Geotechnical

Investigations

By:
R. K. Shekhawat
Sr. Prof. (Projects)
IRICEN, PUNE
 1.
Extracts of
Clause - 6
of
“Code of Practice for the Design of
Sub-structure and Foundations of Bridges”
 6.2 Sub-soil Investigation
6.2.1 Scope
 To determine the Nature, Extent and Engineering Properties
 Of Soil/Rock strata
 And Depth of Ground Water table
 For development of a reliable and satisfactory design of bridge foundation.

6.2.1.1 Reference Standards

 IS:1892 (1979) – Sub-surface Investigation for Foundations.
 IS:6935 (1973) – Method of determination of Water Level in a Bore Hole.
 IS:2720 – Total 33 Parts - Method of Tests for Soils.
 IS:1498 (1970) – Classification and Identification of Soils for General
Engineering purpose.
 IRC:78 (Part-VII) – Standard Specification and Code of Practice for Road
Bridges – Foundation and Sub-structure.
6.2.1.2 Stages of Sub-surface Investigation
6.2.1.3 Reconnaissance Survey

• Bad locations like unstable hill side, talus formation, swampy areas, peaty
ground etc. are avoided.

• Data from available sources e.g. geological maps, topological maps etc. is
studied.

6.2.1.4 Preliminary Survey

• To determine depth, thickness, extent and composition of each soil

stratum.

• To determine location of rock and ground water table.

• To obtain approximate information about strength & compressibility

characteristics of various strata.

• Objective is to select the type, location and principal dimensions of all

major structures.
6.2.1.5 Final Location Survey

• Undisturbed samples are collected to conduct various tests (viz. Shear

tests, consolidation tests etc.).

• Exploration shall cover the entire length of the bridge and also extend at
either end for about twice the depth below bed of the end foundations, to
assess the effect of approach embankment on the end foundations.

6.2.1.6 Information obtained by Sub-surface investigation

• Site Plan – Showing location of foundations and abutments etc.
• Cross section along proposed bridge showing various levels (rail level, top
of superstructure, HFL, LWL, foundation level etc.).
• Environmental Factors – Geological history, Seismicity, Hydrological
information etc.
• Geotechnical information – Sub-surface profile with engineering properties
of the founding strata.
• Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Sub-grade Reaction.
• Review of performance of similar structure, if any, in the locality.
• Information necessary to assess the possible effects of the new structure
on the existing structures in the neighbourhood.

Reference Standards
 IS:2132 – Indian Standard Code of Practice for Thin Walled Tube Sampling
of Soils
 IS:8763 – Guide for Undisturbed Sampling of Sands.
2. Field Methods for Geotechnical Investigation

• Indirect Methods
o Geophysical methods

o Penetration tests

• Direct Methods
o Open excavation (Test Pits, Trenches etc.)

• Semi-direct Methods
o Boring and Drilling
 2.1 Geophysical Methods
(A) Seismic Refraction Method
 Velocity of propagation of refracted seismic waves through various layers
of sub-strata is measured and using this, the thicknesses and types of
these layers is determined.

 Test is conducted by impacting the surface by hammer blow or by a small

explosive charge; depending on local ground conditions and required
depth of penetration.

 The impact on ground creates seismic waves, which propagate downward

through the ground until they are reflected or refracted off subsurface
layers.

 Refracted waves are detected by arrays of 24 or 48 geophones spaced at

regular intervals of 1 - 10 m, depending on penetration depth.

 Geophones output data are compiled and processed by the seismograph.

 (B) Electrical Resistivity Test

• This method is based on measuring the Electrical Resistivity of different

layers in sub-strata.

• Two current electrodes are inserted about 20cms into ground through
which a known electrical current is introduced, thereby producing an
electric field within the ground.

• Measurements are made on the basis of potential (voltage) drop across

the two intermediate potential electrodes.

• The survey data is processed to produce graphic depth sections of the

thickness and resistivity of subsurface layers.
(C) Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Video
2.2 Penetration Tests (SPT)
 Measures resistance of Soil Strata to Penetration of the Sampler
• As per IS:2131-2002.
• Employs a Split spoon sampler.
• Hammer – 63.5 Kg, Drop of hammer – 750 mm.
• Split spoon Sampler is driven 450mm into the borehole in 3 stages.
• Blows required for every 150mm penetration are recorded.
• Readings for 1st 150 mm ignored – required for seating drive.
• Number of blows for last 300mm reported as N value (adding the blows for
each of last 2 - 150mm penetrations).
• Performed every 1.5m depth, as well as at change of strata.
• The boring log shows refusal and the test is halted, if:
 50 blows are required for any 150mm penetration
 100 blows are required for 300mm penetration
 10 successive blows produce no advance.
 Correction Factor - 1

Due to Overburden

The N value for cohesion-less

soil shall be corrected (N’) for
overburden as per Figure given
in IS:2131 – 2002.
 Correction Factor - 2

Due to Dilatancy
(Bulk expansion under stress)
 In the case of saturated fine sand or silt below water-table,
apparently high values may be noted for N (Terzaghi).

 The corrected SPT value after applying correction factor 1 need

to be further corrected as under;

N’’ = 15 + ½ x (N’ – 15)

Where, N’ – Corrected SPT value; and

N’’ – Corrected SPT value after application of Correction
Factor-2
 N Value Correlation for Granular Soils

Dr
Sl.
Condition N (Relative φ
No.
Density)

1 Very Loose 0–4 0 – 15% Less than 28o

2 Loose 4 – 10 15 – 35% 28° – 30°

3 Medium 10 – 30 35 – 65% 30° – 36°

4 Dense 30 – 50 65 – 85% 36° – 42°

5 Very Dense > 50 > 85% > 42°

 N Value Correlation for Clay

Sl. No. Condition N qu (kN/m2)

1 Very Soft 0–2 < 25

2 Soft 2–4 25 – 50
3 Medium 4–8 50 – 100
4 Stiff 8 – 15 100 – 200
5 Very Stiff 15 – 30 200 – 400
6 Hard > 30 > 400

Correlation for clays is less reliable and therefore to find out

the in-situ strength of clays, Field Vane Shear is used
Use SPT values to find φ value
2.3 Trial Pit (Open Excavation)

 Cheapest way of site exploration & do not require any

specialized equipment.
 To get an indication of the soil classification & obtain
undisturbed & disturbed samples.
 Allows visual inspection of any change of strata &
facilitate in-situ testing.
 Suitable for exploration of shallow depth only.
Maximum economical depth is 4m.
 Width: 1-2m.
 If the side wall of trial pits is expected to fall, provide
adequate bracing or create stepped trial pits.
 Provide adequate protection when they are left open
at the end of each working day.
 2.4 Boring and Drilling

• Used for exploration at greater depths where direct methods fail.

• These methods provide both disturbed as well as undisturbed
samples, depending upon method of boring.
• In selecting the boring method for a particular job, consideration
should be made for the following:
o The materials to be encountered and the relative efficiency of
the various boring methods in such materials.
o The available facility and accuracy with which changes in the
soil and ground water conditions can be determined.
o Possible disturbance of the material to be sampled.
 2.4.1 Displacement Boring

• It is combined method of sampling & boring operation.

• Closed bottom sampler (slit cup or piston type) is forced
in to the ground up to the desired depth.
• Then the sampler is detached from soil below it, by
rotating the piston, & finally the piston is released or
withdrawn.
• The sampler is then again forced further down & sample
is taken.
Features:
 Simple and economic method if excessive caving does
not occur. Not suitable for loose sand.
 Major changes of soil character can be detected by
means of penetration resistance.
 Used for 25mm to 75mm holes.
2.4.2 Auger Boring

• Fast and economical. Uses simple, light,

flexible and inexpensive instruments for
large to small holes.
• Suitable for soft to stiff cohesive soils.
• Soil removed is disturbed, but it is better
than wash boring, percussion or rotary
drilling.
• Not suitable for very hard or cemented soils,
very soft soils, as then the flow into the hole
can occur and also for fully saturated
cohesionless soil.
• Augers can be Hand operated or Power operated.
• Generally, hand auger boring is used in field
where it is not necessary to bore a hole deeper
than 6m.
• In case of situations when deeper holes are to be
bored into the ground, power augers are used.
• The diameter of augers used varies from 75 mm
to 300 mm.
• For large augers, trucks mounted auger type
drilling machine are used to construct large
shafts of several mm diameter. But, this method
is much expensive and not reasonable unless the
project is very large and vital.

Video
Continuous Flight Augers (CFA)

Video

Solid Stem CFA Hollow Stem CFA Video

2.4.3 Wash Boring
• Requires limited equipments and uses
inexpensive and portable handling and
drilling equipment.
• First an open hole is formed in the
ground and soil sampling/ drilling
operation is done below this.
• The hole is advanced by chopping and
twisting action of the chopping bit.
Cutting is done by water jet under
pressure through the rods operated
inside the hole.
• By noting change of colour of soil
coming out, the change of soil character
can be identified by experienced
person.
• Gives completely disturbed samples and
not suitable for gravels & boulders.
2.4.4 Rotary Drilling
• The bore hole is advanced by a drill bit, fixed
to lower end of the drill rods and rotated by
a suitable chuck. It is always kept in firm
contact with the bottom of the hole.
• The broken rock/soil fragments are removed
by circulating drilling mud (bentonite slurry)
pumped through the drill rods and up
through the bore hole from which it is
collected in a settling tank for recirculation.
• The bentonite slurry stabilizes the bore hole,
hence no casing is required.
• Suitable for bore holes of diameter 10cm or
more, preferably 15 to 20cm, in most of the
rocks. It is uneconomical for holes less than
10cm diameter.
• Depth of various strata can be detected by
inspection of cuttings.
2.4.5 Percussion Drilling

• In case of hard soils or soft rock,

auger boring or wash boring cannot be
employed.
• In percussion drilling, bore hole is
advanced by alternatively lifting and
dropping a heavy drilling bit. Water is
added to the hole during boring, if not
already present and the slurry of
pulverised material is bailed out at
intervals.
• The slurry is removed using bailers.
Change in soil character is identified
by examining composition of the
outgoing slurry.
• It can be used in most of the soils and
rocks and can drill any material.
3. Type of Sampling Tubes
3.1 Split Spoon Samplers
3.2 Thin Walled (Shelby) Samplers

Thin-Walled Tubes – IS 2132 - 1986

Inside Diameter (mm) 38 70 100
Outside Diameter (mm) 40 74 106
Minimum effective length 300 450 450
available for soil sample
(mm)
Area Ratio (%) 10.9 11.8 12.4
Note: Sampling tubes of intermediate or larger
diameters may also be used.
 4. Disturbed and Undisturbed Samples

Nature of
Type of Sample Method of Sampling
Ground
Hand Samples
Disturbed Auger samples (in clay)
Soil Shelby sample (in sand)
Chunk Samples
Undisturbed
Tube samples
Wash samples from percussion or
Disturbed
rotary drilling
Rock
Undisturbed Core barrel sampling
 5. Extent of Geotechnical Investigations
 No rigid rules can be set for spacing of borings and depth of borings.
 Major factors to be kept in mind are:
o Type of structure [Concerned Code/Rule/Guidelines will govern:
relevant IS code - for Buildings, IRS Substructure Code - for Railway
Bridges, RDSO Guidelines - for Earthwork in Railway];
o Size and Criticality of structure;
o Magnitude and distribution of load imposed by the structure; and
o Nature of subsurface conditions.
o Other geotechnical information available for the same/adjacent location.
 5.1 IRS – Bridge Substructure & Foundation Code

Cl. 6.2.2: Open Foundation

 Investigation by trial pit can be carried out.
Cl. 6.2.3: Deep Foundations
 Exploratory bore holes by deep boring equipment.
 Samples to be collected at every 1.5m depth or change of strata.
 When undisturbed samples cannot be taken (cohesion less soils): recourse
has to be made to in-situ field tests.
 Depth of boring: Up to 1.5 to 2.0 times the width of footing, below the
foundation level.
 First boring to extend to a depth sufficient to disclose deep problem layers.
 Soft strata shall be penetrated completely even when covered with a
surface layer of higher bearing capacity.
5.2 Thumb Rule for Depth of Boring

D = Depth of foundation
Z = Depth of exploration/investigation
 = Increase in vertical stress due to load
imposed by the structure, at depth Z
0’ = Effective overburden pressure

Then, Z should be such that:

  10% of 0’;

Generally  5% of 0’
(for compressible strata)
 6. Common Laboratory Tests

Type of Test Ref. IS CODE

6.1 Index Properties Tests
1. Visual classification IS: 1498
2. Sample preparation IS: 2720 (Part I)
3. Determination of Water content IS: 2720 (Part II)
4. Determination of Specific gravity IS: 2720 (Part III)
5. Grain size analysis IS: 2720 (Part IV)
6. Liquid limit & Plastic limits IS: 2720 (Part V)
7. Shrinkage factors IS: 2720 (Part VI)
8. Determination of organic matter IS: 2720 (Part XXII)
9. Dry density (Sand replacement method) IS: 2720 (Part XXVIII)
10. Dry density (Core cutter method) IS: 2720 (Part XXIX)
 Type of Test Reference of IS CODE
6.2 Mechanical Properties Tests
11. Shear strength test:
- Direct Shear IS: 2720 (Part XIII)
- Unconfined compression IS: 2720 (Part X)
- Tri-axial compression IS: 2720 (Part XI-XII)
12. Consolidation properties IS: 2720 (Part XV)
13. Permeability IS: 2720 (Part XVII)
14. Compaction tests
- Light compaction IS: 2720 (Part VII)
- Heavy compaction IS: 2720 (Part VII)
- Relative Density IS: 2720 (Part XIV)
15. Lab CBR values IS: 2720 (Part XVI)
 Type of Test Reference of IS CODE
6.3 Chemical Tests
14. Total soluble solids IS: 2720 (Part XXI)
15. Cation exchange capacity IS: 2720 (Part XXIV)
16. Corrosivity tests:
- pH value IS: 2720 (Part XXVI)
- Sulphate content IS: 2720 (Part XXVII)
 7. Preparation of Bore Log (Cl. 6.5.1 of IS:1892)
Site plan and section along with following information should be given:
a) Agency;
b) Location with map and plan reference;
c) Pit number;
d) Reduced level (RL) of ground surface or other reference point;
e) Dates, started and completed;
f) Supervision;
g) Scales of plans and sections;
h) Dimensions, types of sheeting and other material of stabilization, advancing the
exploration, such as by hand tools, blasting, boring etc.;
j) General description of strata met with;
k) Position and attitude of contacts, faults, strong joints, slicken-sides etc.;
m) Inflow of water, methods of controlling the water, required capacity of pumps;
n) The level at which the subsoil water table is met with;
p) Dip and strike of bedding, and of cleavage; and
q) Any other information and remarks.
Appendix-D IS:1892
Bore Log Sample - 1, Bridge Work
Bore Log Sample - 2, Open Foundation
Bore Log Sample - 3, Bridge Work