose him to go to the lecture.

2. He has showed the growth of prices.
3. He was given a medal to show his results.
4. We need more facts about the happening.
5. They tried to take our rights away.
 6. The train will leave in five minutes.
7. He should tell us more about his background.

Key:

1. It is not equitable to assign him to participate in the lecture.

2. He has evidenced the evolution of prices.
3. He was bestowed a medal to evidence his accomplishments.
4. We need more evidence regarding the event.
5. They attempted to deprive us of our rights.
6. The train will depart in five minutes.
7. He should provide us with more information concerning his prerequisites.

G. Change the following sentences from formal English into informal:

1. In addition, I assume he has the ability to identify the liabilities.

2. The information provided was inaccurate.
3. A steering committee was appointed to recommend the formation of the
board.
4. Before adequate NIS country sections could be produced, government
agencies had to develop more detailed maps.
5. He possesses skill in the techniques of leadership which is the foremost
quality in the art of command.
6. Understanding war must proceed from the cognizance of the things that
men fight for.
7. He answered in the affirmative.

Key:

1. Besides, I think he can find the weak spots.

2. The information given was wrong.
3. A committee was chosen to form the board.
4. Before choosing best NIS countries, government agencies had to
make/draw better maps.
5. He has leadership skills which are the best qualities in the art of command.
6. Understanding war comes from commander’s knowing the things people
fight for.
7. He agreed. He said “yes”.

5
Group Work and Role-play
Small group-work has been used in teaching since the mid-1970s and has been
associated with the cooperative learning. Although definitions of cooperative
learning vary, most would agree on three aspects:

Cooperative learning requires students in small groups, usually heterogeneous

groups, to perform collaborative tasks which are usually regarded as short-term
efforts to be accomplished in a single class period. These activities have a time
limit which helps students to structure their work.

Cooperative activities always have a definite outcome or product. This may take
the form of a report to the whole class or, in the case of a jigsaw activity, the
sharing of information with members of other groups. Whatever its form, the
outcome is specified from the outset, and the entire group's effort is directed
toward its achievement.

There are many reasons why the cooperative approach has attracted so much
attention, and there are many reasons why it is especially suitable for students
who want to have the opportunity to practice the language in a content-relevant
fashion.

Interaction. Cooperative learning requires students to interact with each other,

thus having more time to talk to each other than in an ordinary class where they
should wait for their turn. Moreover, they learn how to express opinion, to
interrupt in a polite way, to negotiate etc.

Interdependence. Students learn to depend on each other as they work together

to accomplish a task. Thus, they receive feedback and assume a role that will
ensure the success of the group as a whole.
Processing. Students process language while being involved in the activity and in
time, their confidence increases as they develop the capacity to seek help, raise
questions, express doubt, disagree, paraphrase etc

Accountability. Even if the focus seems to be on the group, its success depends
on each member. If one of the members does not perform its part in an effective
way, the group as a whole will not be successful. If one member of the group
dominates the work of the others, or if one of them does not wish to participate,
the group as a whole must decide how to solve the situation.

In each group, people tend to play some parts. Here is a short description of them:

 The leader – is the person who leads. Through mental strength he

manages to give the group a certain goal according to the situation. He
is considered the best not just for his qualities, but also for the fact that
the others are not interested in solving the problems on their own. He
thinks first to the safety of the group, and only afterwards, he takes into
consideration the needs of each individual. However, the elected leader
is not always the real leader.
 The anti-leader – is a person who would like to lead, but does not
possess the qualities required for a leader. He is permanently against the
elected leader even if he can be tricked by the latter who will use him to
keep the cohesion of the group. As an anti-leader, he will never have a
very comfortable position, but he might be useful in crisis situations.
 The mother of the group – is not necessary a female, but should be
someone who has empathic qualities and who can perceive the unrest,
the worries and the possible conflicts latent inside the group. She does
everything in her power to have a calm and quiet atmosphere within the
group. Her role is to act as a link that will reunite all the others through
 tact, kindness and moderation. She does not like to be on the boards, but
most of the time, she is the gray eminence behind the leader whom she
supports, sometimes suggesting ideas with which he can bluster.
 The jester – is that person that uses any means possible to draw the
others’ attention. He may help the leader if he considers appropriate, but
he can also mock him as well. He is loved by the others as he is a funny
person, but because he makes them laugh, he is allowed to say a lot of
things that otherwise would be considered piquing. Even if he offends
somebody once in a while, he will be easily forgiven, as the group needs
his good spirits.
 The commoners – are all those who listen, obey and carry out leader’s
plans. They have barely any personal opinions, preferring the relative
security given by the group to solitude.
A group goes through different stages:

Forming

Storming

Performing

Evolution

1. Forming. At this stage, people are strangers to each other, they do not speak
too much and if they do, they interact politely. They test each other’s strengths,
but most of the time, their discussions are rather neutral about problems
outside the group that happened to other people and not to the one who is
talking. Everybody tries to accumulate as much information about the others
as possible without disclosing any about him. The group is now in a stage in
 which the sum of the groups’ abilities is smaller than the sum of its members’
abilities.
2. Storming. This stage is the one in which people start to fight for a better
position. This is the moment when the leader will be designated. The phase
ends when everybody has already accepted his or her role within the group.
The sum of the group’s abilities is dramatically decreasing. This period can be
diminished through attentive observation and good distribution of the
assignments that the group will have to solve. The creation of a crisis situation
can also be beneficial to the group, as it will accelerate its formation, forcing
each member to take his or her place. However, it is possible that a creative,
but less aggressive person might be overwhelmed by the others even if the
group needs his or hers abilities.
3. Performing. This is the stage in which the other relations inside the group
begin to shape. The group is still not functional but its value increases as its
members begin to know their position in it.
4. Evolution. As the group is formed, it will react in any situation as an entity and
not as separate individuals. The members of the group will help each other and
take care of those who are weaker. When giving an assignment to such a group, it
will solve it better than a single person.
The smallest group is the one formed by two people and even when this happens,
one of them will try to control the other. When the groups are formed with more
people, each member will start to pay a certain role in his relation with the others.
Depending on the group, certain persons can play a role in one group, but a
different one in another group. To avoid forming of weak and strong members in a
group, the teacher rotates the students so that they will not have time to create
alliances or take advantage of the weak ones. However, some people like to be in
the spotlight and others who prefer to keep a low profile.
When people get together some of them accept the position of the leader, while
others choose to support and respect him. The leaders and the anti leaders, who
will try to topple the position of the former, take leading positions in a group. The
supporting roles will be taken by the mother of the group who will act to keep all
the other members together.

Examples of role play:

1. A. You are a salesperson for a firm. You are telephoning a client who you think
might be interested in buying your new line of office supplies. Discuss the
following information with your client:

 New line of office supplies including: copy-paper, pens, stationary, mouse-

pads and white boards
 You know the customer hasn't ordered any new products during this past
year
 Special discount of 15% for orders placed before next Monday
 Any order placed before Monday will not only receive the discount, but
also have its company logo printed on the products at no extra charge

B. You work in an office and receive a telephone call from your local office
supplier. As a matter fact, you need some new office supplies so you are definitely
interested in what the salesperson has to offer. Talk about the following:

 New pens, stationary and white boards

 Do they have any special offers
 You would like to place an order for 200 packages of copy paper
immediately
2. A. You are the parent of a six-year-old girl. You are doing your best to bring up
your child, and you are moderately strict. The big problem, you feel, is your own
parent (your daughter's grandparent), who lives with you. He/she is always
spoiling your child. You want this to stop, and you will now complain to your
parent. Here are some examples of the behavior that upsets you:

 Giving her too much candy & too many sweets in general (cakes, etc.)
 Allow her to leave her meals half-eaten.
 Letting her watch too much TV
 Buying her too many toys
 Allowing her to stay up as late as she likes
 Buying her whatever she wants in the supermarket

B. You are the parent of a grown-up child who has a six-year-old daughter. You
live together, and these past six years you have really been enjoying being a
grandparent. You feel it's more fun than being a parent, because you have all of
the pleasures of parenthood without the heavy responsibilities. In recent years,
your philosophy of child-rearing has changed.

You now believe:

 Children should enjoy food & eat what they like.

 Forcing a child to eat can lead to weight problems.
 TV helps develop a child's imagination.
 Toys & other playthings are essential to a child's development.
 Children have lots of energy, and shouldn't be put to bed too soon.
 It's best to let children learn to make decisions (about shopping, etc.)

Right now you son/daughter wants to speak with you. He/she will speak first.
3. A. You are a young person who has decided to marry someone you love who
comes from another country (for example, America). Today you'll tell one of your
parents of this decision, and ask for his/her approval. Below are some of the
reasons why you think your international marriage will be successful (think of
other reasons by yourself):

You feel that in such a marriage, you will:

 develop a broader point-of-view

 enjoy more straightforward, honest communication
 share cultural backgrounds
 have a chance to travel or live overseas
 be able to raise bilingual children

B. You are the mother or father of a young person who has decided to marry
someone who comes from another country (for example, America). Today your
child will tell you of this decision, and ask for your approval. Below are some of
the reasons why you think this international marriage will not be successful (think
of other reasons by yourself). Argue against the marriage, but in the end, decide
for yourself whether or not to give your approval. Below are some of your
concerns (think of others by yourself): You worry that in such a marriage, your
child will:
 quarrel too much over different ways of thinking
 have a limited relationship because of language barrier
 have difficulty with different customs, foods, etc.
 risk being separated from family and relatives
  raise children who are confused about their cultural identity (which culture
they belong to)

4. A. You’ve just arrived in your first country at the beginning of your world tour.
You’re worried about money and so you’d like to find a cheap hotel to stay in. Try
and convince your friends that this is the best option.

B. You’ve just arrived in your first country at the beginning of your world tour.
You want to start your holiday in style and stay in a nice hotel. Try and convince
your friends that this is the best idea.

5. A. You’re now in your second country but unfortunately you’ve just been
mugged and have lost your bag with your passport, air tickets and money in it.
You’re at the police station to report the theft.

B. You’re a police officer. A man comes to your police station to report a theft.
You don’t believe his story. Talk to him and try to find out the truth.

6. A. Because of the mugging you phone home to talk to your parents. You want
your parents to send you some money urgently because you have no money left.
Reassure your parents that everything is OK and get as much money as possible.

B. You are Mum/Dad. You are upset about what has happened to your child. You
don’t want to send him/her any money because you want him/her to come back
home immediately. Talk to him and try to make him to come home.
7. A. You’re in Malaysia and you’ve fallen in love with Asia. Now you really
want to go to Thailand because you’ve heard they’ve got the best beaches in the
world. Try and convince your friends to come with you.

B. You’re in Malaysia but you want to leave. You are tired of traveling and you
miss your home and your home cooking. Try and convince your friend to come
home with you.

8. A. You're a chemical engineer who works in the company's labs you're

attending a conference on a new chemical processing technology. A friend from
college who is now a professor doing research in the same area will be attending
the conference. You want to schedule some time to talk to him and get his
perspective on recent developments in the field. But he is hard to reach.
B. An old friend from college who is doing research work in the same field as you
in the labs of a large corporation wants to get together and talk. You try to find
some time for him in your busy schedule.

9. A. You sell expensive medical. You have to make an appointment to talk with a
doctor who is very influential at a hospital where you're trying to close a sale. You
want to get him in the right mood so you invite him to play a round of golf at an
expensive country club.
B. You're a doctor at an important university hospital. A salesman selling cancer
treatment equipment has been hounding you trying to get some time to talk with
you. Now he wants to meet over golf which doesn't seem too bad to you. You try
to find some time for him in your busy schedule.
10. A. You're an investment banker visiting Jakarta to set up some merger and
acquisition deals. A reporter wants to interview you.
B. You're a reporter who wants to write an insider story on the corporate
reorganizations that are taking place in the wake of the Asian financial crisis. You
make an appointment to talk with an investment banker (a friend of a friend) to
talk about what's going on.

Classical Rhetoric2

5.1. Introduction to classical rhetoric

Rhetoric is defined as:

2
www.americanrhetoric.com
The art of speaking and writing effectively; the study of principles and rules of
composition formulated by critics of ancient times.

Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary

The Greek philosopher, Corax considered that "rhetoric is the artificer of

persuasion" and Plato considered it as "the art of winning the soul with words."
George Campbell (1776) considered rhetoric as “the art or talent by which
discourse is adapted to its end” and pointed out that the rhetor who wants to reach
his goal should take into account his audience’s feelings, passions, dispositions
and purposes.

Kenneth Burke talked about the function of rhetoric as: "the use of words by
human agents to form attitudes or to induce actions in other agents" while Lloyd
Bitzer considered it "a mode of altering reality, not by the direct application of
energy to objects, but by the creation of discourse which changes reality through
the mediation of thought and action.”

Rhetoric was also defined as “the art which seeks to capture in opportune
moments that which is appropriate and attempts to suggest that which is
possible.” (John Poulakos, "Toward a Sophistic Definition of Rhetoric,"
Philosophy and Rhetoric 16(1):35-48, p. 36)
Hart (Modern Rhetorical Criticism, 1997) considers that, by sharing
communication, speakers and listeners influence each other 3. Every rhetorical task
involves a number of basic movements:

1) The speaker uses language to make the listener change his mind.
2) The speaker is eventually regarded as a helper rather than exploiter.
3) The speaker must convince the listener that new choices are necessary.
4) The speaker must ensure that the listener has only some options for making
these choices, while
5) The speaker may not specify the details of the policies advocated.

Rhetoric is also used as a means to organize the discourse in a both appealing and
comprehensive way. Consequently, the responder will follow the flow of the text,
and understand the relationships that exist between its parts.

Rhetoric first meant organizing your discourse in order to convince somebody by

the use of reason (logos). Later, two more techniques were added especially
where persuasion was needed - an appeal to character (ethos) and an appeal to
emotion (pathos).

LOGOS
THE APPEAL TO REASON
As generally people consider themselves reasonable human beings, appealing to
their reason will be an effective means of convincing them to change their mind.

3
Hart, Roderick P. 1997: Modern Rhetorical Criticism. University of Texas at Austin. Allyn and
Bacon. Boston. London. Toronto. Sydney. Tokyo. Singapore, pp. 7-8
ETHOS
THE APPEAL TO CHARACTER
Appealing to people’s sense of justice can serve your purpose.

PATHOS
THE APPEAL TO EMOTION
The appeal to emotion will serve you well because people tend to be convinced if
they participate emotionally in the speech. That is why, in order to convince
people to trust you, you need to show them how involved you are in what you
present.

Text structure options

In order to obtain maximum effect from the speech, you can choose from different
text structures which will not be obvious at first, but will assist the audience in
following the points of the text.

1. Chronological
The text starts from the beginning, and proceeds to the end of a specified
period.

2. Contrast
The text is structured to present opposite viewpoints, or contrasting scenarios.

3. Ladder
This structure works well with an argument, or with an extended exposition.
The points to be made are arranged at the drafting stage, in order of
 importance: the composer can then ascend or descend the ladder. The most
important points are placed first, and then others are presented, in descending
order of importance.

4. Manipulating the real-time sequence.

A structure can begin with a look at the past, and then move to the present. It
grabs the attention of the responder, describing or showing a powerful
moment, which can stir his curiosity as the text moves forward (in time) to
present the current crisis.

5. Tell, then show

The structure generally used in paragraphs, a topic sentence followed by
argument and supporting evidence. It is sometimes used for a whole text, such
as a speech. The composer sets out the overall message, often using abstract
terms. This is followed up by detailed evidence which may include facts,
figures, examples and anecdotes which will both support and humanize the
argument.

6. Surprise or oblique
Some composers begin as they do NOT plan to go on. They may use a
quotation or a statement or an anecdote to gain the interest of responders, but
disguise the ultimate destination of the text. Eventually, you need to establish
some kind of connection with your real intent.

5.2. Rhetorical Devices4

4
www.virtual salt.com/rhetoric.html
Rhetorical devices are those devices that may assist you in obtaining more
meaningful sentences. They are valuable as they build up emphasis and they are
the means through which you can make the appeals to reason, character and
emotion.

1. Anadiplosis: is obtained by repeating one or several words that end

one clause at the beginning of the next.

"Men in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state; servants
of fame; and servants of business." Francis Bacon

2. Antistrophe: repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of

successive clauses.

"In 1931, ten years ago, Japan invaded Manchukuo -- without warning. In 1935,
Italy invaded Ethiopia -- without warning. In 1938, Hitler occupied Austria --
without warning. In 1939, Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia -- without warning.
Later in 1939, Hitler invaded Poland -- without warning. And now Japan has
attacked Malaya and Thailand -- and the United States --without warning."
President Franklin D. Roosevelt

3. Asyndeton is made by omitting conjunctions between words in order

to obtain an effect of „unpremeditated multiplicity”:

„On his return he received medals, honors, treasures, titles, fame.”

Moreover, an asyndetic list can be used to obtain a stronger and more direct
climax.

„If, as is the case, we feel responsibility, are ashamed, are frightened, at

transgressing the voice of conscience, this implies that there is One to whom we
are responsible, before whom we are ashamed, whose claims upon us we fear.”
--John Henry Newman

„We certainly have within us the image of some person, to whom our love and
veneration look, in whose smile we find our happiness, for whom we yearn,
towards whom we direct our pleadings, in whose anger we are troubled and waste
away.” --John Henry Newman

4. Polysyndeton consists of the use of a conjunction between each

word, phrase, or clause.

„And to set forth the right standard, and to train according to it, and to help
forward all students towards it according to their various capacities, this I
conceive to be the business of a University.” --John Henry Newman

5. Understatement involves presenting an idea as less important, either

for ironic emphasis or for politeness and tact.

"It is more pleasing to see smoke brightening into flame, than flame sinking into
smoke." Samuel Johnson

“In a more important way, understatement should be used as a tool for modesty
and tactfulness. Whenever you represent your own accomplishments, and often
when you just describe your own position, an understatement of the facts will help
you to avoid the charge of egotism on the one hand and of self-interested puffery
on the other. We are always more pleased to discover a thing greater than
promised rather than less than promised--or as Samuel Johnson put it, and it goes
without saying that a person modest of his own talents wins our admiration more
easily than an egotist. Thus an expert geologist might say, "Yes, I know a little
about rocks," rather than, "Yes, I'm an expert about rocks." (An even bigger expert
might raise his eyebrows if he heard that.)”

4. Litotes consists of using the opposite word to the one that would
normally be used.

„A few unannounced quizzes are not inconceivable.”

„War is not healthy for children and other living things.”
„One nuclear bomb can ruin your whole day.”

5. Parallelism involves listing in a similar way more structures or

sentences in order to express ideas that are equal in importance.

„I shall never envy the honors which wit and learning obtain in any other
cause, if I can be numbered among the writers who have given ardor to virtue,
and confidence to truth.” --Samuel Johnson

„For the end of a theoretical science is truth, but the end of a practical science
is performance.” --Aristotle

6. Chiasmus5 consists of two structures in which the second one resembles

the first, only in reverse order.

5
www.uky.edu/AS/Classics/rhetoric.html; http://www.nipissingu.ca/faculty/williams/figotspe.htm
Instead of "What is learned unwillingly is forgotten gladly,"
"What is learned unwillingly is gladly forgotten."
Or
Instead of "What is now great was at first little"
"What is now great was little at first."

7. Antithesis means building contrasting relationship between two

ideas usually through juxtaposition.

„To err is human; to forgive, divine.” --Pope

„That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.” --Neil
Armstrong

8. Rhetorical question is a question which is not meant to be

answered

„Why should the civility of theatre be immune to the political threats faced
in the larger public sphere? What makes the theatre so special when other sites of
social interaction in the public sphere are under attack? Should the civil be
immunized against the contamination of the political? What if the civil is infested
in its own right?'

9. Simile is a comparison between two things using 'like' or 'as'.

„Reason is to faith as the eye to the telescope.” D. Hume

10. Pleonasm consists of using redundant words for enriching purposes.

„No one, rich or poor, will be excepted.”

11. Paradox consists of a statement that seems to be opposed to

common sense, but which contains some truth.

„What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young.” George

Bernard Shaw

12. Oxymoron involves a paradox achieved by using words that seem

to contradict one another.

„I must be cruel only to be kind.” Shakespeare, Hamlet

13. Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another which is only
suggested.

„He is a man of the cloth.”

„The pen is mightier than the sword”
„Lands belonging to the crown”

14. Irony: expression of something which is contrary to the intended

meaning.

„Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;

And Brutus is an honorable man” Shakespeare, Julius Caesar
Exercises

Read the following texts and try and match them with the corresponding
rhetorical devices:

1. "Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of

justice is no virtue." ________

Barry Goldwater - Republican Candidate for President 1964

2. "We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any
friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty."
J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural ____________

"Renown'd for conquest, and in council skill'd." ___________

Marcus Tullius Cicero

3. She was not disappointed by the news. _____________
4. He was honored by the crown. _________
5. The project was accepted by everyone. _____________

a. Chiasmus
b. Antithesis
c. Metonymy
d. Pleonasm
 e. Asyndeton
f. Litotes

Key:

1. Antithesis

2. Asyndeton

3. Chiasmus

4. Litotes

5. Metonymy

6. pleonasm

Emphasis

6.1. Emphatic Means

Use of the Passive

The passive voice is used when the subject is not known or not important,
therefore, another part of the sentence (usually the object) will be emphasized.
Example:
The streets have been swept.

Cleft Constructions

They are formed with the use of It+be+person/object+who/that/which. The person

or the object will be emphasized.

Example:
It was John who called me.
It was I who solved the problem.

Another possibility is to use What+pronoun+verb+be.

Example:
What we need is another car.

Emphatic Do

It is used before a verb in affirmative sentences to emphasize that we strongly

believe that action to be true.

Example:
He did come yesterday.
I do believe it.
Expressing Annoyance

Present Continuous/Past Continuous can be use with the adverbs of frequency

(especially always and never) to express annoyance.

Example
This baby is crying forever.
He is always interrupting me.

Exercises

Rephrase the sentences so that they will become more emphatic.

1. John made the mistake.

2. The bank clerk told me about the loan.
3. She is not listening to me.
4. I believe you.
5. We need more information.
6. This baby cries when I want to sleep
7. The representative of the firm sent me an invitation.
8. I liked the way in which he had decorated his house.
9. We know only irrelevant facts.
10. They finally promulgated the law.
 Key:

1. It was John who made the mistake.

2. It was the bank clerk who told me about the loan. /The one who told
me about the loan was the bank clerk.
3. She is never listening to me.
4. I do believe you.
5. What I need is more information.
6. This baby is always crying when I want to sleep.
7. The invitation was sent by the firm representative.
8. I did like the way in which he had decorated his house.
9. What I know is only irrelevant facts.
10.The law was finally promulgated.

6.2. Inversion

The inversion is used for emphatic purposes. It is made by placing a prepositional

phrase, an adverb or an expression at the beginning of the sentence and inverting
the word order as if the sentences were interrogative. (Adverb+Auxiliary
Verb+Subject+Main Verb). The inversion is used in both formal and informal
register helping the speaker to be more rhetorical.

The following words and phrases ask for inversion if placed at the beginning of a
sentence:

Seldom
Never
Rarely
Under no circumstances
On no account
Not only ........... but also
Little
Hardly .......... when (usually used with the past perfect)
Barely ............. when
Scarcely ............. when
No sooner .................. than (usually used with the past perfect when an event
follows another)
Not + object
Not until
Nowhere
Only after/later/then
So/such ................. that

Usually the inversion is in the main clause even if the word that triggers it can be
located in the subordinate clause. The exception is: the if-clause where the
inversion is made after if (Had I been there, I would have helped you.)

Examples

1. I have never read such a stupid article.

Never have I read such a stupid article.
2. Under no circumstances am I going to give up on you!
3. Hardly had I entered the room when the phone rang.
4. No sooner had I gone out than it started to rain.
 5. Not a single word did they say.
6. Not until tomorrow will I see her.
7. Not only have I misses the train, but I have also lost my luggage.
8. Little do I know about it.
9. Nowhere have I seen such wealth of information.
10. Only after he called me, did I realize that I was wrong.
11. So nice was the movie, that I saw it twice.

The adverbs of place will ask for a different type of inversion with the verb
before the subject (Adverb+Verb+Subject):

E.g. Round and round flew the bird.

In the doorway stood a man with a gun.

Exercises

Rephrase the following sentences beginning as shown:

1. I have never seen such a stupid film.

Never __________________________________
2. I felt better only after I finished that treatment.
Only after ________________________________
3. The artisan was so dedicated to his work that it was a pleasure to
look at the objects he had carved.
So________________________________________________________
________________________________________
 4. John was such a nice person that he had loads of friends.
Such _______________________________________________
5. I have not seen such huge prices anywhere.
Nowhere _______________________________
6. When I entered the room, I noticed that the papers had disappeared.
No sooner______________________________________
________________________
7. I did not hear any rumors.
Not a single ______________________________________
8. The terrorist attacks were not only ferocious, but also unexpected.
Not only _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
9. If the politicians had given up the double speak, they would have
made the decision sooner.
Had _____________________________________________
_______________________________________________
10. I had hardly turned on the computer when the lights went off.
Hardly__________________________________________

Key:

1. Never have I seen such a stupid film!

2. Only after I finished the treatment, did I feel better.
3. So dedicated to his work was the artisan that it was a pleasure to look at the
objects he had carved.
4. Such a nice person was John that he had loads of friends.
5. Nowhere have I seen such huge prices!
 6. No sooner did I enter the room than I noticed that the papers had
disappeared.
7. Not a single rumor did I hear.
8. Not only were the terrorist attacks ferocious, but also unexpected.
9. Had the politician given up double speak, they would have made the
decision sooner.
10. Hardly had I turned on the computer when the lights went off.

Speeches

7.1. The Informative Speech/Military Briefing

The purpose of the informative speech is to provide correct information in an

organized way so that the audience will understand it. The introduction of the
informative speech contains an attention getting opening statement which is
meant to raise people’s attention and a review of main points. The body consists
of a number of paragraphs that expend the main ideas previewed in the
introduction. The conclusion contains the summary of main points and a
memorable conclusion which will reinforce the idea of the speech and will
provide a sense of closure.
Military briefings could also contain one of the following before the agenda
(preview of main points):

GREETING

Good morning, gentlemen.

On behalf of Lt Col Smith, I would like to welcome you to 2/28 Tank Bn.

IDENTIFICATION OF SELF (IF APPROPRIATE)

I am Captain Bill Johnson, S-2 of the 34th Signal Battalion.

PURPOSE

a. I have been asked to brief you on ...

b. My aim is to brief you on ...
c. The aim of my briefing is to ...
d. It gives me great pleasure to brief you on ...
e. It gives me great pleasure to have the opportunity to brief you on ...

CLASSIFICATION (ONLY IF MATERIAL IS CLASSIFIED)

 a. The classification of this briefing is Restricted.
b. This briefing is NATO Secret.

5. QUESTIONS

a. If you have any questions during my briefing, please interrupt me

and ask them.
b. If you have any questions during my briefing, could you please hold
them until the end?

The conclusion of the military briefing is shorter:

E.g.
This concludes my briefing. Are there any (further) questions?
I thank you for your attention. Are there any (further) questions?

The Outline

1. Introduction
Attention Getting Opening Statement
Preview of the main ideas
2. Body
Main Idea 1+ Supporting details
Main Idea 2 + Supporting details
Main Idea 3 + Supporting details etc.
3. Conclusion
Summary of Main Points
Memorable Conclusion

A. Read the following speech and put its parts in the right order:

TELEVISION – IT HARMS US, BUT WE LOVE IT

A. Moreover, television has lately become part of ritual that includes the
ingestion of large quantities of food and the hand stuck on the remote
control. Not surprisingly, culture and the channels that provide it excluded
from this ritual. When we browse through the channels, we very seldom
stop to listen to a concert or to watch a play. Luckily, as culture can
scarcely be found on TV, people inferred that it is not something they need;
consequently, they should avoid it like the plague!
B. To exemplify, we can mention the talking heads and what they have got to
do with providing valuable pieces of information. Although they use an
impressive number of words, we often end up listening to their verbiage
and asking ourselves if it is worth watching shows in which the
information is overwhelmed by such an amount of gossip and innuendo.
C. We are living in a period of continuous changes that affect us and we are
lured by the mirage of television. Most people agree that the “infernal
machine” called TV is not something we can’t live without, but how many
of us would actually unplug the thing and lock it into a closet? However,
we are taught to worship television as the main provider of valuable
information, entertainment and culture.
 D. We are taught that television is the one which keeps us informed, entertains
us and gives us some kind of cultural background. We are fed with
information we do not need and with glimpses of distorted reality that can
only harm us. Therefore, we are increasingly beginning ignorant, and
slothful, indolent and uninterested in the variety of things life can offer us
if we only dare to step outside into the open.
E. A Latin dictum used to say that people should be provided with bread and
circus in order to lead their white bread lives in a satisfactory way. Without
disregarding the hard working people who bring home the bacon, the
modern circus has suffered a process of transformation and has become
television. However, both of them were first created not only for
entertainment purposes, but also as a means to transcend limits and go
beyond reality. Films can best serve this purpose as they present improved
versions of the world, selling them as the real things. People will
eventually get trapped and roam these virtual worlds that bring them little
benefit. Some critics blame the movies for teenagers’ bad demeanor, but
their warnings are not taken into account by many, as watching TV is more
appealing than anything else.

Key

A. We are living in a period of continuous changes that affect us and we are

lured by the mirage of television. Most people agree that the “infernal
machine” called TV is not something we can’t live without, but how many
of us would actually unplug the thing and lock it into a closet? However,
 we are taught to worship television as the main provider of valuable
information, entertainment and culture.
B. To exemplify, we can mention the talking heads and what they have got to
do with providing valuable pieces of information. Although they use an
impressive number of words, we often end up listening to their verbiage
and asking ourselves if it is worth watching shows in which the information
is overwhelmed by such an amount of gossip and innuendo.
C. A Latin dictum used to say that people should be provided with bread and

circus in order to lead their white bread lives in a satisfactory way. Without
disregarding the hard working people who bring home the bacon, the
modern circus has suffered a process of transformation and has become
television. However, both of them were first created not only for
entertainment purposes, but also as a means to transcend limits and go
beyond reality. Films can best serve this purpose as they present improved
versions of the world, selling them as the real things. People will eventually
get trapped and roam these virtual worlds that bring them little benefit.
Some critics blame the movies for teenagers’ bad demeanor, but their
warnings are not taken into account by many, as watching TV is more
appealing than anything else.
D. Moreover, television has lately become part of ritual that includes the
ingestion of large quantities of food and the hand stuck on the remote
control. Not surprisingly, culture and the channels that provide it excluded
from this ritual. When we browse through the channels, we very seldom
stop to listen to a concert or to watch a play. Luckily, as culture can
scarcely be found on TV, people inferred that it is not something they need;
consequently, they should avoid it like the plague!
 E. We are taught that television is the one which keeps us informed, entertains
us and gives us some kind of cultural background. We are fed with
information we do not need and with glimpses of distorted reality that can
only harm us. Therefore, we are increasingly beginning ignorant, and
slothful, indolent and uninterested in the variety of things life can offer us if
we only dare to step outside into the open.

B. Read the following speech and label its parts:

TO LIVE OR DIE

Euthanasia has always been considered as one of the most controversial and
hottest subjects which have emerged together with the latest discoveries in
science and technology, but how many people know that this used to be a
common practice in some civilizations? The fact that there is nothing new under
the sun should lead to the conclusion that everything we have to deal with as part
of our modern civilization has already been discusses and classified.
_____________(1) As part of their ethos, many ancient civilizations have stories
that record euthanasia as a widespread practice born not only from keep their
society away from degeneration_______(2), but also from the necessity to
decrease their population and make room for young people_____________(3).
However, as life can now be preserved longer with the help of cutting age science,
more moral problems tend to arise_____________(4).

During antiquity, euthanasia was more often regarded as a way to protect society
from degeneration as it was applied to the sick and disabled regardless of age if
they had become a burden that the state was not willing to bear anymore
_____________(5). Therefore, we should not be surprised by the fact that the
Spartans used to kill their children if they did not look strong enough to become
active citizens. Infanticide was also such a common practice in Asia that no one
would have even dreamt about banning it. For example, in China it was not a
crime to strangle newborn female infants if their parents did not have sufficient
means to support them.

However, there are even worse facts imprinted in the collective memory called
folklore as this is the place where we find stories about old men being
euphemized just to make space for young people looking for a better life
____________(6). Probably these stories contain a speck of truth because many
cultures had the tendency to disregard old age as useless in terms of social
dynamics and tried to find “practical” solutions to this problem.

Now, modern people concentrate more on the moral side of the problem than on
the practical one._____________(7) We try to find equitable solutions to this
problem as the cutting age of science is forcing us to accept the fact that we can
prolong the life of those who otherwise would be considered dead. The
advancement in technology allows us to save lives and even preserve them at any
cost. However, some consider that connecting a person to a respirator is as if we
condemned that person to a living hell while others see it as one of the important
discoveries of the 20th century because it symbolizes man’s triumph over death.

The way in which our society is structured makes life and death different from
what they used to be. Maybe euthanasia is just about us becoming more and more
aware of what life is and of how much we should treasure it. Therefore, as time
goes by, it is increasingly difficult for us to accept the loss of a life that might
have been saved if we had intervened in time and maybe this is what makes
euthanasia such a hotly debated subject________________(8).

a. Conclusion
b. Attention getting opening statement
c. Main Idea 2
d. Main Idea 2 + Supporting details
e. Main Idea 3
f. Main Idea 1
g. Main Idea 3 + Supporting details
h. Main Idea 1+ Supporting details

Key

1. Attention getting opening statement

2. Main Idea 1
3. Main Idea 2
4. Main Idea 3
5. Main Idea 1+ Supporting details
6. Main Idea 2 + Supporting details
7. Main Idea 3 + Supporting details
8. Conclusion

7.2. The Problem Solution Speech

The main goal of a problem solution speech is to prepare and deliver a solution to
a problem. The problem solution speech means organizing the arguments so that
they will be convincing. You give problem solution speeches in order to persuade
others and make them change their opinion.
In order to deliver an effective problem solution speech, you need to identify the
problem, and then find the possible solutions. You can also use the pro and contra
approach to discuss the solutions.

Speech Preparation

1. analyze the audience in order to learn more about their prerequisites,

2. limit the problem by establishing the who, what, when, why and how of the
problem. It can be presented:
a. as a question: “What should we do in order to give up smoking?”,
b. as a statement of need or purpose: “ Our organisation needs to
develop ways to prevent this problem from occurring.”
c. as an infinitive phrase: “To detect and end the causes, we need to …”
3. gather information related to the problem in order to fully describe both your
problem and your solution,
4. organize your information under the headlines: facts, assumptions (uncertain
things accepted as true) and criteria (standards, and requirements used to test
solutions).
5. list possible solutions,
6. test possible solutions,
7. select final solutions,
8. find the counterarguments against this solution,
9. write down the actions necessary to reach the final solution.

The Problem Solution Speech

Outline
State the problem
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Write the cause of the problem

__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Add evidence (statistics, examples, quotations etc.)

__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

State the solution to the problem

__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Add arguments against the solution

__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
Show why the solution chosen is better than others

__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Show why the solution is beneficial

__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Write the summary of main points

__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Add memorable conclusion

__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Exercises

A. Write arguments in support of the following and state possible counter

arguments:

1. Drugs should not be legalized.

 Argument:
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Counter argument:
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

2. TV violence should be censored.

Argument:
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Counter argument:
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

3. Computer literates find better jobs.

Argument:
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Counter argument:
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

4. Learning English is not important.

Argument:
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Counter argument:
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

5. Capital punishment acts as deterrent to crime.

Argument:
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Counter argument:
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

6. Cats are better pets than dogs.

Argument:
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Counter argument:
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Suggested answers:

1. Argument: Legalization of drugs may result in escalating the number of drug

consumers as they will gain easy access to dangerous substances.
Counter argument: However, drug consumption should be legalized only for those
who are either addicts or they have a condition that forces them to take substances
that are now considered illegal.

2. Argument: Violence on TV soils the minds and souls of young generation

introducing them to a world in which crime is a modus vivendi.
Counter argument: Censorship means infringing upon the people’s rights,
therefore, certain TV shows and movies should not be banned only because they
contain excessive violence.

3. Argument: The computer is the device that allows people to gain access to a
world which provides a wealth of information. Knowing more and being able to
do more, some people will eventually end up having better positions.
Counter argument: Being computer literate is important, but depending on the
position people want to apply for, they may possess skills that would surpass the
sheer use of computers.

4. Argument: Most people know, or at least understand English nowadays;

therefore, the work market tends to favor those who have acquired a more exotic
language.
Counter argument: English has become a must, being the language used in many
fields and, even if knowing another language could be an advantage, English
cannot be easily dethroned.

5. Argument: People commit crimes for different reasons, and their evil deeds
cannot be deterred only by the perspective of the death row.
Counter argument: Capital punishment should be reinstated so that evil doers will
be warned about the danger they may face if committing more crimes.

6. Argument: Cats are independent animal, perfectly capable of taking care of

themselves, and they are better pets especially for people who work long hours.
Counter argument: People choose the pet they like; therefore, it is difficult to
argue whether cats can be regarded as world’s top pets.

B. Facts and opinions are used to support main ideas. Read the following
statements and state whether the following are fact (F) or opinion (O):

1. Cats are better pets than dogs.

a. F
 b. O

2. John was fired after he had worked at the Ministry for 10 years.

a. F
b. O

3. People nowadays are more concerned about the environment.

a. F
b. O

4. Recent natural disasters portend a somber future for human race.

a. F
b. O

5. On October, 3, 1999, a massive landslide hit the resort after two days of
torrential rain.

a. F
b. O

6. People who have lost their faith in God will still believe in the supernatural.

a. F
 b. O

7. Legalization of drugs will result in a reduced the number of addicts.

a. F
b. O

8. The old days were better than today.

a. F
b. O

9. The Fourteenth Amendment to the Us Constitution guarantees equal

protection under the law.

a. F
b. O

10.Old houses were badly damaged by the recent earthquake.

a. F
b. O

Key: 1. O, 2. F, 3. O, 4. O, 5. F, 6. O, 7. O, 8. O, 9. F, 10. F

7.3. The Persuasive Speech

The main goal of the persuasive speech is to influence others or make them
change their mind. This type of oral communication requires not only a well-
organized speech, but also a convincing manner of delivery that will influence
people to change their opinion or behaviour. Perelman considers that
argumentation is always addressed to an audience being communication and that
a speaker must be aware of his audience as it represents the goal of his
persuasion6.

The purpose of the speech could be to persuade people:

1. to change their mind regarding a fact which is true (or false),

E.g. Bucharest is the cultural capital of Romania.

2. to change an opinion about the value of something,

E.g. Knowing English is important.

3. to perform something (or not).

E.g. Stop smoking.

Participate in the electoral process.

In order to be able to persuade people you also need to have some information
about their background, opinions and attitudes. It is important that you know
whether they have any interest in the proposal, or under no circumstances can
they be convinced.

6
Perelman, Chaïm 1982: The Realm of Rhetoric. University of Notre Dame Press. Notre Dame.
London.
Steps to Persuasive Speech

1. Select a topic
2. Select arguments to support your position and state possible counter
arguments
3. Select supporting evidence, which can be based on different types of
reasoning such as: generalization, analogy, and cause-effect.

Generalization – you should have sufficient pieces of information that will allow
you to generalize.
Analogy – involves drawing a conclusion based on similar cases or situations. In
order to build valid analogies, the object or situations compared have to be more
or less equal.
Cause –effect – should be based on the fact that certain causes have certain
effects.

Writing the Outline

When writing the outline, you should:

1. state the problem

2. state the solution
3. list the counter arguments
4. show the reasons why the solution is preferable.

The Introduction
As the purpose of the persuasive speech is to make people change their mind, the
introduction is very important as it has not only to grab the audience’s attention,
and interest, but also to create a good impression of you as a speaker. In addition,
it introduces the topic of the speech and prepares the audience for the body of the
speech. Rhetorical devices are very useful in creating a connection with the
audience, and arousing their interest and curiosity. Read the section on classical
rhetoric and rhetorical devices to learn more about persuasion.

E.g. Good evening, my fellow Americans. Ten days ago, in my report to the
nation on Vietnam, I announced the decision to withdraw an additional 150,000
Americans from Vietnam over the next year. I said then that I was making that
decision despite our concern over increased enemy activity in Laos, in Cambodia,
and in South Vietnam. And at that time I warned that if I concluded that increased
enemy activity in any of these areas endangered the lives of Americans remaining
in Vietnam, I would not hesitate to take strong and effective measures to deal with
that situation. Despite that warning, North Vietnam has increased its military
aggression in all these areas, and particularly in Cambodia.

After full consultation with the National Security Council, Ambassador Bunker,
General Abrams and my other advisors, I have concluded that the actions of the
enemy in the last 10 days clearly endanger the lives of Americans who are in
Vietnam now and would constitute an unacceptable risk to those who will be there
after withdrawal of another 150, 000. To protect our men who are in Vietnam, and
to guarantee the continued success of our withdrawal and Vietnamization
program, I have concluded that the time has come for action.
Tonight, I shall describe the actions of the enemy, the actions I have ordered to
deal with that situation, and the reasons for my decision.
(Richard Nixon: Cambodian Incursion Address, delivered 30 April 1970 from
Washington, DC, www. Americanrhetoric.com)

The Body

The main body of the persuasive speech consists of a number of arguments,

followed by supporting evidence and counter response.

E.g. And now, let me give you the reasons for my decision.
Counter argument: A majority of the American people, a majority of you
listening to me are for the withdrawal of our forces from Vietnam.
Response: The action I have taken tonight is indispensable for the continuing
success of that withdrawal program.
Counter argument: A majority of the American people want to end this war
rather than to have it drag on interminably.
Response: The action I have taken tonight will serve that purpose.
Counter argument: A majority of the American people want to keep the
casualties of our brave men in Vietnam at an absolute minimum.
Response: The action I take tonight is essential if we are to accomplish that goal.
(Richard Nixon: Cambodian Incursion Address, delivered 30 April 1970 from
Washington, DC, www. Americanrhetoric.com)

However, in order to make your arguments more effective, you should add a
number of rhetorical devices.
 E.g. Rhetorical question

The question all Americans must ask and answer tonight is this: Does the richest
and strongest nation in the history of the world have the character to meet a
direct challenge by a group which rejects every effort to win a just peace, ignores
our warning, tramples on solemn agreements, violates the neutrality of an
unarmed people, and uses our prisoners as hostages? If we fail to meet this
challenge, all other nations will be on notice that despite its overwhelming power
the United States when a real crisis comes will be found wanting.
(Richard Nixon: Cambodian Incursion Address, delivered 30 April 1970 from
Washington, DC, www. Americanrhetoric.com)

The Conclusion

The conclusion of the persuasive speech is different from the one of other
speeches because it does not involve a mere list of main ideas, but it is a chance to
convince the audience that your proposal is the most advantageous.

E.g. It is customary to conclude a speech from the White House by asking support
for the President of the United States. Tonight, I depart from that precedent. What
I ask is far more important. I ask for your support for our brave men fighting
tonight halfway around the world, not for territory, not for glory, but so that their
younger brothers and their sons and your sons can have a chance to grow up in a
world of peace, and freedom, and justice.
Thank you, and good night.
(Richard Nixon: Cambodian Incursion Address, delivered 30 April 1970 from
Washington, DC, www. Americanrhetoric.com)

Persuasive speech – the Outline

Introduction

1. Write an attention-getting opening statement.

___________________________________________

2. Build listener’s trust by showing that you feel the same the do.

3. State and describe the problem.

_________________________________________________

4. State and describe the solution.

5. State the persuasive claim of the speech.

The Body

1. Argument ______________________________________
Supporting evidence_________________________________
Opposing argument and counter response________________

2. Argument ______________________________________
Supporting evidence_________________________________
Opposing argument and counter response________________

3. Argument ______________________________________
Supporting evidence_________________________________
Opposing argument and counter response________________

Conclusion

1. Write a summary of the persuasive points.

_____________________________________________

2. Write the memorable conclusion.

________________________________________________

Exercises
A. Decide whether the following statements are generalization (G),
analogy (A) or cause-effect (C).

1. In most Western states, environmentalist groups have recently gained more

support from the public.

a. G
b. A
c. C

2. Frequent use of antibiotics will result in increasing the resistance of germs

to some treatments.

a. G
b. A
c. C

3. John woke up one night and had the unpleasant sensation that somebody
was looking at him. A similar case happened in the same neighbourhood,
when a young woman called the police claiming that she felt a strange
presence in her room. In both cases, no evidence of a brake in was found.

a. G
b. A
c. C
 4. Most countries in the area expressed their concern regarding the escalation
of violence in the area.

a. G
b. A
c. C

5. Sending faulty information would result in repeating the mistakes we have

made in the previous project.

a. G
b. A
c. C

Key: 1. G, 2. C, 3. A, 4. G, 5. A

B. Complete the following outline by writing the given sentences or

phrases in the appropriate lines:

I. Problem: ___________

A. Present difficulties

1. insufficient roads
2. __________________
3. insufficient parking lots
4. ________________
 B. Statement of problem: over population causes traffic problems.

II. Solution:

Repairing and modernizing the existing streets.

1. repairing the potholes

2. _____________
3. closing the city centre

III. Countering objections

A. ________________________________________
Response: The system used to be adequate, but because of over population, the
number of cars has also increased.

B. Argument: We need the money for other projects.

Response: __________________________________

C. Argument: Closing certain areas will result in more traffic jams.

Response: ___________________________________

IV. Why the solution is desirable:

A. It will be less time consuming.

 B. ____________________

1. It will require less funding.

2. Protected areas should be implemented only after developing other possible
routes through tunnels, bridges etc.
3. damaged roads.
4. Reducing traffic problems.
5. We don’t need it. The present system is adequate.
6. pollution in areas with heavy traffic.
7. turning parts of the side ways into parking spaces.
8. A recent study found that we could divert some funds from other programs
as only modernizing rods will be less costly than building new ones.

Key:

I. Reducing traffic problems

2. damaged roads
4. pollution in areas with heavy traffic

II. 2. turning parts of the side ways into parking spaces

III. A. We don’t need it. The present system is adequate.

B. Response: A recent study found that we could divert some funds
from other programs as only modernizing rods will be less costly
than building new ones.
C. Response: Protected areas should be implemented only after
developing other possible routes through tunnels, bridges etc.
IV. B. It will require less funding.

Introduction to STANAG Level 2-3 (Speaking)

8.1. Topics for STANAG Level 2 and 3

Level 2
Topics

 Narration in the past

 Description of a place or person
 Compare and contrast two people, places or objects
 Directions
 Requests and complains
 Travel and vacation
 Machines and appliances
 Future plans
 Entertainment
 Cities and landmarks
 Military terminology e.g. description of a military exercise or mission etc.

Grammar points
 Present simple
 Present continuous
 Past simple
 Past continuous
 Auxiliary verbs at negative and interrogative
 Plural of nouns
 Pronouns and adjectives
 Articles
  Prepositions of time, place and direction
 The genitive
 The comparison of regular and irregular adjectives and adverbs
 The modal verbs – can, may, must, should, would – followed by the short
infinitive
 Subject- predicate concord
 Coordinated sentences
 If clauses with present and future and some other types of subordinate
clauses with present and past (that clauses, time clauses, adverbial clause of
cause etc.)

Level 3
Abstract Topics

 Culture
 Technology
 Philosophy
 Science
 The military life
 Proverbs and idioms

Grammar points

 Conditional sentence
  Future tenses
 The passive voice
 Reported speech
 Sequence of tenses
 Relative clauses
 Participles
 Gerunds
 Infinitives
 Subjunctive
 Perfect modals

8.2. STANAG Level 2-3 (Speaking)

Most people know more English than an ordinary STANAG level 2, but they still
cannot obtain level 3 because they do not know what they have to deal with. The
following interview is an example of the former 2+ (the level between 2 and 3).

1. The interview will begin with a level 2 subject.

Narration in the past or description:

(After working hard all year, people look forward to going on holiday.)

“Yes, I also like my holidays even if I haven’t got one for a long time.”
 (Tell me what you did on your best holiday ever and describe one person you
were with or met there or places you visited and impressed you most.
You have 30 seconds to prepare and 3 minutes to perform the task.)

“My best holiday ever was when I was 12 years old and I went with my
parents to Saturn, a seaside resort. We left quite early in the morning and my
father drove all day. We stopped in Constanza for half an hour but then we went
on. We accommodated at a small yet modern hotel by the sea. Our room was
pretty large and it overlooked the sea. In the morning, we would go to the beach
to get a suntan and to swim. As it was my first time I had ever seen the sea, I was
overwhelmed by its intense color and by the shivering electric lights it mirrored
after the sunset. I remember meeting a lot of children and playing with the waves.
Later on, in the evening, we would find a nice restaurant, eat one of the local
specialties and chat and laugh a lot. I can tell you that fish is my favorite and that
I ate a lot of it in that period. My parents also took me to Constanza where I was
impressed with the Planetarium because, at the time, I was keen on astrology, as
probably all children are at a certain point.
I especially remember one morning when I woke up before the sunrise and I
witnessed the moment when the ingot of the sun rose gradually from the sea.
I don’t know if this could really be described as a great holiday because later I
went to more exotic locations, but this is what I’ve always felt about it.”

Because the candidate seams to have better knowledge of English, the

following subject will be of level 3. However, the interviewer will discover
that he/she does not have a consistent level 3 and in the end, the candidate will
get level 2.
 2. Expressing opinion

(The cutting edge of science has enabled doctors to prolong human life beyond
the death of the brain. This situation may lead to grave problems both legal and
emotional. Families might be forced into a war over keeping the loved ones in a
vegetative state or unhooking their respirator. What do you think should be done
in order to avoid these cases getting out of hand? Give 2-3 reasons to support your
opinion.
What is your position on this issue? You should give us two or three
reasons to support your opinion.
You have 30 seconds to prepare and 3 minutes to perform the task.)

„I think that science has developed so much in the last 50 year that
sometimes it has begun to cause problems especially connected to human life.
There are so many things that are hard to understand and they take time until
someone manages to solve them. I think this is a very difficult moment in
everybody’s life because it involves somebody you love. I have never been in
such a position but I think doctors should ask the family if they want to have their
relative on a respirator. When people die, their family inherits their goods but
when someone is half-dead there might be problems. On the other hand, it is
difficult when you have someone in hospital and you know that person will never
recover.
However, legislators should also know these cases and give laws that will help
people when they have problems like these. I know it was a case in the US when
the members of a family fought in court because their daughter was in coma and
their son in law wanted to unhook her respirator. I think this is terrible.
In addition, from a religious point of view, you are not allowed to kill someone
who is alive even if that person’s brain is not working. I do not think we have
many cases like this in Romania and that is why we are not really prepared for
them. To avoid such cases we should have some laws that protect the people who
are in coma. People should also let their family know and write down if they want
to be brought back to life and be put on a respirator or they want to be left to die.”

3. Monologue

(You have been invited of one of your best friends to the birthday party.
You all sit round the table and have a lot of fun. At a certain moment, someone
asks you to give a speech. Give a thank speech.
You have 30 seconds to prepare and 3 minutes to perform the task.)

“I am glad to be here with all my friends around. I am happy I was invited

to my friend John’s birthday as this marks a very long friendship. We have
known each other for more than 20 years, in fact, we lived in the same building
and we played when we were children. Then, we went to school and we were still
inseparable for many years. After our graduation, we kept in touch and after we
got married, we spent our holidays together. Suddenly, John went to work in
another town and we have not seen him for two years. I think this occasion is very
important because it has brought us back together. So, I wish him a long and
happy life and I hope we will be still together when he celebrates his 80 th
birthday.”

1. Hypothetical monologue
 (Octavian Bellu is a gymnastics coach with a worldwide reputation.
Recently he has been accused of taking money from gymnasts after they had
won international competitions. Had you been one of the judges on this case,
what decision would you have made in order to solve the situation and ensure a
continuation of the steam of victories?
You have 30 seconds to prepare and 3 minutes to answer the task.)

“I have heard about this case and I think that in spite of the fact that it is not
legal to take money from the people you teach, he should not be punished so
severely. He is one of the best coaches in Romania and if he quits, it will not be
very good for our national team. I do not know what a real judge might say, but
probably I would give him a fine and I would take care to stop any further
cases like that. I would say that it is important to go back and continue teaching
the young gymnasts so that they can get more victories. I would tell him that I
know he is not paid enough but this does not allow him to take money from the
others because this is illegal. Probably, I would make him give back the money
he has taken and I would finally close the case.”

8.3. Introduction to STANAG Level 3 (Speaking)

At STANAG 3 the interview consists of:

1. narration and description
2. expressing opinion
3. monologue
4. situational dialogue
5. hypothetical monologue
1. Narration and description
(Tell me what you did on your best holiday ever and describe one person you
were with or met there or places you visited and impressed you most.
You have 30 seconds to prepare and 3 minutes to perform the task.)

“It will be quite difficult to talk about my best holiday as I think all of them had a
certain flavor and as time goes by I tend to put them in the same basket. However,
I will do my best and I will describe a trip I had to Greece. I’ve always been
impressed by ancient civilizations, by the way in which they flourished and then
crumbled but still remained as landmarks of art and culture throughout the world.
In my judgment, Greece should be a must for all those who wish to experience a
great civilization not only from the cultural point of view, but also from the
spiritual one embodied in the orthodox religion. Touring Greece means traveling
through time because, even if the towns retain an aura of modernity, under the
lush surface of restaurants and shops lie a wealth of events which influenced the
development of our civilization. Anyway, no sooner had I arrived there, than I had
the chance to visit some of the old churches which were not as impressive as the
towering modern buildings with their glass and steel architecture mirroring the
heavens, but which dwarfed me with their majestic image of ancient serenity.
Thinking of all the events and history turning points these walls may have
witnessed, I was overwhelmed by this nation once so mighty.”

Here you will have some of the subjects you have encountered at level 2-3,
but changed in order to meet the requirements of a higher level.

2. Expressing opinion
 (The cutting edge of science has enabled doctors to prolong human life beyond
the death of the brain. This situation may lead to grave problems both financial
and emotional. Families might be forced into a war over keeping the loved ones in
a vegetative state or unhooking their respirator. What do you think should be done
in order to avoid these cases getting out of hand? Give 2-3 reasons to support your
opinion.
What is your position on this issue? You should give us two or three
reasons to support your opinion.
You have 30 seconds to prepare and 3 minutes to perform the task.)

„ I think that science has undertaken so tremendous changes in the last 50

year that sometimes it ends up spawning numerous problems especially connected
to human life. In a way, cutting-edge science nowadays has outpaced our capacity
of understanding it and solving its problems in a relatively short period. Losing
someone you love might be a very stressful moment as it involves mixed feelings.
I have never been in such a position, but in my judgment, doctors should consult
with the family prior to hooking someone on a respirator. The problems that might
arise are mainly of psychological matter, stemming from the fact that having
someone in hospital and being aware of the fact that the person may never
recover, could be tremendously stressful.”

3. Monologue

(You have been invited of one of your best friends to the birthday party.
You all sit round the table and have a lot of fun. At a certain moment, someone
asks you to give a speech. Give a thank speech.
 You have 30 seconds to prepare and 3 minutes to perform the task.)

My dear, old friends

I feel extremely grateful to having been invited to this party and to seeing
so many dear faces around me. This brings back so many happy memories! My
friendship with John has lasted for ages, and if I were to be asked about the roots
of this beautiful friendship, I would definitely reply that we were probable
destined to meet as neither of as had any siblings. That is why, I consider John
more than a friend, and as we’ve been inseparable for the last 20 years, I am
honored to call him the brother I’ve never had. It is true that life has forced us to
drift away for some years, but we have never lost touch and we’ve always found a
way to get together because, you know: Birds of a feather flock together!
Anyway, I think this occasion is of extreme importance because it has facilitated
our reunion. Therefore, John, I wish you a long and fruitful life and I hope we will
be still together when you have celebrated your 80th birthday.”

4. Hypothetical monologue

(Octavian Bellu is a gymnastics coach with a worldwide reputation.

Recently he has been accused of taking money from gymnasts after they had
won international competitions. Had you been one of the judges on this case,
what decision would you have made in order to solve the situation and ensure a
continuation of the steam of victories?
You have 30 seconds to prepare and 3 minutes to answer the task.)

“It has been a lot of flak related to this case and I think that in spite of the
fact that it is not legal to be bribed by the people you teach, he should not be
 punished so severely. He is considered one of the best coaches in Romania and
if he is sent out to pasture, it will not be beneficial to our national team. I do not
know what a real judge might have said, but probably I would have given him a
fine and I would have taken measures that would prevent such events from
occurring. Moreover, I would have encouraged him to go back and continue
teaching the young gymnasts so that they could get more victories. I would
have told him that, even if he was underpaid, he could not use it as an excuse
for illegal gains. Therefore, I would have probably forced him to return the
money and I would have finally closed the case.”

Additional Materials

Role play

Cue Cards

I.
You are in a shop in a foreign country. You want to buy a present for your wife.
You ask the shop-assistant to make suggestions but everything he suggests seems
to be too expensive for you. Ask him for a discount.

You are a shop assistant. A customer wants to buy something for his wife but he is
not sure what. Make some suggestions. You are not allowed to lower the price of
the products but you don’t want to lose a customer.

II.

You are a travel agent. You have only a room in a hotel at the seaside no one has
booked yet. Nobody wants it as it is on the ground floor and does not have a view.
You really want to find a customer as you have been promised a bonus.

You are a customer in a traveling agency. You want to book a room with a view in
a hotel at the seaside. You really need to book a room today because you promised
it to your family.

III.

You borrowed some money from a friend but you cannot pay it back right now.
You don’t like to be in debt, so you offer to give him something else in exchange
for the money.

You lent some money to your friend some time ago. He seems to have forgotten
about it. You really need the money back as your wife wants to change the
furniture in the kitchen.

IV.

You are late at the office again. Your direct boss is waiting for you to make a
mistake to make a report because he does not like you too much. The real reason
for your being late is that you overslept. You try to hide this from him. Try to
solve the problem.

You don’t like your subordinate too much because you think he wants your
position. You are trying to catch him making a mistake in order to report this to
your superiors. You ask him for an explanation about his being late for work
today.

V.

You are a customer in a shop. You bought a video recorder yesterday but it seems
that there is something wrong with it. Talk to the shop assistant about it. Ask him
to give you a refund or exchange it for another one.

You are a shop assistant. A customer comes to complain about a video recorder.
You are not allowed to give him the money back but you want to solve the
problem. Talk to him and offer an alternative.

VI.

You are the nurse who makes appointments in a dentist’s office. You hate people
who call in the last minute to change their appointments. Yet, you try to be helpful
because you don’t want to lose a customer. The doctor is going to a conference
tomorrow but he is coming back soon.

You had an appointment to the dentist’s for today at 1 p.m. unfortunately you
have a meeting and you will not be able to get there at that hour. Call the nurse to
change your appointment. Make sure it’s soon because your tooth really hurts.

VII.

You want to please your boss and you have invited him to dinner. You have had a
lovely meal but when the waiter comes with the bill you discover you have lost or
forgotten your wallet. Try to solve the problem.
You are the boss. You have had a lovely meal with your subordinate but now you
are tired and you want to go home. You have no money on you because you have
forgotten your briefcase at the office.

VIII.

You had a lovely meal in a restaurant but when the waiter brought you the bill you
noticed there was something wrong. Call the waiter and ask him to explain why
he included in the bill something you didn’t eat.

You are a waiter in a restaurant. You are having a bad day and you feel very tired.
A customer asks you to explain why you included in his bill something he didn’t
eat. Try to solve the problem.

IX

Your son is 9 years old. He told you yesterday that he had some problems at
school. You are worried because he used to be the best pupil in his class. It is true
that lately you haven’t had so much time for him. You’ve come to talk to his
teacher to find out what is going on.

You are a schoolteacher. It seems that there is something wrong with one of your
pupils. He used to be the best but lately he has started not to do his homework
anymore. The boy’s father comes to talk to you. Try to find the cause and a
possible solution.
 Activity: Border Control Role-Play

Read out the following scenario:

It is a dark, cold and wet night on the border between X and Y. A column of
refugees has arrived, fleeing from the war in X. They want to cross into Y.
They are hungry, tired and cold. They have no money, and no documents
except their passports.
 The immigration officials from country Y have different points of view -
some want to allow the refugees to cross, but others don't.
The refugees are desperate, and use several arguments to try to persuade
the immigration officials.

1• Half of the group or class will imagine that they are the immigration
officers from country Y.
.

Immigration officers' arguments and options:

You can use these arguments and any others you can think of:

1• They are desperate, we can't send them back.

2• If we will send them back we will be responsible if they are arrested,
tortured or killed.
3• We have legal obligations to accept refugees.
4• They have no money, and will need state support. Our country cannot afford
that.
5• Can they prove that they are genuine refugees? Maybe they are just here to
look for a better standard of living?
6• Our country is a military and business partner of country X. We can't be
seen to be protecting them.
7• Maybe they have skills which we need?
8• There are enough refugees in our country. We need to take care of our own
people. They should go to the richer countries.
9• If we let them in, others will also demand entry.
10• They don't speak our language, they have a different religion and they eat
different food. They won't integrate.
11• They will bring political trouble.

2• The other half of the group will imagine that they are refugees.

Refugees' arguments and options:

• You can use these arguments and any others you can think of:
• It is our right to receive asylum.
• Our children are hungry, you have a moral responsibility to help us.
• We will be killed if we go back.
• We have no money.
• We can't go anywhere else.
• I was a doctor in my home town.
• We only want shelter until it is safe to return.
• Other refugees have been allowed into your country.

Talk to your partner and try to reach some sort of conclusion. Use the arguments
on the cards and any other relevant arguments you can think of. You have fifteen
minutes to decide.

(Exercise adapted from ‘First Steps – A Manual for Starting Human Rights
Education’ which is published by the Human Rights Education Team, at the
International Secretariat of Amnesty International.)
 Group work
Activity 1
"Lost at Sea"

With your private yacht slowly sinking after a fire of unknown origin, you are
adrift in the South Pacific, “Lost at Sea,” approximately 1000 miles south-
southwest from the nearest land. You have a serviceable rubber life raft with
oars large enough for yourself and crew. You and crew together have 1 package
of cigarettes, several books of matches and 5 one dollar bills. You all also have
15 additional items. The exercise problem to be solved is to rank these 15
additional items by considering their survival value.

First decide which action is the most important and which is the least important:
Now rank the following items taking into account the previous ranking.
 Activity 2
Tactical Decision Game

TDG #1 - Executive Decision (Military Coup in 2009 Thailand)7

It's 1:30 AM, and you've just arrived at the White House Situation Room. (The
President of the United States is at a conference in Malta, and you're in charge!)
A coup attempt is taking place in Thailand. In 2005, the U.S. had entered into a
five-year agreement to lease a port and airstrip for the use of U.S. military
forces. In the ensuing years, the bases quickly became integral to U.S. military
efforts in Asia. The strategic location enabled the U.S. to keep close watch on
China, North Korea, Indonesia, and other hotspots in the region. By December
1st, 2009, the air base and the naval base had become two of the biggest U.S.
military bases in the world. The U.S. hopes to renew the lease for twenty years
after the current five-year lease expires.

An aide hands you the phone. It's the president of Thailand. She had come to
power in 2007 and quickly brought democratic reforms to the nation. As a result
of this democratization, Thailand had garnered good relations with the U.S., and
if it were up to her, she would ratify the twenty-year lease extension. However, it
isn't up to her, but the Thai Senate. In three months the senate will be voting for
or against the lease extension, and it isn't looking good for the U.S. Fifteen
senators are against the extension, while only nine are for it. Publicly, the U.S. is
supporting Thailand's current government, but the U.S. wants to keep the bases
too!

Secretly, the U.S. has been preparing the U.S. friendly Thai military forces for a
coup. The plan is for Thai Special Forces to conduct the coup and install a U.S.
friendly military commander who would then renew the leases. (For decades,
the U.S. and Thai military have conducted annual joint military exercises code-
named Cobra Gold. But this year's exercises were different. Thai Special Forces,
including the Thai Royal Marines and the Thai Rangers, had received
specialized and intensive training in demolitions, small arms weapons, and
related training from a Marine Expeditionary Unit.)
7
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The President of Thailand gives you the news, and it's not good. Thai Special
forces (now rebels) have taken control over large parts of Bangkok, and are
advancing on the Presidential Palace. She reports that her loyalist forces can't
hold out much longer without U.S. help. Specifically, she requests U.S. jets to
strafe the rebels approaching her palace. (Her own air force has decided to sit
this one out.) You have the Ronald Reagan Carrier Battle Group standing by off
the coast of Thailand, having been summoned off of shore leave in Pattaya
Beach, Thailand. What do you do? Do you order jets to strafe Thai troops
specifically trained by the U.S. to conduct the coup? Or do you deny the use of
U.S. military forces under the premise of not interfering in the internal affairs of
a foreign country? Or do you do something else?

The future of U.S. credibility and strategic power in Asia rests in your hands.
You tell the Thai president that you'll call her back in fifteen minutes with your
decision. What is your executive decision?
 Activity 3

Tactical Decision Game8

TDG #2 - NEO in Africa (Noncombatant Evacuation Operation)

You must evacuate American personnel from an overseas embassy!
You are the Battalion Commander of Battalion Landing Team 2/2, 24th
MEUSOC (Marine Expeditionary Unit Special Operations Capable). Your
battalion is currently deployed aboard the USS Wasp and three support ships,
operating off the coast of eastern Africa near the impoverished country of
Okagor.

A violent coup is taking place in Saboga (population 750,000), the capital city of
Okagor. Intelligence indicates that anti-American rebels are beheading people in
the streets and are closing in on the American Embassy, which sits on the bank
of the Chapera river in downtown Saboga. The rebels are armed with machetes,
AK-47s and RPGs.

Saboga is located about thirty kilometers inland on the Chapera River Delta. For
your battalion, access to the city can be accomplished by a coastal landing (and
a 30 kilometer land advance), by water up the Chapera River Delta, or by air.

The American Embassy is currently guarded by a small contingent of embassy

Marines, however, a large and hostile crowd is gathering in soccer fields next to
the embassy. (The soccer fields are the only open area in the general vicinity of
the embassy.) To further complicate matters, rebels have blown craters in the
city's only airfield and parked buses and other vehicles on the airfield, making
evacuation by airplane impossible.

Your task is to reinforce the embassy as soon as possible and evacuate the thirty
American personnel out of the country in the fastest and safest way possible. To
accomplish your mission, you have the full range of military personnel and gear
usually deployed with a MEUSOC, to include:
Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC)
8
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Though the Chapera River gives waterborne access from the ocean to the
embassy, direct access to the riverside embassy is not possible for the LCAC,
due to a steep embankment. Options include a suitable landing point 3
kilometers south of the embassy in a lightly populated area of the city.
Amphibious Assault Vehicle
Your AAVs are equipped with reactive armor that protects against RPGs.
 Activity 4

The Press Conference

Background reading

The Impact of Terrorism on the International Community

A New York City fireman calls for 10 more rescue workers to make their way
into the rubble of the World Trade Center, Sept. 15, 2001. Photo by
Photographer's Mate 1st Class Preston Keres, USN
© US Department of Defense.

With terrorism being more and more internationalized, the international

community has to face the fact, that terrorist groups became international actors
that care for the security of each single state. Therefore, having international
terrorism become an international security risk, states are compelled to find
suitable ways to counter the threat.

Article 51 of the UN Charta claims the "inherent right of individual or

collective self-defense", it can be seen as the foundation for any actions
addressing any threat towards one or many members of the United Nations.

Article 51
Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or
collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United
Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain
international peace and security. Measures taken by Members in the exercise of
this right of self-defense shall be immediately reported to the Security Council
and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security
Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems
necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security.

Charta of the United Nations; Article 51, Chapter VII

Based on this article states can choose the measures defined in Article 41 and 42
of the UN Charta to react towards the attack. The problem the international
community has to face with terrorists and terrorist groups is that these actors
have on the one hand a defined goal and the power to coerce states and / or the
international community, but on the other one they are de facto non-state actors.
This fact makes it difficult for the international community to find suitable
measures to address the threat, since the whole international system is built upon
the assumption that states are dealing with other states at international level and
the only threat and attack toward one or several states will occur from another
state or group of states

So far the international community has taken measures to address terrorism and
against those states that are supporting international terrorism. The Resolution
1368 (S/Res/1368) of the Security Council immediately after the September 11
bombings and the Resolution 1373 (S/Res/1373) illustrates measures agreed by
the international community to address terrorism and the terrorist threat.

Counterterrorism Measures Contained in Resolution 1373 (28 September 2001):

Summary of terms of the Resolution 1373: Mandatory Obligations

Financial Sanctions
Criminalize the willful provision or collection of funds for conduction terrorist
acts;
Freeze the funds and other economic resources of persons or entities
participating in or facilitating terrorism;
Prohibit persons or entities from making available funds and economic resources
for purposes related to the commission of terrorist acts.

Territorial Control
Deny safe haven to those who finance, plan, support, or commit terrorist acts;
Prevent those who facilitate or commit terrorist acts from using national
territory.

Travel Sanctions
Employ effective controls on borders and issuance of travel documents to
prevent the movement of terrorists.

Cooperative Criminal Prosecution

Ensure that persons who participate in or support terrorist acts are brought to
justice and that terrorist acts are defined as serious criminal offenses in domestic
law;
Afford other states the greatest measure of assistance in connection with
criminal investigations;
Provide early warning of possible terrorist acts by exchange of information with
other states.

Military Sanctions
Suppress recruitment by terrorist groups and eliminate the supply of weapons to
terrorists.

Recommended Actions
Intensify and facilitate the exchange of information on the movement of
terrorists, the falsification of travel documents, trafficking in arms and
explosives, the use of communications technologies by terrorists, and the threat
posed by the possession of weapons of mass destruction;
Become parties to international conventions against terrorism, including the
International Convention for the Suppression of Financing of Terrorism;
Ensure that asylum seekers have not planned, facilitated, or participated in the
commission of terrorist acts;
Ensure that refugee status is not abused by those who commit or plan terrorist
acts.
UN Action Establish a committee of the Security Council to monitor
implementation of the resolution, and call upon all states to report to the
committee on the steps taken to implement this resolution.

Nevertheless, terrorism is both a threat and a challenge for the international

community since they have the disadvantage of an unforeseeable next attack.
Therefore investigations both within national and across international boarders
are the basis for success on defeating terrorism, to reach the stage where states
can at least predict the next attack. Furthermore any measures agreed by the
United Nations are strongly depending on the willingness of cooperation among
states. Especially addressing Article 41 measures, the so called soft sanctions
(measures without the use of armed forces), can only be successful if the whole
international community is willing to support them and the aggressor can be
isolated. To address terrorism at international level it is necessary for states to
cooperate and work together.
CARD 1
Terrorism

Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion.[1]

There is no internationally agreed definition of terrorism.[2][3] Most common
definitions of terrorism include only those acts which are intended to create fear
(terror), are perpetrated for an ideological goal (as opposed to a lone attack), and
deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants.

Some definitions also include acts of unlawful violence and war. The history of
such conflicts indicates that regardless of any stated position, however extreme
that may be, organizations do not select "terrorism" for its political
effectiveness;[4] and so, terrorism can also be seen as a form of unconventional
warfare or psychological warfare. The word is politically and emotionally
charged,[5] and this greatly compounds the difficulty of providing a precise
definition. One 1988 study by the US Army found that over 100 definitions of
the word "terrorism" have been used.[6] A person who practices terrorism is a
terrorist. The concept of terrorism is itself controversial because it is often used
by states to delegitimize political opponents, and thus legitimize the state's own
use of terror against those opponents.

Terrorism has been used by a broad array of political organizations in furthering

their objectives; both right-wing and left-wing political parties, nationalistic, and
religious groups, revolutionaries and ruling governments.[7] The presence of
non-state actors in widespread armed conflict has created controversy regarding
the application of the laws of war.

While acts of terrorism are criminal acts as per the United Nations Security
Council Resolution 1373 and domestic jurisprudence of almost all countries in
the world, terrorism refers to a phenomenon including the actual acts, the
perpetrators of acts of terrorism themselves and their motives.

CARD 2
Islamic terrorism

Islamic terrorism (also known as Islamist terrorism or Jihadist terrorism) is

religious terrorism by those whose motivations are rooted in their interpretations
of Islam.[1]
Statistics gathered for 2006 by the National Counterterrorism Center of the
United States indicated that "Islamic extremism" was responsible for
approximately a quarter of all terrorism fatalities worldwide,[2] and a majority
of the fatalities for which responsibility could be conclusively determined.[2]
Terrorist acts have included airline hijacking, beheading, kidnapping,
assassination, roadside bombing, suicide bombing, and occasionally rape.[3][4]
[5][6]

Perhaps the most resonant, well known, and well documented incident of
terrorism was the hijacking of four passenger jets and the destruction of the
World Trade Center on the day of September 11 2001, in the United States of
America. Other prominent attacks have occurred in Iraq, Afghanistan, India,
Israel, Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Britain, Spain, France, Russia and
China. These terrorist groups often describe their actions as Islamic jihad
(struggle). Self-proclaimed sentences of punishment or death, issued publicly as
threats, often come in the form of fatwas (Islamic legal judgments). Both
Muslims and non-Muslims have been among the targets and victims, but threats
against Muslims are often issued as takfir (a declaration that a person, group or
institution that describes itself as Muslim has in fact left Islam and thus is a
traitor). This is an implicit death threat as the punishment for apostasy in Islam
is death under Sharia law.

The controversies surrounding the subject include whether the terrorist act is
self-defense or aggression, national self-determination or Islamic supremacy; ;
whether Islam can ever condone the targeting of noncombatants; whether some
attacks described as Islamic terrorism are merely terrorist acts committed by
Muslims or motivated by nationalism; whether the Arab-Israeli Conflict is the
root of Islamic terrorism, or simply one cause; how much support there is in the
Muslim world for Islamic terrorism[7] and whether support for terror is a
temporary phenomenon, a "bubble", now fading away.[8]

CARD 3
The September 11 attacks

The September 11 attacks (often referred to as nine-eleven, written 9/11) were a

series of coordinated suicide attacks by al-Qaeda upon the United States on
September 11, 2001. On that morning, 19 Islamist terrorists affiliated with al-
Qaeda hijacked four commercial passenger jet airliners.[1][2] The hijackers
intentionally crashed two of the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World
Trade Center in New York City, killing everyone on board and many others
working in the building. Both buildings collapsed within two hours, destroying
at least two nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed a third
airliner into the Pentagon. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville
in rural Somerset County, Pennsylvania, after some of its passengers and flight
crew attempted to retake control of the plane, which the hijackers had redirected
toward Washington, D.C. There are no survivors from any of the flights.

Excluding the 19 hijackers, 2,974 people died in the attacks. Another 24 are
missing and presumed dead.[3][4] The overwhelming majority of casualties
were civilians, including nationals of over 90 different countries. In addition, the
death of at least one person from lung disease was ruled by a medical examiner
to be a result of exposure to dust from the World Trade Center's collapse.[5]

The United States responded to the attacks by launching a War on Terrorism,

invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, who had harbored al-Qaeda
terrorists, and enacting the USA PATRIOT Act. Many other states also
strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded law enforcement
powers. Some American stock exchanges stayed closed for the rest of the week,
and posted enormous losses upon reopening, especially in the airline and
insurance industries. The economy of Lower Manhattan ground to a halt, as
billions of dollars in office space was damaged or destroyed.

The damage to the Pentagon was cleared and repaired within a year, and the
Pentagon Memorial was built on the site.[6] Rebuilding the World Trade Center
site has proven more difficult, with controversy over possible designs as well as
the pace of construction. Construction delays, revised cost estimates, security
concerns, and public criticism have all led to changes and delays to the final
plans in rebuilding the complex to this day.

CARD 4
Agent Provocateur

Traditionally, an agent provocateur (plural: agents provocateurs, French for

"inciting agent") is a person employed by the police or other entity to act
undercover to entice or provoke another person to commit an illegal act. More
generally, the term may refer to a person or group that seeks to discredit or harm
another by provoking them to commit a wrong or rash action.

Common usage
An agent provocateur may be a police officer who encourages suspects to carry
out a crime under conditions where evidence can be obtained; or who suggests
the commission of a crime to another, in hopes they will go along with the
suggestion and be convicted of the crime.

A political organization or government may use Agents provocateurs against

political opponents. The provocateurs try to incite the opponent to counter-
productive or ineffective acts to foster public disdain—or provide a pretext for
aggression against the opponent (see Red-baiting).

Historically, labor spies, hired to infiltrate, monitor, disrupt, or subvert union

activities, have used agent provocateur tactics.

Agent provocateur activities raise ethical and legal issues. In common law
jurisdictions, the legal concept of entrapment may apply if the main impetus for
the crime was the provocateur.
United States

In the United States, the COINTELPRO program of the Federal Bureau of

Investigation had FBI agents posing as political radicals in order to disrupt the
activities of radical political groups in the U.S., such as the Black Panthers, Ku
Klux Klan, and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee.

New York City Police officers were accused of acting as agents provocateurs
during protests against the 2004 Republican National Convention in New York
City.[1]

Denver Police officers were also found to have used undercover detectives to
instigate violence against police during the 2008 Democratic National
Convention, in a botched attempt to be extracted. This ultimately resulted in the
accidental use of chemical agents against their own men.[2]

Europe

The activities of agents provocateurs against dissidents in Imperial Russia was

one of the grievances that led to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Yevno Azef is
an example of agent provocateur.

In various European countries, Agent Provocateur is an official legal term for a

person who approaches other people with a bribe offer, with consent of the
police. It has proved fairly effective in combating corruption especially in
former Eastern Bloc European countries.[citation needed]
There are reliable reports of the use of agents provocateurs by the British police.
A striking example is the planting of a police officer in an otherwise peaceful
demonstration to justify the use of force [1].

[edit]
Canada

Three protesters in Montebello, Canada during the Security and Prosperity

Partnership of North America were accused of being police provocateurs on
August 20, 2007, by Dave Coles, president of the Communications, Energy and
Paperworkers Union of Canada. The entire incident was filmed and posted on
YouTube before being picked up by mainstream media. The video shows three
masked men, one of whom was armed with a large rock, being confronted by
peaceful protesters. One of the masked men spoke to police officers, and then all
three pretended to breach the police line and were 'arrested.' Photographs
revealed that their boot-tread matched that of the arresting officers. Although
they at first denied that the individuals in question were agents provocateurs, the
Sûreté du Québec issued a news release on August 23 admitting that the three
protesters were, in fact, police officers.

CARD 5
Conspiracism

A world view that centrally places conspiracy theories in the unfolding of

history is sometimes termed "conspiracism". The historian Richard Hofstadter
addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout American history in
his essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, published in 1964. Bernard
Bailyn's classic The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1967)
notes that a similar phenomenon could be found in America during the time
preceding the American Revolution.[6] The term conspiracism was popularized
by academic Frank P. Mintz in the 1980s. Academic work in conspiracy theories
and conspiracism presents a range of hypotheses as a basis of studying the
genre. Among the leading scholars of conspiracism are: Hofstadter, Karl Popper,
Michael Barkun, Robert Alan Goldberg, Daniel Pipes, Mark Fenster, Mintz, Carl
Sagan, George Johnson, and Gerald Posner.

According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes: "belief in the primacy of

conspiracies in the unfolding of history":[7]
"Conspiracism serves the needs of diverse political and social groups in America
and elsewhere. It identifies elites, blames them for economic and social
catastrophes, and assumes that things will be better once popular action can
remove them from positions of power. As such, conspiracy theories do not typify
a particular epoch or ideology".[8]

Throughout human history, political and economic leaders genuinely have been
the cause of enormous amounts of death and misery, and they sometimes have
engaged in conspiracies while at the same time promoting conspiracy theories
about their targets. Hitler and Stalin would be merely the most prominent
examples; there have been numerous others.[9] In some cases there have been
claims dismissed as conspiracy theories that later proved to be true. (for
examples, see "Proven historical conspiracies")[10][11] The idea that history
itself is controlled by large long-standing conspiracies is rejected by historian
Bruce Cumings:

"But if conspiracies exist, they rarely move history; they make a difference at
the margins from time to time, but with the unforeseen consequences of a logic
outside the control of their authors: and this is what is wrong with 'conspiracy
theory.' History is moved by the broad forces and large structures of human
collectivities."[12]

The term conspiracism is used in the work of Michael Kelly, Chip Berlet, and
Matthew N. Lyons.

According to Berlet and Lyons, "Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of

scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part of a vast insidious plot
against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for
sounding the alarm".[13]

CARD 6

Planning for detecting and neutralizing potential terrorist acts

Building a counter-terrorism plan involves all segments of a society or many

government agencies. In dealing with foreign terrorists, the lead responsibility is
usually at the national level. Because propaganda and indoctrination lie at the
core of terrorism, understanding their profile and functions increases the ability
to counter terrorism more effectively. See the series of articles beginning with
intelligence cycle management, and, in particular, intelligence analysis.
HUMINT presents techniques of describing the social networks that make up
terrorist groups. Also relevant are the motivations of the individual terrorist and
the structure of cell systems used by recent non-national terrorist groups.

Most counter-terrorism strategies involve an increase in standard police and

domestic intelligence. The central activities are traditional: interception of
communications, and the tracing of persons. New technology has, however,
expanded the range of military and law enforcement operations. Domestic
intelligence is often directed at specific groups, defined on the basis of origin or
religion, which is a source of political controversy. Mass surveillance of an
entire population raises objections on civil liberties grounds.

To select the effective action when terrorism appears to be more of an isolated

event, the appropriate government organizations need to understand the source,
motivation, methods of preparation, and tactics of terrorist groups. Good
intelligence is at the heart of such preparation, as well as political and social
understanding of any grievances that might be solved. Ideally, one gets
information from inside the group, a very difficult challenge for HUMINT
because operational terrorist cells are often small, with all members known to
one another, perhaps even related.[5] Counterintelligence is a great challenge
with the security of cell-based systems, since the ideal, but nearly impossible,
goal is to obtain a clandestine source within the cell. Financial tracking can play
a role, as can communications intercept, but both of these approaches need to be
balanced against legitimate expectations of privacy.

CARDS 7-8

The lois scélérates: anti-terrorism in the 19th century

At the end of the 19th century, Russia, Europe and the United States were
confronted to a new radical movement which engaged in violent and illegal acts.
This movement was first created in Tsarist Russia, where young intellectuals,
staunchly positivist atheists, began to engage in a violent struggle against the
Czar. Finding their influence in Nikolai Chernyshevsky's What Is To Be Done?,
they began to advocate assassinations and bombings. One of the first group,
Zemlya y Volya (Land and Liberty), formed of upper-class professional
revolutionaries, started armed struggle against the Czar's regime. Sergey
Nechayev (1847-1882) would become one of the most famous figures of what
quickly became known as a "Nihilist" movement, whose fate was described by
Albert Camus in The Just Assassins (1949) — Camus would later write a
thoroughly thought-out essay on existentialism rebellion and the use of violence
in history in The Rebel (1951), which denounced both quietism and terrorism.
Russian nihilists eventually succeeded in assassinating Alexander III in 1881.

The "nihilist movement" then quickly spread to all of Europe, in particular via
one of the founder of anarchism, Mikhail Bakunin, who fled to Switzerland, a
haven for political refugees of the time. There, he joined the First International
(IAW), which eventually theorized "propaganda of the deed." Starting in the
1880s, a wave of bombings and assassination attempts, organized by people
close to the anarchist movement, literally began to terrorize the governing
classes. Propaganda of the deed was not necessary violent action, but often took
that form. Spinning on the right of rebellion, which had been theorized centuries
ago by liberal thinker John Locke, such anarchists had no moral problems in
theorizing regicides and tyrannicides, since it was "for the good of the people."
Bakunin thus wrote that "we must spread our principles, not with words but with
deeds, for this is the most popular, the most potent, and the most irresistible
form of propaganda."[1] As soon as 1887, several anarchists opposed
themselves to what they saw as a self-defeating tactic, including Peter
Kropotkin, who wrote that year in Le Révolté that "it is an illusion to believe
that a few kilos of dynamite will be enough to win against the coalition of
exploiters". Kropotkin's pragmatism eventually proved to be more realist than
the most radical anarchist's idealism. Soon, all the labour movement was
confronted to strong repression from the state, which did not manage to
convince the people to start an insurrectionary and general strike, as had been
expected by the theorists of propaganda of the deed. Furthermore, as depicted in
Joseph Conrad's novel, agent provocateurs also infiltrated the movement,
permitting many arrests in the social movement.

In France, after Auguste Vaillant's attempt, the "Opportunist Republicans" voted

in 1893 the first anti-terrorist laws, which were quickly denounced as lois
scélérates. These laws severely restricted freedom of expression. The first one
condemned apology of any felony or crime as a felony itself, permitting wide-
spread censorship of the press. The second one allowed to condemn any person
directly or indirectly involved in a propaganda of the deed act, even if no killing
was effectively carried on. The last one condemned any person or newspaper
using anarchist propaganda (and, by extension, socialist libertarians present or
former members of the International Workingmen's Association (IWA):

"1. Either by provocation or by apology... [anyone who has] encouraged one or

several persons in committing either a stealing, or the crimes of murder, looting
or arson...; 2. Or has addressed a provocation to military from the Army or the
Navy, in the aim of diverting them from their military duties and the obedience
due to their chiefs... will be deferred before courts and punished by a prison
sentence of three months to two years.[2]
Thus, free speech and encouraging propaganda of the deed or antimilitarism was
severely restricted. Some people were condemned to prison for rejoicing
themselves of the 1894 assassination of French president Sadi Carnot by the
Italian anarchist Caserio. The Trial of the Thirty took place in 1894, at the issue
of which almost all the defendants were acquitted. The term of lois scélérates
has since entered popular language to design any harsh or injust laws, in
particular anti-terrorism legislation which often broadly represses the whole of
the social movements.

The United Kingdom quickly became the last haven for political refugees, in
particular anarchists, who were all conflated with the few who had engaged in
bombings. Already, the First International had been founded in London in 1871,
where Karl Marx had taken refuge. But in the 1890s, the Kingdom became a
nest for anarchist colonies expelled from the continent, in particular between
1892 and 1895, which marked the height of the repression. Louise Michel, aka
"the Red Virgin," Emile Pouget or Charles Matato were the most famous of the
many, anonymous anarchists, desertors or simple criminals who had fled France
and other European countries. A lot of them returned to France after President
Felix Faure's amnesty in February 1895. A few hundreds persons related to the
anarchist movement would however remain in the UK between 1880 and 1914.
The right of asylum was a British tradition since the Reformation in the 16th
century. However, it would progressively erode itself, and the French
immigrants met with hostility. Several hate campaigns would be issued in the
British press in the 1890s against these French exilees, relayed by riots and a
"restrictionist" party which advocated the end of liberality concerning freedom
of movement, and hostility towards French and international activists[3]

Could the Kingdom continue to provide haven for activists which did not
confine themselves to opposition in one single country, but which travel from
country to country, theorizing in international Revolution? Thus, strong debates
began to shake the island, which finally decided to restrict freedom of
movement. Thus were created one of the first immigration control laws. In a
wholly different context, the same kind of debate would be lifted at the end of
the 20th century, with the resurgence of international terrorism, this time under
the guise of Islamic terrorism.
CARD 9

Propaganda of the deed

Propaganda of the deed (or propaganda by the deed, from the French
propagande par le fait) is a concept that promotes physical violence against
political enemies as a way of inspiring the masses and catalyzing revolution. It is
based on the principles of anarchy and appeared towards the end of the 19th
century.
Theorization of propaganda of the deed as a way to accelerate the coming of
revolution

Propaganda of the deed thus included stealing (in particular bank robberies -
named "expropriations" or "revolutionary expropriations" to finance the
organization), rioting and general strikes which aimed at creating the conditions
of an insurrection or even a revolution. These acts were justified as the
necessary counterpart to state repression. As sociologist Max Weber had argued,
the state has the "monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force", or, in Karl
Marx's words, the state was only the repressive apparatus of the bourgeois class.
Propaganda by the deed, including assassinations (sometimes involving bombs,
named in French "machines infernales" - "hellish machines", usually made with
bombs, sometimes only several guns assembled together), were thus legitimized
by part of the anarchist movement and the First International as a valid means to
be used in class struggle. The predictable state responses to these actions were
supposed to display to the people the inherently repressive nature of the
bourgeois state. This would in turn bolster the revolutionary spirit of the people,
leading to the overthrow of the state. This is the basic formula of the cycle
protests-repression-protests, which in specific conditions may lead to an
effective state of insurrection.

This cycle has been observed during the 1905 Russian Revolution or in Paris in
May 1968. However, it failed to achieve its revolutionary objective on the vast
majority of occasions, thus leading to the abandonment by the vast majority of
the anarchist movement of such bombings. However, the state never failed in its
repressive response, enforcing various lois scélérates which usually involved
tough clampdowns on the whole of the labor movement. These harsh laws,
sometimes accompanied by the proclamation of the state of exception,
progressively led to increased criticism among the anarchist movement of
assassinations. The role of several agents provocateurs and the use of deliberate
strategies of tension by governments, using false flag terrorist actions, work to
discredit this violent tactic in the eyes of most socialist libertarians. John Filiss
and Jim Bell are two of the best known modern advocates.
CARD 10

Narcoterrorism

Narcoterrorism is a term coined by former President Fernando Belaúnde Terry

of Peru in 1983 when describing terrorist-type attacks against his nation's anti-
narcotics police. In the original context, narcoterrorism is understood to mean
the attempts of narcotics traffickers to influence the policies of a government or
a society through violence and intimidation, and to hinder the enforcement of
the law and the administration of justice by the systematic threat or use of such
violence. Pablo Escobar's ruthless violence in his dealings with the Colombian
government is probably one of the best known and best documented examples of
narcoterrorism.

The term has become a subject of controversy, largely due to its use in
discussing violent opposition to the US Government's War on Drugs.

The term is being increasingly used for known terrorist organizations that
engage in drug trafficking activity to fund their operations and gain recruits and
expertise. Such organizations include FARC, ELN, and AUC in Colombia.

The Bush administration has continued funding Plan Colombia, which intends to
eradicate drug crops and to act against drug lords accused of engaging in
narcoterrorism, including among them the leaders of the marxist FARC and the
AUC paramilitary forces, groups which have also committed numerous crimes.
The U.S. government is funding large-scale drug eradication campaigns and
supporting Colombian military operations, seeking the extradition of notorious
commanders such as Manuel Marulanda Velez, among others.

Although Al Qaeda is often said to finance its activities through drug trafficking,
the 9/11 Commission Report notes that "while the drug trade was a source of
income for the Taliban, it did not serve the same purpose for al Qaeda, and there
is no reliable evidence that bin Laden was involved in or made his money
through drug trafficking." The organization gains most of its finances through
donations, particularly those by "wealthy Saudi individuals".
CARD 11

False flag

False flag operations are covert operations conducted by governments,

corporations, or other organizations, which are designed to appear as though
they are being carried out by other entities. The name is derived from the
military concept of flying false colors; that is, flying the flag of a country other
than one's own. False flag operations are not limited to war and counter-
insurgency operations, and have been used in peace-time; for example, during
Italy's strategy of tension.

Examples of false flag attacks as pretexts for war

In the 1931 Mukden incident, Japanese officers fabricated a pretext for annexing
Manchuria by blowing up a section of railway. Six years later, they falsely
claimed the kidnapping of one of their soldiers in the Marco Polo Bridge
Incident as an excuse to invade China proper.

In the Gleiwitz incident in August 1939, Reinhard Heydrich made use of

fabricated evidence of a Polish attack against Germany to mobilize German
public opinion and to fabricate a false justification for a war with Poland. This,
along with other false flag operations in Operation Himmler would be used to
mobilize support from the German population for the start of World War II in
Europe.

On November 26, 1939 the Soviet Union shelled the Russian village of Mainila
near the Finnish border. The Soviet Union attacked Finland four days after the
Shelling of Mainila. Some Russian historians have claimed that the Finns
shelled themselves with the intent of later attacking the Soviet Union. This
theory is not shared by most historians, and Russia has agreed that the attack
was initiated by the Soviets. Also, the nearest Finnish artillery pieces were well
outside the range needed to shell Mainila. In 1994, the President of Russia Boris
Yeltsin denounced the Winter War, agreeing that it was a war of aggression.

In 1953, the U.S. and British-orchestrated Operation Ajax used "false-flag" and
propaganda operations against the democratically elected leader of Iran,
Mohammed Mosaddeq. Information regarding the CIA-sponsored coup d'etat
has been largely declassified and is available in the CIA archives.[4]
In 1954, Israel sponsored bombings against US and UK interests in Cairo
aiming to cause trouble between Egypt and the West.[5] This operation, later
dubbed the Lavon Affair, cost Israeli defense minister Pinhas Lavon his job. The
state of Israel (where it is known as "The Unfortunate Affair") finally admitted
responsibility in 2005.[6]

The planned, but never executed, 1962 Operation Northwoods plot by the U.S.
Department of Defense for a war with Cuba involved scenarios such as
hijacking a passenger plane, sinking a U.S. ship, burning crops and blaming
such actions on Cuba. It was authored by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, nixed by John
F. Kennedy, came to light through the Freedom of Information Act and was
publicized by James Bamford.

Former GRU officer Aleksey Galkin,[7] former FSB officer Alexander

Litvinenko[8] and other whistleblowers from the Russian government and
security services have asserted that the 1999 Russian apartment bombings that
precipitated the Second Chechen War were false flag operations perpetrated by
the FSB, the successor organization to the KGB. Galkin has since recanted his
accusations, which were made while he was a prisoner of Chechen rebels.

CARD 12

Strategy of tension

A strategy of tension (Italian: strategia della tensione) is an alleged way used by

world powers to divide, manipulate, and control public opinion using fear,
propaganda, disinformation, psychological warfare, agents provocateurs, as well
as false flag terrorist actions.[1]
The term "strategia della tensione" was coined in Italy during the trials that
followed the 1970s and 1980s years of lead ( "anni di piombo"), during which
terror attacks and assassinations were committed by apparently neofascist
terrorists (with such names as Ordine Nuovo, Avanguardia Nazionale or Fronte
Nazionale). In particular, some implicate Operation Gladio, Italy's branch of the
secret pre-positioned NATO "stay-behind" armies of Western Europe. These
armies were set up to perform resistance, partisan, and guerilla activities in the
event of Warsaw Pact invasion; equivalent units were set up by other NATO
members in their states.
Piazza Fontana bombing

In December 1969, four bombings struck in Rome the Monument of Vittorio

Emanuele II (Altare della Patria), the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro, and in Milan
the Banca Commerciale and the Banca Nazionale dell'Agricoltura. The later
bombing, known as the Piazza Fontana bombing of 12 December 1969, killed
16 and injured 90, marking the beginning of this violent period.

Giuseppe Pinelli, a young anarchist, was first accused of the crime. After his
suspicious death, which was claimed to be suicide by the authorities,
investigator Luigi Calabresi — accused of being the murderer — came under
violent criticism from the left; he would eventually be murdered two and a half
years later.Nobel prize laureate Dario Fo wrote a piece on Pinelli's death,
Accidental Death of an Anarchist. In 1988, one of those who had participated in
the murder of investigator Calabresi, Leonardo Marino, confessed, but only in
1997 did the courts condemn him and Ovidio Bompressi for carrying out the
crime, and Adriano Sofri and Giorgio Pietrostefani for ordering it. At the time of
the murder, all four belonged to the extreme left-wing group called Lotta
Continua. After Pinelli, the police investigated another anarchist, Pietro
Valpreda. He quickly became a hero to the left, who perceived him to be a
victim of a plot to attribute a fascist bombing to the left. The leftist environment
produced an investigative book, La strage di Stato ("The state massacre")[6], in
which they claimed the state was attacking anarchists because they (by
definition) could not have a political party to defend them, as communists would
have had. As it would turn out through years of painstaking investigation, the
bombing was indeed a work of the extreme right, even though the connection of
the state to these acts is not yet clear.

Neo-fascist terrorist Stefano Delle Chiaie was then arrested in Caracas,

Venezuela in 1989 and rendered to Italy to stand trial for his role. Delle Chiaie
was however acquitted by the Assise Court in Catanzaro in 1989, along with
fellow accused Massimiliano Fachini.

In 1998, David Carrett, officer of the U.S. Navy, was indicted by a Milanese
magistrate, Guido Salvini, on charge of political and military espionage and his
participation in the 1969 Piazza Fontana bombing, among other events. Judge
Guido Salvini also opened a case against Sergio Minetto, Italian official for the
US-NATO intelligence network, and pentito Carlo Digilio. La Repubblica
underlined that Carlo Rocchi, the CIA's man in Milan, was surprised in 1995
searching for information concerning Operation Gladio, thus demonstrating that
all was not over.[7]
A June 20, 2001 conviction of Italian Neo-fascists Doctor Carlo Maria Maggi,
Delfo Zorzi and Giancarlo Rognoni was overturned in March 2004. Carlo
Digilio, a suspected CIA informant, received immunity from prosecution by
becoming a witness for the state (in agreement with the pentiti laws).
 Activity 5

From Peacekeeping to Peace building

Background Reading

Conflict theorists often use three terms--peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peace

building-- that are easily confused. Peacekeeping means keeping people from
attacking each other by putting some kind of barrier between them. Often this
barrier is made up of neutral soldiers--peacekeepers--from the UN or a group of
neutral nations. The soldiers do nothing to settle the disputant's differences or
help negotiate a peace agreement--they simply keep the two sides apart.

Peacemaking is the process of forging a settlement between the disputing

parties. While this can be done in direct negotiations with just the two
disputants, it is often also done with a third-party mediator, who assists with
process and communication problems, and helps the parties work effectively
together to draft a workable peace accord. Usually the negotiators are official
diplomats, although citizens are getting involved in the peacemaking process
more and more. While they do not negotiate final accords, citizen diplomacy is
becoming an increasingly common way to start the peacemaking process, which
is then finalized with official diplomatic efforts.

However, peacemaking is not the final step in the peace process. As both the
situations in the Middle East and Bosnia so well demonstrate, it takes more than
a peace accord to bring peace to a region. The peace accord is just a beginning,
which must be followed by long-term peace building--the process of
normalizing relations and reconciling differences between all the citizens of the
warring factions.
Techniques of peacemaking vary greatly and are beyond the scope of the
material we can present here. However, the fundamental techniques used include
negotiation, mediation, official and unofficial, or "track two" diplomacy all of
which are described in more detail in other sections.

2
Since its inception in 1948, the UN has been called upon to prevent disputes
from escalating into war, to persuade opposing parties to use dialogue rather
than violence, to bring about a peaceful solution to conflicts, and to build
sustainable peace. Although never envisioned in the UN Charter, both
peacekeeping and peace building have become integral and high profile
components of UN operations.
UN Peacekeeping

The UN defines peacekeeping as “the deployment of international military and

civilian personnel to a conflict area with the consent of the parties to the conflict
in order to: stop or contain hostilities or supervise the carrying out of a peace
agreement.” While this definition serves as a useful reference point, no single
definition of peacekeeping exists. Peacekeeping was initially developed to deal
with conflicts between two countries. Demands on peacekeepers included
maintenance of ceasefires and separation of forces; preventive deployment;
protection of humanitarian operations; and implementation of a comprehensive
peace settlement. Contemporary conflicts, however, are much more complex. As
a result, peacekeepers today are asked to do much more than what they did in
previous missions, particularly with respect to peace building activities.

Peace building refers to activities that seek “to establish the foundations of peace
and provide the tools for building on those foundations” in order to avoid a
relapse into conflict. The ultimate goal of all peace building efforts is
reconciliation among all warring parties and sustainable peace. To do so, post-
conflict peace building must be understood as a process where political, security,
and development aspects come together. It entails both short- and long-term
objectives, and incorporates all initiatives that can help a country move from
war to peace. These initiatives include, but are not limited to, reintegrating
former combatants into civilian society, security sector reform, strengthening the
rule of law, improving respect for human rights, providing technical assistance
for democratic development and promoting conflict resolution and reconciliation
techniques.
Peacekeeping operations often form a central part of a peace building effort and
usually provide the foundations for a peace building mission. In fact, a peace
building mission is more likely to take place where a peacekeeping operation is
already in place, as the UN is present in the country, the parties have accepted
the presence of peacemakers and peacekeepers, and the security conditions for
such a mission are in place. In addition, peace building activities will likely have
already begun. While a peace building mission may also be needed in a country
where the UN is not already deployed, such an operation is more difficult to
carry out as the UN must first establish a presence.

Specific post-conflict peace building initiatives are numerous. They usually

include disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) programs,
capacity building of local political and judicial institutions, activities targeting
the reconciliation of the population, reform of the security sector and training of
local police forces, and ensuring the respect for human rights and the rule of law.
The role of women in building local capacity is also increasingly perceived as
critical to peace building initiatives.

Civil society is also a significant stakeholder in peace building. Local NGOs,

like the Mano River Union and the Africa Peace Forum, contribute enormously
to the rebuilding process of African nations, and their long-term commitments
help ensure that peace efforts are self-sustaining. Civil society can also hold
governments accountable for their actions by working with the local population
and by fostering discussions. The Mano River Union for example, seeks to
encourage peaceful participation of civil society in political activities within the
Mano River Basin, while the Africa Peace Forum aims to “contribute to the
prevention, resolution and effective management of conflict by engaging State
and Non-State actors in developing collaborative approaches towards lasting
peace and enhanced human security in the Greater Horn of Africa and beyond.”
These efforts on the ground are complemented by advocacy efforts, as well as
efforts to promote dialogue on peace operations, such as R2PCS and POWG.