Adaptive cruise control in automobiles

ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL IN AUTOMOBILES

INTRODUCTION

In recent years many studies on intelligent vehicles have been devoted to solve
problems such as driver burden reduction, accident prevention ,traffic flow smoothening.
Every minute, on average at least one person dies in a crash. Mentally, driving is a highly
demanding activity- a driver must maintain a high level of concentration for long periods
and be ready to react within a split second to changing situations. Cruise control (CC)
systems has been developed to assist the driver for driving long distances on highways.
Cruise control can perform only velocity control. The conventional CC systems become
less useful in the case of traffic congestion. This drawback can be overcome by Adaptive
Cruise Control (ACC). The goal of ACC is to avoid rear end collision by maintaining a
safe distance. ACC reduces the stress of driving in dense traffic by acting as a longitudinal
control pilot. The system makes it possible to adapt the distance to the car ahead without
the driver’s intervention, effectively relieving the driver.

Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) is an automotive feature that allows a vehicle's

cruise control system to adapt the vehicle's speed to the traffic environment. A radar system
attached to the front of the vehicle is used to detect whether slower moving vehicles are in
the ACC vehicle's path. If a slower moving vehicle is detected, the ACC system will slow
the vehicle down and control the clearance, or time gap, between the ACC vehicle and the
forward vehicle. If the system detects that the forward vehicle is no longer in the ACC
vehicle's path, the ACC system will accelerate the vehicle back to its set cruise control
speed. This operation allows the ACC vehicle to autonomously slow down and speed up
with traffic without intervention from the driver. The method by which the ACC vehicle's
speed is controlled is via engine throttle control and limited brake operation.Nowadays
Adaptive cruise control system is available in luxury, as well as less expensive vehicles
like cars,trucks,buses etc.Even motorcycle companies like KTM and Ducati are woking on
ACC systems on their new models which may be unveiled in the future.

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HISTORY OF ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL

Ever since the first automobiles rolled onto the road, manufacturers have been
introducing technology to ensure they avoid crashing into each other. But it wasn’t until
the mid-1990s that innovation really moved up a gear and cars could intelligently assist
drivers to keep their distance from those in front.

In 1991, Mitsubishi dabbled with lidar by installing a system in its Debonair, but it
was just a rudimentary warning system and did not regulate speed. Four years later
Mitsubishi became the first OEM to offer an adaptive cruise control system after equipping
its 1995 Diamante sedan with a Preview Distance Control system, which introduced lidar
in the front bumper and a miniature camera mounted in the rear-view mirror. It was able to
sense when the distance to the vehicle ahead was closing and would automatically ease off
the accelerator or make the transmission downshift to slow the car. Its limitation, however,
was that it could not operate the brakes, so when the speed difference with the vehicle in
front was too great, it had to resort to alerting the driver with audible and visual warnings.

With no braking intervention, an operational limit of 67mph (108km/h) and poor

performance in the rain, Mitsubishi decided to keep the system solely for the Japanese
market, where it suited the road conditions and generally clement weather.Toyota followed
its Japanese rivals with a more robust Denso-developed system on the 1997 Celsior – a
Japanese-market version of the Lexus LS. Also using lidar but still without any control
over the brakes, Toyota’s system provided a horizontal sensing range of 16º and a vertical
range of 4º and was able to track other vehicles up to 100m (330ft) away.

New markets

European and US customers would have to wait until 1999 for a system befitting
of their roads and weather, when Mercedes-Benz introduced Distronic on the S-Class
(W220). Notably, Mercedes’ system was designed to work at higher speeds – essential for
use on unrestricted German autobahns, but the company also introduced two other critical
features. In the aftermath of the infamous A-Class elk test in 1997, where the vehicle

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overturned trying to avoid an obstacle at speed, Mercedes had started to make its ESP
stability control system a standard feature on all its cars. This meant that provisions for
automatic braking were already in place, correcting the biggest omission from the Japanese
systems. Secondly, it featured radar rather than lidar. While the latter may be the popular
option today for autonomous driving systems, back in 1999, high-quality radar systems
were an advantage as they were available at a far lower price point. Another important
factor was that radar is not affected by rainy, foggy or dusty conditions in the way lidar is.
Later systems from other manufacturers subsequently also adopted radar and
stop/start capability, as well as the addition of cameras and sensors to enable the ability to
automatically steer the car to keep within lane markings. In 2006 Toyota introduced ACC
systems that could operate across a wide range of speeds. Audi added GPS functionality to
its ACC systems in 2010. These iterative improvements have evolved adaptive cruise
control from now serve as the foundation for a fully autonomous future. In recent years,
the automotive industry has worked hand-in-hand with major technology companies in
order to deliver the most advanced ,safest and most comfortable vehicles out there.

Figure 1: Distronic system driver view

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DEFINITIONS

ACC vehicle – the subject vehicle equipped with the ACC system.
Active brake control – a function which causes application of the brakes without driver
application of the brake pedal.
Clearance – distance from the forward vehicle's trailing surface to the ACC vehicle's
leading surface .
Forward vehicle – any one of the vehicles in front of and moving in the same direction
and travelling on the same roadway as the ACC vehicle.
Set speed – the desired cruise control travel speed set by the driver and is the maximum
desired speed of the vehicle.
Target vehicle – one of the forward vehicles in the path of the ACC vehicle that is closest
to the ACC vehicle.
Time gap – the time interval between the ACC vehicle and the target vehicle. The ‘time
gap' is related to the 'clearance' and vehicle speed by:

Time gap = clearance / ACC vehicle speed

PHYSICAL LAYOUT

The ACC system consists of a series of interconnecting components and systems.

The method of communication between the different modules is via a serial communication
network known as the Controller Area Network (CAN).
ACC Module – The primary function of the ACC module is to process the radar
information and determine if a forward vehicle is present. When the ACC system is in 'time
gap control', it sends information to the Engine Control and Brake Control modules to
control the clearance between the ACC Vehicle and the Target Vehicle.
Engine Control Module – The primary function of the Engine Control Module is to
receive information from the ACC module and Instrument Cluster and control the vehicle's

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speed based on this information. The Engine Control Module controls vehicle speed by
controlling the engine's throttle.
Brake Control Module – The primary function of the Brake Control Module is to
determine vehicle speed via each wheel and to decelerate the vehicle by applying the brakes
when requested by the ACC Module. The braking system is hydraulic with electronic
enhancement, such as an ABS brake system, and is not full authority brake by wire.
ABS or Antilock Braking System uses pulse rings attached to the insides of the
wheels to monitor their individual rotational speed. As they rotate, the pulse rings generate
pulses in stationary wheel sensors, which are fed to wheel’s rotational speed. These signals
are fed to ECU, which uses the change in wheel-speed that accompanies braking to
determine the wheel's deceleration, acceleration and brake slip. These provide basis for
calculations to determine the brake pressure that will supply maximum retardation without
leading to lock wheels.

Instrument Cluster – The primary function of the Instrument Cluster is to process the
Cruise Switches and send their information to the ACC and Engine Control Modules. The
Instrument Cluster also displays text messages and telltales for the driver so that the driver
has information regarding the state of the ACC system.

CAN – The Controller Area Network (CAN) is an automotive standard network that
utilizes a 2 wire bus to transmit and receive data. Each node on the network has the
capability to transmit 0 to 8 bytes of data in a message frame. A message frame consists of
a message header, followed by 0 to 8 data bytes, and then a checksum . The message header
is a unique identifier that determines the message priority. Any node on the network can
transmit data if the bus is free. If multiple nodes attempt to transmit at the same time, an
arbitration scheme is used to determine which node will control the bus. The message with
the highest priority, as defined in its header, will win the arbitration and its message will
be transmitted. The losing message will retry to send its message as soon as it detects a bus
free state.
Cruise Switches – The Cruise Switches are mounted on the steering wheel and have
several buttons which allow the driver to command operation of the ACC system.

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Brake Lights – When the Brake Control Module applies the brakes in response to an ACC
request, it will illuminate the brake lights to warn vehicles behind the ACC vehicle that it
is decelerating.

Figure 2: Physical Layout

OPERATIONAL OVERVIEW

The driver interface for the ACC system is very similar to a conventional cruise
control system. The driver operates the system via a set of switches on the steering wheel.
In addition there are a series of text messages that can be displayed on the instrument cluster

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or on a heads up display to inform the driver of the state of the ACC system and to provide
any necessary warnings. The driver engages the ACC system by first pressing the ON
switch which places the system into the 'ACC standby' state. The driver then presses the
Set switch to enter the 'ACC active' state at which point the ACC system attempts to control
the vehicle to the driver's set speed dependent upon the traffic environment.
The cruise control systems control the speed of your car the same way you do by
adjusting the throttle (accelerator) position.However cruise control engages the throttle
valve by a cable connected to an actuator ,rather than pressing a pedal.The throttle valve
controls the power and speed of the engine by limiting how much air it takes in since it is
an internal combustion engine.

Figure 3: ACC signals and information flow

Initialization

When the ignition key is in the off position, no power is applied to any of the systems.
When the key is cycled to the on position, the ACC system initializes to the 'ACC off'

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state.Then the ACC system is ready to be engaged by the driver through the operation of a
variety of switches inside the car.

Engaging Cruise Control

entering 'ACC standby' - Before active cruise control can be engaged the driver must
first enter 'ACC standby'. This is performed by the driver pressing the ACC 'On' button. If
no system faults are present, the ACC system will transition to the 'ACC standby' state.

entering 'ACC active' – The driver enters the 'ACC active' state by pressing the 'Set' or
'Resume' button. If a prior set speed is present in memory, the system uses this prior value
as the target speed when Resume is pressed, else, the current speed of when the Set button
was pressed will become the target speed. The following conditions must be true for the
system to enter 'ACC active' in response to the cruise switches:

Brake Switch 1 = brake not applied

Brake Switch 2 = brake not applied

Vehicle Speed >= 25 mph

When entering active ACC control, the vehicle speed is controlled either to maintain a set
speed or to maintain a time gap to a forward vehicle, whichever speed is lower.

Operation During Speed Control Mode (ACC Speed Control)

Operation during this mode is equivalent to that of conventional speed control. If no

forward vehicle is present within the Time Gap or clearance of the system, the vehicle's
speed is maintained at the target speed. The engine control system controls the engine
output via throttle control to maintain the vehicle speed at the target speed. The throttle
control in turn controls the amount of airflow into the engine and adjust the engine speed
accordingly.

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Operation During Follow Mode (ACC Time Gap Control)

The ACC system enters follow mode or 'ACC time gap control' if the radar detects
a forward vehicle at or within the clearance distance. During this mode of operation, the
ACC system sends a target speed to the Engine Control Module and deceleration
commands to the Brake Control module to maintain the set time gap between the vehicles.

deceleration control – The ACC system decelerates the vehicle by lowering the target
speed sent to the Engine Control Module and sending a brake deceleration command to the
Brake Control Module. The maximum allowed braking effort of the system is 0.2 [g].
During brake deceleration events, the Brake Control Module activates the brake lights.

acceleration control – The ACC system accelerates the vehicle by increasing the target
speed sent to the Engine Control Module. The Engine Control Module tries to maintain the
target speed and can accelerate the vehicle at a rate of up to 0.2 [g] of acceleration.

adjusting the time gap – The driver can adjust the time gap via the 'Time Gap +' and
'Time Gap –' switches. Pressing the 'Time Gap +' switch causes the time gap value to
increase and therefore the clearance between the two vehicles to increase. Pressing the
'Time Gap –' switch causes the time gap value to decrease and therefore the clearance
between the two vehicles to decrease.

reaction to a slow moving or stopped vehicle – Situations may occur such that the ACC
system is not able to maintain the time gap within the deceleration authority of the system.
The clearance between the ACC vehicle and the forward vehicle may be rapidly decreasing
or the minimum vehicle speed of 25 [mph] may be reached. Under these situations the
ACC system enters 'ACC standby' and alerts the driver by displaying a "Driver Intervention
Required" text message on the instrument cluster and by turning on an audible chime. If
the brakes were being applied by the ACC system, they will be slowly released. At this
point the driver must take control of the vehicle.

Transitioning Between Speed Control and Follow Modes

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The ACC system automatically transitions between Speed Control and Time Gap
(Follow) Modes. The mode of operation is determined by the lower of the set speed for
Speed Control Mode and the target speed to maintain the gap between the ACC vehicle
and a forward vehicle. Basically, if no vehicle is present within the clearance distance, the
system will operate in Speed Control mode, else, it will operate in Time Gap mode.

Canceling Cruise Control Operation

Cruise Control operation may be canceled by the operator or automatically via the
ACC system. Either of the following conditions will deactivate ACC:

Brake pedal is pressed

'Off' button is pressed

Vehicle Speed < 25 mph

An ACC system fault is detected

CASE STUDY: THE 2019 AUDI A8 L

Figure 4: Audi A8L

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The new A8 L comes with a wide and newly configured range of high-tech assistance
systems that make driving even easier, more relaxing and more composed. These systems
regulate the distance to the car ahead, help the driver to change lanes and stay in the lane,
and assist with parking. They recognize speed limit signs and see far ahead into the night.
The groundbreaking networking of these systems makes them unusually intelligent and
capable.

Adaptive Cruise Control with stop & go function

Probably, the most complex assistance system in the A8 L is the Audi adaptive
cruise control with stop & go function, a radar-assisted interval-maintenance system. It has
been significantly upgraded versus the previous model. It regulates the speed and the
distance to the vehicle ahead by accelerating and braking in a range from 0 to 250 km/h
(155.34 mph), and brakes automatically within certain limits.

The system is particularly convenient in stop and go traffic, where it brings the
large sedan to a stop with no intervention on the part of the driver. If the stop is brief, the
sedan automatically resumes moving again; after a longer stop the driver must tap the
accelerator or the cruise control lever. The driver can also do this while the A8 is still
stopped. For the next 15 seconds, the car is then ready to pull and follows the vehicle ahead
as soon as it begins rolling.

The ACC stop & go uses two radar sensors installed in the air inlets at the front of
the car and which are automatically heated when it is cold. They transmit radar waves at a
frequency of 76.5 gigahertz, covering a 40 degree wedge-shaped field measuring 250
meters (820.21 ft) in length. A computer uses these waves to detect the leading vehicles.
The driver can set the time interval to the vehicle ahead in four steps and also specify one
of three levels for the control dynamics. Deceleration is limited to four m/s².

The adaptive cruise control with stop & go function uses the predictive route data
from the MMI navigation plus system, and works closely with the other assistance systems
on board the A8 L. Receiving data from 27 control units, it continuously analyzes the
complete area around the vehicle and compares the results extremely quickly. This high

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level of information enables the system to recognize complex scenarios and predictively
support the driver.

The ACC stop & go uses its networked knowledge in numerous situations. Whether
quickly passing a car turning right from an interurban road or if another vehicle pulls into
the lane occupied by the A8 L on the highway, the system handles the situation with
reflection and composure, making driving more fluid and harmonious.

Figure 5: ACC radar

ACC FUNCTION EXPANSION IN AUDI A8L

Audi side assist

If the vehicle is equipped with Audi Side Assist, the data from the rear radar sensors
are included in the calculation of ACC control procedures. If the system detects that the
left (right) adjacent driving line is available for a lane change (is clear), automatic brake
intervention may take place a little later. In this scenario, the ACC “waits” to “see” whether
the driver will initiate a lane change. The objective of this control strategy is not to curb
the driver prematurely and not to regiment the driver more than is necessary.
Audi side assist activates at a speed of 30 km/h (18.64 mph). Two 24 gigahertz radar
sensors in the rear monitor what is happening behind the and beside the sedan to a distance

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of 70 meters. Their data are analyzed by a computer. If another vehicle moves into the
critical zone – if it is riding in the blind spot or approaching rapidly from the rear – the so-
called information stage is activated. A yellow LED indicator illuminates in the casing of
the driver's side mirror; the driver sees it only when looking directly into the mirror.

Keeping on course: Audi lane assist

At speeds above roughly 65 km/h (40.39 mph), Audi lane assist issues a warning if
the driver is about to leave the lane inadvertently. A camera mounted in front of the rear-
view mirror observes the road to a distance of 60 meters (197 ft) and a coverage angle of
40 degrees. It delivers 25 high-definition images per second. Software processes the images
and identifies the lane markings and the course the A8 L is following between them.

If the driver allows the car to wander in the direction of a lane marking but has not
indicated that he or she intends to make a turn, Audi lane assist warns the driver by
vibrating the steering wheel. Vibration intensity and the point at which the warning starts
can be selected in three stages. Audi lane assist has become much more powerful compared
to the earlier version. For instance, the color camera can differentiate between the yellow
line in construction zones and the white ones.

The camera of Audi lane assist also serves a number of functions in addition to these
tasks. It provides imagery for the ACC stop & go, and its data also go into the startup
function in slow-moving traffic. The camera also plays an important role in emergency
braking initiated by Audi pre sense front and for the continuous headlight range control.

Always informed: the speed limit display

The camera-based system in the Audi A8 not only detects speed-limit signs on
the side of the road and their supplemental panel, it also detects temporary speed limits
posted on digital displays. It also performs situational analysis if the roads are wet or if
speed limits apply only during certain times. It can even consider whether the driver is
towing something. Country-specific regulations are incorporated by synchronizing data

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with the navigation system. The driver can choose between a variety of display options in
the instrument cluster and is kept constantly informed of the applicable speed limit.

Long-range vision in the dark: the night vision assistant in audi A8L 2019
Another high-end system in the Audi A8 L is the night vision assistant, which
marks the persons detected. The heart of this system is a thermal imaging camera in the
single-frame grille. It has a wide, 24-degree angle of view, and its protective window is
cleaned when dirty and heated when cold. As a far infrared system (FIR), the camera reacts
to the heat radiated by objects. A computer converts the information from the camera into
black-and-white images and displays them on the driver information system display.

Far infrared technology has significant strengths compared to competing systems.

Independent of driving speed, it can look as far as 300 meters (984.25 ft) ahead, far beyond
the range of the high beams, and therefore is not blinded by headlights and similar light
sources. Most importantly, it concentrates on that which is most important: animals and
people. They are conspicuously bright in the image due to the heat they radiate, whereas
the cooler road appears dark.

The image processing software can detect persons at a range of up to 100 meters
(328.08 ft). They are highlighted with yellow markings on the display. If the control unit
assumes a hazard because a person is walking on the road close to the car, for example, the
person is marked in red and a warning gong sounds.

The parking assist systems

Audi offers a choice of two parking assist systems in the A8 L. The parking system plus
(standard in the W12) uses eight ultrasonic sensors to indicate the distance acoustically and
graphically on the large onboard display. The front sensors also monitor the starting zone
immediately in front of the car for the ACC stop & go when the sedan is creeping along in
traffic.

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The parking system plus with reversing camera also uses an extremely light-sensitive
external camera. Mounted in the trunk lid, its fish-eye lens covers a broad, 130 degree field
of view. The images generated by this camera are input and displayed on the MMI
operating system monitor. Guidelines and fields show the driver the projected path of the
car.

All the above systems work together to improve the functionality of the 2019 Audi
A8L.

OPERATION AND DRIVER INFORMATION

The familiar operating functions of switching the Adaptive Cruise Control system
ON and OFF (ON, OFF), setting speed (SET), interrupting control (CANCEL), resuming
control (RESUME), setting distance, as well as increasing/decreasing control speed, are
driver initiated via the ACC operating stalk.( Fig 6).
As stated earlier, the ACC function can be activated in a speed range of 0 mph (0
km/h) – 155.3 mph (250 km/h) . If the system is activated at speeds below 18.6 mph (30
km/h), the vehicle is accelerated to 18.6 mph (30 km/h) and is controlled at this speed.
Another new feature is that the vehicle can be accelerated manually by pulling the operating
stalk (RESUME) while ACC is active. Control is suspended for as long as the stalk is held
in this position. The vehicle returns to the set speed again after releasing the stalk.

Figure 6 : operating stalk

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Switches are used to turn the system on or off, to resume and to set the speed.
Additionally the desired time gap representing a speed dependent following distance is
main operation variable. To establish the base principle of total driver priority, the driver
is also able to intervene in the system by applying the brakes, turning the ACC off, on by
using the gas pedal to increase the delivered engine power. In vehicles with manual
transmission, the driver can pause or shut off the ACC by pushing the clutch. After
engaging the clutch ACC could be automatically resumed. This depends on the preferences
of the car manufacturer.

The information which is displayed in front panel includes

[1] The set speed, since the driver might forget the set value after a longer period of
following slower traffic,

[2] The set time gap, and

[3] The actual ACC mode, i.e. whether the car is in Following Control mode or Speed the
Control mode.

The last feature is intended especially to support learning and supervision of the ACC
system.

Another interface element is a warning device. It gives warming sound when ACC
cannot brake the vehicle effectively. This situation arises when vehicle preceding is so
close that by the time radar sensor detects it may collide or in other words insufficient
deceleration. In this case driver takes control of vehicle.

The system pictured above has five buttons: On, Off, Set/Accel, Resume and Coast.
It also has sixth control-- the brake pedal, and if your car has a manual transmission the
clutch pedal is also hooked up to the cruise control.

The operation of each switch is as follows:

 ON/OFF :- The on and off buttons don't actually do much. Hitting the button does not
do anything except tell the car that you might be hitting another button soon. The off
button turns the cruise control off even if it is engaged. Some cruise controls don't have

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these buttons; instead ,they turn off when the driver hits the brakes, and turn on when the
driver hits the set button.

 SET/ACCEL:- With the vehicle traveling at the desired speed , the driver presses the
'SET' button. The ECU's speed control microprocessor the energizes the vacuum pump
to move the throttle valve actuator diaphragm until the 'SET' speed is maintained without
use of the accelerator pedal and so the driver may remove his foot from the pedal. By
continuously monitoring the vehicle speed signal, the microprocessor constantly makes
changes to the throttle position to take the account of variations in road gradients, wind
resistance and so on, so that the memorized cursing speed is held. If the button is tapped
quickly with the cruise control engaged , the cruise control set speed will increase
1mph(1.6 kph). This action may be repeated up to 10 times to achive a 10-mph(16
kph)cruise set speed increase. After 10 taps of this switch has been completed , the
system must be to a new speed , the speed remains constant until we press any other
button or brake or clutch. This function is referred to as "tap-up" function.

 RESUME:- If you recently disengaged the cruise control by hitting the brake pedal,
hitting the resume button will command the car to accelerate back to the most recent
speed setting.

 COAST:- When the cruise control system is at a set speed if the coast button is tapped ,
the cruise set speed will decrease 1 mph (1.6 kph). This action may be repeated until the
vehicle speed decreases to 25 mph (40 kph) this function is referred to as "tap down."

 The brake pedal and the clutch pedal each have a switch that disengages the cruise
control as soon as the pedal is pressed, so you can shut off the cruise control with a light
tap on the brake or clutch.

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ADVANTAGES

1. The driver is relieved from the task of careful acceleration, deceleration and braking in
congested traffics.

2. A highly responsive traffic system that adjusts itself to avoid accidents can be developed.

3. Since the breaking and acceleration are done in a systematic way, the fuel efficiency of
the vehicle is increased.

DISADVANTAGES

1. A cheap version is not yet realised.

2. It can lead to severe accidents if the system is malfunctioning.

3. ACC may not work effectively in certain types of weather conditions.Some examples of
these include heavy fog or rain ,having dirt ,snow or ice covering the sensors; or when the
roadways are slippery. These systems may not work in tunnels.

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CONCLUSIONS

Thus, we have seen how adaptive cruise control system differs from conventional
cruise control system. We have also seen the latest modifications and additional functions
for an ACC system as modelled on the Audi A8 L. It shows how safety and ease of driving
can be achieved using ACC. The main disadvantage of the system being the accidents
caused due to system malfunctioning.

The increasing rate of accidents caused by driver mistakes is making millions of

people die every year. There is a drastic improvement in the safety of vehicle by
implementing many technologies like ABS, Airbags, Obstacle avoidance sensors and many
more. These technologies minimize the rate of fatality but not avoiding accidents. ACC
system provides assistance to the driver in driving in vehicle. We can say that ACC is a
medium of making driving perfect and keeping the vehicle away from accidents. During
foggy situation or in poor weather, driver is not able to judge the distance between the
preceding vehicles. But ACC system provides an easier way to drive in foggy and poor
weather condition also.ACC System has a potential to reduce the number of accidents. The
Adaptive Cruise Control was developed was developed to make driving safe and
comfortable. It reduces the number of brake and switch operation that are required of the
driver. So this system reduces the burden on driver so that the vehicle driver can be in
comfort. ACC system provides fuel efficient driving. Automatic acceleration and
deceleration in the vehicle make it driving safer as well reliable.

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REFERENCES

[1] D. Corona and B. De Schutter, “Adaptive cruise control for a SMART car: A
comparison benchmark for MPC-PWA control methods,”- IEEE Transactionson Control
Systems Technology, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 365–372, Mar. 2008.

[2] Worrawut Pananurak, Somphong Thanok, Manukid Parnichkun “Adaptive Cruise

Control for an intelligent vehicle”-, ROBIO '09 Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE
International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics

[3] Nancy G. Leveson, “System Safety in Computer-Controlled Automotive Systems”-,

SAE World Congress 2000 (Conference Proceedings).

[4] “Driver assistance systems”- Audi Mediacenter ;AUDI AG

[5] J Wang, R Rajamani “The impact of adaptive cruise control systems on highway safety
and traffic flow”- University of Minnesota Department of Mechanical Engineering
Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA

[6] “Adaptive Cruise Control System Overview”- 5th Meeting of the U.S. Software System
Safety Working Group April 12th-14th 2005 @ Anaheim, California USA

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