the English language, but poor sentence structure, the

Chapter 3: Network Protocols and message can easily be misunderstood. Each of these tasks
Communications describe protocols put in place to accomplish communication.
This is also true of computer communication, as shown in
Figure 2.
More and more, it is networks that connect us. People
communicate online from everywhere. Conversations in Many different rules or protocols govern all methods of
classrooms spill into instant message chat sessions, and communication that exist in the world today.
online debates continue at school. New services are being
developed daily to take advantage of the network. Rule Establishment
Rather than developing unique and separate systems for the
delivery of each new service, the network industry as a whole
Before communicating with one another, individuals must use
has adopted a developmental framework that allows designers
established rules or agreements to govern the conversation.
to understand current network platforms, and maintain them. At
For example, consider Figure 1, protocols are necessary for
the same time, this framework is used to facilitate the
effective communication. These rules, or protocols, must be
development of new technologies to support future
followed in order for the message to be successfully delivered
communications needs and technology enhancements.
and understood. Protocols must account for the following
requirements:
Central to this developmental framework, is the use of
generally-accepted models that describe network rules and
functions.  An identified sender and receiver

Within this chapter, you will learn about these models, as well  Common language and grammar
as the standards that make networks work, and how
communication occurs over a network.
 Speed and timing of delivery

Communication Fundamentals  Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements

The protocols that are used in network communications share

A network can be as complex as devices connected across the
many of these fundamental traits. In addition to identifying the
Internet, or as simple as two computers directly connected to
source and destination, computer and network protocols define
one another with a single cable, and anything in-between.
the details of how a message is transmitted across a network.
Networks can vary in size, shape, and function. However,
Common computer protocols include the requirements shown
simply having a wired or wireless physical connection between
in Figure 2. Each of these will be discussed in more detail.
end devices is not enough to enable communication. For
communication to occur, devices must know “how” to
communicate. Message Encoding
People exchange ideas using many different communication
methods. However, regardless of the method chosen, all One of the first steps to sending a message is encoding.
communication methods have three elements in common. The Encoding is the process of converting information into another
first of these elements is the message source, or sender. acceptable form, for transmission. Decoding reverses this
Message sources are people, or electronic devices, that need process in order to interpret the information.
to send a message to other individuals or devices. The second
element of communication is the destination, or receiver, of the
Imagine a person planning a holiday trip with a friend, and
message. The destination receives the message and interprets
calling the friend to discuss the details of where they want to
it. A third element, called a channel, consists of the media that
go, as shown in Figure 1. To communicate the message, she
provides the pathway over which the message travels from
converts her thoughts into an agreed upon language. She then
source to destination.
speaks the words using the sounds and inflections of spoken
language that convey the message. Her friend listens to the
Communication begins with a message, or information, that description and decodes the sounds to understand the
must be sent from a source to a destination. The sending of message he received.
this message, whether by face-to-face communication or over
a network, is governed by rules called protocols. These
Encoding also occurs in computer communication, as shown in
protocols are specific to the type of communication method
Figure 2. Encoding between hosts must be in an appropriate
occurring. In our day-to-day personal communication, the rules
format for the medium. Messages sent across the network are
we use to communicate over one medium, like a telephone
call, are not necessarily the same as the protocols for using first converted into bits by the sending host. Each bit is
encoded into a pattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical
another medium, such as sending a letter.
impulses depending on the network media over which the bits
are transmitted. The destination host receives and decodes the
For example, consider two people communicating face-to-face, signals in order to interpret the message.
as shown in Figure 1. Prior to communicating, they must agree
on how to communicate. If the communication is using voice,
they must first agree on the language. Next, when they have a Message Formatting and Encapsulation
message to share, they must be able to format that message in
a way that is understandable. For example, if someone uses
When a message is sent from source to destination, it must Likewise, when a long message is sent from one host to
use a specific format or structure. Message formats depend on another over a network, it is necessary to break the message
the type of message and the channel that is used to deliver the into smaller pieces, as shown in Figure 2. The rules that
message. govern the size of the pieces, or frames, communicated across
the network are very strict. They can also be different,
Letter writing is one of the most common forms of written depending on the channel used. Frames that are too long or
human communication. For centuries, the agreed format for too short are not delivered.
personal letters has not changed. In many cultures, a personal
letter contains the following elements: The size restrictions of frames require the source host to break
a long message into individual pieces that meet both the
minimum and maximum size requirements. The long message
 An identifier of the recipient
will be sent in separate frames, with each frame containing a
piece of the original message. Each frame will also have its
 A salutation or greeting own addressing information. At the receiving host, the
individual pieces of the message are reconstructed into the
original message.
 The message content

 A closing phrase Message Timing

 An identifier of the sender
These are the rules of engagement for message timing.

In addition to having the correct format, most personal letters Access Method
must also be enclosed in an envelope for delivery, as shown in
Figure 1. The envelope has the address of the sender and
Access method determines when someone is able to send a
receiver, each located at the proper place on the envelope. If
message. If two people talk at the same time, a collision of
the destination address and formatting are not correct, the
information occurs and it is necessary for the two to back off
letter is not delivered. The process of placing one message
and start again, as shown in the animation. Likewise, it is
format (the letter) inside another message format (the
necessary for computers to define an access method. Hosts on
envelope) is called encapsulation. De-encapsulation occurs
a network need an access method to know when to begin
when the process is reversed by the recipient and the letter is
sending messages and how to respond when collisions occur.
removed from the envelope.
Flow Control
A message that is sent over a computer network follows
specific format rules for it to be delivered and processed. Just
as a letter is encapsulated in an envelope for delivery, so too Timing also affects how much information can be sent and the
are computer messages. Each computer message is speed that it can be delivered. If one person speaks too
encapsulated in a specific format, called a frame, before it is quickly, it is difficult for the other person to hear and
sent over the network. A frame acts like an envelope; it understand the message. In network communication, source
provides the address of the destination and the address of the and destination hosts use flow control methods to negotiate
source host, as shown in Figure 2. Notice the frame has a correct timing for successful communication.
source and destination in both the frame addressing portion
and in the encapsulated message. The distinction between Response Timeout
these two types of addresses will be explained later in this
chapter. If a person asks a question and does not hear a response
within an acceptable amount of time, the person assumes that
The format and contents of a frame are determined by the type no answer is coming and reacts accordingly. The person may
of message being sent and the channel over which it is repeat the question, or may go on with the conversation. Hosts
communicated. Messages that are not correctly formatted are on the network also have rules that specify how long to wait for
not successfully delivered to or processed by the destination responses and what action to take if a response timeout
host. occurs.

Message Size Message Delivery Options

Another rule of communication is size. When people A message can be delivered in different ways, as shown in
communicate with each other, the messages that they send Figure 1. Sometimes, a person wants to communicate
are usually broken into smaller parts or sentences. These information to a single individual. At other times, the person
sentences are limited in size to what the receiving person can may need to send information to a group of people at the same
process at one time, as shown in Figure 1. An individual time, or even to all people in the same area.
conversation may be made up of many smaller sentences to
ensure that each part of the message is received and There are also times when the sender of a message needs to
understood. Imagine what it would be like to read this course if be sure that the message is delivered successfully to the
it all appeared as one long sentence; it would not be easy to destination. In these cases, it is necessary for the recipient to
read and comprehend. return an acknowledgment to the sender. If no
acknowledgment is required, the delivery option is referred to
as unacknowledged.
Hosts on a network use similar delivery options to Note: IP in this course refers to both the IPv4 and IPv6
communicate, as shown in Figure 2. protocols. IPv6 is the most recent version of IP and the
replacement for the more common IPv4.
A one-to-one delivery option is referred to as a unicast,
meaning there is only a single destination for the message. The figures illustrate networking protocols that describe the
following processes:
When a host needs to send messages using a one-to-many
delivery option, it is referred to as a multicast. Multicasting is  How the message is formatted or structured, as shown in
the delivery of the same message to a group of host Figure 1.
destinations simultaneously.

If all hosts on the network need to receive the message at the  The process by which networking devices share
same time, a broadcast may be used. Broadcasting represents information about pathways with other networks, as
a one-to-all message delivery option. Some protocols use a shown in Figure 2.
special multicast message that is sent to all devices, making it
essentially the same as a broadcast. Additionally, hosts may  How and when error and system messages are passed
be required to acknowledge the receipt of some messages between devices, as shown in Figure 3.
while not needing to acknowledge others.

Note: Without any additional configuration, the switch in the  The setup and termination of data transfer sessions, as
shown in Figure 4.
example would forward multicast traffic out all other ports.
However, the switch is configured with Cisco Group
Management Protocol (CGMP) so it can learn on which Protocol Interaction
interfaces multicast members reside. CGMP is beyond the
scope of this course.

Communication between a web server and web client is an

Rules that Govern Communications example of an interaction between several protocols. The
protocols shown in the figure include:

A group of inter-related protocols necessary to perform a  HTTP - is an application protocol that governs the way a
communication function is called a protocol suite. Protocol web server and a web client interact. HTTP defines the
suites are implemented by hosts and networking devices in content and formatting of the requests and responses
software, hardware or both. that are exchanged between the client and server. Both
the client and the web server software implement HTTP
One of the best ways to visualize how the protocols within a as part of the application. HTTP relies on other protocols
suite interact is to view the interaction as a stack. A protocol to govern how the messages are transported between
stack shows how the individual protocols within a suite are the client and server.
implemented. The protocols are viewed in terms of layers, with
each higher level service depending on the functionality
defined by the protocols shown in the lower levels. The lower  TCP - is the transport protocol that manages the
layers of the stack are concerned with moving data over the individual conversations. TCP divides the HTTP
network and providing services to the upper layers, which are messages into smaller pieces, called segments. These
focused on the content of the message being sent. segments are sent between the web server and client
processes running at the destination host. TCP is also
responsible for controlling the size and rate at which
As the figure shows, we can use layers to describe the activity
messages are exchanged between the server and the
occurring in our face-to-face communication example. At the
client.
bottom, the physical layer, we have two people, each with a
voice that can say words out loud. In the middle, the rules
layer, we have an agreement to speak in a common language.  IP - is responsible for taking the formatted segments
At the top, the content layer, there are words that are actually from TCP, encapsulating them into packets, assigning
spoken. This is the content of the communication. them the appropriate addresses, and delivering them to
the destination host.
Network Protocols
 Ethernet - is a network access protocol that describes
two primary functions: communication over a data link
and the physical transmission of data on the network
At the human level, some communication rules are formal and media. Network access protocols are responsible for
others are simply understood based on custom and practice. taking the packets from IP and formatting them to be
For devices to successfully communicate, a network protocol transmitted over the media.
suite must describe precise requirements and interactions.
Networking protocols define a common format and set of rules
for exchanging messages between devices. Some common Protocol Suites and Industry Standards
networking protocols are Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and Internet Protocol
(IP).
A protocol suite is a set of protocols that work together to
provide comprehensive network communication services. A
protocol suite may be specified by a standards organization or
developed by a vendor. Protocol suites, like the four shown in
the figure, can be a bit overwhelming. However, this course will
only cover the protocols of the TCP/IP protocol suite.

The TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard, meaning these

protocols are freely available to the public, and any vendor is
able to implement these protocols on their hardware or in their
software.

A standards-based protocol is a process that has been

endorsed by the networking industry and approved by a
standards organization. The use of standards in developing
and implementing protocols ensures that products from
different manufacturers can interoperate successfully. If a
protocol is not rigidly observed by a particular manufacturer,
their equipment or software may not be able to successfully
communicate with products made by other manufacturers.

Some protocols are proprietary which means one company or

functions. Examples of proprietary protocols are AppleTalk and
Novell Netware, which are legacy protocol suites. It is not
uncommon for a vendor (or group of vendors) to develop a
proprietary protocol to meet the needs of 55its customers and
later assist in making that proprietary protocol an open
standard.

Development of TCP/IP

The first packet switching network and predecessor to today’s

Internet was the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET), which came to life in 1969 by connecting
mainframe computers at four locations. ARPANET was funded
by the U.S. Department of Defense for use by universities and
research laboratories.
 TCP/IP Communication Process

Figures 1 and 2 demonstrate the complete communication

process using an example of a web server transmitting data to
a client. This process and these protocols will be covered in
more detail in later chapters.

Click the Play button to view the animated demonstrations:

1. In Figure 1, the animation begins with the web server

preparing the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) page as
data to be sent.

2. The application protocol HTTP header is added to the front

of the HTML data. The header contains various information,
including the HTTP version the server is using and a status
code indicating it has information for the web client.

3. The HTTP application layer protocol delivers the HTML-

formatted web page data to the transport layer. The TCP
transport layer protocol is used to manage individual
conversations, in this example between the web server and
web client.

4. Next, the IP information is added to the front of the TCP

information. IP assigns the appropriate source and destination
TCP/IP Protocol Suite IP addresses. This information is known as an IP packet.

5. The Ethernet protocol adds information to both ends of the

IP packet, known as a data link frame. This frame is delivered
Today, the TCP/IP protocol suite includes many protocols.
to the nearest router along the path towards the web client.
Some of the more popular ones are shown in the figure. Click This router removes the Ethernet information, analyzes the IP
each protocol to view the acronym’s translation and packet, determines the best path for the packet, inserts the
description. The individual protocols are organized in layers
packet into a new frame, and sends it to the next neighboring
using the TCP/IP protocol model: Application, Transport,
router towards the destination. Each router removes and adds
Internet, and Network Access Layers. TCP/IP protocols are new data link information before forwarding the packet.
specific to the Application, Transport, and Internet layers. The
network access layer protocols are responsible for delivering
the IP packet over the physical medium. These lower layer 6. This data is now transported through the internetwork, which
protocols are developed by various standards organizations. consists of media and intermediary devices.

The TCP/IP protocol suite is implemented as a TCP/IP stack 7. In Figure 2, the animation begins with the client receiving the
on both the sending and receiving hosts to provide end-to-end data link frames that contain the data. Each protocol header is
delivery of applications over a network. The Ethernet protocols processed and then removed in the opposite order it was
are used to transmit the IP packet over the physical medium added. The Ethernet information is processed and removed,
used by the LAN followed by the IP protocol information, the TCP information,
and finally the HTTP information.

8. The web page information is then passed on to the client’s

web browser software.
Open Standards  Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) - Develops,
updates, and maintains Internet and TCP/IP
technologies. This includes the process and documents
for developing new protocols and updating existing
Open standards encourage interoperability, competition, and protocols know as Request for Comments (RFC)
innovation. They also guarantee that no single company’s documents.
product can monopolize the market, or have an unfair
advantage over its competition.
 Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) - Focused on
A good example of this is when purchasing a wireless router long-term research related to Internet and TCP/IP
for the home. There are many different choices available from protocols such as Anti-Spam Research Group (ASRG),
a variety of vendors, all of which incorporate standard Crypto Forum Research Group (CFRG), and Peer-to-
protocols such as IPv4, DHCP, 802.3 (Ethernet), and 802.11 Peer Research Group (P2PRG).
(Wireless LAN). These open standards also allow a client
running Apple’s OS X operating system to download a web Standards organizations shown in Figure 2 include:
page from a web server running the Linux operating system.
This is because both operating systems implement the open
 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
standard protocols, such as those in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Numbers (ICANN) - Based in the United States,
coordinates IP address allocation, the management of
Standards organizations are important in maintaining an open domain names, and assignment of other information
Internet with freely accessible specifications and protocols that used TCP/IP protocols.
can be implemented by any vendor. A standards organization
may draft a set of rules entirely on its own or in other cases
may select a proprietary protocol as the basis for the standard.  Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) -
If a proprietary protocol is used, it usually involves the vendor Responsible for overseeing and managing IP address
who created the protocol. allocation, domain name management, and protocol
identifiers for ICANN.
Standards organizations are usually vendor-neutral, non-profit
organizations established to develop and promote the concept
of open standards.

Internet Standards

Standards organizations are usually vendor-neutral, non-profit

institutions established to develop and promote the concept of
open standards. Various organizations have different
responsibilities for promoting and creating standards for the
TCP/IP protocol.

Standards organizations shown in Figure 1 include:

Electronics and Communications
 Internet Society (ISOC) – Responsible for promoting
the open development and evolution of Internet use Standard Organizations
throughout the world.

 Internet Architecture Board (IAB) - Responsible for the Other standard organizations have responsibilities for
overall management and development of Internet promoting and creating the electronic and communication
standards. standards used to deliver the IP packets as electronic signals
over a wired or wireless medium.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE,  Fostering competition because products from different
pronounced “I-triple-E”) – Organization of electrical engineering vendors can work together.
and electronics dedicated to advancing technological
innovation and creating standards in a wide area of industries
including power and energy, healthcare, telecommunications,  Preventing technology or capability changes in one layer
and networking. Figure 1 shows several of the standards from affecting other layers above and below.
related to networking.
 Providing a common language to describe networking
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) - Best known for its functions and capabilities.
standards related to electrical wiring, connectors, and the 19-
inch racks used to mount networking equipment. As shown in the figure, the TCP/IP model and the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model are the primary models
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) - used when discussing network functionality. They each
Responsible for developing communication standards in a represent a basic type of layered networking models:
variety of areas including radio equipment, cellular towers,
Voice over IP (VoIP) devices, satellite communications, and
more. Figure 2 shows an example of an Ethernet cable  Protocol model - This type of model closely matches
meeting TIA/EIA standards. the structure of a particular protocol suite. The TCP/IP
model is a protocol model because it describes the
International Telecommunications Union- functions that occur at each layer of protocols within the
Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) - One of TCP/IP suite. TCP/IP is also used as a reference model.
the largest and oldest communication standard organizations.
The ITU-T defines standards for video compression, Internet  Reference model - This type of model provides
Protocol Television (IPTV), and broadband communications, consistency within all types of network protocols and
such as a digital subscriber line (DSL). services by describing what has to be done at a
particular layer, but not prescribing how it should be
accomplished. The OSI model is a widely known
internetwork reference model, but is also a protocol
model for the OSI protocol suite.

The OSI Reference Model

The OSI model provides an extensive list of functions and

services that can occur at each layer. It also describes the
interaction of each layer with the layers directly above and
below. The TCP/IP protocols discussed in this course are
structured around both the OSI and TCP/IP models. Click each
layer of the OSI model to view the details.
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model The functionality of each layer and the relationship between
layers will become more evident throughout this course as the
protocols are discussed in more detail.
The benefits to using a layered model to describe network
protocols and operations include: Note: Whereas the TCP/IP model layers are referred to only by
name, the seven OSI model layers are more often referred to
 Assisting in protocol design because protocols that by number rather than by name. For instance, the physical
operate at a specific layer have defined information that layer is referred to as Layer 1 of the OSI model.
they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above
and below.
The TCP/IP Protocol Model

The TCP/IP protocol model for internetwork communications

was created in the early 1970s and is sometimes referred to as
the Internet model. As shown in the figure, it defines four
categories of functions that must occur for communications to
be successful. The architecture of the TCP/IP protocol suite
follows the structure of this model. Because of this, the Internet
model is commonly referred to as the TCP/IP model.

Most protocol models describe a vendor-specific protocol

stack. Legacy protocol suites, such as Novell Netware and
AppleTalk, are examples of vendor-specific protocol stacks.
Because the TCP/IP model is an open standard, one company
does not control the definition of the model. The definitions of
the standard and the TCP/IP protocols are discussed in a
public forum and defined in a publicly available set of RFCs.
 Message Segmentation

In theory, a single communication, such as a music video or an

email message, could be sent across a network from a source
to a destination as one massive, uninterrupted stream of bits. If
messages were actually transmitted in this manner, it would
mean that no other device would be able to send or receive
messages on the same network while this data transfer was in
progress. These large streams of data would result in
significant delays. Further, if a link in the interconnected
network infrastructure failed during the transmission, the
complete message would be lost and have to be retransmitted
in full.

OSI Model and TCP/IP Model A better approach is to divide the data into smaller, more
manageable pieces to send over the network. This division of
Comparison the data stream into smaller pieces is called segmentation.
Segmenting messages has two primary benefits:

The protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite can also
be described in terms of the OSI reference model. In the OSI  By sending smaller individual pieces from source to
model, the network access layer and the application layer of destination, many different conversations can be
the TCP/IP model are further divided to describe discrete interleaved on the network, called multiplexing. Click
functions that must occur at these layers. each button in Figure 1, and then click the Play button to
view the animations of segmentation and multiplexing.
At the network access layer, the TCP/IP protocol suite does
not specify which protocols to use when transmitting over a  Segmentation can increase the efficiency of network
physical medium; it only describes the handoff from the communications. If part of the message fails to make it to
internet layer to the physical network protocols. OSI Layers 1 the destination, due to failure in the network or network
and 2 discuss the necessary procedures to access the media congestion, only the missing parts need to be
and the physical means to send data over a network. retransmitted.

OSI Layer 3, the network layer, maps directly to the TCP/IP The challenge to using segmentation and multiplexing to
Internet layer. This layer is used to describe protocols that transmit messages across a network is the level of complexity
address and route messages through an internetwork. that is added to the process. Imagine if you had to send a 100-
page letter, but each envelope would only hold one page. The
OSI Layer 4, the transport layer, maps directly to the TCP/IP process of addressing, labeling, sending, receiving, and
Transport layer. This layer describes general services and opening the entire 100 envelopes would be time-consuming for
functions that provide ordered and reliable delivery of data both the sender and the recipient.
between source and destination hosts.
In network communications, each segment of the message
The TCP/IP application layer includes a number of protocols must go through a similar process to ensure that it gets to the
that provide specific functionality to a variety of end user correct destination and can be reassembled into the content of
applications. The OSI model Layers 5, 6, and 7 are used as the original message, as shown in Figure 2.
references for application software developers and vendors to
produce products that operate on networks.

Both the TCP/IP and OSI models are commonly used when
referring to protocols at various layers. Because the OSI model
separates the data link layer from the physical layer, it is
commonly used when referring to these lower layers.
Protocol Data Units

As application data is passed down the protocol stack on its

way to be transmitted across the network media, various
protocol information is added at each level. This is known as
the encapsulation process.

The form that a piece of data takes at any layer is called a

protocol data unit (PDU). During encapsulation, each
succeeding layer encapsulates the PDU that it receives from
the layer above in accordance with the protocol being used. At
each stage of the process, a PDU has a different name to
reflect its new functions. Although there is no universal naming
convention for PDUs, in this course, the PDUs are named
according to the protocols of the TCP/IP suite, as shown in the
figure. Click each PDU in the figure for more information.
 Network Addresses

The network and data link layers are responsible for delivering
the data from the source device to the destination device. As
shown in Figure 1, protocols at both layers contain a source
and destination address, but their addresses have different
purposes.

 Network layer source and destination addresses -

Responsible for delivering the IP packet from the original
source to the final destination, either on the same
network or to a remote network.
Encapsulation Example
 Data link layer source and destination addresses –
Responsible for delivering the data link frame from one
When sending messages on a network, the encapsulation network interface card (NIC) to another NIC on the same
process works from top to bottom. At each layer, the upper network.
layer information is considered data within the encapsulated
protocol. For example, the TCP segment is considered data An IP address is the network layer, or Layer 3, logical address
within the IP packet. used to deliver the IP packet from the original source to the
final destination, as shown in Figure 2.

The IP packet contains two IP addresses:

 Source IP address - The IP address of the sending

device, the original source of the packet.

 Destination IP address - The IP address of the

receiving device, the final destination of the packet.

De-encapsulation

This process is reversed at the receiving host, and is known as

de-encapsulation. De-encapsulation is the process used by a
receiving device to remove one or more of the protocol
headers. The data is de-encapsulated as it moves up the stack
toward the end-user application.
Data Link Addresses

The data link, or Layer 2, physical address has a different role.

The purpose of the data link address is to deliver the data link
frame from one network interface to another network interface
on the same network. This process is illustrated in Figures 1
through 3.

Before an IP packet can be sent over a wired or wireless

network, it must be encapsulated in a data link frame so it can
be transmitted over the physical medium.

As the IP packet travels from host-to-router, router-to-router,

and finally router-to-host, at each point along the way the IP
packet is encapsulated in a new data link frame. Each data link
frame contains the source data link address of the NIC card
sending the frame, and the destination data link address of the
NIC card receiving the frame.

The Layer 2, data link protocol is only used to deliver the

packet from NIC-to-NIC on the same network. The router
removes the Layer 2 information as it is received on one NIC
and adds new data link information before forwarding out the
exit NIC on its way towards the final destination.

The IP packet is encapsulated in a data link frame that

contains data link information, including a:
Devices on the Same Network
 Source data link address - The physical address of the
device’s NIC that is sending the data link frame. To understand how devices communicate within a network, it is
important to understand the roles of both the network layer
 Destination data link address - The physical address addresses and the data link addresses.
of the NIC that is receiving the data link frame. This
address is either the next hop router or of the final Role of the Network Layer Addresses
destination device.
The network layer addresses, or IP addresses, indicate the
The data link frame also contains a trailer which will be original source and final destination. An IP address contains
discussed in later chapters. two parts:

 Network portion – The left-most part of the address that

indicates which network the IP address is a member. All
devices on the same network will have the same network
portion of the address.

 Host portion – The remaining part of the address that

identifies a specific device on the network. The host
portion is unique for each device on the network.
Note: The subnet mask is used to identify the network portion computer, PC1, communicating with a server, named Web
of an address from the host portion. The subnet mask is Server, on a different IP network.
discussed in later chapters.
Role of the Network Layer Addresses
In this example we have a client computer, PC1,
communicating with an FTP server on the same IP network. When the sender of the packet is on a different network from
the receiver, the source and destination IP addresses will
 Source IP address - The IP address of the sending represent hosts on different networks. This will be indicated by
device, the client computer PC1: 192.168.1.110. the network portion of the IP address of the destination host.

 Destination IP address - The IP address of the  Source IP address - The IP address of the sending
receiving device, FTP server: 192.168.1.9. device, the client computer PC1: 192.168.1.110.

Notice in the figure that the network portion of both the source  Destination IP address - The IP address of the
IP address and destination IP address are on the same receiving device, the server, Web Server: 172.16.1.99.
network.
Notice in the figure that the network portion of the source IP
Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses address and destination IP address are on different networks.

When the sender and receiver of the IP packet are on the Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses
same network, the data link frame is sent directly to the
receiving device. On an Ethernet network, the data link When the sender and receiver of the IP packet are on different
addresses are known as Ethernet (Media Access Control) networks, the Ethernet data link frame cannot be sent directly
addresses. MAC addresses are physically embedded on the to the destination host because the host is not directly
Ethernet NIC. reachable in the network of the sender. The Ethernet frame
must be sent to another device known as the router or default
 Source MAC address - This is the data link address, or gateway. In our example, the default gateway is R1. R1 has an
the Ethernet MAC address, of the device that sends the Ethernet data link address that is on the same network as PC1.
data link frame with the encapsulated IP packet. The This allows PC1 to reach the router directly.
MAC address of the Ethernet NIC of PC1 is AA-AA-AA-
AA-AA-AA, written in hexadecimal notation.  Source MAC address - The Ethernet MAC address of
the sending device, PC1. The MAC address of the
 Destination MAC address - When the receiving device Ethernet interface of PC1 is AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA.
is on the same network as the sending device, this is the
data link address of the receiving device. In this  Destination MAC address - When the receiving device,
example, the destination MAC address is the MAC the destination IP address, is on a different network from
address of the FTP server: CC-CC-CC-CC-CC-CC, the sending device, the sending device uses the
written in hexadecimal notation. Ethernet MAC address of the default gateway or router.
In this example, the destination MAC address is the MAC
The frame with the encapsulated IP packet can now be address of R1's Ethernet interface, 11-11-11-11-11-11.
transmitted from PC1 directly to the FTP server. This is the interface that is attached to the same network
as PC1.

The Ethernet frame with the encapsulated IP packet can now

be transmitted to R1. R1 forwards the packet to the
destination, Web Server. This may mean that R1 forwards the
packet to another router or directly to Web Server if the
destination is on a network connected to R1.

It is important that the IP address of the default gateway be

configured on each host on the local network. All packets to a
destination on remote networks are sent to the default
gateway. Ethernet MAC addresses and the default gateway
are discussed in later chapters.

Devices on a Remote Network

But what are the roles of the network layer address and the
data link layer address when a device is communicating with a
device on a remote network? In this example we have a client
Chapter 3: Network Protocols and
Communications Summary

Data networks are systems of end devices, intermediary

devices, and the media connecting them. For communication
to occur, these devices must know how to communicate.

These devices must comply with communication rules and

protocols. TCP/IP is an example of a protocol suite. Most
protocols are created by a standards organization such as the
IETF or IEEE. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers is a professional organization for those in the
electrical engineering and electronics fields. ISO, the
International Organization for Standardization, is the world’s
largest developer of international standards for a wide variety
of products and services.

The most widely-used networking models are the OSI and

TCP/IP models. Associating the protocols that set the rules of
data communications with the different layers of these models
is useful in determining which devices and services are applied
at specific points as data passes across LANs and WANs.

Data that passes down the stack of the OSI model is

segmented into pieces and encapsulated with addresses and
other labels. The process is reversed as the pieces are de-
encapsulated and passed up the destination protocol stack.
The OSI model describes the processes of encoding,
formatting, segmenting, and encapsulating data for
transmission over the network.

The TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard protocol that

has been endorsed by the networking industry and ratified, or
approved, by a standards organization. The Internet Protocol
Suite is a suite of protocols required for transmitting and
receiving information using the Internet.

Protocol Data Units (PDUs) are named according to the

protocols of the TCP/IP suite: data, segment, packet, frame,
and bits.

Applying models allows individuals, companies, and trade

associations to analyze current networks and plan the
networks of the future.