INTEGER EXPONENTS

If a is a real number and n is a positive integer, we define

a n = a • a • a •  • a (n factors of a )
• The number n is called the exponents
• The number a is called the base
• an is called the nth power of a

Laws for Integer Exponents: n, m ∈  + and a, b∈ 

an
1. a n • a m = a n + m 4. = a n−m , a ≠ 0
am
n
a an
2. (a ) = a
n m nm
5.   = n ,b ≠ 0
b b
3. (ab) = a b
n n n

(The proofs of the above properties make use of mathematical induction, which is beyond
the scope of this course)

Zero and Negative Exponents:

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If n ∈  + and a∈  , a ≠ 0 , then a 0 = 1 and a − n =
an

Simplification of expressions: we simplify expressions by applying the laws of exponents so that

1. each variable occurs only once; and
2. all exponents are positive.

Definitions:
 An algebraic expression is a constant, a variable or a combination of constants and variables
which are connected or joined together by a finite number of fundamental algebraic
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raising to a power or
extraction of roots.
 An algebraic sum is an algebraic expression which is made up of distinct parts and are
connected only by either the plus or minus signs.
 Each distinct part of an algebraic sum together with the algebraic sign is known as a
mathematical term or simply a term and is expressed only as either a product (or quotient) of
numbers and symbols.
 An algebraic sum that has only one term is called a monomial, one that has two terms is a
binomial and one that has three terms is a trinomial. In general, an algebraic sum having
two or more terms is called a multinomial.
 A polynomial in some variables is an expression where the powers of these variables are
nonnegative integers and no such variables are contained in the denominator.
A polynomial in one variable x is written as
P( x) = a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + ... + a1 x + a 0
where n is a positive integer and ak is constant for each k.

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DEGREE OF A POLYNOMIAL
 The degree of a term in a particular variable is the exponent of that variable. The degree of a
term in two or more variables is the sum of the exponents of the variables. The degree of a
polynomial is the degree of its highest-degree term(s).

Addition And Subtraction Of Algebraic Expressions

 Like/similar terms are mathematical terms whose variables and respective powers or
exponents are exactly the same.

Steps In Adding Algebraic Expressions

1. Use the commutative and distributive properties to bring like terms “closer” to one another.
If you use the horizontal arrangement, you should place like terms next to one another. If the
vertical arrangement is used, like terms should be placed in one column only.
2. Apply the distributive property to get the sum of the terms.

Most often, algebraic expressions are written using grouping symbols. There are three basic
grouping symbols, namely: parentheses( ), brackets[ ] and braces { }.

To add or subtract algebraic expressions, all grouping symbols must be removed so that similar
terms can be combined. To remove the grouping symbols, the following must be observed:
Rule 1. If the grouping symbol is preceded by a plus sign, the algebraic sign of each term inside
the grouping symbols is retained.
Rule 2. If the grouping symbol is preceded by a minus sign, the sign of each term inside the
grouping symbol is changed.
Rule 3. If there are several symbols of grouping, the innermost grouping symbols must be
removed first. When all the grouping symbols are eliminated, you can now combine
similar terms and simplify your results.

Multiplication Of Algebraic Expressions

The distributive property plays a very important role. To multiply a multinomial by another
multinomial, multiply each term of the multinomial by every term of the other multinomial, then
add the results.

DIVISION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Dividing A Polynomial By Another Polynomial
To divide a polynomial by another:
1. Arrange each polynomial in descending powers of some common letter.
2. Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor. This gives the first term
of the quotient.
3. Multiply the divisor by the first term of the quotient, and subtract the product from the
dividend.
4. Using the remainder thus obtained as a new dividend, repeat this process, thus finding the
second term of the quotient.
5. Continue the process until a remainder is obtained which either is zero or an expression of
lower degree in the common letter than the divisor.

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Examples:

1. x2 – 7x + 10 ÷ x – 5 4. 2x3 – 7x2 + 11x – 4 ÷ x – 4

2. 5x3 – 2x2 + 3x – 4 ÷ x2 – 2x + 1 5. x2y – 6x3 – 12xy2 – 6y3 ÷ (2x – 3y)
3. y3 – 4y2 – 2 ÷ y – 1

Synthetic Division Procedures

The process of division for polynomials in a single letter, say x, may be simplified when
the divisor is in the form (x – c), where c is any real number. This process is known as synthetic
division.

STEPS: A polynomial P(x) divided by (x – c).

1. Arrange the numerical coefficients in a row according to descending powers of x.
2. Be sure to write zeros for missing powers of x.
3. Bring down the first coefficient.
4. Multiply by c, add to the next coefficient, bring the sum down, multiply by c, and so on.
5. The last number in the row of sums is the constant remainder; the others are numerical
coefficients of the quotient which is a polynomial of degree one less than the dividend.

Examples:

1. 3 x 2 − 2 x − 4 ÷ ( x − 3) 3. 2 x 4 − x 3 − 18 x 2 − 7 ÷ ( x + 3)
2. x 4 − 5 x 3 + x 2 − 6 ÷ ( x − 1)

ASSIGNMENT
Perform the indicated operation. Use synthetic division if applicable.

1. 3x2 – 2x – 4 ÷ (x – 3) 3. 3x3 – 4x2y + 5xy2 + 6y3 ÷ (x2 – 2xy + 3y2)

2. x4 – 5x3 + x2 – 6 ÷ (x – 1)

Remainder Theorem If a polynomial P(x) is divided by (x – c), then the constant remainder R
is given by R = P(c).

Remark: If P(c) = 0, then P(x) is exactly divisible by (x – c).

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SPECIAL PRODUCTS
There are certain factors whose product can be obtained directly without going through
the long process of multiplication. You should be familiar with these polynomial factors as well
as the resulting special product so that you can easily perform the reverse process which is
factoring.

SP1: a(x + y) = ax + ay
SP2: (x + y) (x – y) = x2 - y2
SP3: (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x – y)2 = x2 - 2xy + y2
This product can be generalized to any exponent using the PASCAL’s TRIANGLE.
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
(x - y)3 = x3 - 3x2y + 3xy2 - y3

SP4: (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
SP5: (ax + b) (cx + d) = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd
SP6: (x + y)( x2 - xy + y2) = x3 + y3
(x - y)( x2 + xy + y2) = x3 - y3

Examples: Use special products to find the product of the following:

1. –3x(2x + 7y) 6. [(x + 1) − z ][(x + 1) + z ] (

11. 3 x 2 y − 5 z 2 )
2

2. ( 12 x + 23 y )2 7. (5 x − 3 y )
3
12. (2a + 3b − c − 4d )
2

(
3. 4 x 2 yz z 2 + xy + yz ) 8. (2 x + 3 y + 4 z )
2
13. ( x − 3)
2

4. ( x − 3)(x + 3x + 9 ) ( )(
9. 7 x + 5 y 2 7 x − 5 y 2 ) 14. (2a + b )
2 3

5. (2 x + 3)( x − 5) (
10. ( x + 2 ) x 2 − 2 x + 4 )

FACTORING POLYNOMIALS WITH INTEGRAL COEFFICIENTS

Factoring a polynomial is the process of writing a given polynomial as a product of its
prime factors. A polynomial is called prime or irreducible if the numerical coefficients have no
common factors and if it is not possible to express the polynomial as a product of two or more
polynomials with integral coefficients of lower degree.

Factoring can be done easily if the polynomial to be factored is one of the special product listed
above. This means that we only need to identify the special factors that will yield such product,
thus the crucial thing here is, you must have the ability to recognize the given polynomial as a
special product.

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The following are some of the techniques in factoring a factorable polynomial.
F1: Taking out the Greatest Common Factor => ax + ay = a(x + y)

F2: Factoring the Difference of Two Squares => x2 - y2 =(x + y) (x – y)

F3: Factoring the Sum or Difference of Two Cubes

x3 + y3 = (x + y)( x2 - xy + y2) and x3 - y3 = (x - y)( x2 + xy + y2)

F4: Factoring a Perfect Square Trinomial

x2 + 2xy + y2 = (x + y)2 and x2 - 2xy + y2 = (x – y)2

A perfect square trinomial is one whose first and last terms are perfect squares and the
middle term is ± twice the square root of the product of the first and last terms.

F5: Factoring a Quadratic Trinomial

Factorability of a Quadratic Trinomial: The quadratic trinomial ax 2 + bx + c ,
where a, b and c are integers, a≠0, is factorable iff. b2 – 4ac is a perfect square. If the
quadratic trinomial is factorable then there are two linear factors, that is:
ax2 +bx + c= (px + q)(rx + s)

F6: Factoring by Completing the Square

F7: Factoring by Grouping of Terms