126 CHAPTER 2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS, 2.1 Introduction A system is said to undergo free vibration when it oscillates only under an initial distur- bance with no external forces acting afterward. Some examples are the oscillations of the pendulum of a grandfather clock, the vertical oscillatory motion felt by a bicyclist after hit- ting a road bump, and the motion of a child on a swing after an initial push. Figure 2.1 (a) shows a spring-mass system that represents the simplest possible vibra- tory system. It is called a single-degree-o f feedom system, since one coordinate (x) is suf- ficient to specify the position of the mass at any time. There is no external force applied to the mass; hence the motion resulting from an initial disturbance will be free vibration. i kx OD m S | stretehed tength—>] z (a) (b) (co) FIGURE 2.1 A spring-mass system in horizontal position, FIGURE 2.2 Equivalent spring. ‘mass system for the cam-follower system of Fig, 1.32,21 INTRODUCTION = 127 Since there is no element that causes dissipation of energy during the motion of the mass, the amplitude of motion remains constant with time; it is an undamped system. In actwal practice, except in a vacuum, the amplitude of free vibration diminishes gradually over time, due to the resistance offered by the surrounding medium (such as air). Such vibra- tions are said to be damped. The study of the free vibration of undamped and damped single-degree-of-freedom systems is fundamental to the understanding of more advanced topics in vibrations. Several mechanical and structural systems can be idealized as single-degree-of-freedom systems. In many practical systems, the mass is distributed, but for a simple analysis, it can be approximated by a single point mass. Similarly, the elasticity of the system, which may be distributed throughout the system, can also be idealized by a single spring. For the cam- follower system shown in Fig. 1.39, for example, the various masses were replaced by an equivalent mass (meq) in Example 1.7. The elements of the follower system (pushrod, rocker arm, valve, and valve spring) are all elastic but can be reduced to a single equivalent spring of stiffness keq, Fora simple analysis, the cam-follower system can thus be idealized. as a single-degree-of-freedom spring-mass system, as shown in Fig. 2.2. Similarly, the structure shown in Fig. 2.3 can be considered a cantilever beam that is fixed at the ground. For the study of transverse vibration, the top mass can be considered a FIGURE 2.3. The space needle (structure)128 CHAPTER 2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS point mass and the supporting structure (beam) can be approximated as a spring to obtain the single-degree-of-freedom model shown in Fig, 2.4. The building frame shown in Fig. 2.5(a) can also be idealized as a spring-mass system, as shown in Fig. 2.5(b). In this case, since the spring constant k is merely the ratio of force to deflection, it can be deter- mined from the geometric and material properties of the columns. The mass of the ideal- ized system is the same as that of the floor if we assume the mass of the columns to be negligible. bE =-x0 >| ™ , gow k | (6) Equivatent springemass system (2) Ideatzation ofthe tall structure FIGURE 2.4 Modeling of tall structure as spring-mass system. Rigid floor Lo (gees) pe @ a m ~ laste columns (vas nealigible) y (a) Building frame (b) Equivalent spring- FIGURE 2.5 idealization of a building frame.2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM —-129 2.2 Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational System 2.21 Equation of Motion Using Newton's Second Law of Motion Using Newton's second law of motion, in this section we will consider the derivation of the equation of motion. The procedure we will use can be summarized as follows: 1. Select a suitable coordinate to describe the position of the mass or rigid body in the system, Use a linear coordinate to describe the linear motion of a point mass or the centroid of a rigid body, and an angular coordinate to describe the angular motion of a rigid body. 2. Determine the static equilibrium configuration of the system and measure the dis- placement of the mass or rigid body from its static equilibrium position 3. Draw the free-body diagram of the mass or rigid body when a positive displacement and velocity are given to it. Indicate all the active and reactive forces acting on the mass or rigid body. 4, Apply Newton's second law of motion to the mass or rigid body shown by the free- body diagram. Newton's second law of motion can be stated as follows: The rate ofchange ofmomentum ofa mass is equal to the force acting on it Thus, if mass m is displaced a distance ¥(#) when acted upon by a resultant force F(t) in the same direction, Newton’s second law of motion gives _ af ax) a adr If mass m is constant, this equation reduces to = (1) where = @xXr) a? is the acceleration of the mass. Equation (2.1) can be stated in words as Resultant force on the mass = mass X acceleration For a rigid body undergoing rotational motion, Newton’s law gives Mi) =J6 (2.2) where M is the resultant moment acting on the body and 6 and 6 = d76(1) /dt? are the resulting angular displacement and angular acceleration, respectively, Equation (2.1) or (2.2) represents the equation of motion of the vibrating system ‘The procedure is now applied to the undamped single-degree-of-freedom system shown in Fig. 2.1(a). Here the mass is supported on frictionless rollers and can have130 CHAPTER 2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 2.2.2 Equation of Motion Using Other Methods translatory motion in the horizontal direction, When the mass is displaced a distance +x from its static equilibrium position, the force in the spring is kx, and the free-body diagram of the mass can be represented as shown in Fig. 2.1 (c). The application of Eq, (2.1) to mass ‘m yields the equation of motion F(t) = ~kx = mi or mi + kx =0 (23) As stated in Section 1.6, the equations of motion of a vibrating system can be derived using several methods. The applications of D’Alembert’s principle, the principle of virtual dix placements, and the principle of conservation of energy are considered in this section D’Alembert’s Principle. The equations of motion, Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), can be rewritten as F() — m= =0 (24a) M(t) — J6 =0 (2.40) ‘These equations can be considered equilibrium equations provided that —m¥ and —J6 are treated as a force and a moment. This fictitious force (or moment) is known as the inertia force (or inertia moment) and the artificial state of equilibrium implied by Eq. (2.48) or (2.4b) is known as dynamic equilibrium. This principle, implied in Eq, (2.4a) or (2.4), is called D’Alembert’s principle. Applying it to the system shown in Fig. 2.1(c) yields the equation of motion: kx — mi = 00 or m¥ + kx 0 (2.3) Principle of Virtual Displacements, The principle of virtual displacements states that “if a system that is in equilibrium under the action of a set of forces is subjected to a virtual displacement, then the total virtual work done by the forces will be zero.” Here the virtual displacement is defined as an imaginary infinitesimal displacement given instantaneously. It must be a physically possible displacement that is compatible with the constraints of the system. The virtual work is defined as the work done by all the forces, including the inertia forces for a dynamic problem, due to a virtual displacement. Consider a spring-mass system in a displaced position as shown in Fig. 2.6(a), where xrdenotes the displacement of the mass. Figure 2,6(b) shows the free-body diagram of the mass with the reactive and inertia forces indicated. When the mass is given a virtual dis placement 3x, as shown in Fig, 2.6(b), the virtual work done by each force can be com- uted as follows: Virtual work done by the spring force = 6W, = (kx) 8x Virtual work done by the inertia force = 6W; = —(m%) 6x2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM 131. boo k ka mae (reactive (inertia force) force) (a) Mass under a (b) Free-body diagram displacement x FIGURE 2.6 Mass under virtual displacement. When the total virtual work done by all the forces is set equal to zero, we obtain —miidx — kxdx = 0 (2.5) Since the virtual displacement can have an arbitrary value, 8x # 0, Eq. (2.5) gives the equation of motion of the spring-mass system as, mi + kx =0 (23) Principle of Conservation of Energy. A system is said to be conservative if no energy is lost due to friction or energy-dissipating nonelastic members. If no work is done on a conservative system by external forces (other than gravity or other potential forces), then the total energy of the system remains constant. Since the energy of a vibrating system is partly potential and partly kinetic, the sum of these two energies remains constant. The Kinetic energy 7 is stored in the mass by virtue of its velocity, and the potential energy U is stored in the spring by virtue of its elastic deformation. Thus the principle of conservation of energy can be expressed as: T +U = constant d qt tu) =0 (2.6) and potential energies are given by T = bmx? (2.7) and u = kx? (2.8) Substitution of Eqs. (2.7) and (2.8) into Eq, (2.6) yields the desired equation mi + kx =0 (2.3)132 CHAPTER 2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS, 2.2.3 Equation of Motion of a Spring-Mass System in Vertical Pos ition Consider the configuration of the spring-mass system shown in Fig. 2.7(a). The mass hhangs at the lower end of a spring, which in turn is attached to a rigid support at its upper end. At rest, the mass will hang in a position called the static equilibrium position, in which the upward spring force exactly balances the downward gravitational force on the ‘mass. In this position the length of the spring isl + 8,., where 8,, isthe static deflection— the elongation due to the weight W of the mass m. From Fig. 2.7(a), we find that, for static equilibrium, W = mg = by (29) where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Let the mass be deflected a distance +x from its static equilibrium position; then the spring force is k(x + 6,)), as shown in Fig. 2.7(c). The application of Newton’s second law of motion to mass m gives mi = “K(x + 3) +W and since kB. = W, we obiain mk + kx =0 (2.10) ss 7 8 nis Koy ne | (a) (b) Potential energy ~ Statie equilibrium position © (@ FIGURE 2.7 A spring-mass system in vertical positon,2.2.4 Solution 2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM —-133 Notice that Eqs. (2.3) and (2.10) are identical. This indicates that when a mass moves ina vertical direction, we can ignore its weight, provided we measure x from its static equi- librium position, Note: Equation (2.10), the equation of motion of the system shown in Fig. 2.7, can also be derived using D’Alembert’s principle, the principle of virtual displacements, or the principle of conservation of energy. If we use the latter, for example, we note that the expression for the kinetic energy, 7, remains the same as Eq. (2.7). However, the expres- sion for the potential energy, U, is to be derived by considering the weight of the mass. For this we note that the spring force at static equilibrium position (x = 0) is mg, When the spring deflects by an amount x, its potential energy is given by (see Fig, 2.7(d)): 1 mga + kx? Furthermore, the potential energy of the system due to the change in elevation of the mass (note that +x is downward) is mgx. Thus the net potential energy of the system about the U = potential energy of the spring + change in potential energy due to change in elevation of the mass m = mgr + bee? = mex + beet ~ mex Since the expressions of T and U remain unchanged, the application of the principle of conservation of energy gives the same equation of motion, Eq, (2.3). The solution of Eq, (2.3) can be found by assuming a(t) = Ce (1) wher C and 5 are constants to be determined, Substitution of Eq. (2.11) into Eq, (2.3) gives C(ms? +k) =0 cannot be zero, we have (2.12) and hence (2.13)134 CHAPTER 2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-PREEDOM SYSTEMS 2.2.5 Harmonic Motion where i = (-1)'/? and fp \W2 , (4) (214) Equation (2.12) is called the auxiliary or the characteristic equation corresponding to the dif- ferential Eq, (2.3). The two values of s given by Eq. (2.13) are the roots of the characteristic equation, also known as the eigenvalues or the characteristic values of the problem. Since both values of s satisfy Eq, (2.12), the general solution of Eq, (2.3) can be expressed as x(1) = Chel! + Cae tot 2.15) where C; and C2 are constants. By using the identities el! = cos at + isin at Eq, (2.15) can be rewritten as X(t) = Ay C08 yt + Ag sin wyt (2.16) where Aj and A2 are new constants. The constants C, and C2 or Ay and Az can be deter- ‘mined from the initial conditions of the system. Two conditions are to be specified to eval uate these constants uniquely. Note that the number of conditions to be specified is the same as the order of the governing differential equation. In the present case, if the values of displacement x) and velocity x(t) = (dx/dt)(t) are specified as xq and zg att = 0, we have, from Eq, (2.16), x(t = 0) = Ay = xo H(t = 0) = Ag = Ho (217) Hence A; = x9 and Ay = g/«,. Thus the solution of Eq, (2.3) subject to the initial con- ditions of Eq, (2.17) is given by x(t) = x9 C08 wt + “sin wt (2.18) Equations (2.15), (2.16), and (2.18) are harmonic functions of time. The motion is sym- ‘metric about the equilibrium position of the mass m. The velocity is a maximum and the acceleration is zero each time the mass passes through this position. At the extreme dis- placements, the velocity is zero and the acceleration is a maximum, Since this represents simple harmonic motion (see Section 1.10), the spring-mass system itself is called a harmonic oscillator. The quantity «, given by Eq, (2.14), represents the system’s natural frequency of vibration. Equation (2.16) can be expressed in a different form by i roduc 1g the notati Ay = Acos Ay = Asing (2.19)2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM —-135 where A and ¢ are the new constants, which can be expressed in terms of Ay and Az as mplitude (A sf 0 6 = tan! 2) = tan = phase angle (2.20) A Xn Introducing Eq, (2.19) into Eq, (2.16), the solution can be written as x(1) = Acos (amt ~ 6) 2.21) By using the relations A, = Agsin do Ay = Ag cos dy 2.22) Eq, (2.16) can also be expressed as x(2) = Aosin(agt + bo) 2.23) where 5. (io 2 4g =A =| a3 + (> (2.24) and do = awe( se) (2.25) 0 The nature of harmonic oscillation can be represented graphically as in Fig. 2.8(a). If A denotes a vector of magnitude A, which makes an angle w,t — with respect to the vertical (x) axis, then the solution, Eq, (2.21, can be seen to be the projection of the vector A on the x-axis. The constants A, and A of Eq, (2.16), given by Eq, (2.19), are merely the rectangular components of A along two orthogonal axes making angles ¢ and -($ — ¢) with respect to the vector A. Since the angle w,t — @ is a linear function of time, it increases linearly with time; the entire diagram thus rotates counterclockwise at an angular velocity «,. As the diagram (Fig. 2.8a) rotates, the projection of A onto the x-axis varies harmonically so that the motion repeats itself every time the vector A sweeps an angle of 2m. The projection of A, namely (0), is shown plotted in Fig. 2.8(b) as a function of wf, and as a function of rin Fig. 2.8(c). The phase angle ¢ can also be interpreted as the angle between the origin and the first peak.136 CHAPTER 2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS, A(0)~ A.cos (wnt &) (@) © at 0 J — Amplitude, As {xt X() = Acos(oyl~ 4) © FIGURE 2.8 Graphical representation ofthe motion ofa harmonic oscillator. Note the following aspects of the spring-mass system: 1. If the spring-mass system is in a vertical position, as shown in Fig. 2.7(a), the cireu- lar natural frequency can be expressed as RV n= (4) (2.26)3 2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM —-137 ‘The spring constant k can be expressed in terms of the mass m from Eq, (2.9) as Wms 5 Be (227) Substitution of Eq, (2.27) into Eq, (2.14) yields 2\2 n= (5 (2.28) Hence the natural frequency in cycles per second and the natural period are given by 1/9 \2 n= 55 (£) 2.29) 1 3y\H2 ™ Ee Qa z (2.30) ‘Thus, when the mass vibrates in a vertical direction, we can compute the natural fre- quency and the period of vibration by simply measuring the static deflection 6,.. We don’t need to know the spring stiffness k and the mass m. From Eq, (2.21), the velocity (1) and the acceleration ¥(1) of the mass m at time # can be obtained as XU) = Sy = —wyA sin(c,t — 4) = @_A cos (os -ot =) ax 3 2 (1) = Ele) = -o2A cos (ant — @) = oA cos(amt —@ +7) (231) ae Equation (2.31) shows that the velocity leads the displacement by 77/2 and the accel- ration leads the displacement by r. If the initial displacement (.x9) is zero, Eq, (2.21) becomes x(t) = TPeos («0 - 2) = sine! (232) If the initial velocity (ig) is zero, however, the solution becomes x1) = xp cos ont (233)138 CHAPTER 2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 4, The response of a single-degree-of-freedom system can be represented in the dis- placement (2)-velocity -plane, known as the state space or phase plane, For this we consider the displacement given by Eq, (2.21) and the corresponding velocity: x(1) = Acos( ont ~ 6) or cos(a_t — ) =f X(t) = ~Ae, sin(wpt — 4) (2.34) or sin(ont ~ 8) = —3R = -t (235) where y = 2/0, By squaring and adding Eqs. (2.34) and (2.35), we obtain 608"(aint — f) + sin(@gt — b) =1 or x Bigot 2.36) The graph of Eq, (2.36) in the (x, y)-plane is a circle, as shown in Fig. 2.9(a), and it constitutes the phase-plane or state-space representation of the undamped sys- tem, The radius of the circle, A, is determined by the initial conditions of motion. Note that the graph of Eq, (2.36) in the (x, )-plane will be an ellipse, as shown in Fig. 2.9(b). wa NS @ ) FIGURE 2.9 Phase-plane representation of an undamped system.EXAMPLE 2.1 2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM —-139 Harmonic Response of a Water Tank ‘The column of the water tank shown in Fig. 2.1 0(a) is 300 ft high and is made of reinforced conerete with a tubular cross section of inner diameter 8 ft and outer diameter 10 ft. The tank weighs 6 10° Ib when filed with water. By neglecting the mass of the column and assuming the Young’s modulus of reinforced concrete as 4 10° psi, determine the following: a, the natural frequency and the natural time period of transverse vibration of the water tank. b. the vibration response of the water tank due to an initial transverse displacement of 10 in, the maximum values of the velocity and acceleration experienced by the water tank. Solution: Assuming thatthe water tank isa point mass, the column has @ uniform eross section, and the mass of the column is negligible, the system can be modeled as a cantilever beam with a concentrated load (weight) at the free end as shown in Fig. 2.10(b). 4, ‘The transverse deflection ofthe beam, 8, due to a load Pis given by £5, where Lis the length, & is the Young's modulus, and / is the area moment of inertia of the beam’s cross section. The stiffness of the beam (column of the tank) is given by P_3Er aah se ap ati) | a i (a) () FIGURE 2.10 Elevated tank. (Photo courtesy of West Lafayette Water Company.)140 CHAPTER 2 PREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-PREEDOM SYSTEMS Inthe present case, = 3600 in, E = 4 x 10° pi, (ai — af) = 2120 — 964) = x 1otint 1 = Zui ~ df) = F120" — 964) = 600.9554 > 10' and hence 3(4 X 109)(6009554 x 104) = ER = 1545,6672 Ibi 3600" ‘The natural frequency of the water tank in the transverse direction is given by [SCTE ROT fo, = [A = [ROOT RO = 0,997 radisec Nm 6 x 10° ‘The natural time period of transverse vibration of the tank is given by Qn dr ™= = 6.2977 sec ©, 0.9977 Using the initial displacement of xo = 10 in, and the initial velocity of the water tank (io) as ze10, the harmonic response of the water tank can be expressed, using Eg. (2.23), as x(1) = Agsin (onl + 9) ‘where the amplitude of transverse displacement (Ag) is given by toe |x (2) = = 101 and the phase angle (¢p) by aoue(ite) ot Ths A) =108in (or ‘ 3) = 10.608 09971 in en ‘The velocity ofthe water ak an be fund by dieretting By (1) 8 x) = 19977 es (oso + z) (E2) and hence Snax = Ady = 10(0.9977) = 9.977 in. Seea EXAMPLE 2.4 2.2. FREE VIBRATION OF AN UNDAMPED TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM —-143 where 192EF 5 — EL (2) where E is the Young's modulus, 1 is the length, and isthe area moment of inertia of the beam: 0.5208 x 107° m' 1 Ais xis xiry Since m = 2.3 kg, = 1.0m, and w, = 30.0 rad/s, Eqs. (E.1) and (2) yield IEF P or moi? 2.(30.0)%(1.0)* = = 2070132 & 10” Nim? 1921 ~ 192(0.5208 x 107) This indicates that the material of the beam is probably carbon steel Natural Frequency of Cockpit of a Firetruck The cockpit of a firetruck is located at the end of a telescoping boom, as shown in Fig. 2.12(a). The cockpit, along with the fireman, weighs 2000 N, Find the cockpit’s natural frequency of vibration in the vertical direction. Data: Young's modulus of the material: E = 2.1 10!" Nim; lengths: fy = I = Jy sectional areas: Ay = 20cm’, Ay = 10cm?, Ay = 5 om? 3 my; cross- Solution: ‘To determine the system's natural frequency of vibration, we find the equivalent stiffness of the boom in the vertical direction and use a single-degree-of-freedom idealization, For this we assume that the mass of the telescoping boom is negligible and the telescoping boom can deform only in the axial direction (with no bending). Since the force induced at any cross section O; O> is equal to the axial load applied at the end of the boom, as shown in Fig, 2.1 2(b), the axial stiffness of the boom () is given by + (1) where ky, denotes the axial stiffness of the ith segment of the boom: — AB bya F123 (2) From the known data (1 = y= 21 x 10" Nim’), ly = Ig = 3m, Ay = 20cm, Ay = 10 em, Ay = Sem?, Ei = By = (20 x10 (21 x10") = 14 x 107 Nim n 3144 CHAPTER 2 FREE VIBRATION OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-PREEDOM SYSTEMS (10 x 10)(21 x 10") ; ky, = = 1X 107 Nin (5 x107)(21 x 10!) 3 k= 5 107 Nim ‘Thus Eq, (E.L) gives 1 1 1 1 1 -—1_,__,_1___1_ ke 4x10” 7x10 39x10" 2x10" ky = 2 107 Nim ‘The stiffness of the telescoping boom in the vertical direction, &, ean be determined as ke = kycos? 45° = 107 Nim ‘The natural frequency of vibration of the cockpit in the vertical direction is given by 1098) spp 22-4723 nals 21>] jy &) FIGURE 2.12 Telescoping boom ofa fire truck.