category

Classification and composition of fruits and vegetables

Ajit Singh

BIOS3082: Postharvest and Preservation Technology

Resources
Post-harvest activities included harvest, handling, storage, processing, packaging,
transportation and marketing.

R Wills, B McGlasson, D Graham, D Joyce. 2007. Postharvest: An Introduction to the Physiology and Handling of
Fruit, Vegetables and Ornamentals. Cab International Publication. Wallingford, UK.
Effective postharvest handling is critical in maintaining the quality and
freshness of crops from the time when they are harvested to when they
are sold to the consumer. Presented in a new larger format with an
expanded colour section, this broad-based introductory level textbook
covers the key concepts and practical technologies to slow the
inevitable deterioration of harvested produce, including handling,
packaging, transport, temperature management and the control of
pests and diseases. The 5th edition is updated with current industry
developments and practices
Fruits and
vegetable
constitute half of
the ‘Myplate’ diet
What is the difference?

Fruits and Vegetables Grains

 Sap - fluid transported in xylem tube or phloem cell. Xylem cells transport water and inorganic nutrients through the plant.
Background Phloem cells transport sugary fluids and other biological molecules.

– Harvested fruits and vegetables are living and continue to maintain physiological systems
that were present before harvest.
– While attached to the plant, the losses are replaced from the flow of sap, which contains
water, photosynthates, and minerals
– After harvest, the product is dependent entirely on its own food reserves and water
content
– Losses of water and substrates used in respiration can no longer be replaced and
process of becoming deterioration of the product begins.
progressively worse
• In other words the produce is perishable and has a limited life before it deteriorates to a point
where it becomes inedible likely to decay

– Respiration, water loss, and ethylene production are major factors contributing to the deterioration
of fresh fruits and vegetables
– Reduction of these processes by technologies such as cooling and storage, enable the
postharvest life of fresh produce to be prolonged
Objectives

• Understand the classes of vegetables and fruits on the basis of

the plant-parts they develop from.
• Gain knowledge of the composition of fruits and vegetables.
What are Fruits & Vegetables?
• Botanist definition
– As a mature ovary (containing one or more seeds)
– A fruit is a propagative unit developing from one or more fertilized egg cells (or rarely by
parthenocarpy) enclosed by integuments tough, outer protective layer
Parthenocarpy - natural or artificially induced production of fruit without fertilisation of ovules, which makes the fruit seedless.

• Agriculturally
tender, juicy or tasty
– Fruits are plants from which a more or less succulent part or closely
related structure is commonly eaten as a dessert or snack
– Vegetables are those herbaceous plants of which some portion is eaten
either cooked or raw during the principle part of the meal.
Herbaceous plant - that have no persistent woody stems above ground
 Development of a fruit

Fruit - Leaves
vegetable cabbage

Bulb-leaves
Onions green
Pepper An inflorescence is a group or cluster
of flowers arranged on a stem that is
composed of a main branch or a
complicated arrangement of
branches. Inflorescence
-cauliflower
Roots-vegetable
Brinjal Raddish

Leaves
Amaranth

Tomato Courtesy: Neil A. Campbell et al (2008). BIOLOGY

 Developmental origin of fruits

Stamen: Male part of flower

Receptacle = hollow object

used to contain something

Carpel:
Female reproductive
system
Composed of stigma, style
and ovary (ovule)

Courtesy: Neil A. Campbell et al (2008). BIOLOGY

Root and tubers
• These are underground parts of plants, adapted for the
storage of food materials.
• They are the means by which the crop survives
unfavourable seasonal conditions, and
• they provide the food reserve enabling the plant to
make rapid growth when conditions are favourable
Corm: short, vertical, swollen underground plant stem that serves as a storage
organ that some plants use to survive winter or other adverse conditions such as
summer drought and heat.

Edible part Crop

Swollen stem tuber Irish or white potato
Taro
Compressed stem tuber (corm) Dasheen, tannia
Root tuber (from fibrous root) Sweet potato
Root tuber (from main tap-root) Carrot, turnip
 Edible flowers.
• These are dense massed flower heads that can be
eaten whenmildthe flowers are immature buds.
temperature
• Popular in temperate countries but in recent years
have become well-known in the tropics, where
cultivars that can be grown in warm conditions or at
higher altitudes have been developed.
• Pineapple, one of the tropical fruits, is formed by
the fusion of a mass of immature and unfertilized
flowers clustered around the plant's main stalk,
which becomes the core of the fruit.
• Examples of such flowers are:

Edible part Crop

Massed flower heads Broccoli, cauliflower
Fused mass comprising unfertilized flower Pineapple
parts and main flower stalk
Vegetative growth (leaves, stems, shoots)

• These common green vegetables

are important sources of
minerals, vitamins and fibre
fibrous, indigestible
(roughage) in the diet. They vary
materials in vegetable

greatly, but typical examples are:

Edible part Crop

Whole above-ground vegetative Cabbage, lettuce
growth (before flowering)
large edible leaves
Leaves only Dasheen (callaloo), spinach
Swollen leaf base Onions (including dry bulb
onions), leeks
 Reproductive structures

• These are fleshy, seed-bearing structures eaten principally for

their fleshy parts.
• They are mostly well-known fruits having a high sugar content
when ripe and are normally eaten at that stage.
• Some, such as tomatoes and peppers, are used as salads or
vegetables.
• In addition, some vegetables, such as immature green seed pods
of some crops, are eaten before the seeds harden.

Edible part Crop

Fleshy fruits with single seed (drupe) Mango, avocado, plum
Drupe - fleshy fruit with thin skin
Fleshy fruits with several seeds Tomato, citrus (orange, grapefruit,
and a central stone containing
mandarin, lime), cucumber, pepper,
seed aubergine, banana
Immature green pods with partly Green beans, yard-long beans
developed seed (asparagus bean, bodi), okra
Immature seed only Pigeon pea, green pea
Chemical composition and nutritive value

• Water
– 80% -most produce
– 95% -Cucumber, lettuce, marrow and melon
– >50%-Yam, cassava, corn
– Depends on the time of the day the produce is harvested
– For crisp texture, desirable to harvest at maximum water content
• Carbohydrate
– 2-40% of the tissue
gourd family
– Low levels in cucurbits to high levels in cassava as starch
– Present mainly in ripe fruits
– Starch occurs in vegetables and ripe fruit
– The main sugars in fruit are sucrose, glucose & fructose
Sugar content of some ripe fruits

Sugar (g per 100g fresh weight) • Tropical and sub-tropical fruit tend to
have highest level of glucose and
Fruit Glucose fructose Sucrose
fructose eg. Persimmon, litchi, banana,
Apple 2 6 4 & pomegranate have >10% sugar
Banana 6 4 7
Date 32 24 8 • Grape is the only temperate fruit with
>10% sugar
Grape 8 8 0
Pineapple 2 1 8 • Sucrose is not present in all the produce
Tomato 2 1 0 but occurs at 8-10% in tropical fruits like
rambutan, banana, carambola,
star fruit
mango,
jackfruit & beetroot.
Chemical Composition

• Protein
– Fresh fruit & vegetables not important source of protein
– About 1% in fresh fruit and 2% in most vegetables
eg) cabbage
– Brassica vegetables contain 3-5%
– Green legumes contain about 5% protein
• Lipids
– <1% in most fruits and vegetables
– Exceptions are avocado (20% oil) & olive (
Lipids

https://www.diffen.com/difference/Saturated_Fats_vs_Unsaturated_Fats
Chemical Composition
• Organic acids
– Most fruits & vegetables contain excess organic acids
– Excess stored in vacuole
– Lemon, lime, passionfruit, & black current contain >3%
– Dominant acids are citric & malic acid. Others are oxalic acid in spinach and tartaric
acid in grapes

• Vitamin & minerals Vitamin C, Vitamin A, Folic acid (green leafy vegetables), potassium

– Vitamin C is the major constituent (deficiency cause scurvy)

– About 90% of the human need for vitamin C is obtained from fruits & vegetables
– Fruits and vegetables are important source of vitamin A & folic acid (deficiency of Vit A
causes blindness and folic acid cause anemia)
– Green leafy vegetables are rich source of folic acid (intensity of green colour is a good
guide to folic acid content)
– Maintenance of these vitamins during handling & storage is a major concern
– Major mineral in fruit and vegetables is potassium and is present in >200 mg/100 g
fresh weight of most produce
Approximate level of vitamin C & A and folic acid in some fruits & vegetables

Commodity Vitamin C Commodity Vitamin A Commodity Folic acid

(mg /100g) (mg/100g) (ɥg/100g)
Guava 200 Carrot 10 Spinach 80
Chilli 150 Sweet potato (red) 6.8 Broccoli 50
Broccoli 100 Parsley 4.4 Brussel sprout, pulses 30
Papaya 80 Spinach 2.3 Cabbage, lettuce 20
Kiwi fruit 70 Mango 2.4 Banana 10
Citrus, strawberry 40 Red chilli 1.8 Most fruits <5
Cabbage, lettuce 35 Tomato 0.3
Mango, carrot 30 Apricot 0.1
Pineapple, banana, potato, 20 Banana 0.1
tomato, bean, cassava
Apple, peach 10 potato 0.00
Beetroot, onions 5
Chemical Composition

• Volatiles flavour and aroma

– All fruits and vegetables produce minute quantity volatile

compound that have characteristic flavour & aroma (fruits
in particular)

Product Compound
Apple -ripe Ethyl 2 -methylbutyrate
Banana ripe Eugenol
Lemon Citral
Orange Valancene
Cabbage raw Allyl isothiocyanate
Phytochemicals (phytonutrients)

• Phytochemicals are chemicals found in plants that protect plants

against bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
• Eating large amounts of brightly coloured fruits and vegetables
(yellow, orange, red, green, white, blue, purple), whole
grains/cereals, and beans containing phytochemicals may decrease
the risk of developing certain cancers as well as diabetes,
hypertension, and heart disease.
• The action of phytochemicals varies by color and type of the food.
They may act as antioxidants or nutrient protectors, or prevent
carcinogens (cancer causing agents) from forming.

http://cancer.stanford.edu/information/nutritionAndCancer/reduceRisk/phyto.html
Sources of phytochemicals
Allicin is found in onions and garlic. Allicin blocks or eliminates certain toxins from bacteria and viruses.
Anthocyanins are found in red and blue fruits (such as raspberries and blueberries) and vegetables. They
help to slow the aging process, protect against heart disease and tumors, prevent blood clots, and fight
inflammation and allergies.
enhance the action of vitamin C, to support blood circulation, as an antioxidant, and to treat allergies,
Biflavonoids are found in citrus fruits. viruses, or arthritis and other inflammatory conditions.
Carotenoids are found in dark yellow, orange, and deep green fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes,
parsley, oranges, pink grapefruit, and spinach. beneficial antioxidants that can protect you from disease and enhance your immune
system.
Flavonoids are found in fruits, vegetables, wine, green tea, onions, apples, kale, and beans.
Indoles are found in broccoli, bok choy, cabbage, kale, Brussel sprouts, and turnips (also known as
“cruciferous” vegetables). They contain sulfur and activate agents that destroy cancer-causing chemicals
Sources of phytochemicals

Isoflavones are found in soybeans and soybean products.

Lignins are found in flaxseed and whole grain products.
Lutein is found in leafy green vegetables. It may prevent macular degeneration
and cataracts as well as reduce the risk of heart disease and breast cancer.
Lycopene is found primarily in tomato products. When cooked, it appears to
reduce the risk for cancer and heart attacks.
Phenolics are found in citrus fruits, fruit juices, cereals, legumes, and oilseeds.
It is thought to be extremely powerful, and is studied for a variety of health
benefits including slowing the aging process, protecting against heart disease
and tumors, and fighting inflammation, allergies, and blood clots.
Phytochemicals cannot be found in supplements and are only present in food. Foods high in
phytochemicals include the following:

broccoli cantaloupe
berries garlic
soynuts apricots
pears onions
turnips seeds
celery soybeans
carrots green tea
spinach apples
olives cabbage
tomatoes Brussels sprouts
Lentils bok choy
kale
red wine

http://cancer.stanford.edu/information/nutritionAndCancer/reduceRisk/phyto.html
Antioxidants

• Antioxidants are substances that inhibit the oxidation process

and act as protective agents. They protect the body from the
damaging effects of free radicals (by-products of the body’s
normal chemical processes).
• Free radicals attack healthy cells, which changes their DNA,
allowing tumors to grow.
• Research is underway to investigate the role of antioxidants in
decreasing the risk of developing cancer.

http://cancer.stanford.edu/information/nutritionAndCancer/reduceRisk/phyto.html
 Product Dietary Fibre (%)
Examples of Antioxidants
Almond 12.2
Apple 2.4
• Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
Asparagus 2.1
• Beta carotene
Avocado 6.8
– carrot, squash, collards, spinach, sweet potatoes
Banana 2.6
• Vitamin E
Broccoli 2.6
• Phenolics
Carrot 2.8
• Thiols
Peanut 8.5
• http://cancer.stanford.edu/information/nutritionAndCancer/reduceRisk/phyto.html

Pepper 2.1
• Dietary Fibres Pineapple 1.4
• Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, lignin etc Potato 2.2
• Modulation of function of intestinal tract
Spinach 2.2
Tomato 1.2
Fibre content in selected fruits,
vegetables and nuts Orange 2.4
Onion 1.7
Source: USDA 2008
Main factors affecting the level of antioxidants in fruits

UVC = Ultraviolet C
Factors affecting the level of antioxidants can be used for disinfecting water,
sterilizing surfaces, destroying harmful
micro-organisms in food products and
in air.

Environmental Genetic

Preharvest Harvest Postharvest

Ariel et al. (2009)
➔Radiation ➔Maturity ➔Storage Nutritional quality of
➔Handling ➔Postharvest Species fruits and vegetables. In
➔Stress during -
treatment postharvest handling
development (Water
fertility, pathogens etc)
(UVC, ozone) -Variety edited by Wojciech J.
➔Processing. Florkowski