TABLE 6.3 Friction Coefficient for Various Terrain Characteristics Friction Coefficient Terrain Characteristics a Smooth hard ground, calm water 0.10 Tall grass on level ground 0.15 High crops, hedges and shrubs 0.20 Wooded countryside, many trees 0.25 Small town with trees and shrubs 0.30 Large city with tall buildings 0.40 95 Aciean, 15-petcent-efficient module (STC), 1 m’ in size, has its own 90% efficient inverter. Its NOCT is 44°C and its rated power degrades by 0.5%/°C above the 25°C STC. avn? 90% eff de-to-ze3, What would its STC rated power be? ‘b. Find the kWh that it would be expected to deliver on a 15°C day with daylong insolation ‘equal to 6 kWh 95 SOLN: a. The STC output of this module Pcere= 0.15 x1 m'x 1 kWim? = 0.19 kW Went te eating om DCW AC Die loveaaceniscena sameh = Oy sets (292) rat5.( 82) 8 (45-25 0.10= 10% 090% efficient x1=15430=45°C Tex = Ta ‘Temp derating = 05 ‘Conversion efficiency = dit x mismatch x temperature x inverter = 10x10x09509=081 Pye =0.81 20.15 KW=0.1215 EW Energy =0.1215 kW x 6 hw/d 728 kWhiday97 You are to size a grid-connected south-facing PV system for Las Vegas to deliver 4000 KWivyr. Use a tilt equal to latitude minus 15° a, What should be the AC rated power of the PV/inverter system? 'b. What temperature derating should you use if the modules have an NOCT of 45°C, the maximum power drops by 0.36%/°C, and for ambient the average anaval daily high given in Appendix IV is appropriate. c. For 3% dirt, 3% mismatched modules, and a 92% efficient inverter, what should the DC. STC rated power of the modules? 4G. If the modules are 13% efficient, what area of PVs would be required? e. If the installed system cost is $6 per DC.STC watt, what is the total cost of the system? £. Suppose the system is paid for with a 6%, 30-year loan with interest being tax deductible, The customer is married and has a taxable income around $200,000/yr, which puts them in the 35.5% marginal tax bracket. Nevada has no state income tax. There isa renewable energy credit (green tag program) that will pay the owner S¢/KWh generated. What would be the 1* year cost of PV electricity for this, customer («/KWh)? 97 — SOLN: a. What should be the AC rated power of the PV/inverter system? Appendix D shows Las Vegas with 6.4 kWi/m°day annual insolation. Pic (kW)x 6Alr Id @1kW/m™ x 365 d/yr = 4000 kWhiyr _ 4000 © 64x365 TlkW "cb. What temperature derating with NOCT= 45°C: SOLN: Appendix C shows yearly average high = 26.9°C so we'll use that to help estimate cell temp: ‘NOCT - 20) (45-20) Tory +| = |s = 269°C + jx ( J os If maximum power drops by 0.36%/C: 582°C AP =0.0036x(38.2—25)=0.1193 ... so temperature derate = 1-0.1193 =0.881 c. For 3% dirt, 3% mismatched modules, and a 92% efficient inverter, what should the DC, STC rated power of the modules? P Pe 1712KW — =" ___p aw dirt x inverter x mismatch x temp — 097x0.9230.97x0.881 " 4G. If the modules are 13% efficient, what area of PVs would be required? 1 RW/m? x A(m?) x0.13=224 kW. anit 7.3m? €. If the installed system cost is $6 per DC,STC watt, what is the total cost of the system? Cost = 2240 W x S6/W = $13.40 f£ With a6%, 30-year loan, taxable income around $200,000/yr and Se/kWh green tag: 06(1.06)" (1.06)°— Annual payments = P x CRF{i,n) = $13,440 x 0.07265 = $976.40 CRF (6% 30yr) = = 0.07265/ yr For $200k income, the owner is in the 35.5% tax bracket (federal) 06 x $13,440 x 0.355 = $286.27 Tax savings on interest = Interest x MTB 1° year cost of loan = $976.40 - $286.27 = $690.12 $690.12Ivr PV electricity = 2220-257 4000 kWhiyr =$0.172/ kWh less 0.05S/KWh greentag = 12.2¢/kWh98 A gtid-connected PV array consisting of sixteen Shell SP150 modules (Table 9.4) can be arranged in a number of series and parallel combinations: (16S, 1P), (8S.2P), (48, 4B), (2S, 8P), (1S, 16P). The asray delivers power to a Sunay Boy $B2500 inverter (Table 9.5). Using the input voltage range of the maximum power point tracker (MPPT) and the maximum input voltage of the inverter as design constraints. what series/parallel combination of modules would best match the PVs to the inverter? 98 SOLN: ‘The PV modules have Voc = 43 4V and Vg=34V. The SB2500 has an MPPT range of 250-550V and a maximum input voltage of 600V. (16S, 1P) has Voc = 16 x 43.4 = 694 V which is too hign X (8S, 2P) has Voc = 347 V, which is OK. V, (4S, 4P) has V, (2S, 8P) and (1S, 16P) also are below the MPPT range X Therefore (8S, 2P) is the best arrangement for the array 8x 34=272 V which is OK 136 V which is too low X 9.10 Suppose a 12V battery bank rated at 200 Ab under standard conditions needs to deliver (600 Wh over a 12-hour period each day. If they operate at 10°C, how many days of use would they be able to supply? 9.10 SOLN: 600 VANid Discharge rate = —————~— = 4.16. A T2Vx 12 arid cop = 200Ah 48 ar From Figure 9.42 the storage capacity at C/T = 48 hr and T = -10°C is 90 percent of the 200 Ah standard rating. So , with 80 maximum discharge 200 Aix 0.90% 0.80 , Hows of storage = == = 34.6 hrs Discharging them at 12 hrs per day means they can provide 34.6 be Deysof storage = 7 =29 dayscach evening, what should the minimum rated A-Hr of batteries be if they shoulda’t be discharged more thian 80 percent? Assume battery temperature is, 25°C. 9.11 SOLN USING 2.4 kWhr @ 12 V means the batteries must deliver: 2400 V--A- hr IDV 24KW =2400 W-hr =200A-hr @12V USING THE MAXIMUM DISCHARGE OF 80% 200.4 -hr 08 Battery rating 150. AX fr BUT NEED TO CHECK THE DISCHARGE RATE. 250 Ache RATED eapaeity is assuazing discharged over a 20-hr period THAT IS. IT ASSUMES A CURRENT OF BAW 1254 OUR CURRENT FOR THE CABIN USING 1.4 KWH IN 4 HOURS IS A CURRENT OF: 200 A 7 hts ‘THAT MEANS WE ARE DISCHARGING THE 250 A-Hr BATTERIES AT A RATE OF =50A that is a"C-5" discharge rate From Figure 9.42... AT C-5, THE A-HR CAPACITY IS ONLY ABOUT 75% OF THE 20- HR“C-20" RATE. SO, WE NEED 250A-Hr 333 A— Hr of batteries ! 0.75 9.12 Analyze this PV/battery system (ignore battery discharge rate and temperature constraints) * PV Module characteristics: P, = LODW. Vz = 20.0V, Voe = 22V, 5.0, Le=6A * Battery Characteristics: 6V, 100 Ah (each) * Coulomb efficiency 90%: Maximum discharze 80% * Insolation: 6kWh/m'day* Inverter efficiency: 80% * Dir, ete, efficiency: 90% (10% loss) OL bevnaer + [20% efficient [* AC Inverter |, Ome Figure P9.12 a. Find the wart-hoursiday that would reach the loads (assume all PV current passes through the batteries) b. If the load requires 600 Whiday, for how many cloudy days in a row can fully-charged batteries supply the load? 9.12 SOLN: a. Find the watt-hours/day that would reach the loads ‘Whid = (kWh/m'd = hr/d) x Ip (A/module) x a (modules) x Dirt x Coulomb x Inverter = 6 lu/d x 5.0 A/module x 4 modules x 0.90 x 0.90 x 0.80 x 12 V = 933 Whid D. If the load requires 600 Whi/day. for how many cloudy days in a row can the batteries supply the load? 2x6V x 100 Ab/string x ? strings x 0.80 discharge x 0.80 inverter = 1536 Wh available Days = 1536 Wh / 600 Wh/d = 2.6 days 9.13 Consider the design of a small PV-powered light-emitting-diode (LED) light. The PV array consists of § series calls, each with rated current 03A @ 0.6V. Storage is provided by tluee series AA batteries that each store 2An at 1.2V when fully charged, ‘The LED provides full brightness when it draws O4A @ 3.6V.Blocking diode onsorr Figure P9.13 ‘The batteries have a Coulomb efficiency of 90% and for maximum cycle life can be discharged by up to 80%. Ignore any complications associated with temperature. dirt. discharge rate, etc a. How many hours of light could this design provide each evening if the batteries are fully charged during the day? b. How many kWh/m*-day of insolation would be needed to provide the amount of light found in (a)? With 12-percent-efficiency cells, what PV area would be required? 9.13 SOLN a. How many hours of light could this desiga provide each evening if the batteries are fully charged during the day? 2ANXO80=16Ahavailable 16 Ah/O.4A =4 hrs of light bv. How many kWh/m’day of insolation would be needed to provide the amount of light found in (a)? XX (kWi/m’ d = hrsiday) x I, (A) x Coulomb efficiency = 1.6 Ah delivered xen mig) =" __ 5.9 ewan 03427090 18 Wat STC. At 12% efficiency, PVs produce c. Each cell produces 0.3 x 0.6V 0.12 x 1000 W/m? = 120 Wim? So _ Sceils x 0.18Wicell 120 Win™ Area = 0.012 m’ (abou 18 in’)9.14 Consider a PV array charging batteries for an off-the-erid, stand-alone system near Boulder, Colorado You plan to run everything in the house on120 V AC. a. Suppose the load is estimated to consist of the following 120 V AC appliances Supplement load data given below with values from Table 9.10. A 19 cu. ft reftigerator/treezer A 1000 W microwave used 15 minutes/day Five 20-watt compact fluorescent lamps, each used 8 hours per day A horizontal-axis washing machine used 3 hours per week A.24-V well pump that delivers 288 gal/day at 1 6 gpm of water from 100 ft depth A 19-inch color TV used 2 hrs/day and drawing standby power the other 22 hrs/day A satellite receiver system for the TV, used 2 hours/¢ay and in standby mode 22 hours A laptop computer used 4 hrs/day Six 3.watt transformer units for chargers that run all day long, Find the total watt-hrs per day needed by these appliances. b. Pick an appropriate system voltage. ¢. How many amp-hours/day would the battery bank have to deliver if the loads are all AC provided by an 85-percent efficient inverter? 6. How many Alu/d would have to be delivered to the batteries if they have a Coulomb efficiency of 90 percent? . Suppose 5 percent of the PY output is lost due to dirt, ete. How many Al/d should the PVs provide before that derating? £. Using the worst month in Boulder with south-facing panels tiled at L415, how many AstroPower APox 90-watt modules with DC, STC rated current 5.3 A and rated voltage 171 volts would be needed in series and paraliel? If they cost $400 each, what is the cost of PVs? ‘What is the maximum current that you might expect in the wires connecting the array to battery system (just use the rated current)? What gage wire would you suggest using (Table 1.3)? |. If your design goal is to provide needed electricity 95% of the time, about how many days of usable battery storage would you need?4. If the coldest temperature the batteries might experience is -20°C, what is the maximum depth of discharge that lead-acid batteries could tolerate without freezing (Figure 9.39)? J. Ia C/72 discharge rate is assumed along with -20°C and the results from (¢), what should be the rated (nominal) Abr capacity of the battery bank? (use Figure 9.4? and Eqn. 9.32)? Kk. Suppose you use Concorde PVX 1080 batteries (Table 9.15). How many batteries in series and how many in parallel would you recommend (round up if necessary) At $160 each, how much would the batteries cost? 1. Assume a power control unit with inverter costs $1/watt and they come in 500 W increments (1 kW. 1.5 kW. 2 kW.2.5 KW. etc). You want one big enough to cover all your appliances on at once. Pick an inverter and how much would it cost? m_ Draw the system “wiring” diagram showing series/parallel combinations of the PV modules and batteries, similar to Figure 9.51. a. What would the total system cost be? ©. Using the annual insotation in Boulder. estimate the average Amp-hours/day (at the system voltage) that the PVs could deliver all year long. If al of that electricity is run through the batteries and inverter and ends up being used in the house, how many kWhiyear would be delivered (that is, in the better months you use all of the kWh not just the design load specified in (a)..)? . Paying for the system with 2 15-year, 5% loan, find the first-year cost of electricity (S/sWa) for someone in the 36% marginal tax bracket if the loan interest is tax deductible (see Section 5.3 8) 9.14 SOLN: a. The total watt-hrs per day needed by the appliances,watts heie watt-hr Refrigerator 300 1140 Microwave 1000 0.25 250 Lights 100 8 00 lwasher 250 0.43 107 lwell pump 100 3.00 300 iv 68 2 135 Irv standby Sa 22 112 Satellite 7 2 34 Satellite stby 16 22 352 Laptop 20 4 0 lvampires 18 24 432 TOTALS 1979 2749 (notice the peak total power doesn't incinde the standby power of TV and satellite) b. With 1873 peak watts, an appropriate system voltage would be 24 V (to avoid currents greater than 100). Also the pump in Table 9.10 needs 24 V ¢. How many amp-hoursiday would the battery bank have to deliver ifthe loads are all AC provided by an 85-percent efficient inverter? Power io load 378 W ‘System Voltage x Inverter Ef 24 Vx 0.85 An from batteries d. How many Abid would have to be delivered to the batteries if they have a Coulomb efficiency of 90 percent? Ah out 183.5 Ah Amp hrs to batteries ou 185 5ah Coulomb efficiency 0.90 ¢. Suppose 5 percent of the PV output is lost due to dit, ete. How many Aivd should the PVs provide before that derating? = 2039 At £. Using the worst month in Boulder with south-facing panels tilted at L+15, how many AstroPower APex 90-watt modules with DC, STC rated current 5.3 A and rated voltage 17.1 volts would be needed in series and parallel? Boulder in December has 4.5 kWh/m?d ~4.5 ts @ 1 kWh/m? PV rated amps needs to be = ROM PY _ A TAN _ 74 1 sun ns @ 1-sun 43 fr So, with rated current of 5 3A, Aneeded @1-sun___47.7A Rated current (A) _ 3.3A/moduie Since these are 12-V modules (rated voltage 17.1V) and the system voltage is 24 votts ‘we need 2 modules in secs in each string Modules in parailet 9 modules Modules = Modules in paraliel x Modules in series = 9x 2 = 18 modules If they cost $400 each,Total cost of PVs = 18 modules x $400/module = $7200 ‘What is the maximum current that you might expect in the wires connecting the array to battery system (just use the rated current)? What gage wire would you suggest using (Table 1.3)? 9 modules in parallel x 5.3 A rated cwvrent = 47.7 A From Table 1.3 6 ga. wire handles 55 A |. Tfyour design goal is to provide needed electricity 95% of the time, about how many days of usable battery storage would you need? From (931): Days = 9.43 1.9 (peak hy) + 0.11 (peak hr)’ = 9-43-1.9x4.5+0.11(4.5)' =3.11 days i_ Ifthe coldest temperature the batteries might experience is -20°C, what is the ‘maximum depth of discharge that lead-acid batteries could tolerate without freezing (Figure 9.39)? From Fig. 9.39: Max discharge ~ 63% Téa C/72 discharge cate is assumed along with -20°C and the results from (¢ ), what should be the rated (nominal) Ar capacity of the battery barik? Usable storage needed = 3.11 days x 183.5 Ah/day = 570 Ah From Fig. 9.42. it looks like temperature and discharge rate factor is about 88% and the maximum discharge is 63% which means from (9.32) Usable capacity __570 Alt MDODx(T, DR) 063x088 kk How many Concorde PVX 1080 batteries at $160 each would cost: Ne minal (C/20, 25° C) capacity = kx How many Concorde PVX 1080 batteries at $160 each would cost From Table 9.15, Concorde PVX 1080 batteries are 12 105An each ih 1028 Akos so use 10 batteries in parallel 103 Ahibattery No. in series to provide 24 V system voltage =? in series No.of Parallel battereis = Total batteries = 2x10 = 20 costing $160 x 20 = $3200 1. At SLiwatt for inverter nits available in 1 kW. 15 kW.2 KW. 2.5 KW sizes. Pick an inverter ‘and how much would st cost? ‘Maximum power from (a) is 1873 W so use a 2 £W inverter costing $2000m. Draw the system “wiring” diagram showing series/parailel combinations of the PV modules and batteries, similar to Figure 9.51 n. What would the total system cost be? PV + Batteries + Inverter = $7200 + $3200 + $2000 = $12,400 ©. From Appendix D, the annual insolation in Boulder is 53 hrs @ sun, whieh results in 9 modules 5.3 Almodule x 5.3 hriday = 252.8 Ahiday average Energy to the house = PV x dirt x battery x inverter x system voltage Energy = 252.8 ANd 0.95 X 0.90 x 0.85 x 24 Vx 365 divi = 1609.5 kWh/yr E I p. Paying for the system with a 15-year. 5% loan, what would be the 1* year cost of electricity (S/KW/n) for someone in the 36% marginal tax bracket if the loan interest is tax deductible? _i(d+i)"__ 0.05(1.05)* = 0.09634/ yr (+i* = (1.05) -1 » i(1+i* _ 0.05(1.05)* Gey 1 7 Tos A= Px CRE =0.09634/yr x $12,400 = $1194.69 CRF(0.05, 15) CRF(0.05,15) = 0.09634/ yr 1 year interest = 0.05 x $12,400 = $620 ‘Tax reduction = interest x MTB = $620 x 0.36 = $223.2 1° year net cost = $1194.6 - $223.2 = $9714 Ist year elzetricity cost