FLUID FLOW THEORY (cont'd)

FLUID DYNAMICS

Mass balance
Energy balance
Potential energy
Kinetic energy
Pressure energy
Friction loss
Mechanical energy
Other effects
Bernouilli's equation

In most processes fluids have to be moved so that the study of fluids in motion is important. Problems on the
flow of fluids are solved by applying the principles of conservation of mass and energy. In any system, or in
any part of any system, it must always be possible to write a mass balance and an energy balance. The
motion of fluids can be described by writing appropriate mass and energy balances and these are the bases
for the design of fluid handling equipment.

Mass Balance

Consider part of a flow system, such for example as that shown in Fig. 3.3.

This consists of a continuous pipe that changes its diameter, passing into and out of a unit of processing plant,
which is represented by a tank. The processing equipment might be, for example, a pasteurizing heat
exchanger. Also in the system is a pump to provide the energy to move the fluid.

Fiigure 3.3. Mass and energy balance in fluid flow

In the flow system of Fig. 3.3 we can apply the law of conservation of mass to obtain a mass balance. Once
the system is working steadily, and if there is no accumulation of fluid in any part the system, the quantity of
fluid that goes in at section 1 must come out at section 2. If the area of the pipe at section 1 is A1 , the velocity
at this section, v1 and the fluid density 1, and if the corresponding values at section 2 are A2, v2,
2, the mass balance can be expressed as

1A1v1 = 2A2v2                                                                                                      (3.4)

If the fluid is incompressible 1 = 2 so in this case

     A1v1 = A2v2                                                                                                        (3.5)

Equation (3.5) is known as the continuity equation for liquids and is frequently used in solving flow problems.
It can also be used in many cases of gas flow in which the change in pressure is very small compared with the
system pressure, such as in many air-ducting systems, without any serious error.

EXAMPLE 3.4. Velocities of flow

Whole milk is flowing into a centrifuge through a full 5 cm diameter pipe at a velocity of 0.22 m s -1, and in the
centrifuge it is separated into cream of specific gravity 1.01 and skim milk of specific gravity 1.04. Calculate
the velocities of flow of milk and of the cream if they are discharged through 2 cm diameter pipes. The specific
gravity of whole milk of 1.035.

From eqn. (3.4):

1A1v1 = 2A2v2 + 3A3v3

where suffixes 1, 2, 3 denote respectively raw milk, skim milk and cream. Also, since volumes will be
conserved, the total leaving volumes will equal the total entering volume and so
                 A1v1 = A2v2 + A3v3 and from this equation

           v2 = (A1v1 - A3v3)/A2                                                                                       (a)

This expression can be substituted for v2 in the mass balance equation to give:

1A1v1 = 2A2(A1v1 – A3v3)/A2 + 3A3v3

1A1v1 = 2A1v1 - 2A3v3 + 3A3v3.

So A1v1(1 - 2) = A3v3(3 - 2)                                                                              (b)

From the known facts of the problem we have:

           A1 = (/4) x (0.05)2 = 1.96 x 10-3 m2

           A2 = A3 = (/4) x (0.02)2 = 3.14 x 10-4 m2

           v1 = 0.22 m s-1
       1 = 1.035 x w, 2 = 1.04 x w , 3 = 1.01 x w

where w is the density of water.

Substituting these values in eqn. (b) above we obtain:

-1.96 x 10-3 x 0.22 (0.005) = -3.14 x 10-4 x v3 x (0.03)

so                                    v3 = 0.23 m s-1

Also from eqn. (a) we then have, substituting 0.23 m s -1 for v3,

           v2 = [(1.96 x 10-3 x 0.22) - (3.14 x 10-4 x 0.23)] / 3.14 x 10-4

            = 1.1m s-1

Energy Balance

In addition to the mass balance, the other important quantity we must consider in the analysis of fluid flow, is
the energy balance. Referring again to Fig. 3.3, we shall consider the changes in the total energy of unit mass
of fluid, one kilogram, between Section 1 and Section 2.

Firstly, there are the changes in the intrinsic energy of the fluid itself which include changes in:
     (1) Potential energy.
     (2) Kinetic energy.
     (3) Pressure energy.

Secondly, there may be energy interchange with the surroundings including:

     (4) Energy lost to the surroundings due to friction.
     (5) Mechanical energy added by pumps.
     (6) Heat energy in heating or cooling the fluid.

In the analysis of the energy balance, it must be remembered that energies are normally measured from a
datum or reference level. Datum levels may be selected arbitrarily, but in most cases the choice of a
convenient datum can be made readily with regard to the circumstances.

Potential energy

Fluid maintained above the datum level can perform work in returning to the datum level. The quantity of work
it can perform is calculated from the product of the distance moved and the force resisting movement; in this
case the force of gravity. This quantity of work is called the potential energy of the fluid.
Thus the potential energy of one kilogram of fluid at a height of Z (m) above its datum is given by Ep, where

Ep = Zg    (J)

Kinetic energy

Fluid that is in motion can perform work in coming to rest. This is equal to the work required to bring a body
from rest up to the same velocity, which can be calculated from the basic equation

v2 = 2as, therefore s = v2/2a,

where v (m s-1) is the final velocity of the body, a (m s-2) is the acceleration and s (m) is the distance the body
has moved.

Also work done = W = F x s, and from Newton's Second Law, for m kg of fluid

F = ma

and so Ek = W = mas = mav2/2a = mv2/2

The energy of motion, or kinetic energy, for 1 kg of fluid is therefore given by Ek where

Ek = v2/2   (J).

Pressure energy

Fluids exert a pressure on their surroundings. If the volume of a fluid is decreased, the pressure exerts a force
that must be overcome and so work must be done in compressing the fluid. Conversely, fluids under pressure
can do work as the pressure is released. If the fluid is considered as being in a cylinder of cross-sectional area
A (m2) and a piston is moved a distance L (m) by the fluid against the pressure P (Pa) the work done is PAL
joules. The quantity of the fluid performing this work is AL (kg). Therefore the pressure energy that can be
obtained from one kg of fluid (that is the work that can be done by this kg of fluid) is given by Er where

Er = PAL / AL
     = P/    (J)

Friction loss

When a fluid moves through a pipe or through fittings, it encounters frictional resistance and energy can only
come from energy contained in the fluid and so frictional losses provide a drain on the energy resources of the
fluid. The actual magnitude of the losses depends upon the nature of the flow and of the system through
which the flow takes place. In the system of Fig. 3.3, let the energy lost by 1 kg fluid between section 1 and
section 2, due to friction, be equal to Eƒ (J).

Mechanical energy

If there is a machine putting energy into the fluid stream, such as a pump as in the system of Fig. 3.3, the
mechanical energy added by the pump per kg of fluid must be taken into account. Let the pump energy added
to 1 kg fluid be Ec (J). In some cases a machine may extract energy from the fluid, such as in the case of a
water turbine.

Other effects

Heat might be added or subtracted in heating or cooling processes, in which case the mechanical equivalent
of this heat would require to be included in the balance. Compressibility terms might also occur, particularly
with gases, but when dealing with low pressures only they can usually be ignored.

For the present let us assume that the only energy terms to be considered are Ep, Ek, Er, Ef, Ec.
 Bernouilli's Equation

We are now in a position to write the energy balance for the fluid between section 1 and section 2 of Fig. 3.3.

The total energy of one kg of fluid entering at section 1 is equal to the total energy of one kg of fluid leaving at
section 2, less the energy added by the pump, plus friction energy lost in travelling between the two sections.
Using the subscripts 1 and 2 to denote conditions at section 1 or section 2, respectively, we can write

                           Ep1 + Ek1 + Er1 = Ep2 + Ek2 + Er2 + Ef - Ec.                                        (3.6.)

Therefore Z1g + v12/2 + P1/1 = Z2g + v22/2 + P2/2 + Ef - Ec.                                    (3.7)

In the special case where no mechanical energy is added and for a frictionless fluid,
                                               Ec  = Ef = 0, and we have

                   Z1g + v12/2 + P1/1 = Z2g + v22/2 + P2/2                                                   (3.8)

and since this is true for any sections of the pipe the equation can also be written

                         Zg + v2/2 + P/   = k                                                                                (3.9)

where k is a constant.

Equation (3.9) is known as Bernouilli's equation. First discovered by the Swiss mathematician Bernouilli in
1738, it is one of the foundations of fluid mechanics. It is a mathematical expression, for fluid flow, of the
principle of conservation of energy and it covers many situations of practical importance.

Application of the equations of continuity, eqn. (3.4) or eqn. (3.5), which represent the mass balance, and eqn.
(3.7) or eqn. (3.9), which represent the energy balance, are the basis for the solution of many flow problems
for fluids. In fact much of the remainder of this chapter will be concerned with applying one or another aspect
of these equations.

The Bernouilli equation is of sufficient importance to deserve some further discussion. In the form in which it
has been written in eqn. (3.9) it will be noticed that the various quantities are in terms of energies per unit
mass of the fluid flowing. If the density of the fluid flowing multiplies both sides of the equation, then we have
pressure terms and the equation becomes:

Zg + v2/2 + P = k'                                                                                               (3.10)

and the respective terms are known as the potential head pressure, the velocity pressure and the static
pressure.

On the other hand, if the equation is divided by the acceleration due to gravity, g, then we have an expression
in terms of the head of the fluid flowing and the equation becomes:

Z + v2/2g + P/g = k''                                                                                              (3.11)

and the respective terms are known as the potential head, the velocity head and the pressure head.
The most convenient form for the equation is chosen for each particular case, but it is important to be
consistent having made a choice.
If there is a constriction in a pipe and the static pressures are measured upstream or downstream of the
constriction and in the constriction itself, then the Bernouilli equation can be used to calculate the rate of flow
of the fluid in the pipe. This assumes that the flow areas of the pipe and in the constriction are known.
Consider the case in which a fluid is flowing through a horizontal pipe of cross-sectional area A1 and then it
passes to a section of the pipe in which the area is reduced to A2. From the continuity equation [eqn. (3.5)]
assuming that the fluid is incompressible:

       A1v1 = A2v2
and so
          v2  = v1A1 /A2

Since the pipe is horizontal

           Z1 = Z2

Substituting in eqn. (3.8)

v12/2 + P1 /1 = v12 A12 /(2 A22) + P2 /2

and since 1  = 2 as it is the same fluid throughout and it is incompressible,

  P1 - P2 = 1 v12((A12 /A22) - 1)/2.                                                                              (3.12)

From eqn. (3.12), knowing P1, P2, A1, A2, 1, the unknown velocity in the pipe, v1, can be calculated.

Another application of the Bernouilli equation is to calculate the rate of flow from a nozzle with a known
pressure differential. Consider a nozzle placed in the side of a tank in which the surface of the fluid in the tank
is Z ft above the centre line of the nozzle as illustrated in Fig. 3.4.

FIG. 3.4. Flow from a nozzle.

Take the datum as the centre of the nozzle. The velocity of the fluid entering the nozzle is approximately zero,
as the tank is large compared with the nozzle. The pressure of the fluid entering the nozzle is P 1 and the
density of the fluid 1. The velocity of the fluid flowing from the nozzle is v2 and the pressure at the nozzle exit
is 0 as the nozzle is discharging into air at the datum pressure. There is no change in potential energy as the
fluid enters and leaves the nozzle at the same level. Writing the Bernouilli equation for fluid passing through
the nozzle:

0 + 0 + P1 /1  = 0 + v22/2 + 0
                       v22 = 2 P1 /1
whence

 v =
2
    (2P1 /1 )

but                P1 /1   = gZ

(where Z is the head of fluid above the nozzle) therefore

v2 = (3.13)
(2 gZ)

EXAMPLE 3.5. Pressure in a pipe

Water flows at the rate of 0.4 m3 min-1 in a 7.5 cm diameter pipe at a pressure of 70 kPa. If the pipe reduces to
5 cm diameter calculate the new pressure in the pipe.
Density of water is 1000 kg m-3.
Flow rate of water = 0.4 m3 min-1 = 0.4/60 m3 s-1.

Area of 7.5 cm diameter pipe = (/4)D2

                                           = (/4)(0.075)2
                                           = 4.42 x 10-3 m2.
So velocity of flow in 7.5 cm diameter pipe,
                                       v1 = (0.4/60)/(4.42 x 10-3) = 1.51 m s-1

Area of 5 cm diameter pipe    = (/4)(0.05)2

                                           = 1.96 x 10-3 m2
and so velocity of flow in 5 cm diameter pipe,
                                       v2 = (0.4/60)/(1.96 x 10-3) = 3.4 m s-1

Now

                Z1g + v12/2 + P1 /1 = Z2g + v22/2 + P2 /2

and so
0 + (1.51)2/2 + 70 x 103/1000 = 0 + (3.4)2/2 + P2/1000
                         0 + 1.1 + 70 = 0 + 5.8 + P2/1000
                                          P2/1000 = (71.1 - 5.8) = 65.3
                                    P2 = 65.3k Pa.

EXAMPLE 3.6. Flow rate of olive oil

Olive oil of specific gravity 0.92 is flowing in a pipe of 2 cm diameter. Calculate the flow rate of the olive oil, if
an orifice is placed in the pipe so that the diameter of the pipe in the constriction is reduced to 1.2 cm, and if
the measured pressure difference between the clear pipe and the most constricted part of the pipe is 8 cm of
water.
Diameter of pipe, in clear section, equals 2 cm and at constriction equals 1.2 cm.

                            A1/A2 = (D1/D2)2 = (2/1.2)2

      Differential head = 8 cm water.
Differential pressure = Zg
                             = 0.08 x 1000 x 9.81 = 785 Pa.

substituting in eqn. (3.12)

                       785 = 0.92 x 1000 x v2 [(2/1.2)4 - 1 ] /2

                                     v2 = 785/3091
                          v = 0.5 m s-1

EXAMPLE 3.7. Mass flow rate from a tank

The level of water in a storage tank is 4.7 m above the exit pipe. The tank is at atmospheric pressure and the
exit pipe discharges into the air. If the diameter of the exit pipe is 1.2 cm what is the mass rate of flow through
this pipe?

From eqn. (3.13)

v=
(2 gZ)
v=
(2 x 9.81 x 4.7)
  =   9.6 m s-1.

Now area of pipe, A

= (/4)D2
= (/4) x (0.012)2
= 1.13 x 10-4 m2

Volumetric flow rate, Av

= 1.13 x 10-4 m2 x 9.6 m s-1

= 1.13 x 10-4 x 9.6 m3 s-1
= 1.08 x 10-3 m3 s-1

Mass flow rate, Av

= 1000 kg m-3 x 1.08 x 10-3 m3 s-1

= 1.08 kg s-1

EXAMPLE 3.8. Pump horsepower

Water is raised from a reservoir up 35 m to a storage tank through a 7.5 cm diameter pipe. If it is required to
raise 1.6 cubic metres of water per minute, calculate the horsepower input to a pump assuming that the pump
is 100% efficient and that there is no friction loss in the pipe.
1 Horsepower = 0.746 kW.
Volume of flow, V

= 1.6 m3 min-1 = 1.6/60 m3 s-1 = 2.7 x 10-2 m3 s-1

Area of pipe, A

= (/4) x (0.075)2 = 4.42 x 10-3 m2,

Velocity in pipe, v

= 2.7 x 10-2/(4.42 x 10-3) = 6 m s-1,

And so applying eqn. (3.7)

        Ec = Zg +  v2/2

Ec = 35 x 9.81 + 62/2
    = 343.4 + 18
    = 361.4 J

Therefore total power required

    = Ec x mass rate of flow

    = EcV
    = 361.4 x 2.7 x 10-2 x 1000 J s-1
    = 9758 J s-1

and, since     1 h.p. = 7.46 x 102 J s-1,

required power = 13 h.p.

Fluid-flow theory > VISCOSITY

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Unit Operations in Food Processing. Copyright © 1983, R. L. Earle. :: Published by NZIFST (Inc.)

FLUID-FLOW THEORY (cont'd)

ENERGY LOSSES IN FLOW

Friction in Pipes
 Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings
Pressure Drop through Equipment
Equivalent Lengths of Pipe
Compressibility Effects for Gases
Calculation of Pressure Drops in Flow Systems

Energy losses can occur through friction in pipes, bends and fittings, and in equipment.

Friction in Pipes

In Bernouilli's equation the symbol Eƒ was used to denote the energy loss due to friction in the pipe. This loss
of energy due to friction was shown, both theoretically and experimentally, to be related to the Reynolds
number for the flow. It has also been found to be proportional to the velocity pressure of the fluid and to a
factor related to the smoothness of the surface over which the fluid is flowing.

If we define the wall friction in terms of velocity pressure of the fluid flowing, we can write:

F/A =   f v2/2                                                                                                           (3.16)

where F is the friction force, A is the area over which the friction force acts,  is the density of the fluid, v is the
velocity of the fluid, and f is a coefficient called the friction factor.

Consider an energy balance over a differential length, dL, of a straight horizontal pipe of diameter D, as in Fig.
3.7.

Figure 3.7. Energy balance over a length of pipe.

Consider the equilibrium of the element of fluid in the length dL. The total force required to overcome friction
drag must be supplied by a pressure force giving rise to a pressure drop dP along the length dL.

The pressure drop force is:

                         dP x Area of pipe = dP x D2/4
The friction force is (force/unit area) x wall area of pipe
                                                  = F/A x D x dL
so from eqn. (3.16),                      = (fv2/2) x D x dL

Therefore equating prressure drop and friction force

                          (D2/4) dP = (f v2/2) D x dL,

therefore
                                      dP = 4(f v2/2) x dL/D

Integrating between L1 and L2, in which interval P goes from P1 to P2 we have:

                                   dP = 4(fv2/2) x dL/D

                                          P1 - P2 = (4fv2/2)(L1 - L2)/D
i.e.
                                   Pf = (4fv2/2) x (L/D)                                                        (3.17)
or
                                                     Eƒ = Pf/ = (2fv2)(L/D)                                                    (3.18)

where L = L1 - L2 = length of pipe in which the pressure drop, Pf = P1 - P2 is the frictional pressure drop, and
Eƒ is the frictional loss of energy.

Equation (3.17) is an important equation; it is known as the Fanning equation, or sometimes the D'Arcy or
the Fanning-D'Arcy equation. It is used to calculate the pressure drop that occurs when liquids flow in pipes.

The factor f in eqn.(3.17) depends upon the Reynolds number for the flow, and upon the roughness of the
pipe. In Fig. 3.8 experimental results are plotted, showing the relationship of these factors. If the Reynolds
number and the roughness factor are known, then f can be read off from the graph.

Figure 3.8 Friction factors in pipe

(After Moody,1944)

It has not been found possible to find a simple expression that gives analytical equations for the curve of Fig.
3.8, although the curve can be approximated by straight lines covering portions of the range. Equations can
be written for these lines. Some writers use values for fwhich differ from that defined in eqn. (3.16) by
numerical factors of 2 or 4. The same symbol, f, is used so that when reading off values for f, its definition in
the particular context should always be checked. For example, a new f = 4f removes one numerical factor
from eqn. (3.17).

Inspection of Fig. 3.8 shows that for low values of (Re), there appears to be a simple relationship between ƒ
and (Re) independent of the roughness of the pipe. This is perhaps not surprising, as in streamline flow there
is assumed to be a stationary boundary layer at the wall and if this is stationary there would be no liquid
movement over any roughness that might appear at the wall. Actually, the friction factor f in streamline flow
can be predicted theoretically from the Hagen-Poiseuille equation, which gives:

f     = 16/(Re)                                                                                                             (3.19)

and this applies in the region 0 < (Re) < 2100.

In a similar way, theoretical work has led to equations which fit other regions of the experimental curve, for
example the Blasius equation which applies to smooth pipes in the range 3000 < (Re) < 100,000 and in
which:

                                   
0.316 ( Re)-0.25 (3.19)
f ƒ=
4    
In the turbulent region, a number of curves are shown in Fig. 3.8. It would be expected that in this region, the
smooth pipes would give rise to lower friction factors than rough ones. The roughness can be expressed in
terms of a roughness ratio that is defined as the ratio of average height of the projections, which make up the
"roughness" on the wall of the pipe, to the pipe diameter. Tabulated values are given showing the roughness
factors for the various types of pipe, based on the results of Moody (1944). These factors  are then divided
by the pipe diameter D to give the roughness ratio to be used with the Moody graph. The question of relative
roughness of the pipe is under some circumstances a difficult one to resolve. In most cases, reasonable
accuracy can be obtained by applying Table 3.1 and Fig. 3.8.

TABLE 3.1
RELATIVE ROUGHNESS FACTORS FOR PIPES

Material Roughness factor () Material Roughness factor ()

Riveted steel 0.001- 0.01   Galvanized iron 0.0002
Concrete 0.0003 - 0.003   Asphalted cast iron 0.001
Wood staves 0.0002 - 0.003   Commercial steel 0.00005
Cast iron 0.0003   Drawn tubing Smooth

EXAMPLE 3.10. Pressure drop in a pipe

Calculate the pressure drop along 170 m of 5 cm diameter horizontal steel pipe through which olive oil at 20°C
is flowing at the rate of 0.1 m3 min-1.

Diameter of pipe = 0.05 m,

Area of cross-section A
                         = (/4)D2
                         = /4 x (0.05)2
                         = 1.96 x 10-3 m2
From Appendix 4,

Viscosity of olive oil at 20°C = 84 x 10-3 Ns m-2 and density = 910 kg m-3,
 and velocity = (0.1 x 1/60)/(1.96 x 10-3) = 0.85 m s-1,

Now                   (Re) = (Dv/)

                         = [(0.05 x 0.85 x 910)/(84 x 10-3)]

                         = 460

so that the flow is streamline, and from Fig. 3.8, for (Re) = 460

                      f  = 0.03.

Alternatively for streamline flow from (3.18), f  = 16/(Re)  = 16/460  = 0.03 as before.

And so the pressure drop in 170 m, from eqn. (3.17)

                          Pf = (4fv2/2) x (L/D)

                         = [4 x 0.03 x 910 x (0.85)2 x 1/2] x [170 x 1/0.05]

                         = 1.34 x 105 Pa
                         = 134 kPa.

Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings

When the direction of flow is altered or distorted, as when the fluid is flowing round bends in the pipe or
through fittings of varying cross-section, energy losses occur which are not recovered. This energy is
dissipated in eddies and additional turbulence and finally lost in the form of heat. However, this energy must
be supplied if the fluid is to be maintained in motion, in the same way, as energy must be provided to
overcome friction. Losses in fittings have been found, as might be expected, to be proportional to the velocity
head of the fluid flowing. In some cases the magnitude of the losses can be calculated but more often they are
best found from tabulated values based largely on experimental results. The energy loss is expressed in the
general form,

Eƒ = kv2/2                                                                                                              (3.20)

where k has to be found for the particular fitting. Values of this constant k for some fittings are given in Table
3.2.

TABLE 3.2
FRICTION LOSS FACTORS IN FITTINGS

  k
Valves, fully open:
  gate 0.13
  globe 6.0
   angle 3.0
Elbows:
  90° standard 0.74
  medium sweep 0.5
  long radius 0.25
  square 1.5
Tee, used as elbow 1.5
Tee, straight through 0.5
Entrance, large tank to pipe:
  sharp 0.5
rounded   0.05
Energy is also lost at sudden changes in pipe cross-section. At a sudden enlargement the loss has been
shown to be equal to:

     Ef = (v1 - v2)2/2                                                                                                   (3.21)

For a sudden contraction

     Ef = kv22/2                                                                                                         (3.22)

where v1 is the velocity upstream of the change in section and v 2 is the velocity downstream of the change in
pipe diameter from D1 to D2.

The coefficient k in eqn. (3.22) depends upon the ratio of the pipe diameters (D2/D1) as given in Table 3.3.

TABLE 3.3
LOSS FACTORS IN CONTRACTIONS

D2/D1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9

k 0.36 0.31 0.22 0.11 0.02

Pressure Drop through Equipment

Fluids sometimes have to be passed through beds of packed solids; for example in the air drying of granular
materials, hot air may be passed upward through a bed of the material. The pressure drop resulting is not
easy to calculate, even if the properties of the solids in the bed are well known. It is generally necessary, for
accurate pressure-drop information, to make experimental measurements.

A similar difficulty arises in the calculation of pressure drops through equipment such as banks of tubes in
heat exchangers. An equation of the general form of eqn. (3.20) will hold in most cases, but values for k will
have to be obtained from experimental results. Useful correlations for particular cases may be found in books
on fluid flow and from works such as Perry (1997) and McAdams (1954).

Equivalent Lengths of Pipe

In some applications it is convenient to clculate pressure drops in fittings from added equivalent lengths of
straight pipe, rather than directly in terms of velocity heads or velocity pressures when making pipe-flow
calculations. This means that a fictitious length of straight pipe is added to the actual length, such that friction
due to the fictitious pipe gives rise to the same loss as that which would arise from the fitting under
consideration. In this way various fittings, for example bends and elbows, are simply equated to equivalent
lengths of pipe and the total friction losses computed from the total pipe length, actual plus fictitious. As Eƒ in
eqn. (3.20) is equal to Eƒ in eqn. (3.17), k can therefore be replaced by 4ƒL/D where L is the length of pipe (of
diameter D) equivalent to the fitting.

Compressibility Effects for Gases

The equations so far have all been applied on the assumption that the fluid flowing was incompressible, that is
its density remained unchanged through the flow process. This is true for liquids under normal circumstances
and it is also frequently true for gases. Where gases are passed through equipment such as dryers, ducting,
etc., the pressures and the pressure drops are generally only of the order of a few centimetres of water and
under these conditions compressibility effects can normally be ignored.

Calculation of Pressure Drops in Flow Systems

From the previous discussion, it can be seen that in many practical cases of flow through equipment, the
calculation of pressure drops and of power requirements is not simple, nor is it amenable to analytical
solutions. Estimates can, however, be made and useful generalizations are:

(1) Pressure drops through equipment are in general proportional to velocity heads, or pressures; in other
words, they are proportional to the square of the velocity.

(2) Power requirements are proportional to the product of the pressure drop and the mass rate of flow, which
is to the cube of the velocity,

v2 x Av =Av3.

Fluid-flow theory > SUMMARY & PROBLEMS

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Unit Operations in Food Processing. Copyright © 1983, R. L. Earle. :: Published by NZIFST (Inc.)