Chemistry Solutions PDF

NEET JEE 2019
Solutions
Colligative Properties
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SOLUTIONS AND COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
What is a solution ?
Mixture of solute + solvent
Minor Major
component component
Eg. NaCl Eg. H2O
By Arvind Arora
Clear Solution
Solution
Solution is homogeneous mixture of two or more components
Homogeneous
Mixture in which solute and solvent are in the same phase
By Arvind Arora
How do you Classify solutions ?
Classification :
No. of components
No. of components Solution type

2 Binary solution
3 Ternary solution
4
By Arvind Arora
Quaternary solution
Note : For any n number of components, only one

component will be solvent and rest n – 1
components are solutes
solutes.
How do you Classify solutions ?
Classification :
Type of
Solute Solvent Common example
solution
Gas
Gaseous
Liquid Gas
solution
Solid
O2 dissolved in water, Aerated drinks
Gas
Liquid
Liquid By
Liquid Arvind Arora
Ethanol dissolved in water
Solution
Solid
Glucose or NaCl dissolved in water

Gas
Solid
Liquid Solid
Solution
Solid
Define Strength/Concentration of the solution.
The amount of solute dissolved in per unit amount of solvent or

solution is called strength of solution.
There are various methods of measuring strength of a solution
1) Mole fraction (X)

5) Parts per million (ppm)
2) Mass by Percent (% w/w)
By Arvind Arora
6) Molality, m
3) Volume by Percent (% v/v)
7) Molarity, M
4) Mass by Volume Percent (% w/v)
Define Mole fraction, mass by percentage, volume by percentage,
mass by volume percentage .
1) Mole fraction (X)

Moles of solute
Mole fraction, X =
Total moles in solution
nsolute
X =
nsolute + nsolvent
If A, B, C… are different solutes and solvent
By Arvind
N
Arora
Then XA + XB + XC + … = ∑ Xi = 1
1 i=A
Define Mole fraction, mass by percentage, volume by percentage,
mass by volume percentage .
2) Mass by Percent (% w/w)
Mass of solute
% w/w = × 100
Mass of solution
3) Volume by Percent (% v/v)
Vsolute
% v/v = × 100
Vsolution By Arvind Arora
4) Mass by Volume Percent (% w/v)
Wsolute
% w/v = × 100
Vsolution
Define Parts per million (ppm) .
5) Parts per million (ppm)
Mass of solute
Parts per million = × 106
Mass of solvent
What does 4 ppm of solution means ?

4 ppm means 4g of solute is 4g of solute present in 106 g of solvent.
By Arvind Arora
Define Molality and Molarity .
6) Molality, m
Moles of solute
Molality, m =
Mass of solvent in kg
Units of molality = Mol/kg

By Arvind Arora
What does 2.5 m solution means?
There are 2.5 moles of the solute in 1 kg of the solvent.
Define Molality and Molarity .
7) Molarity, M
Moles of solute
Molarity, M =
Volume of solution in L
mol
Units of molarity =
L
By Arvind Arora
What dose 1.7 M solution means ?
1.7 moles of the solute per litre of the solution.
Define Normality.
8) Normality, N
No. of equivalents of solute

Normality, N =
Volume of solution in L
eq Molecular Weight(MW)
Units of Normality = EW =
L Valency Factor (Z)
No. of Eqs
∴N = W
V(lit) EqsBy
= E.W
Arvind Arora
EW = MW
Z
0.5 N means 0.5 equivalents of the solute
in 1L of solution. Equivalent weight(EW)
Number of Eqs. =
Weight of substance
Define Normality.
Type of species Valency factor (Z) 2Al+3 + 3SO42–

Al2(SO4)3
Acids No. of H+ given by 1 molecule
V.F (Z) = + 6
Bases No. of OH– given by 1 molecule
Cl2 + 2e– 2Cl–
Salts Positive or Negative charge V.F.(Z) =
Ions Charge on ion 2
SO42– V.F(Z) = 2
Reducing/ No. of electrons
Oxidizing agent By Arvind
lost/gained Arora
per molecule
H2SO4 2H++ SO42-
Normality = Molarity × valency factor Valency Factor (Z) = 2
N = M×Z
What happens when we mix solutions and define Dilution law and Mixing law?
Dilution Law :
If solution is diluted by adding solvent
V1 = Initial volume
N1V1 = N2V2 and M1V1 = M 2V 2 V2 = Final volume
Mixing Law :
Mfinal =
By
M1V1 + M2V2+..... Arvind Arora
As No. of moles, equivalents
V1 + V2 + …. &
Z Value of Solute doesn’t change
N1V1 + N2V2+…
Nfinal =
V1 + V2+…
Define Solution Properties .
Mixture of liquids (Volatility)
Ideal Solutions Raoult’s Law
Real Solutions Henry’s law
Solutions Lowering of Vapor Pressure
Elevation in Boiling Point
Depression in Freezing point
Osmosis
Vant Hoff factor
Gases and Liquids have similarities in few things:

By Arvind Arora
1) Random brownian motion
2) Gases velocity is similar to liquid
(Maxwell's Boltzmann distribution)
Gases and liquids are together called Fluids

What is a volatility /volatile solution ?
Evaporation & Condensation

Happening simultaneously
Solvent which vaporizes at low Temp..
Liquid solvent Evaporation is the change of the

Volatile physical state of matter from liquid
phase into vapor phase
solvent
By Arvind Arora
Condensation is the change of the
physical state of matter from vapor
phase into liquid phase
Evaporating Solvent
In closed container
Evaporating Solvent
Molecules undergoing Vaporization Molecules undergoing Condensation

What is Vapor pressure?
Concept of Vapour Pressure : Vaporization rate > condensation rate
Only Vaporization
At equilibrium:
By Arvind Arora
i) Rate of Vaporization = Rate of Condensation
ii) Liquid Vapour ΔHvap > 0
The pressure exerted by the vapour phase at

equilibrium at a given temperature is called
“Vapour Pressure” of the liquid.
What is Henry’s law ?
Definition:
At constant temperature the mass of dissolved gas in a given volume of

solvent is proportional to the pressure of the gas with which it is in
equilibrium. This is called Henry’s Law.
At constant T :
By Arvind Arora m ∝
P
Mass of gas ∝ Pressure of the m = kP
gas m
P
What
Definessolubility
Henry’s law ?
of gases in liquids according to Henry’s law ?
Solubility of Gases in liquids (Henry’s Law)

How equilibrium
Gas + Solvent Gas(Solvent) ; ΔH<O shifts if temperature
and pressure change?
➢ According to Le Chateliers principle on increasing pressure,
equilibrium shifts in the direction of lesser number of gas moles.
By Arvind Arora
➢ On decreasing temperature, equilibrium shifts in forward direction for an
exothermic change
➢ In general, solubility of gases increases with increasing

pressure and decreases with increasing temperature.
Define solubility of gases in liquids according to Henry’s law
What is Henr’s law ?
?
Solubility of Gases in liquids (Henry’s Law)
PHenry’s
P0X isLawis
This can also be expressed in case of mole fraction This =condition
X∝ is
validclosely
only in
Raoult’s related
Lawcase of
P to
dilute solution.
X = K’P Raoult’s Law
1 By Arvind Arora
P = X
K’
Henry’s constant
P = KH X
The above equation is the mathematical

representation of Henry’s Law
What are the applications & problems based on Henry’s Law ?
Application of
Henry’s Law:
➢ Soft drinks and Soda water contains dissolved Carbon dioxide
➢ At Higher altitudes, the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level
It means less Low content of

concentration of By Arvind Arora
blood oxygen causes
oxygen in blood. Climbers to become weak.
➢ So thinking ability of the people living at higher altitudes reduces, which is called ANOXIA
➢ Scuba divers suffer from the painful effects called BENDS, due to decompression of gases
dissolved in their blood when they move back towards water surface.
Define Raoult’s Law.

Raoult’s Law:
According to Raoult’s Law the vapor pressure of any component

will be directly proportional to the mole fraction of that component
in the liquid phase.
It is applicable to
Let two volatile liquids A and B forms an ideal solution ideal solutions only
By Arvind Arora
What will be the
relation between V.P. and
mole fraction of liquid?
Raoult’s Law:
Lets consider
Solute A Solution Solvent B
By Arvind Arora
V.P. of pure V.P. of pure
PAo = liquid A PBo =
liquid B
What will be the relation between V.P. and mole fraction of liquid?
Raoult’s Law: Lets consider PA = V.P. of liquid A
Solute A Solution Solvent B PB = V.P. of liquid B
XA = Mole fraction of liquid A
XB = Mole fraction of liquid B

PAo = V.P. of pure liquid A
PBo = V.P. of pure liquid B
V.P. of pure PA ∝ XA V.P. of pure PT = Total Vapour Pressure of
PAo = liquid A
PB ∝ XB
By Arvind Arora
PBo =
liquid B the solution
⇒ PA = PAo XA
⇒ PB = PBo XB From Dalton’s Law
PT = PA + P B
PT = PAo XA + PBo XB
Raoult’s Law: PA = V.P. of liquid A
Since we are considering a case of binary solution, PB = V.P. of liquid B
XA = Mole fraction of liquid A

XA + XB = 1
XB = Mole fraction of liquid B
o o
PT = PA (1 – XB) + PB XB PAo = V.P. of pure liquid A
⇒ PT = PAo + (PBo – PAo) XB PBo = V.P. of pure liquid B
By Arvind Arora PT = Total Vapour Pressure of

the solution
Define Mole fraction in Vapour phase (Application of Dalton’s Law)
Mole fraction in Vapour phase (Application of Dalton’s Law)

According to Dalton’s Law
PA YA B
YAB = Mole fraction of A
PB∝∝ YB in vapour phase
PA=YA PT P B = YB P T
We substitute PA and PB according to Raoult’s Law
o
By Arvind Arora
P A X A = YA P T o
P B X B = YB P T
Define Mole fraction in Vapour phase (Application of Dalton’s Law)
Mole fraction in Vapour phase (Application of Dalton’s Law)

We substitute PA and PB according to Raoult’s Law
P A o X A = YA P T P B o X B = YB P T
We know, XA + XB = 1
YA P T YB P T
+ = 1
PA o PB o
By Arvind Arora
YA YB 1
⇒ + =
PA o PB o PT
Raoult’s Law for vapour phase

Define Raoult’s Law – Graphical Interpretation
V.P
.
By Arvind Arora
0 xA(Solute) 1
Define Raoult’s Law – Graphical Interpretation
Graphical Representation:
PT = PA + P B
PB0 PA0
o XA
PA
=
PA
V.P P
B =
.
P o
B X X = Mole fraction of liquid A
B
PAAo = V.P. of pure liquid A

0 xA(Solute) 1
By Arvind Arora PA
XB
= V.P. of liquid A in solution
= Mole fraction of liquid B
According to Raoult’s Law
PB = V.P. of pure liquid B
o
PA = P o X PB = V.P. of liquid B in solution
A A
PT = Total V.P. of solution
PB = PBo XB
∴ PT = PAo XA + PBo XB
PT = PA +PB
Define Ideal solution and its properties
Properties of ideal solutions

1) A…B interaction is nearly equal to A…A and B…B interaction.
2) It obeys Raoult’s Law What do you mean

by ideal solution ?
P A = P A o XA , P B = P B o XB
PT = PA + PB
By Arvind Arora
= PA o x A + P B o x B
3) ΔHmix = Because interactions

0 are same before and
4) ΔVmix = 0 after mixing of solution.
Define Ideal solution and its properties
Examples of ideal solutions
are
Most of the dilute solutions
i) n –Hexane and n – Heptane
behave as ideal solutions
ii) Chlorobenzene and Bromobenzene
iii) Ethyl bromide and Ethyl chloride
iv) CCl4 and SiCl4 By Arvind Arora

v) Ethyl bromide and ethyl iodide
CH3
vi) Benzene ( ) and Toluene ( )
Define positive deviated nonIdeal from Raoult’s Law.
Deviation from Raoult’s Law
Case1 : Solutions showing positive deviation from Raoult’s Law
1) A…B interaction is weaker than A…A and B…B interaction.
2) PB • PBo xB PA • PA o x A , If interactions of A…A ,

B…B is different from A…B
PT = PA + PB By Arvind Arora
this is deviation in Raoult’s Law
PT • P A o x A + P B o x B
They do not obey Raoult’s Law

Define poitive deviation from Raoult’s Law.
As we know A…B
PT forces are much weaker
PB0 PA0 than A…A and B…B
V.P
. PA PB
Vapour pressure increases

Composition because escaping
0 xA 1
xB tendency
1 0
By Arvind ofArora
molecules increases.
Vapour pressure becomes greater than
the expected value from Raoult’s Law.
This is called “Positive Deviation”.
Example What will happen in ΔHmixing and ΔVmixing for positive deviation ?
Solution
ΔHmixing is positive because when A…B interactions forms,
energy released is less than energy absorbed.
In case of ΔVmixing , after mixing interactions

are weak so intermolecular spaces will increase. Before mixing the interactions
Therefore, ΔVmixing is also positive between A…A and B…B
By Arvind Aroraare more, so more energy is
ΔH mixing > 0 required to break the bond.
ΔV mixing > 0
Give example of Solution showing positive Deviation from Raoults’s Law
Example of Solutions showing positive deviation
i) Benzene and Ethyl alcohol

vii) H2O and Methanol
ii) Chloroform (CHCl3) and Ethanol (C2H5OH)
iii) Benzene and Acetone (CH3COCH3) viii) H2O and Ethanol

By Arvind Arora
iv) CCl4 and CHCl3 ix) CS2 and Acetone
v) CCl4 and Benzene (C6H6)

x) n–Hexane and Ethanol
vi) CCl4 and Toluene (C6H5CH3)
Define negative Deviated NonIdeal from Raoult’s Law
Case: 2 Solution showing negative deviation from Raoult's law
1) A…B interactions are much stronger than A…A and B … B interactions.
2) PA < PA0 XA and PB < PB 0 X B Energy will be released after

formation of AB solution.
∴ ΔH = –ve
PT < PA + PB ⇒ PT < PA 0 X A + PB 0 X B
They do not obey Raoult’s Law Intermolecular spaces will
By Arvind Arora decrease because of
3) ΔH mixing < 0 more interactions.
4) ΔV mixing < 0
Hence, Volume of
solution after mixing
will decrease
Define negative Deviation from Raoult’s Law
Negative Deviation Graph
PA0 As we know A…B forces are much

stronger than A…A and B…B
PB0 PT
PA
Vapour pressure decreases
PB
because escaping tendency
V.P
.
By Arvind Arora
of molecules decreases
0 XA 1 Vapour pressure becomes lower than

1 XB 0
the expected value from Raoult’s Law.
Pressurecomposition
Pressure compositiondiagram
diagramfor
forNegative
Ideal gasdeviation
This is called “Negative Deviation”
Give example of Solution showing negative Deviation from Raoults’s Law
Examples of solutions showing negative

deviation
1) Chloroform and Acetone
2) Chloroform and Benzene
3) Chloroform and Diethyl ether
4) Acetic acid and Pyridine

By Arvind Arora
5) H2O and HCl
6) H2O and HNO3
7) Acetone and Aniline

Define Relative lowering of Vapour pressure (RLVP)

in case of Non-volatile solutes
By Arvind Arora
Define Relative lowering of Vapour pressure (RLVP) in case of Non-volatile solutes
Case of non–volatile solute

Examples of
Suppose A : Solvent and B : Solute non–volatile solutes are
Glucose, Sucrose, urea etc.
∴ PB 0 = 0
According to Raoult’s Law

Non–volatile
0 solute means it have
PT = P A 0 XA + P B 0 X B
zero
By Arvind Aroraescaping tendency
PT = PA 0 X A
PB0 is vapour
XA < 1 ⇒ PT < P A 0 pressure of solute
B
Lowering of V.P. = PA0 – PT
We know XA = 1 – XB
So, PT = PA0 ( 1 – XB) RLVP is simply mole
fraction of solute B
PT = PA 0 – P A 0 XB
PA 0 – PT
XB =
0
By Arvind Arora
PA
RLVP : Relative Lowering of Vapour pressure

nB PA 0 – P T
XB = =
nA + n B PA 0
In case of very dilute solutions of B in A, nB • • nA
nB PA 0 – PT By Arvind Arora
=
nA PA 0
RLVP for dilute solution

Define Colligative properties ?
In Case of non-volatile
solute in dilute solutions
Colligative properties (C.P.)are those properties which depends

only on the number of particles of non-volatile solute and nature
of the solvent and are independent of the nature of the solute.
By Arvind Arora
C.P. ∝
n Number of solute particles
How many types of Colligative properties are there ?
There are four colligative properties:

1) Relative lowering in vapour pressure.
2) Elevation in Boiling point.
3) Depression in freezing point.
4) Osmotic pressure.
By Arvind Arora
Define Colligative property - Relative lowering in vapour pressure?
➢ We know that when a non volatile solute is added to a solvent the

vapour pressure decreases.
➢ The lowering of vapour pressure w.r.t. the vapour pressure of the

pure solvent is called “Relative lowering in vapour pressure”.
PA
0
– PTotal
By Arvind Arora
XB =
PA0
RLVP
Define Colligative property - Relative lowering in vapour pressure?
nB P 0 – PT
=
nA + n B A
P0
A
But for very dilute solution nB < < n A Here,
wB → Given weight of solute.

nB 0
P – PT
⇒ = BynArvind
=w /M
Arora
nA A A A A wA → Given weight of solvent.
P0
A MB → Molar mass of solute.
wB MA P 0 – PT
⇒ =
MB wA A
P0 MA → Molar mass of solvent.
A
Define Colligative property - Elevation in Boiling Point ?
➢ Temperature at which the V.P. of a liquid becomes equal to the external

pressure
➢ On addition
is called of a Point
Boiling non-volatile solute the vapor pressure of solvent
decreases
➢ Therefore to boil the solution the required temperature will be higher
Boiling point of
solvent Solution
1 Atm
By Arvind nt n Arora
Vapour pressure
lve o
So i
olut
S
ΔTb
Tb0 Tb
Temperature/K
Define Colligative property- Elevation in Boiling Point ?
Boiling point of
solvent Solution
For Volatile solvent at equilibrium
1 Atm
Solvent (liq) Solvent (vap) nt
Vapour pressure
e
Solv tion
S olu
ΔTb
ΔTb = Tb –Tb0 Tb0 Tb
Elevation in boiling point
By Arvind Arora
Temperature/K
At boiling point,
V.P.soln = Pext
Define Colligative property- Elevation in Boiling Point ?
Elevation in boiling point is directly related to molality

ΔTb ∝
‘m’ is molality having units mol/Kg
m
ΔTb = Kb m
Kb = Ebullioscopic constant Or Molal elevation constant
‘m’ depends upon number of solute particle More the number of solute,
When m = 1, then ΔTb = Kb By Arvind Arora higher will be the elevation
in the boiling point
Unit of Kb Kb for water
ΔTb
Kb = is 0.52 K Kg/mol
m
So, unit of Kb = K-Kg/mol or 0C-Kg/mol
Define Colligative property - Depression in Freezing Point ?
At freezing point S L
At equilibrium the
V.P.solid,solvent = escaping tendency of both
V.P.liquid,solvent the phases is equal.
Vapour Pressure of Solid signifies the escaping
tendency of Solid into Liquid By Arvind
phase Arora
Vapour Pressure of Liquid here, represent
the escaping tendency of Liquid into Solid phase
Phenomenon of Ice in Water

At 400C At 200C At 00C
Ice starts ByRate

Arvind
of Ice AroraRate of Ice melting
escaping into escaping into into Liquid water and
liquid water liquid water is rate of water forming
more then liquid reduced compared ice are same. Hence
water escaping to liquid water equilibrium is
into Ice escaping into Ice established
At freezing point V.P.solid,solvent =

V.P.liquid,solvent
On addition of a non-volatile solute the vapor

pressure of the liquid phase decreases thus
the escaping tendency also BygoesArvind
down Arora
The non-volatile solute does not pass into the
solid phase so the escaping tendency and vapor
pressure of the solid phase remains unchanged
Define Colligative property - Depression in Freezing Point on Solvent-Solution Equilibrium curve ?
Solve
Solve
Like ΔTb, ΔTf has also been found to
nt (s)
Liquid
nt (s)
depend on molality of the solution t (g)
1 atm en
lv
So (g )
e nt
Sol
Solv
t (l)
ven
Pressure
Sol
ven
Vapour
Sol
t
(l)
uti
(l)
Solid
ΔTf ∝ m ⇒ ΔTf = Kf m tion
on
Solu
(l)
nt
ΔTf ΔTb
lve
so
Tf Tf° Tb° Tb
en
By Arvind Arora
oz
Vapour
Fr
Where Kf is Cryoscopic constant or
Temperatur
molar depression constant e
Define Colligative property - Depression in Freezing Point on Solvent-Solution Equilibrium curve ?
When m = 1 then ΔTf = Kf
Units of Kf
ΔTf
Kf =
By Arvind
m Arora
So, unit is K Kg/mol or 0C Kg/mol
What is Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure ?

When a pure solvent and its solution with a non-volatile solute are separated with
a semipermeable membrane(SPM), then the solvent particles pass through the
membrane from solvent side to the solution side. This phenomenon is called osmosis.
Phase boundary
VP = VP VP • VP
SPM only
By Arvind Arora allow solvent molecule
to pass
SPM
Solvent Solvent Solvent Solution

➢ Flow of solvent molecules is in both the directions but it is

more favored from solvent side to the solution side
➢ We can also say that the solvent particles flow from higher Vapor
pressure to lower vapor pressure
The solvent molecules flow from low concentration to

higher concentrationBy Arvind Arora
of solute
E.g. cucumber shrinks when it is put into salt water due to the
flow of solvent from the cucumber cells due to osmosis.
➢ A stage comes when equilibrium is reached and the net osmotic flow
stops due to the column pressure.
➢ This pressure exerted by the column is called Osmotic pressure (π ).
➢ The pressure needed to stop the osmotic flow is

called Osmotic pressure (π ) .
By Arvind Arora
Osmosis can also be stopped by the application of
external pressure on the solution side.
What is Reverse Osmosis?
➢ If external pressure becomes more than the osmotic pressure then

the net flow of solvent can be reversed. This phenomenon is called
“Reverse Osmosis”
It is used in the purification of water e.g. Desalination of sea water.

P>
π
By Arvind Arora
NaCl Pure
Solution solvent
SPM(Cellulose acetate)
Define mathematical representation of Osmotic Pressure ?
➢ The osmotic pressure is a colligative property which depends directly

on the concentration of the solution
➢ It is represented by π and it also depends on the temperature

π ∝C
π ∝T
π = CRT By Arvind Arora
R = 0.0821 L atm/mol K
Define osmosis based on direction ?
Isotonic solution
"iso," means equal
π 1 = π Solution 1 is in Isotonic with Solution 2
Hypotonic
2 solution
"hypo," means under
π1 <π Solution 1 is in Hypotonic
By Arvind Arora to Solution 2
2
Hypertonic solution
"hyper," means over
π 1 > π Solution 1 is in Hypertonic to 2
2
Define Deviation in colligative properties : Van’t Hoff Factor ?
➢ Sometimes the solute particles exhibit association or dissociation inside

the solution due to intermolecular behaviors
➢ Due to this the number of solute particles changes thus changing the
colligative properties (C.P.)
The observed C.P. and the calculated C.P. differ from each other.
By Arvind Arora
To eliminate the error dueto this possibility Van’t Hofffactor(i) is defined.
➢ Colligative properties are directly proportional to the number of particles.
(C.P.)initial ∝ n . . . . (i) (C.P.)final ∝ n . . . . (ii)

initial final
Divide equation (ii) by (i).
(C.P.) nf
= = i
f(C.P.) ni
i
This ratio is called Van’t Hoff factor (i)

By Arvind Arora
Or (C.P.) = i × (C.P.)i
f
(C.P.)observed = i ×(C.P.) calculated

Revisited Formulae of C.P.’s:
(ΔTb)observed = i (ΔTb)calculated
= i m Kb
We can write
ΔTb = i Kb m (ΔTb)observed = ΔTb
Similarly, All relations becomes :

By Arvind Arora
Ignoring nB (solute) being very
ΔTf = i Kf m less compared to nB(Solvent)
p = i CRT
PAo – PT nB
RLVP = = i XB = i
P o nA
What are the application of Vant Hoff Factor ?
The following cases arises : 2A A2

Case 1
Association of solute molecules ni 1 0
:
For example nf 1–1 0.5
polymerization
nA An nf = 1 – 1 + 0.5 = 0.5
ni 1 0
α
nf 1–α By
n
Arvind
nA givesArora
1 molecules
α
∴α givesMolecules n
nf = 1 – α + α
n α is degree of association
nf
i = ⇒ i = 1–α + α ni = 1
ni n
Examples of Association case:

i) Benzoic Acid in Benzene
Carboxylic acids (with small molecular weight)
ii) Acetic Acid in Benzene
shows dimerization in vapour state and in a non –
polar solvent.
i) By Arvind Arora
Hydrogen bond
ii)

Case 2 Dissociation of solute molecules A2 2A
:
ni 1 0
An nA
nf 1–1 2
ni 1 0
nf = 1–1+ 2 = 2
nf 1–α nα
1 molecule gives n molecules
nf = 1 – α + nα By Arvind Aroramust give nα
Then α molecules
nf
i= n ⇒ i = 1 – α + nα ni = 1
i
Van’t Hoff factor for dissociation
If solute molecule completely disassociates then ‘ i = n ’

What is Relation of colligative properties with molecular mass ?
C.P. ∝
n Given mass(w) For Association : i < 1
C.P.
Molar mass (M) For Dissociation : i > 1
∝
1
C.P.
∝ Molar mass (M)
(C.P.) Mi By Arvind Arora
= = i
(f C.P.) Mf
i
Mcalculated
i =
Mobserved
Problem : Of the following 0.10 M aqueous solution, which one will exhibit the
6 largest freezing point depression?
A) KCl B) C6H12O6 C) K2SO4 D) Al2(SO4)3 E) NaCl
By Arvind Arora
Problem : Of the following 0.10 M aqueous solution, which one will exhibit the
6 largest freezing point depression?
A) KCl B) C6H12O6 C) K2SO4 D) Al2(SO4)3 E) NaCl
Solution The solution which will show the largest freezing point depression
will be the one which has the highest value of Van’t Hoff factor.
By Arvind
The value Arora
of ‘i’ depends upon the
number of ions given by one molecule
aq
a) KCl K+(aq) + Cl–(aq) i=2
aq
b) C6H12O6 C6H12O6 i=1
aq
c) K2SO4 2 K+(aq) + SO42–(aq) i=3
aq
d) Al2(SO4)3 2 Al3+(aq) + 3 SO42–(aq) i=5
aq
By Arvind Arora
e) NaCl Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq) i=2
Things to Remember:
(CP)obs
1) Van’t Hoff factor, i=
(CP)cal
2) Association (i < 1), i = 1 – α +α/n
Depression in freezing
3) Dissociation (i > 1), i = 1–α + nα point, is inversely proportional
to the freezing point.
➢ More is the value of Van’t Hoff factor, more is the deviation
in colligative properties.
By Arvind Arora
➢ It means more is the number of ions given by one molecule, More is the depression
more is the depression in freezing point. in freezing point,
less is the freezing point.
Arvind Arora
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Mixture of solute + solvent

No. of components Solution type

Note : For any n number of components, only one

Glucose or NaCl dissolved in water

Define Strength/Concentration of the solution.

The amount of solute dissolved in per unit amount of solvent or

1) Mole fraction (X)

1) Mole fraction (X)

3) Volume by Percent (% v/v)

5) Parts per million (ppm)

What does 4 ppm of solution means ?

Units of molality = Mol/kg

Define Molality and Molarity .

No. of equivalents of solute

Type of species Valency factor (Z) 2Al+3 + 3SO42–

Gases and Liquids have similarities in few things:

Gases and liquids are together called Fluids

Evaporation & Condensation

Solvent which vaporizes at low Temp..

Liquid solvent Evaporation is the change of the

Molecules undergoing Vaporization Molecules undergoing Condensation

Concept of Vapour Pressure : Vaporization rate > condensation rate

The pressure exerted by the vapour phase at

What is Henry’s law ?

At constant temperature the mass of dissolved gas in a given volume of

Solubility of Gases in liquids (Henry’s Law)

➢ In general, solubility of gases increases with increasing

Solubility of Gases in liquids (Henry’s Law)

The above equation is the mathematical

What are the applications & problems based on Henry’s Law ?

It means less Low content of

Define Raoult’s Law.

According to Raoult’s Law the vapor pressure of any component

Solute A Solution Solvent B PB = V.P. of liquid B

XA = Mole fraction of liquid A

XB = Mole fraction of liquid B

Raoult’s Law: PA = V.P. of liquid A

Since we are considering a case of binary solution, PB = V.P. of liquid B

XA = Mole fraction of liquid A

⇒ PT = PAo + (PBo – PAo) XB PBo = V.P. of pure liquid B

By Arvind Arora PT = Total Vapour Pressure of

Mole fraction in Vapour phase (Application of Dalton’s Law)

Mole fraction in Vapour phase (Application of Dalton’s Law)

Raoult’s Law for vapour phase

PAAo = V.P. of pure liquid A

Properties of ideal solutions

2) It obeys Raoult’s Law What do you mean

3) ΔHmix = Because interactions

iii) Ethyl bromide and Ethyl chloride

iv) CCl4 and SiCl4 By Arvind Arora

Deviation from Raoult’s Law

Case1 : Solutions showing positive deviation from Raoult’s Law

1) A…B interaction is weaker than A…A and B…B interaction.

2) PB • PBo xB PA • PA o x A , If interactions of A…A ,

They do not obey Raoult’s Law

Vapour pressure increases