Light-emitting diode

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"LED" redirects here. For other uses, see LED (disambiguation).
This article is about the basics of light emitting diodes. For application to area lighting,
see LED lamp.
Not to be confused with LCD.

Light-emitting diode (LED)

Blue, green, and red LEDs in 5 mm diffused case

Working principle Electroluminescence

Invented H. J. Round (1907)[1]

Oleg Losev (1927)[2]

James R. Biard (1961)[3]

Nick Holonyak (1962)[4]

First production October 1962

Pin configuration Anode and cathode

Electronic symbol
Parts of a conventional LED. The flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post embedded inside the
epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out via mechanical
strain or vibration.

Close up image of a surface mount LED

A bulb-shaped modern retrofit LED lamp with aluminium heat sink, a light diffusing dome and E27
screw base, using a built-in power supply working on mains voltage

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light

when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron
holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band
gap of the semiconductor.[5] White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a
layer of light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.[6]
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-
intensity infrared light.[7] Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as those
used with a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low
intensity and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet,
and infrared wavelengths, with high light output.
 Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small incandescent bulbs, and
in seven-segment displays. Recent developments have produced high-output white light
LEDs suitable for room and outdoor area lighting. LEDs have led to new displays and
sensors, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications
technology.
LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. LEDs are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, lighted
wallpaper, plant growing light, and medical devices.[8]
Unlike a laser, the light emitted from an LED is neither spectrally coherent nor even
highly monochromatic. However its spectrum is sufficiently narrow that it appears to
the human eye as a pure (saturated) color.[9][10] Nor, unlike most lasers, is its
radiation spatially coherent, so that it cannot approach the very
high brightnesses characteristic of lasers.

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Discoveries and early devices
o 1.2Initial commercial development
o 1.3Blue LED
o 1.4White LEDs and the illumination breakthrough
 2Physics of light production and emission
 3Colors
o 3.1Blue and ultraviolet
o 3.2White
 3.2.1RGB systems
 3.2.2Phosphor-based LEDs
 3.2.3Other white LEDs
 4Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)
 5Types
o 5.1Miniature
o 5.2High-power
o 5.3AC-driven
o 5.4Application-specific variations
 5.4.1Flashing
 5.4.2Bi-color
 5.4.3RGB Tri-color
 5.4.4Decorative-multicolor
 5.4.5Alphanumeric
 5.4.6Digital RGB
 5.4.7Filament
 5.4.8Chip-on-board arrays
 6Considerations for use
o 6.1Power sources
o 6.2Electrical polarity
o 6.3Safety and health
o 6.4Advantages
o 6.5Disadvantages
 7Applications
o 7.1Indicators and signs
 o 7.2Lighting
o 7.3Data communication and other signalling
o 7.4Machine vision systems
o 7.5Biological Detection
o 7.6Other applications
 8Research and development
o 8.1Key challenges
o 8.2Potential technology
 8.2.1Perovskite LEDs (PLEDs)
 8.2.2Two-way LEDs
 9See also
 10References
 11Further reading
 12External links

History[edit]
Discoveries and early devices[edit]

Green electroluminescence from a point contact on a crystal of SiC recreates Round's original
experiment from 1907.

Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British

experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-
whisker detector.[11][12] Russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in
1927.[13] His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, but
no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades.[14][15]
In 1936, Georges Destriau observed that electroluminescence could be produced
when zinc sulphide (ZnS) powder is suspended in an insulator and an alternating electrical
field is applied to it. In his publications, Destriau often referred to luminescence as Losev-
Light. Destriau worked in the laboratories of Madame Marie Curie, also an early pioneer in
the field of luminescence with research on radium.[16][17]
Hungarian Zoltán Bay together with György Szigeti pre-empted LED lighting in Hungary in
1939 by patenting a lighting device based on SiC, with an option on boron carbide, that
emitted white, yellowish white, or greenish white depending on impurities present.[18]
Kurt Lehovec, Carl Accardo, and Edward Jamgochian explained these first LEDs in 1951
using an apparatus employing SiC crystals with a current source of a battery or a pulse
generator and with a comparison to a variant, pure, crystal in 1953.[19][20]
Rubin Braunstein[21] of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission
from gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955.[22] Braunstein
observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium
antimonide (GaSb), GaAs, indium phosphide (InP), and silicon-germanium (SiGe) alloys at
room temperature and at 77 kelvins.
In 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for
non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer[23] Braunstein
"…had set up a simple optical communications link: Music emerging from a record player
was used via suitable electronics to modulate the forward current of a GaAs diode. The
emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an
audio amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the
music. We had a great deal of fun playing with this setup." This setup presaged the use of
LEDs for optical communication applications.

A Texas Instruments SNX-100 GaAs LED contained in a TO-18 transistor metal case

In September 1961, while working at Texas Instruments in Dallas, Texas, James R.

Biard and Gary Pittman discovered near-infrared (900 nm) light emission from a tunnel
diode they had constructed on a GaAs substrate.[7] By October 1961, they had
demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light
emitter and an electrically isolated semiconductor photodetector.[24] On August 8, 1962,
Biard and Pittman filed a patent titled "Semiconductor Radiant Diode" based on their
findings, which described a zinc-diffused p–n junction LED with a spaced cathode contact
to allow for efficient emission of infrared light under forward bias. After establishing the
priority of their work based on engineering notebooks predating submissions
from G.E. Labs, RCA Research Labs, IBM Research Labs, Bell Labs, and Lincoln
Lab at MIT, the U.S. patent office issued the two inventors the patent for the GaAs infrared
(IR) light-emitting diode (U.S. Patent US3293513), the first practical LED.[7] Immediately
after filing the patent, Texas Instruments (TI) began a project to manufacture infrared
diodes. In October 1962, TI announced the first commercial LED product (the SNX-100),
which employed a pure GaAs crystal to emit an 890 nm light output.[7] In October 1963, TI
announced the first commercial hemispherical LED, the SNX-110.[25]
The first visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak, Jr. while
working at General Electric. Holonyak first reported his LED in the journal Applied Physics
Letters on December 1, 1962.[26][27] M. George Craford,[28] a former graduate student of
Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange
LEDs by a factor of ten in 1972.[29] In 1976, T. P. Pearsall designed the first high-brightness,
high-efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor
materials specifically adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths.[30]
Initial commercial development[edit]
The first commercial visible-wavelength LEDs were commonly used as replacements
for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in seven-segment displays,[31] first in
expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such
appliances as calculators, TVs, radios, telephones, as well as watches (see list of signal
uses). Until 1968, visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, in the order of US$200
per unit, and so had little practical use.[32]
Hewlett-Packard (HP) was engaged in research and development (R&D) on practical LEDs
between 1962 and 1968, by a research team under Howard C. Borden, Gerald P. Pighini
and Mohamed M. Atalla at HP Associates and HP Labs.[33] During this time, Atalla launched
a material science investigation program on gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAsP) and indium arsenide (InAs) devices at HP,[34] and they collaborated
with Monsanto Company on developing the first usable LED products.[35] The first usable
LED products were HP's LED display and Monsanto's LED indicator lamp, both launched in
1968.[35] Monsanto was the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using GaAsP in
1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators.[32] Monsanto had previously offered to
supply HP with GaAsP, but HP decided to grow its own GaAsP.[32] In February 1969,
Hewlett-Packard introduced the HP Model 5082-7000 Numeric Indicator, the first LED
device to use integrated circuit (integrated LED circuit) technology.[33] It was the first
intelligent LED display, and was a revolution in digital display technology, replacing
the Nixie tube and becoming the basis for later LED displays.[36]
Atalla left HP and joined Fairchild Semiconductor in 1969.[37] He was the vice president and
general manager of the Microwave & Optoelectronics division,[38] from its inception in May
1969 up until November 1971.[39] He continued his work on LEDs, proposing they could be
used for indicator lights and optical readers in 1971.[40] In the 1970s, commercially
successful LED devices at less than five cents each were produced by Fairchild
Optoelectronics. These devices employed compound semiconductor chips fabricated with
the planar process (developed by Jean Hoerni,[41][42] based on Atalla's surface
passivation method[43][44]). The combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and
innovative packaging methods enabled the team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer
Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions.[45] LED producers continue to use
these methods.[46]

LED display of a TI-30 scientific calculator (ca. 1978), which uses plastic lenses to increase the
visible digit size

The early red LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was
not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses
were built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors became widely available
and appeared in appliances and equipment.
Early LEDs were packaged in metal cases similar to those of transistors, with a glass
window or lens to let the light out. Modern indicator LEDs are packed in transparent molded
plastic cases, tubular or rectangular in shape, and often tinted to match the device color.
Infrared devices may be dyed, to block visible light. More complex packages have been
adapted for efficient heat dissipation in high-power LEDs. Surface-mounted LEDs further
reduce the package size. LEDs intended for use with fiber optics cables may be provided
with an optical connector.
Blue LED[edit]
The first blue-violet LED using magnesium-doped gallium nitride was made at Stanford
University in 1972 by Herb Maruska and Wally Rhines, doctoral students in materials
science and engineering.[47][48] At the time Maruska was on leave from RCA Laboratories,
where he collaborated with Jacques Pankove on related work. In 1971, the year after
Maruska left for Stanford, his RCA colleagues Pankove and Ed Miller demonstrated the first
blue electroluminescence from zinc-doped gallium nitride, though the subsequent device
Pankove and Miller built, the first actual gallium nitride light-emitting diode, emitted green
light.[49][50] In 1974 the U.S. Patent Office awarded Maruska, Rhines and Stanford professor
David Stevenson a patent for their work in 1972 (U.S. Patent US3819974 A). Today,
magnesium-doping of gallium nitride remains the basis for all commercial blue LEDs
and laser diodes. In the early 1970s, these devices were too dim for practical use, and
research into gallium nitride devices slowed.
In August 1989, Cree introduced the first commercially available blue LED based on
the indirect bandgap semiconductor, silicon carbide (SiC).[51] SiC LEDs had very low
efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue portion of the visible light
spectrum.[52][53]
In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p-type doping[54] ushered
in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices. Building upon this foundation,
Theodore Moustakas at Boston University patented a method for producing high-brightness
blue LEDs using a new two-step process in 1991.[55]
Two years later, in 1993, high-brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated by Shuji
Nakamura of Nichia Corporation using a gallium nitride growth process.[56][57][58] In
parallel, Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano in Nagoya were working on developing the
important GaN deposition on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of p-type
doping of GaN. This new development revolutionized LED lighting, making high-power blue
light sources practical, leading to the development of technologies like Blu-ray.
Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his
invention.[59] Nakamura, Hiroshi Amano and Isamu Akasaki were awarded the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 2014 for the invention of the blue LED.[60] In 2015, a US court ruled that three
companies had infringed Moustakas's prior patent, and ordered them to pay licensing fees
of not less than US$13 million.[61]
In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the Cardiff University Laboratory (GB) investigated the
efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs and demonstrated a "transparent contact"
LED using indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs).
In 2001[62] and 2002,[63] processes for growing gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs on silicon were
successfully demonstrated. In January 2012, Osram demonstrated high-power InGaN
LEDs grown on silicon substrates commercially,[64] and GaN-on-silicon LEDs are in
production at Plessey Semiconductors. As of 2017, some manufacturers are using SiC as
the substrate for LED production, but sapphire is more common, as it has the most similar
properties to that of gallium nitride, reducing the need for patterning the sapphire wafer
(patterned wafers are known as epi wafers). Samsung, the University of Cambridge,
and Toshiba are performing research into GaN on Si LEDs. Toshiba has stopped research,
possibly due to low yields.[65][66][67][68][69][70][71] Some opt towards epitaxy, which is difficult
on silicon, while others, like the University of Cambridge, opt towards a multi-layer
structure, in order to reduce (crystal) lattice mismatch and different thermal expansion
ratios, in order to avoid cracking of the LED chip at high temperatures (e.g. during
manufacturing), reduce heat generation and increase luminous efficiency. Epitaxy (or
patterned sapphire) can be carried out with nanoimprint lithography.[72][73][74][75][76][77][78] GaN is
often deposited using Metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy (MOCVD).
White LEDs and the illumination breakthrough[edit]
Even though white light can be created using individual red, green and blue LEDs, this
results in poor color rendering, since only three narrow bands of wavelengths of light are
being emitted. The attainment of high efficiency blue LEDs was quickly followed by the
development of the first white LED. In this device a Y
3Al

5O

12:Ce (known as "YAG" or Ce:YAG phosphor) cerium doped phosphor coating produces

yellow light through fluorescence. The combination of that yellow with remaining blue light
appears white to the eye. Using different phosphors produces green and red light through
fluorescence. The resulting mixture of red, green and blue is perceived as white light, with
improved color rendering compared to wavelengths from the blue LED/YAG phosphor
combination.

Illustration of Haitz's law, showing improvement in light output per LED over time, with a logarithmic
scale on the vertical axis

The first white LEDs were expensive and inefficient. However, the light output of LEDs has
increased exponentially. The latest research and development has been propagated by
Japanese manufacturers such as Panasonic, and Nichia, and by Korean and Chinese
manufacturers such as Samsung, Kingsun, and others. This trend in increased output has
been called Haitz's law after Dr. Roland Haitz.[79]
Light output and efficiency of blue and near-ultraviolet LEDs rose and the cost of reliable
devices fell. This led to relatively high-power white-light LEDs for illumination, which are
replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting.[80][81]
Experimental white LEDs have been demonstrated to produce 303 lumens per watt of
electricity (lm/w); some can last up to 100,000 hours.[82][83] However, commercially available
LEDs have an efficiency of up to 223 lm/w.[84][85][86] Compared to incandescent bulbs, this is
not only a huge increase in electrical efficiency, and even though the bulbs are more
expensive to purchase, significantly cheaper overall cost per bulb.[87]
The LED chip is encapsulated inside a small, plastic, white mold. It can be encapsulated
using resin, silicone, or epoxy containing (powdered) Cerium doped YAG phosphor. After
allowing the solvents to evaporate, the LEDs are often tested, and placed on tapes for SMT
placement equipment for use in LED light bulb production. Encapsulation is performed after
probing, dicing, die transfer from wafer to package, and wire bonding or flip chip mounting,
perhaps using Indium tin oxide, a transparent electrical conductor. In this case, the bond
wire(s) are attached to the ITO film that has been deposited in the LEDs. Some "remote
phosphor" LED light bulbs use a single plastic cover with YAG phosphor for several blue
LEDs, instead of using phosphor coatings on single chip white LEDs.

Physics of light production and emission[edit]

Main article: Light-emitting diode physics
In a light emitting diode, the recombination of electrons and electron holes in a
semiconductor produces light (or infrared radiation), a process called
"electroluminescence". The wavelength of the light depends on the energy band gap of the
semiconductors used. Since these materials have a high index of refraction, design
features of the devices such as special optical coatings and die shape are required to
efficiently emit light.

Colors[edit]
By selection of different semiconductor materials, single-color LEDs can be made that emit
light in a narrow band of wavelengths from near-infrared through the visible spectrum and
into the ultraviolet range. As the wavelengths become shorter, because of the larger band
gap of these semiconductors, the operating voltage of the LED increases.
Blue and ultraviolet[edit]

Blue LEDs

External video

“The Original Blue LED”, Science

History Institute

Blue LEDs have an active region consisting of one or more InGaN quantum
wells sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding layers. By varying the
relative In/Ga fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can in theory be
varied from violet to amber.
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) of varying Al/Ga fraction can be used to manufacture the
cladding and quantum well layers for ultraviolet LEDs, but these devices have not yet
reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of InGaN/GaN blue/green
devices. If un-alloyed GaN is used in this case to form the active quantum well layers, the
device emits near-ultraviolet light with a peak wavelength centred around 365 nm. Green
LEDs manufactured from the InGaN/GaN system are far more efficient and brighter than
green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems, but practical devices still exhibit
efficiency too low for high-brightness applications.[citation needed]
With AlGaN and AlGaInN, even shorter wavelengths are achievable. Near-UV emitters at
wavelengths around 360–395 nm are already cheap and often encountered, for example,
as black light lamp replacements for inspection of anti-counterfeiting UV watermarks in
documents and bank notes, and for UV curing. While substantially more expensive,
shorter-wavelength diodes are commercially available for wavelengths down to
240 nm.[88] As the photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately matches the absorption
spectrum of DNA, with a peak at about 260 nm, UV LED emitting at 250–270 nm are
expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices. Recent research has shown
that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already effective disinfection and
sterilization devices.[89] UV-C wavelengths were obtained in laboratories using aluminium
nitride (210 nm),[90] boron nitride (215 nm)[91][92] and diamond (235 nm).[93]
White[edit]
There are two primary ways of producing white light-emitting diodes. One is to use
individual LEDs that emit three primary colors—red, green and blue—and then mix all the
colors to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert
monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, similar to
a fluorescent lamp. The yellow phosphor is cerium-doped YAG crystals suspended in the
package or coated on the LED. This YAG phosphor causes white LEDs to look yellow
when off.
The 'whiteness' of the light produced is engineered to suit the human eye. Because
of metamerism, it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white. However, the
appearance of objects illuminated by that light may vary as the spectrum varies. This is the
issue of color rendition, quite separate from color temperature. An orange or cyan object
could appear with the wrong color and much darker as the LED or phosphor does not emit
the wavelength it reflects. The best color rendition LEDs use a mix of phosphors, resulting
in less efficiency but better color rendering.
RGB systems[edit]

Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high-brightness red solid-state semiconductor
LEDs. FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately 24–27 nm for all three colors.

RGB LED

Mixing red, green, and blue sources to produce white light needs electronic circuits to
control the blending of the colors. Since LEDs have slightly different emission patterns, the
color balance may change depending on the angle of view, even if the RGB sources are in
a single package, so RGB diodes are seldom used to produce white lighting. Nonetheless,
this method has many applications because of the flexibility of mixing different colors,[94] and
in principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white light.[95]
There are several types of multicolor white LEDs: di-, tri-, and tetrachromatic white LEDs.
Several key factors that play among these different methods include color stability, color
rendering capability, and luminous efficacy. Often, higher efficiency means lower color
rendering, presenting a trade-off between the luminous efficacy and color rendering. For
example, the dichromatic white LEDs have the best luminous efficacy (120 lm/W), but the
lowest color rendering capability. However, although tetrachromatic white LEDs have
excellent color rendering capability, they often have poor luminous efficacy. Trichromatic
white LEDs are in between, having both good luminous efficacy (>70 lm/W) and fair color
rendering capability.
One of the challenges is the development of more efficient green LEDs. The theoretical
maximum for green LEDs is 683 lumens per watt but as of 2010 few green LEDs exceed
even 100 lumens per watt. The blue and red LEDs approach their theoretical limits.
Multicolor LEDs also offer a new means to form light of different colors. Most perceivable
colors can be formed by mixing different amounts of three primary colors. This allows
precise dynamic color control. However, this type of LED's emission power decays
exponentially with rising temperature,[96] resulting in a substantial change in color stability.
Such problems inhibit industrial use. Multicolor LEDs without phosphors cannot provide
good color rendering because each LED is a narrowband source. LEDs without phosphor,
while a poorer solution for general lighting, are the best solution for displays, either
backlight of LCD, or direct LED based pixels.
Dimming a multicolor LED source to match the characteristics of incandescent lamps is
difficult because manufacturing variations, age, and temperature change the actual color
value output. To emulate the appearance of dimming incandescent lamps may require a
feedback system with color sensor to actively monitor and control the color.[97]
Phosphor-based LEDs[edit]

Spectrum of a white LED showing blue light directly emitted by the GaN-based LED (peak at about
465 nm) and the more broadband Stokes-shifted light emitted by the Ce3+:YAG phosphor, which
emits at roughly 500–700 nm

This method involves coating LEDs of one color (mostly blue LEDs made of InGaN)
with phosphors of different colors to form white light; the resultant LEDs are called
phosphor-based or phosphor-converted white LEDs (pcLEDs).[98] A fraction of the blue light
undergoes the Stokes shift, which transforms it from shorter wavelengths to longer.
Depending on the original LED's color, various color phosphors are used. Using several
phosphor layers of distinct colors broadens the emitted spectrum, effectively raising
the color rendering index (CRI).[99]
Phosphor-based LEDs have efficiency losses due to heat loss from the Stokes shift and
also other phosphor-related issues. Their luminous efficacies compared to normal LEDs
depend on the spectral distribution of the resultant light output and the original wavelength
of the LED itself. For example, the luminous efficacy of a typical YAG yellow phosphor
based white LED ranges from 3 to 5 times the luminous efficacy of the original blue LED
because of the human eye's greater sensitivity to yellow than to blue (as modeled in
the luminosity function). Due to the simplicity of manufacturing, the phosphor method is still
the most popular method for making high-intensity white LEDs. The design and production
of a light source or light fixture using a monochrome emitter with phosphor conversion is
simpler and cheaper than a complex RGB system, and the majority of high-intensity white
LEDs presently on the market are manufactured using phosphor light conversion.
Among the challenges being faced to improve the efficiency of LED-based white light
sources is the development of more efficient phosphors. As of 2010, the most efficient
yellow phosphor is still the YAG phosphor, with less than 10% Stokes shift loss. Losses
attributable to internal optical losses due to re-absorption in the LED chip and in the LED
packaging itself account typically for another 10% to 30% of efficiency loss. Currently, in
the area of phosphor LED development, much effort is being spent on optimizing these
devices to higher light output and higher operation temperatures. For instance, the
efficiency can be raised by adapting better package design or by using a more suitable type
of phosphor. Conformal coating process is frequently used to address the issue of varying
phosphor thickness.
Some phosphor-based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside phosphor-coated
epoxy. Alternatively, the LED might be paired with a remote phosphor, a preformed
polycarbonate piece coated with the phosphor material. Remote phosphors provide more
diffuse light, which is desirable for many applications. Remote phosphor designs are also
more tolerant of variations in the LED emissions spectrum. A common yellow phosphor
material is cerium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Ce3+:YAG).
White LEDs can also be made by coating near-ultraviolet (NUV) LEDs with a mixture of
high-efficiency europium-based phosphors that emit red and blue, plus copper and
aluminium-doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al) that emits green. This is a method analogous to
the way fluorescent lamps work. This method is less efficient than blue LEDs with YAG:Ce
phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger, so more energy is converted to heat, but yields light
with better spectral characteristics, which render color better. Due to the higher radiative
output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue ones, both methods offer comparable
brightness. A concern is that UV light may leak from a malfunctioning light source and
cause harm to human eyes or skin.
Other white LEDs[edit]
Another method used to produce experimental white light LEDs used no phosphors at all
and was based on homoepitaxially grown zinc selenide (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate that
simultaneously emitted blue light from its active region and yellow light from the
substrate.[100]
A new style of wafers composed of gallium-nitride-on-silicon (GaN-on-Si) is being used to
produce white LEDs using 200-mm silicon wafers. This avoids the typical
costly sapphire substrate in relatively small 100- or 150-mm wafer sizes.[101] The sapphire
apparatus must be coupled with a mirror-like collector to reflect light that would otherwise
be wasted. It is predicted that by 2020, 40% of all GaN LEDs will be made with GaN-on-Si.
Manufacturing large sapphire material is difficult, while large silicon material is cheaper and
more abundant. LED companies shifting from using sapphire to silicon should be a minimal
investment.[102]

Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)[edit]

Main article: Organic light-emitting diode
In an organic light-emitting diode (OLED), the electroluminescent material composing the
emissive layer of the diode is an organic compound. The organic material is electrically
conductive due to the delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over all or part of
the molecule, and the material therefore functions as an organic semiconductor.[103] The
organic materials can be small organic molecules in a crystalline phase, or polymers.[104]
The potential advantages of OLEDs include thin, low-cost displays with a low driving
voltage, wide viewing angle, and high contrast and color gamut.[105] Polymer LEDs have the
added benefit of printable and flexible displays.[106][107][108] OLEDs have been used to make
visual displays for portable electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras, and
MP3 players while possible future uses include lighting and televisions.[104][105]

Types[edit]

LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The color of the plastic lens is often the same
as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used
for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have colorless housings. Modern high-power LEDs such as
those used for lighting and backlighting are generally found in surface-mount technology (SMT)
packages (not shown).
LEDs are made in different packages for different applications. A single or a few LED
junctions may be packed in one miniature device for use as an indicator or pilot lamp. An
LED array may include controlling circuits within the same package, which may range from
a simple resistor, blinking or color changing control, or an addressable controller for RGB
devices. Higher-powered white-emitting devices will be mounted on heat sinks and will be
used for illumination. Alphanumeric displays in dot matrix or bar formats are widely
available. Special packages permit connection of LEDs to optical fibers for high-speed data
communication links.
Miniature[edit]

Photo of miniature surface mount LEDs in most common sizes. They can be much smaller than a
traditional 5 mm lamp type LED, shown on the upper left corner.
Very small (1.6x1.6x0.35 mm) red, green, and blue surface mount miniature LED package with
gold wire bonding details.

These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from
2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages.[109] Typical current ratings range
from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. Multiple LED dies attached to a flexible backing tape
form an LED strip light.
Common package shapes include round, with a domed or flat top, rectangular with a flat
top (as used in bar-graph displays), and triangular or square with a flat top. The
encapsulation may also be clear or tinted to improve contrast and viewing angle. Infrared
devices may have a black tint to block visible light while passing infrared radiation.
Ultra-high-output LEDs are designed for viewing in direct sunlight
5 V and 12 V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that have a series resistor for direct
connection to a 5 V or 12 V supply.
High-power[edit]

High-power light-emitting diodes attached to an LED star base (Luxeon, Lumileds)

See also: Solid-state lighting, LED lamp, and Thermal management of high-power LEDs
High-power LEDs (HP-LEDs) or high-output LEDs (HO-LEDs) can be driven at currents
from hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other
LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand lumens.[110][111] LED power densities up to 300
W/cm2 have been achieved. Since overheating is destructive, the HP-LEDs must be
mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from an HP-LED is not
removed, the device fails in seconds. One HP-LED can often replace an incandescent bulb
in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp.
Some well-known HP-LEDs in this category are the Nichia 19 series, Lumileds Rebel Led,
Osram Opto Semiconductors Golden Dragon, and Cree X-lamp. As of September 2009,
some HP-LEDs manufactured by Cree now exceed 105 lm/W.[112]
Examples for Haitz's law—which predicts an exponential rise in light output and efficacy of
LEDs over time—are the CREE XP-G series LED, which achieved 105 lm/W in 2009[112] and
the Nichia 19 series with a typical efficacy of 140 lm/W, released in 2010.[113]
AC-driven[edit]
LEDs developed by Seoul Semiconductor can operate on AC power without a DC
converter. For each half-cycle, part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and this is
reversed during the next half-cycle. The efficacy of this type of HP-LED is typically 40
lm/W.[114] A large number of LED elements in series may be able to operate directly from
line voltage. In 2009, Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC voltage LED, named as
'Acrich MJT', capable of being driven from AC power with a simple controlling circuit. The
low-power dissipation of these LEDs affords them more flexibility than the original AC LED
design.[115]
Application-specific variations[edit]
Flashing[edit]
Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external
electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an
integrated multivibrator circuit that causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one
second. In diffused lens LEDs, this circuit is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing
LEDs emit light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple
colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing.
Bi-color[edit]
Bi-color LEDs contain two different LED emitters in one case. There are two types of these.
One type consists of two dies connected to the same two leads antiparallel to each other.
Current flow in one direction emits one color, and current in the opposite direction emits the
other color. The other type consists of two dies with separate leads for both dies and
another lead for common anode or cathode so that they can be controlled independently.
The most common bi-color combination is red/traditional green, however, other available
combinations include amber/traditional green, red/pure green, red/blue, and blue/pure
green.
RGB Tri-color[edit]
Tri-color LEDs contain three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is connected
to a separate lead so they can be controlled independently. A four-lead arrangement is
typical with one common lead (anode or cathode) and an additional lead for each color.
Others, however, have only two leads (positive and negative) and have a built-in electronic
controller.

RGB-SMD-LED

RGB LEDs consist of one red, one green, and one blue LED.[116] By
independently adjusting each of the three, RGB LEDs are capable of producing a
wide color gamut. Unlike dedicated-color LEDs, however, these do not produce pure
wavelengths. Modules may not be optimized for smooth color mixing.
Decorative-multicolor[edit]
Decorative-multicolor LEDs incorporate several emitters of different colors supplied by only
two lead-out wires. Colors are switched internally by varying the supply voltage.
Alphanumeric[edit]

Composite image of an 11 × 44 LED matrix lapel name tag display using 1608/0603-type SMD
LEDs. Top: A little over half of the 21x86 mm display. Center: Close-up of LEDs in ambient light.
Bottom: LEDs in their own red light.

Alphanumeric LEDs are available in seven-segment, starburst, and dot-matrix format.

Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays
can display all letters. Dot-matrix displays typically use 5x7 pixels per character. Seven-
segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but rising use
of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power needs and greater display flexibility, has
reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.
Digital RGB[edit]
Digital RGB addressable LEDs contain their own "smart" control electronics. In addition to
power and ground, these provide connections for data-in, data-out, and sometimes a clock
or strobe signal. These are connected in a daisy chain. Data sent to the first LED of the
chain can control the brightness and color of each LED independently of the others. They
are used where a combination of maximum control and minimum visible electronics are
needed such as strings for Christmas and LED matrices. Some even have refresh rates in
the kHz range, allowing for basic video applications. These devices are known by their part
number (WS2812 being common) or a brand name such as NeoPixel
Filament[edit]
An LED filament consists of multiple LED chips connected in series on a common
longitudinal substrate that forms a thin rod reminiscent of a traditional incandescent
filament.[117] These are being used as a low-cost decorative alternative for traditional light
bulbs that are being phased out in many countries. The filaments use a rather high voltage,
allowing them to work efficiently with mains voltages. Often a simple rectifier and capacitive
current limiting are employed to create a low-cost replacement for a traditional light bulb
without the complexity of the low voltage, high current converter that single die LEDs
need.[118] Usually, they are packaged in bulb similar to the lamps they were designed to
replace, and filled with inert gas to remove heat efficiently.
Chip-on-board arrays[edit]
Surface-mounted LEDs are frequently produced in chip on board (COB) arrays, allowing
better heat dissipation than with a single LED of comparable luminous output.[119] The LEDs
can be arranged around a cylinder, and are called "corn cob lights" because of the rows of
yellow LEDs.[120]

Considerations for use[edit]

Power sources[edit]
Main article: LED power sources

Simple LED circuit with resistor for current limiting

The current in an LED or other diodes rises exponentially with the applied voltage
(see Shockley diode equation), so a small change in voltage can cause a large change in
current. Current through the LED must be regulated by an external circuit such as
a constant current source to prevent damage. Since most common power supplies are
(nearly) constant-voltage sources, LED fixtures must include a power converter, or at least
a current-limiting resistor. In some applications, the internal resistance of small batteries is
sufficient to keep current within the LED rating.
Electrical polarity[edit]
Main article: Electrical polarity of LEDs
An LED will light only when voltage is applied in the forward direction of the diode. No
current flows and no light is emitted if voltage is applied in the reverse direction. If the
reverse voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage, a large current flows and the LED will be
damaged. If the reverse current is sufficiently limited to avoid damage, the reverse-
conducting LED is a useful noise diode.
Safety and health[edit]
Certain blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs can exceed safe limits of the so-called blue-light
hazard as defined in eye safety specifications such as "ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1–05:
Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems".[121] One
study showed no evidence of a risk in normal use at domestic illuminance,[122] and that
caution is only needed for particular occupational situations or for specific populations.[123] In
2006, the International Electrotechnical Commission published IEC 62471 Photobiological
safety of lamps and lamp systems, replacing the application of early laser-oriented
standards for classification of LED sources.[124]
While LEDs have the advantage over fluorescent lamps, in that they do not
contain mercury, they may contain other hazardous metals such as lead and arsenic.[125]
In 2016 the American Medical Association (AMA) issued a statement concerning the
possible adverse influence of blueish street lighting on the sleep-wake cycle of city-
dwellers. Industry critics claim exposure levels are not high enough to have a noticeable
effect.[126]
Advantages[edit]

 Efficiency: LEDs emit more lumens per watt than incandescent light bulbs.[127] The
efficiency of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent
light bulbs or tubes.
 Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as
traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
 Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2[128]) and are easily attached to
printed circuit boards.
 Warmup time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED achieves full
brightness in under a microsecond.[129] LEDs used in communications devices can have
even faster response times.
 Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike incandescent
and fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or high-intensity discharge
lamps (HID lamps) that require a long time before restarting.
 Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or
lowering the forward current.[130] This pulse-width modulation is why LED lights,
particularly headlights on cars, when viewed on camera or by some people, seem to
flash or flicker. This is a type of stroboscopic effect.
 Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form
of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is
dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.
 Slow failure: LEDs mainly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of
incandescent bulbs.[131]
 Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to
50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be shorter or
longer.[132] Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 25,000 hours,
depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to
2,000 hours. Several DOE demonstrations have shown that reduced maintenance
costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy savings, is the primary factor in
determining the payback period for an LED product.[133]
 Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with
external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.[134]
 Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent
and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in
a usable manner. For larger LED packages total internal reflection (TIR) lenses are
often used to the same effect. However, when large quantities of light are needed
many light sources are usually deployed, which are difficult to focus
or collimate towards the same target.
Disadvantages[edit]

 Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient

temperature of the operating environment – or thermal management properties.
Overdriving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED
package, eventually leading to device failure. An adequate heat sink is needed to
maintain long life. This is especially important in automotive, medical, and military uses
where devices must operate over a wide range of temperatures, which require low
failure rates. Toshiba has produced LEDs with an operating temperature range of −40
to 100 °C, which suits the LEDs for both indoor and outdoor use in applications such as
lamps, ceiling lighting, street lights, and floodlights.[101]
 Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with a voltage above their threshold
voltage and a current below their rating. Current and lifetime change greatly with a
 small change in applied voltage. They thus require a current-regulated supply (usually
just a series resistor for indicator LEDs).[135]
 Color rendition: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from
a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip
at 500 nm can make the color of objects appear differently under cool-white LED
illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism,[136] red surfaces
being rendered particularly poorly by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. The
same is true with green surfaces.
 Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light giving a
spherical light distribution, but rather a lambertian distribution. So, LEDs are difficult to
apply to uses needing a spherical light field; however, different fields of light can be
manipulated by the application of different optics or "lenses". LEDs cannot provide
divergence below a few degrees.[137]
 Light pollution: Because white LEDs emit more short wavelength light than sources
such as high-pressure sodium vapor lamps, the increased blue and green sensitivity
of scotopic vision means that white LEDs used in outdoor lighting cause substantially
more sky glow.[115]
 Efficiency droop: The efficiency of LEDs decreases as the electric current increases.
Heating also increases with higher currents, which compromises LED lifetime. These
effects put practical limits on the current through an LED in high power applications.[138]
 Impact on insects: LEDs are much more attractive to insects than sodium-vapor
lights, so much so that there has been speculative concern about the possibility of
disruption to food webs.[139][140]
 Use in winter conditions: Since they do not give off much heat in comparison to
incandescent lights, LED lights used for traffic control can have snow obscuring them,
leading to accidents.[141][142]
 Thermal runaway: Parallel strings of LEDs will not share current evenly due to the
manufacturing tolerance in their forward voltage. Running two or more strings from a
single current source will likely result in LED failure as the devices warm up. A circuit is
required to ensure even distribution of current between parallel strands.[143]

Applications[edit]

daytime running light LEDs of an automobile

LED uses fall into four major categories:

 Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human eye,
to convey a message or meaning
 Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these
objects
 Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision[144]
 Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and respond to
incident light, instead of emitting light[145][146][147][148]
Indicators and signs[edit]
The low energy consumption, low maintenance and small size of LEDs has led to uses as
status indicators and displays on a variety of equipment and installations. Large-area LED
displays are used as stadium displays, dynamic decorative displays, and dynamic message
signs on freeways. Thin, lightweight message displays are used at airports and railway
stations, and as destination displays for trains, buses, trams, and ferries.

Red and green LED traffic signals

One-color light is well suited for traffic lights and signals, exit signs, emergency vehicle
lighting, ships' navigation lights, and LED-based Christmas lights
Because of their long life, fast switching times, and visibility in broad daylight due to their
high output and focus, LEDs have been used in automotive brake lights and turn signals.
The use in brakes improves safety, due to a great reduction in the time needed to light fully,
or faster rise time, up to 0.5 second faster[citation needed] than an incandescent bulb. This gives
drivers behind more time to react. In a dual intensity circuit (rear markers and brakes) if the
LEDs are not pulsed at a fast enough frequency, they can create a phantom array, where
ghost images of the LED appear if the eyes quickly scan across the array. White LED
headlamps are beginning to appear. Using LEDs has styling advantages because LEDs
can form much thinner lights than incandescent lamps with parabolic reflectors.
Due to the relative cheapness of low output LEDs, they are also used in many temporary
uses such as glowsticks, throwies, and the photonic textile Lumalive. Artists have also used
LEDs for LED art.
Lighting[edit]
Main article: LED lamp
With the development of high-efficiency and high-power LEDs, it has become possible to
use LEDs in lighting and illumination. To encourage the shift to LED lamps and other high-
efficiency lighting,in 2008 the US Department of Energy created the L Prize competition.
The Philips Lighting North America LED bulb won the first competition on August 3, 2011,
after successfully completing 18 months of intensive field, lab, and product testing.[149]
Efficient lighting is needed for sustainable architecture. As of 2011, some LED bulbs
provide up to 150 lm/W and even inexpensive low-end models typically exceed 50 lm/W, so
that a 6-watt LED could achieve the same results as a standard 40-watt incandescent bulb.
Displacing less effective sources such as incandescent lamps and fluorescent
lighting reduces electrical energy consumption and its associated emissions.
LEDs are used as street lights and in architectural lighting. The mechanical robustness and
long lifetime are used in automotive lighting on cars, motorcycles, and bicycle lights. LED
street lights are employed on poles and in parking garages. In 2007, the Italian village
of Torraca was the first place to convert its street lighting to LEDs.[150]
Cabin lighting on recent Airbus and Boeing jetliners uses LED lighting. LEDs are also being
used in airport and heliport lighting. LED airport fixtures currently include medium-intensity
runway lights, runway centerline lights, taxiway centerline and edge lights, guidance signs,
and obstruction lighting.
LEDs are also used as a light source for DLP projectors, and to backlight LCD televisions
(referred to as LED TVs) and laptop displays. RGB LEDs raise the color gamut by as much
as 45%. Screens for TV and computer displays can be made thinner using LEDs for
backlighting.[151]
The lower heat radiation compared with incandescent lamps makes LEDs ideal for stage
lights , where banks of RGB LEDs can easily change color and decrease heating from
traditional stage lighting. In medical lighting, infrared heat radiation can be harmful. In
energy conservation, the lower heat output of LEDs also reduces demand on air
conditioning systems.
LEDs are small, durable and need little power, so they are used in handheld devices such
as flashlights. LED strobe lights or camera flashes operate at a safe, low voltage, instead of
the 250+ volts commonly found in xenon flashlamp-based lighting. This is especially useful
in cameras on mobile phones, where space is at a premium and bulky voltage-raising
circuitry is undesirable.
LEDs are used for infrared illumination in night vision uses including security cameras. A
ring of LEDs around a video camera, aimed forward into a retroreflective background,
allows chroma keying in video productions.

LED for miners, to increase visibility inside mines

Los Angeles Vincent Thomas Bridge illuminated with blue LEDs

LEDs are used in mining operations, as cap lamps to provide light for miners. Research
has been done to improve LEDs for mining, to reduce glare and to increase illumination,
reducing risk of injury to the miners.[152]
LEDs are increasingly finding uses in medical and educational applications, for example as
mood enhancement,[153] and new technologies such as AmBX, exploiting LED
versatility. NASA has even sponsored research for the use of LEDs to promote health for
astronauts.[154]
Data communication and other signalling[edit]
See also: Li-Fi and fibre optics
Light can be used to transmit data and analog signals. For example, lighting white LEDs
can be used in systems assisting people to navigate in closed spaces while searching
necessary rooms or objects.[155]
Assistive listening devices in many theaters and similar spaces use arrays of infrared LEDs
to send sound to listeners' receivers. Light-emitting diodes (as well as semiconductor
lasers) are used to send data over many types of fiber optic cable, from digital audio
over TOSLINK cables to the very high bandwidth fiber links that form the Internet
backbone. For some time, computers were commonly equipped with IrDA interfaces, which
allowed them to send and receive data to nearby machines via infrared.
Because LEDs can cycle on and off millions of times per second, very high data bandwidth
can be achieved.[156]
Machine vision systems[edit]
Main article: Machine vision
Machine vision systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so features of
interest are easier to process. LEDs are often used.
Barcode scanners are the most common example of machine vision applications, and
many of those scanners use red LEDs instead of lasers. Optical computer mice use LEDs
as a light source for the miniature camera within the mouse.
LEDs are useful for machine vision because they provide a compact, reliable source of
light. LED lamps can be turned on and off to suit the needs of the vision system, and the
shape of the beam produced can be tailored to match the systems's requirements.
Biological Detection[edit]
The discovery of radiative recombination in Aluminum Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) alloys
by U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) led to the conceptualization of Ultra Violet
(UV) light emitting diodes (LEDs) to be incorporated in light induced fluorescence sensors
used for biological agent detection.[157][158][159] In 2004, the Edgewood Chemical Biological
Center (ECBC) initiated the effort to create a biological detector named TAC-BIO. The
program capitalized on Semiconductor UV Optical Sources (SUVOS) developed by
the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).[159]
UV induced fluorescence is one of the most robust techniques used for rapid real time
detection of biological aerosols.[159] The first UV sensors were lasers lacking in-field-use
practicality. In order to address this, DARPA incorporated SUVOS technology to create a
low cost, small, lightweight, low power device. The TAC-BIO detector’s response time was
one minute from when it sensed a biological agent. It was also demonstrated that the
detector could be operated unattended indoors and outdoors for weeks at a time.[159]
Aerosolized biological particles will fluoresce and scatter light under a UV light beam.
Observed fluorescence is dependent on the applied wavelength and the biochemical
fluorophores within the biological agent. UV induced fluorescence offers a rapid, accurate,
efficient and logistically practical way for biological agent detection. This is because the use
of UV fluorescence is reagent less, or a process that does not require an added chemical to
produce a reaction, with no consumables, or produces no chemical byproducts.[159]
Additionally, TAC-BIO can reliably discriminate between threat and non-threat aerosols. It
was claimed to be sensitive enough to detect low concentrations, but not so sensitive that it
would cause false positives. The particle counting algorithm used in the device converted
raw data into information by counting the photon pulses per unit of time from the
fluorescence and scattering detectors, and comparing the value to a set threshold.[160]
The original TAC-BIO was introduced in 2010, while the second generation TAC-BIO GEN
II, was designed in 2015 to be more cost efficient as plastic parts were used. It’s small,
light-weight design allows it to be mounted to vehicles, robots, and unmanned aerial
vehicles. The second generation device could also be utilized as an environmental detector
to monitor air quality in hospitals, airplanes, or even in households to detect fungus and
mold.[161][162]
Other applications[edit]
LED costume for stage performers

LED wallpaper by Meystyle

The light from LEDs can be modulated very quickly so they are used extensively in optical
fiber and free space optics communications. This includes remote controls, such as for
television sets, where infrared LEDs are often used. Opto-isolators use an LED combined
with a photodiode or phototransistor to provide a signal path with electrical isolation
between two circuits. This is especially useful in medical equipment where the signals from
a low-voltage sensor circuit (usually battery-powered) in contact with a living organism must
be electrically isolated from any possible electrical failure in a recording or monitoring
device operating at potentially dangerous voltages. An optoisolator also lets information be
transferred between circuits that don't share a common ground potential.
Many sensor systems rely on light as the signal source. LEDs are often ideal as a light
source due to the requirements of the sensors. The Nintendo Wii's sensor bar uses infrared
LEDs. Pulse oximeters use them for measuring oxygen saturation. Some flatbed scanners
use arrays of RGB LEDs rather than the typical cold-cathode fluorescent lamp as the light
source. Having independent control of three illuminated colors allows the scanner to
calibrate itself for more accurate color balance, and there is no need for warm-up. Further,
its sensors only need be monochromatic, since at any one time the page being scanned is
only lit by one color of light.
Since LEDs can also be used as photodiodes, they can be used for both photo emission
and detection. This could be used, for example, in a touchscreen that registers reflected
light from a finger or stylus.[163] Many materials and biological systems are sensitive to, or
dependent on, light. Grow lights use LEDs to increase photosynthesis in plants,[164] and
bacteria and viruses can be removed from water and other substances using UV LEDs
for sterilization.[89]
Deep UV LEDs, with a spectra range 247 nm to 386 nm, have other applications, such as
water/air purification, surface disinfection, epoxy curing, free-space nonline-of-sight
communication, high performance liquid chromatography, UV curing and printing,
phototherapy, medical/ analytical instrumentation, and DNA absorption.[158][165]
LEDs have also been used as a medium-quality voltage reference in electronic circuits. The
forward voltage drop (about 1.7 V for a red LED or 1.2V for an infrared) can be used
instead of a Zener diode in low-voltage regulators. Red LEDs have the flattest I/V curve
above the knee. Nitride-based LEDs have a fairly steep I/V curve and are useless for this
purpose. Although LED forward voltage is far more current-dependent than a Zener diode,
Zener diodes with breakdown voltages below 3 V are not widely available.
The progressive miniaturization of low-voltage lighting technology, such as LEDs and
OLEDs, suitable to incorporate into low-thickness materials has fostered experimentation in
combining light sources and wall covering surfaces for interior walls in the form of LED
wallpaper.

A large LED display behind a disc jockey

Seven-segment display that can display four digits and points

LED panel light source used in an experiment on plant growth. The findings of such
experiments may be used to grow food in space on long duration missions.

LED lights reacting dynamically to video feed via AmBX

Research and development[edit]

Key challenges[edit]
LEDs require optimized efficiency to hinge on ongoing improvements such as phosphor
materials and quantum dots.[166]
The process of down-conversion (the method by which materials convert more-energetic
photons to different, less energetic colors) also needs improvement. For example, the red
phosphors that are used today are thermally sensitive and need to be improved in that
aspect so that they do not color shift and experience efficiency drop-off with temperature.
Red phosphors could also benefit from a narrower spectral width to emit more lumens and
becoming more efficient at converting photons.[167]
In addition, work remains to be done in the realms of current efficiency droop, color shift,
system reliability, light distribution, dimming, thermal management, and power supply
performance.[166]
Potential technology[edit]
Perovskite LEDs (PLEDs)[edit]
A new family of LEDs are based on the semiconductors called perovskites. In 2018, less
than four years after their discovery, the ability of perovskite LEDs (PLEDs) to produce light
from electrons already rivaled those of the best performing OLEDs. They have a potential
for cost-effectiveness as they can be processed from solution, a low-cost and low-tech
method. Their efficiency is superior by eliminating non-radiative losses, in other words,
elimination of recombination pathways that do not produce photons.[168]
Two-way LEDs[edit]
Devices called "nanorods" are a form of LEDs that can also detect and absorb light. They
consist of a quantum dot directly contacting two semiconductor materials (instead of just
one as in a traditional LED). One semiconductor allows movement of positive charge and
one allows movement of negative charge. They can emit light, sense light, and collect
energy. The nanorod gathers electrons while the quantum dot shell gathers positive
charges so the dot emits light. When the voltage is switched the opposite process occurs
and the dot absorbs light. By 2017 the only color developed was red.[169]