MEETING I

PART OF SPEECH

VERBS
Verb is a function word to indicate the action of the subject, showing events or circumstances.
Verb is one of the 8 parts of speech. English verbs are not always simple shape (one word) but
may be the result of a combination of phrases into phrasal verbs with particle ( get in, read over,
walks up, etc).Most statements in speech and writing have verbs.

These verbs are expressed in tenses. Tenses is divided into 3 parts : Present, Past, Future.
 We buy some books to learn English grammar. (Present)
 The salesman sold a set of encyclopaedia. (Past)
 They will go to Singapore for a conference. (Future)

ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word which modifies a Noun or a Pronoun.

Adjective + Noun

Example:
 It is a nice day today.
 Laura has got brown eyes.
 There’s a very old bridge in this village.
 Do you like Italian food?
 I don’t speak any foreign languages.
 There are some beautiful yellow flowers in the garden.

The adjective is before the noun:

 They live in a modern house. (not ‘a house modern’)
 Have you met any famous people? (not ‘people famous’)

The ending of an adjective is always the same:

 A different place – different places (not ‘differents’)

Be (am, is, was, etc) + Adjective

Example:
 The weather is nice today.
 These flowers are very beautiful.
 Are you cold? Shall I close the window?
 I’m hungry. Can I have something to eat?
 The film wasn’t very good. It was boring.
 Please be quiet. I’m reading.
 Verb + Adjective

Example:
 ‘You look tired.’ ‘Yes, I feel tired.’
 George told me about his new job. It sounds very interesting.
 Don’t cook that meat. It doesn’t smell good.

The words in the box are adjectives or nouns. Use an adjective and a noun to complete each
sentence.

Air clouds foreign holiday job languages sharp

Black dangerous fresh hot knife long water

1. Do you speak any………………..?

2. Look at those……………….. It’s going to rain.
3. Sue works very hard and she’s very tired. She needs a………………..
4. I want to have a bath but there’s no....................
5. Can you open the window? We need some………………..
6. I need a………………..to cut these onions.
7. Fire-fighting is a…………………

ADVERBS
An adverb is a word that is used to change or qualify the meaning of an adjective, a verb, a
clause, another adverb or any other type of word or phrase.

The kinds of adverbs:

1. Adverb of time tells us when something is done or happens. For example: afterwards,
already, immediately, now, yesterday, tonight, etc.
Examples: It’s getting dark now.
She left early yesterday.
2. Adverb of place tells us where something is done or happens. For example: inside,
everywhere, here, there, upstairs, downstairs, etc.
Examples: She still lives there now.
They went upstairs to the balcony.
3. Adverb of frequency tells us how often something is done or happens. For example: always,
usually, hardly, never, rarely, often, etc.
Examples: She usually cleans the room in the morning.
They often walk to school.
4. Adverb of manner tells us how something is done or happens. Most adverbs of manner end
in –ly such as happily, slowly, quickly, cheerfully, carefully, etc.
Examples: We should drive carefully on the street.
They laughed cheerfully when they were watching the show.
Exercise Adverbs of Time
Fill in the blank with the correct adverbs of time!
1. They moved away from here many years………………….
2. ………………………I was young, I lived in Rome.
3. I have………………….tried a cigarette.
4. Is she……………………..here? I want to speak to her.
5. …………………………we continue trying hard, things will get better in the future.
6. He has………………finished his work.
7. We haven’t had any problems…………………..
8. She said she has known you……………………a long time.

Still ago already yet since when for never

Exercise Adverb of Frequency

1. Andrea lives next door so we……………see her.
2. Nancy and I………………go out for coffee together.
3. We meet………………….at the Annual General Meeting.
4. It…………………rains here in the summer.
5. My relatives and I take vacations together quite…………………….
6. Selma and Rick…………………..go to the beach on summer weekends because they love
surfing.
7. She…………………….takes the bus to her office but today she takes a taxi because the bus
drivers are on strike.
8. The man…………………..smokes because it’s not good for his health.

always often never yearly usually frequently occasionally rarely

Exercise Adverb of Manner

1. They walked very………………that they couldn’t catch the first train.
2. I want my children to behave…………………to every person that they meet.
3. The students had to finish their work………………..because the teacher told them to stop
4. I wish that I could explain things as………………..as my teacher. I always understand what
he says in class.
5. Angelina is a............girl. She is kind and pleasant.
6. The group found their hotel………………..after they bought the map of the city.
7. When he was a child, Tony spoke very………………..and his friends couldn’t understand
him.
8. Do you think you speak English…………………? Yes, of course.

quickly lovely well slowly clearly nicely quietly easily

PRONOUN
Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns. Every pronoun must have a clear antecedent (the
word for which the pronouns stand).

Kinds of Pronouns
Personal Pronouns : Singular – Plural
- three persons (point of view)
1st person = the one (s) speaking (e.g: I, me, my, mine, we. Us, our, ours)
2nd person = the one (s) spoken to (e.g : you, your, yours)
3rd person = the one (s) spoken about (e.g: he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its, they, their,
theirs)

Table of Personal Pronouns

Subject Object Possessive Possessive Reflexive
Adjectives Pronouns Pronouns
I Me My Mine myself
You You Your Yours yourself/yourselves
We Us Our Ours ourselves
They Them Their Theirs themselves
He His His His himself
She Her Her Hers herself
It It Its - itself

Examples of pronoun as a subject and object :

Mrs. Claire is lecturing History to her students at the moment.
Mrs. Claire can be replaced by She
History can be replaced by It
Her students can be replaced by them

Examples of Possessive Adjectives :

This handbook belongs to the girl. It is her hand book.
Our uncle gave us all this presents. They are our presents.

Examples of Possessive Pronouns :

That house is owned by Mr and Mrs Johnson. It is theirs.
I saw you talking to someone. Is he a friend of yours ?

Examples of Reflexive Pronouns :

I’m not going to do it for you. You can do it yourself.
The old lady sat in the corner talking to herself.

EXERCISE
1. Charles bought two houses last winter. ……paid a lot for…………
2. This painting is very old. ……was done two centuries ago.
3. Can I have some more sugar ? ……….is all gone.
4. The police blocked the road………said someone had an accident.
5. You all look filthy. Wash……..off in the bath.
6. Brighton’s shops are open at terrible hours. I can never visit………after work.
7. The football team has a great new kit. They paid for ……….
8. There were many cats in the competition. I won because……….cat was the best.
9. Who left this jumper here ? Those girls just arrived, so I know it’s not……….
10. Paul wanted more ice cream. He bought ………
11. I like your notepad. Please let……….see it.
12. This drawing is very good. Did you do it…………
13. She was smiling earlier. Something made………..happy.
14. Don’t take the blue pen. That one is………………
15. Have you understood different pronouns ? The cases make………..quite difficult
16. Look at……..? We’re sweating. We have just helped Mum. She can’t do the household
by…….., so she needs……..help.
17. The woman gave sweets to the children, but……..did not thank……..
18. My father told my mother. I want………..to take these jewels and put………..in a box.
When……….have done that come and see……….and………….will
tell……….why……….don’t want to keep……..in that box.
19. The boy was lucky when………..fell down the stairs. He didn’t hurt…………. Jennifer is
married and……..husband, Andy, works as an investment banker in New York. ……..office
is on 5th Avenue where ……..arrives every morning at seven thirty. Although
……………… have many differences but ………marriage runs well.

PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions show time, position and direction. They are usually placed before nouns and
pronouns. They express the relationship between two words.

List of common prepositions:

Above, about, across, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside,
between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on,
since, to, toward, through, under, until, up, upon, with, within, etc.

EXERCISE
1. (on, to, in, under, across, by, at)
We went……………the beach…………..Sunday…………..car. After
travelling……………three hours, we reached there…………………2
o’clock……………….the afternoon.
2. (for, in, into, under, at, out, above, after, with)
The man stood………………half an hour………………the tree. When he was certain that
nobody was looking……………….him, he dug a hole…………the
ground………………his spade. Then he took his gold coins……………….of his bag and
put them……………….the hole.
3. (in, among, under, over, for, through, at, up, of)
There were five robbers sitting…………the table…………the middle………the room. They
were dividing the stolen money………themselves. Suddenly I knocked……………a pail.
All the robbers jumped………….from their seats, and I ran……………my dear life.
4. (in, without, after, into, of, beneath, about, until, for)
 Camels live………….deserts. They have been used………………..years as
beasts…………….burden, and can carry heavy loads………………a quarter ton
day…………….day. Their hair can be woven……………..cloth. They are able to travel
long distances…………….water.

CONJUNCTION
Connectors or conjunctive words are words that link two similar elements in a sentence.
There are three types of connectors:
1. Coordinating conjunctions, such as: and, but, or, so, yet, etc.
2. Subordinating conjunctions such as: if, although, after, while, because, etc.
3. Correlative conjunctions, such as: either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also, both…and,
etc.

Examples:
1. You can choose the chocolate mousse or the lemon tart.
He was very tired yet very happy.
2. I’m going to London because I’ve got a new job.
After I finished my work, I went straight home.
3. Both the president and the prime minister were there.
Neither Paul nor Sandy could come to my party.

EXERCISES
Coordinating Conjunctions
1. My car has a radio…………..a CD player. (but, or, and, yet)
2. Sharon hates to listen rap music………will she tolerate heavy metal. (but, nor, yet, so)
3. Carol wanted to drive to Colorado,……….Bill insisted that they fly. (and, but, so, or)
4. I’m afraid of heights,….......I appreciate the view from top of this building. (yet, and, but,
nor)
5. I have to be on time,………..my boss will be annoyed if I’m late. (and, nor, for, so)
6. Do you like strawberry……….vanilla ice cream better? (or, and, nor, but)
7. I have to go to work at six,………..I’m waking up at four. (but, so, yet, for)
8. I was on time,………..everyone else was late. (so, but, or, nor)
9. Nadya doesn’t like to drive,…..........she takes the bus everywhere. (but, yet, or, so)
10. Our trip to the museum was interesting,………there were several new artefacts on display.
(but, yet, so, for)

Subordinating Conjunctions
1. I visit the Grand Canyon…….… I go to Arizona. (once, whenever, wherever, whether)
2. This is the place…………we stayed the last time we visited. (where, when, how, while)
3. …………..you win first place, you will receive a prize. (whenever, if, unless, as if)
4. You won’t pass the test…………..you study. (when, while, if, unless)
5. I couldn’t get a seat,……………I came early. (as, though, when, if)
6. We are leaving Wednesday…………….or not it rains. (if, whether, though, unless)
7. Pay attention to your work………….you won’t make mistakes. (so that, unless, when,
though)
8. The musicians delivered amusing performance…………they had rehearsed very often.
(though, as, once, while)
9. She’s honest……………everyone trusts her. (but, when, as if, so)
10. Write this down…………..you won’t forget. (since, after, so that, as if)

Correlative Conjunction
1. I plan to take my vacation………..in June………in July. (whether…or, either…or, as…if,
both…and)
2. ………...I’m feeling happy……….sad, I try to keep a positive attitude. (either…or,
whether…or, neither…nor, not only…but also)
3. …….….had I taken my shoes off…………I found out we had to leave again. (no
sooner…than, rather…than, whether…or, either…or)
4. …………is dark chocolate delicious…………it can be healthy. (whether…or, not only…but
also, either…or, just as…so)
5. ………….I have salad for dinner, …………I can have ice cream for dessert. (if…then,
when…than, whether…or, either…or)
6. ………….flowers………..and trees grow during warm weather. (not only…or, both…and,
not…but, either…or)
7. …………. we enjoy summer vacation,……….. winter break. (not only…but also,
whether…or, not…but, either…or)
8. Calculus is………….easy………..difficult. (both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not…but)
9. It’s………….going to rain…………snow tonight. (as…if, as…as, either…or, not…but)
10. Savoury flavours are………..sweet……….sour. (often…and, whether…or, either…or,
neither…nor)
 MEETING II
PRESENT TENSE

SIMPLE PRESENT
It is used to express:
1. Habitual/ Repeated action
e.g. My father listens to the news on television every morning
I visit my grandparents once a month
2. General Truth
e.g. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west
Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen
3. Scheduled activity
e.g. The train leaves Bandung at 9.a.m.
The talk show begins at 7.p.m
Adverbs of time: always, usually, generally, often, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely,
scarcely, never, every….., on Sundays/ on Mondays, once / twice / three times a day / a week/ a
month / a year

The forms:
( + ) Subject + Verb 1 (s/es)
when the subject is he / she / it
e.g. They drink coffee every morning
He drinks coffee every morning
( - ) Subject + do not (don’t) + Verb 1
does not (doesn’t)
e.g. They don’t play football once a week
He doesn’t play football once a week
( ? ) Do + Subject + Verb 1
Does
e.g. Do they get up at 5 a.m. every morning?
Does he get up at 5 a.m. every morning?
Note: When the verb is “to be” we use: - is “ for he/she/it “
- am “ for I “
- are “ for you/we/they”

EXERCISE
In this exercise you have to put the verb into the correct form!
1. The swimming bath……..(open) at 9.00 and …….(close) at 18.30 every day.
2. What time………………( the banks / close ) in your country?
3. I have a car but I…………..(not/use) it very often.
4. How many times……………..(your niece/practice) ballet?
5. “What…………………..(you/do)? “I’m an electrical engineer.
6. “Where…………………(your friend/come from)? He………….(come) from England.
7. If you need money, why…………………(you/not/get) a job?
8. I don’t understand the word ‘deceive’. What……………….(deceive/mean)?
9. My aunt ………..(be) a nurse. She……………….(work) in that hospital.
10. It often…………(rain) at this time of the year. Sometimes our village………(get) flooded.

Fill in the blank with the correct form of verbs!

I……………..(have) two roommates. One of them, Patrick,……..(be/always) neat and clean.
He…………….(wash) his clothes once a week. ……………..(you/know) Matt, my other
roommate? He………….(be) the opposite of Patrick. For example,
Matt……………(not/change) the sheets on his bed, He…………….(keep) the same sheets week
after week. He…………..(wash/never) his clothes. He……………..(wear) the same dirty jeans
every day. Patrick’s side of the room……………(be/always) neat and Matt’s
side………….(be/always) a mess. As my mother……………(say/always),
it………………(take) all kinds of people to make a world.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

We use the Present Continuous Tense when an action is taking place at the time of speaking. It is
form with:

Am/is/are + Verb-ing (Present Participle)

Example:
Chris is writing a letter.
She is not eating noodles now.
Are you listening to me?
The children are doing their homework.
Look at Sue! She is wearing her new hat.
‘Where are the children?’ ‘They are playing in the park.’
You can turn off the television. I am not watching it.
‘Are your friends staying at a hotel?’ ‘No, they are not. They are staying with me.’

Exercise. Complete the sentences. Use one of these verbs.

Build cook go have stand stay swim work

1. Please be quiet. I………………..

2. ‘Where is John?’ ‘He is in the kitchen. He……………….. .’
3. ‘You………………..on my foot.’ ‘Oh, I’m sorry.’
4. Look! Somebody………………..in the river.
5. We’re here on holiday. We………………..at the Central Hotel.
6. ‘Where is Ann?’ ‘She………………..a shower.’
7. They………………..a new theatre in the city centre at the moment.
8. I………………..now. Goodbye.

Put in the Simple Present or the Present Continuous tense of the verbs in brackets.
1. It usually (get)……………dark at about 7 o’clock, but it (get)……………dark now.
2. On my way to school I usually (meet)……………many people who (go)……………to
work.
3. Please wait for a while. My father (have)……………his bath now. he usually
(have)…………… his bath at this time.
4. Can I borrow your pen, or (use)……….you……….it now?
5. Look! Your sister (come)……………home from the library. I suppose she
(go)……………there once a week.
6. This (be)……………rather strange. Nobody usually (come)……………here at this hour,
yet someone (knock)……………at the door now.
7. We (cut)……………cloth with a pair of scissors; we (chop)……………meat with a knife.
8. I usually (speak)……………quite loudly, but I (have)……………a sore throat today. Can
you hear what I (say)……………now?
9. My brother (eat)……………his dinner now. He always (have)……………his dinner at 7
o’clock.
10. Jinsheng always (play)……………badminton with us in the evening but this evening he (not
play)……………because he (be)……………ill.

PRESENT PERFECT

We used the Present Perfect for an action that happened at an indefinite time in the past.
Sentence using the Present Perfect tense never mention the exact time. If we wish to mention or
imply an exact time for an action we use the Simple Past Tense. The Present Perfect also
describe an action that was repeated several times in the past.

Have/has + Verb 3 (Past Participle)

Example:
 I have lost my passport. (= I can’t find my passport now)
 ‘Where is Linda?’ ‘She has gone to bed.’ (= she is in bed now)
 We have bought a new car. (= we have a new car now)
 It’s Rachel’s birthday tomorrow and I haven’t bought a present.
 ‘Bob is in holiday.’ ‘Oh, where has he gone?’
 Can I take this newspaper? Have you finished with it?
 She has read th
 at novel several times.

Exercise. Put in the Present Perfect tense.

1. My father (buy)……………a new car. He drives us to school every day in it.
2. You can eat the food now. I (already cook)……………it.
3. You can’t pass up my work today. I (not finish)……………it yet.
4. “Please may I borrow your pencil? I (leave)……………mine at home.
5. The bus (not arrive) yet. Many people are standing at the bus stop, waiting for it.
6. Look! The door of the cage is wide open and the bird (fly)……………away.
7. The pipe (burst)…………… . Water is gushing from it now.
8. “Where is Don?” “He (just walk)…………… down the road.
9. Mr. Wang (already close)……………his shop. You can’t buy the book now.
10. “(tell)……………they……………her the news yet?” “No, they haven’t.”
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
We use the Present Perfect Continuous to describe an action that began in the past and has
continued up to present. In many cases it can be used interchangeably with the Present Perfect
tense.

Have/has + been + Verb-ing (Present Participle)

Example:
Derry has been studying English for three years.
Has it been raining all day?
We haven’t been living here since 2002.
They have been watching tv since 5 o’clock.
Have you been waiting long here?
She has been reading it for two hours.

Exercise. Put the verbs in the brackets into the Present Perfect Continuous tense.
1. I (live)……………here since 1929.
2. I (look)……………at this picture for five minutes, but I can’t see you in it.
3. Yes, I (stand)……………here in the rain for half an hour.
4. He (learn)……………English for three years, but he can’t even read a newspaper yet.
5. He (work)……………in the post office for twenty years.
6. Lunch is not quite ready yet, although I (cook)……………all the morning.
7. Look! ………..that light (burn)……….all night?
8. They are not tired because they (not work)……………in the garden since the morning.
9. You must tell me what..........you (do)……….since I last saw you.
10. Mary (rest)……………in the garden all day because she has been ill.
 MEETING III
PAST TENSE

SIMPLE PAST
It is used to express an action which began in the past and has no connection with the present
situation.
e.g. I studied History yesterday.
Erick went to Paris last week.
Adverb of time: yesterday, ……ago, last………, this morning, just now, once upon a time, etc.

The forms:
( + ) Subject + Verb 2
e.g. The man cleaned the room just now.
The train left the station 5 minutes ago.
( - ) Subject + did not ( didn’t ) + Verb 1
e.g. He didn’t clean the room just now
It didn’t leave the station 5 minutes ago
( ? ) Did + Subject + Verb 1
e.g. Did he clean the room just now?
Did it leave the station 5 minutes ago?
Note: When the verb is “to be”, we use : - was for “he/she/it/I”
- were for “you/we/they

Fill in with the correct answers!

1. (you/see)…………….Martin yesterday?
2. I (last/see)……………him two days ago.
3. He (not/be)…………..at the meeting on Monday because he……(be) away on business.
4. Where (she/go)………..for her holidays?
5. How long (it/take/you)…………….to drive from Amsterdam to Paris?
6. I ………. (not/eat) the food because I………(not/be) hungry.
7. Why……………(you/not/wake) up earlier? You’re going to be late.
8. My friend………..(break) her leg and……….(hurt) her arm last night.
9. The magician………….(not/do) magic tricks at the party.
10. We…………….(not/live) in a flat when we……….(be) in Canada.

Fill in the gap!

When I……………(enter) the University of British Columbia, It……………(be) the first time
that I………………(have) so much freedom. At first, I……………..(not/study) very hard. Most
nights, I…………………(chat) with my friends and……………….(go) to the movies. As a
result, I……………….(get) pretty low grades. My parents………….(not/be) very happy.
Fortunately, I……………(meet) a senior who…………….(give) me some really good advice
about how to study hard and take some time to have fun. In my second year,
I……………(change) my study habits completely. I always…………….(make) sure that
I………………(complete) my homework and that I……………….(understand) what the
professor……………..(teach) in class. In addition, I……………..(meet) a really nice woman
who……………..(help) me develop and focus on goals for the future. I still……………..(take)
time to meet friends and went out with my girlfriend; however, I……………(be) a much better
student, and my parents………….(be) much happier.

PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

The Past Continuous tense shows an action that was going on in the past and then something
suddenly happened. This tense is often used with words like ‘while’, ‘when’, and ‘as’.

Was/were + Verb-ing

Example:
 “What did he say?” “I don’t know. I wasn’t listening.”
 It was raining, so we didn’t go out.
 In 1985 we were living in Canada.
 What were you doing at 3 o’clock yesterday?
 Today she’s wearing a skirt, but yesterday she was wearing trousers.
 They were watching television when I came home last night.

Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the Past Continuous tense.
1. As I (go)……….to school yesterday, I (see)……….a lorry crashed into that shop.
2. He (hurt)……….his ankle while he (play)……….football.
3. I (wash)……….my hands when the telephone (ring)……….
4. When we (reach)……….his house last evening, he and his wife (laugh)..........loudly.
5. Just as he (come)……….out of the shop, he (meet)……….his old neighbour.
6. As my sister (run)……….down the steps, she (trip)……….over a brick and (fall)……….flat
on her face.
7. At 6 o’clock yesterday I (wait)……….for you at the cinema. I (wait)……….until it was 7,
then I (go)……….in to see the film alone.
8. They (watch)……….television when the fire (break)……….out.
9. She (sit)……….on the chair when she suddenly (scream)……….and (jump)……….up.
10. He (lie)……….down and (read)……….a book while I (do)……….my sum.

PAST PERFECT TENSE

We use the Past Perfect tense for an action that was completed before another took place in the
past time. This tense is usually used with words like ‘when’, ‘after’, ‘before’, etc.

Had + Verb 3

Example:
The plane had left when they reached the airport.
She said that she had lost her pen.
My sister washed up the plates after she had had her lunch.
They had arrived at my house before I was ready.
They stopped working after the sun had set.
Put the verbs in blanks into the Simple Past or the Past Perfect tense.
1. After she (hear)……….the sad news, she (begin)……….to cry.
2. After he (write)……….the letter, he (go)……….to bed.
3. Before it (start)……….to rain, I (reach)……….the station.
4. The bell (already ring)……….when the bus (arrive)……….at school.
5. I (finish)……….my homework before he (come)………to see me.
6. When we (get)……….there, the show (already begin)……….
7. He (say)……….that he (just receive)……….a letter from Ruilan.
8. She (just go)………out when I (call)……….at her house.
9. The fire (destroy)……….the whole building before the firemen (arrive)……….
10. The girl (tell)……….us that she (lose)……….her way.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to describe an action that began in the past and continued up
to the time when someone said which happened in the past.
Had been + Verb-ing

Example:
We had been living for 6 years in Aceh when the Tsunami happened in 2004.
I had not been doing anything for an hour when the lecturer asked a question.
Did you know what had she been working on when you came to clean up the room?
They had been playing soccer for 30 minutes when finally the rain fell heavily.
 MEETING IV
FUTURE TENSE

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE (WILL & BE GOING TO)

We use the Simple Future tense for future action.

Shall/will + Verb1

“Shall” is used with ‘I’ and ‘We’ and “Will” is used with other nouns and pronouns. The “shall”
and “will” form is sometimes called the ‘Pure Future’.

Example:
 I shall be twelve years old next year.
 Will you help me push my car, please?
 If you work hard, you will pass the examination.
 We shall not start the meeting until he arrives.
 Christmas Day will fall on Sunday next year.

Be going to + Verb1

“going to” is used for future action especially when a plan has been made. We also use it when
we speak of things that are certain to happen.

Example:
 I have already type this letter. I am going to post it first thing in the morning.
 Do you want to go shopping with me? I am going to go to the shopping mall.
 After graduation, Sue is going to work at an electronics firm.

Exercise. Put in either the ‘will’ form or the ‘going to’ form of the verbs in the brackets.
1. “Why have you borrowed that spade?” “Oh, I (plant)……….some flowers.”
2. “You are not strong enough to carry that sack. Come, I (help)..........you carry it.”
3. I have been thinking of getting a cupboard for a long time. I (get)……….one tomorrow. It
(hold)……….all the books I’ve got here.
4. Just ring the bell and the servant (open)……….the door to let you in.”
5. I have already packed my clothes. I (spend)……….the weekend with my grandmother.
6. Mr. and Mrs. Chen have promised to come tonight. They (have)……….dinner with us.
7. If you ask her, she (tell)……….you the news; but if I ask her, she (not tell) me.
8. The boys are practicing hard. They (play)……….the match on Sunday.
9. The holidays (begin)……….on the 4th April. We have already written to our aunt. We
(stay)……….in her house during the holidays.
10. This letter does not belong to us. When the postman comes tomorrow, I (give)……….it
back to him.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
The Future Continuous tense is used for an action which will be going on at a time in the future.

Shall be/will be + Verb-ing

Example:
 I shall be waiting for you at 8 o’clock tomorrow.
 He will be swimming when we reach there.
 They will be practicing for the concert at five on Sunday.
 She will not be resting at home at noon tomorrow.
 Shall we be flying to Hong Kong at this time tomorrow?

FUTURE PERFECT
The Future Perfect tense is used when we speak of an action which will be completed at a time in
the future.

Shall/will + have + Verb3

Example:
 I shall have finished writing the letter by 8 o’clock.
 By the end of this month they will have arrived in India.
 Will the trees have grown taller six months later?
 We shall have sat for the examination by the end of the year.
 Will he have awaken up by dinner time?

Exercise. Put in the Future Continuous or the Future Perfect tense of the verbs in the
brackets.
1. By the time they arrive, we (get)……….dressed.
2. I (wait)……….for you at the station at noon tomorrow.
3. The game (start)……….by the time you get there.
4. He (drive)……….to the Beach Town at this time next week.
5. She (play)……….the piano from six to seven o’clock tomorrow.
6. We (eat)……….our dinner before you finish bathing.
7. I (visit)……….you at 5 o’clock this Sunday.
8. We (meet)……….him at the bus-stop at 9 o’clock tomorrow morning.
9. They (sell)……….out the tickets before you arrive at the cinema.
10. My sister (talk)……….about her trip the whole of tonight.
 MEETING V
PASSIVE VOICE

Pay attention to these following points:

 The object of the Active voice becomes the Subject of the new Passive Voice
 Don’t change the tenses
 Be + V3

SIMPLE PRESENT
A.V. : V1
P.V. : Be ( is, am, are) + V3
They discuss the problem. (active)
The problem is discussed (by them). (passive)

PRESENT CONTINUOUS
A.V. : is/am/are + ing
P.V. : is/am/are + being + V3
He is studying English. (active)
English is being studied (by him). (passive)

PRESENT PERFECT
A.V. : have/has + V3
P.V. : have/has + been + V3
I have finished my work. (active)
My work has been finished (by me). (passive)

SIMPLE PAST
A.V. : V2
P.V. : be ( was, were) + V3
She closed the door. (active)
The door was closed (by her). (passive)

PAST CONTINUOUS
A.V. : was/were + ing
P.V. : was/were + being + V3
We were watching the movie. (active)
The movie was being watched (by us). (passive)

PAST PERFECT
A.V. : had + V3
P.V. : had + been + V3
My sister had cleaned the room. (active)
The room had been cleaned (by my sister). (passive)
EXERCISE
Change into Passive Voice!
1. The servant sweeps the floor every day.
2. Someone is knocking at the door at the moment.
3. She has bought him some presents for his birthday.
4. He was writing a short story last night.
5. We had done our homework.
6. The teacher usually teaches Science twice a week.
7. Mother had already given them some money.
8. They left their children at home yesterday.
9. My aunt is making a strawberry cheese cake now.
10. I was telling some funny stories to them.
11. The lady wore a nice dress last night.
12. The constructor has built new apartments in the city centre.
13. You had just drunk the medicine.
14. My niece was reading some comics.
15. He always buys two pairs of shoes once a month.
 MEETING VI
DIRECT – INDIRECT SPEECH
(REPORTED SPEECH)

Pay attention to the changes or tenses, adverbs of time and place and pronouns.

 Tenses
If a direct sentence is in the present tense, then the indirect sentence is in the past tense.
If a direct sentence is in the past tense, then the indirect sentence is in the past perfect tense.
If a direct sentence is in the perfect tense, then the indirect sentence is in the past perfect tense.
If a direct sentence is in the future tense, then the indirect sentence is in the past future tense.

 Adverb of Time

DIRECT INDIRECT
Now Then
Today That day
Yesterday The day before/the previous day
Last… The…..before
…ago …..before
The day before yesterday Two days before
Tomorrow The day after/the following/the next
day
Next… The…..after
The day after tomorrow In two days’ time

 Adverb of Place
Here there

 Pronouns
I he/she
My his/her
We they
Etc

Direct – indirect speech can be divided into:

1. statements
Example:
Tommy said, “I am waiting for my friend here.”
Tommy said that he was waiting for his friend there.

Father said, “I need to take the car to the car repair.”

Father said that he needed to take the car to the car repair.

Lia said, “I saw an accident on the highway last night.’

Lia said that she had seen an accident on the highway the previous night.
They told me, “We will visit Taman Safari next week.”
They told me that they would visit Taman Safari the following week.

Rico said, “I have watched the movie twice at the cinema.”

Rico said that he had watched the movie twice at the cinema.

2. Questions
a) Yes/No questions (Verbal Questions)
Begin with auxiliary verbs (is/are/have/will/do, etc)
Use: if/whether
Example:
“Is your brother studying now?” they said to her.
They asked her if/whether her brother was studying then.
Wondered
Inquired
Wanted to know

b) Wh- Questions (Non Verbal Questions)

Begin with “wh- words” (who/which/whom/when/where, etc)
Repeat the “wh- word”
Example:
Mrs. Smith said, “What have you done, boys?”
Mrs. Smith asked the boys what they had done.

3. Command and Advices

a) Use: to-infinitive
Example:
“Go away!” he said to them.
He told them to go away.

b) Use: not to-infinitive

“Don’t go away!” he said to them.
He told them not to go away.

Note:
“please” is omitted
Example:
Don’t be noisy, please”, she said to us.
She advised us not to be noisy.

“shall” “should” intended for helping others.

Example:
“Shall I bring you some coffee?” he said to me
He asked me if/whether he should bring me some coffee.
“shall” “would” not intended for helping others.
Example:
“Shall I be seventeen years old next week?” Liza said to her mother.
Liza asked her mother if/whether she would be seventeen years old the following week.

“must” present obligation/necessity (harus) “had to”

Example:
“You must pay attention to me now”, he said to them.
He told them (that) they had to pay attention to him then.

“must” future obligation/necessity (harus) “would have to”

Example:
“You must give this book back tomorrow”, she said to me.
She told me (that) I would have to give that book back the day after.

“must” conclusion/inference (tentu/pasti) must have + V3

Example:
“You must be sick”, said mother to me.
Mother told me (that) I must have been sick.

“needn’t” present unnecessity (tidak perlu) didn’t I have to

Example:
“You needn’t wear your uniforms today”, he said to them.
He told them (that) they didn’t have to wear their uniforms that day.

“needn’t” future unnecessity (tidak perlu) wouldn’t have to

Example:
“You needn’t wear your uniforms tomorrow”, he said to them.
He told them (that) they wouldn’t have to wear their uniforms the day after.

Don’t change tenses when:

1. The introductory verb is not in Simple Past (it is in either Simple Present, Present
Continuous, Simple Future).
“I am listening to the radio, Cindy”, Tanto says.
Tanto says to Cindy (that) he is listening to the radio.

“My brother has been ready”, Frida will tell Bobby.

Frida will tell Bobby (that) her brother has been ready.

2. It is General truth
“Water consists of oxygen and hydrogen”, my teacher said to us.
My teacher told us (that) water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.

3. It is State of Affairs
“I will buy this house as it is in the middle of the city”, Mr. Tom said.
Mr. Tom said (that) he would buy that house as it is in the middle of the city.
4. It is Conditional Sentences type II and III
“I would kiss her if I were you”, he told me.
He told me (that) he would kiss her if he were me.

5. Adverb Clause of time with Simple Past/Past Continuous.

“I was eating when my friend came”, she said.
She said (that) she had been eating when her friend came.

“My friend came when I was eating”, she said.

She said (that) her friend had come when she was eating.

Using “Let’s”
“Let’s write a poem”, he said to them.

1. Subject + suggest + gerund

He suggested writing a poem.
Bare infinitive
2. Subject + suggest + that + Sentence 2 +
Should + V1
He suggested that they write a poem.
He suggested that they should write a poem.

Special discussions
“Congratulations on your success!” he said.
He congratulated me on my success.

“Merry Christmas”, Glenn said.

Glenn wished me a merry Christmas.

“Thank you for your help”, they said to me.

They thanked me for my help.

“Hello”, said Hilda.

Hilda greeted me by saying a hello.

“Good morning”, said the students to the new teacher.

The students wished the new teacher a good morning.

“Damn you”, she said to him.

She cursed him.

“Bastard”, they said.

They called me a bastard.
Exercise
1. “I have something to show you”, she said to me.
2. “I had a terrible headache last night”, he told us.
3. “I have had a new photograph of mine”, she said.
4. He said to me, “Did you come to my sister’s party yesterday?”
5. Nana said to Darwin, “Can you tell me how I have to translate this sentence into English?”
6. “What have you done to your sister, Bob?” said mother.
7. I said to Sonny, “Why didn’t you come to my birthday party last week?”
8. “Do this exercise yourself, Danny!” the teacher said.
9. “Don’t forget to buy what I’ve told you to!” said Alvin.
10. Dewi said, “Do you understand what I told you just now?”
11. “Open your suitcase, Mr. James!” the man said.
12. “Don’t be late for dinner tomorrow, Ann!” Judith said.
13. “I saw you in front of your campus this morning”, I said to Linda.
14. “You look very similar to my friend”, said Anny
15. “Which car are you to buy, Mr. Johnson?” I said.
16. Andy said, “Be careful when you cross this street.”
17. “Never let any of your students be passive during the discussion tomorrow”, the
headmaster said to Mr. Rudy.
18. “Please behave yourself, George!” mother said “Don’t be foolish.”
19. Tell me why you looked so sad yesterday,” Deddy said to Vina.
20. David said to Marline, “My uncle was sleeping when I visited him in the hospital.”
 MEETING VIII
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

There are three types of conditional sentences

If clause Main clause
Type I Simple present (V1) will + V1
Type 2 Simple past (V2) would + V1
Type 3 Past perfect (had + V3) would have + V3

Type 1 (Future possible condition)

Example:
If he comes to my birthday party tonight, I will feel happy.
We will leave this town tomorrow if the weather is good.

Type 2 (Present Unreal Condition)

Examples:
If I had a million dollars right now, I would retire.
The fact: I don’t have a million dollars now so I don’t retire
She would pass her exam if she studied harder.
The fact: She doesn’t study hard so she doesn’t pass the exam

Type 3 (Past Unreal Condition)

Examples:
Alice would have told you the truth if you had asked her about it.
The fact: You didn’t ask about it so Alice didn’t tell you the truth.
If I had known that you were in hospital I would have visited you.
The fact: I didn’t know that you were at the hospital so I didn’t visit you.

EXERCISE
Put the verbs in the brackets into the correct forms: Type 1!
1. She………….(not/open) the door if she…………(not/know) who it is.
2. If she…………..(not/believe) what I say, I………………..(tell) her to ask her mother.
3. If you…………..(need) any help, please…………….(contact) me.
4. He……………..(not/have) enough time to eat lunch unless he…………...(get) here early
tomorrow.
5. If he…………..(not/be) able to solve the problem, I……………(help) him.

Put the verbs in the brackets into the correct forms: Type 2!
1. If Rani……………(not/be) sick, she………….,(be) allowed to go camping with us.
2. Mr. Moore……………(give) up teaching if he…………..( not/enjoy) it so much.
3. I………………(not/leave) my house early if I……………(not/live) far from my office.
4. If you……………(sleep) under a mosquito net you…………….(not/be) bitten so often.
5. He……………….(can see) her If he……………….(wake) up early every morning.
Put the verbs in the brackets into the correct forms: Type 3!
1. We…………………(not/buy) that house if the price…………..,,,,(not/be) cheap enough.
2. You……………..(not/get) into trouble if you…………….(obey) the instructions which I
told you.
3. If he………………(not/know) the news he…………….(be) so angry.
4. If she………………(have) the money which I needed, he………………(lend) it to me.
5. We………………(go) with Frank last Friday if he……………..(invite) us.

MIXED CONDITIONALS EXERCISE

1. He is very lazy. If he………..(study) diligently, his parents…………….(like) him.
2. You ………..(drive) him along the city if he…………..(come) to visit you on the next
holiday?
3. The river was heavily polluted. If it……………………..(not/be) heavily polluted,
we……………………….(swim) in it.
4. If your sister……………………(have) any problem with her homework
please…………(tell) me.
5. I think I………….(succeed) in finishing the last test if the lecture………….(give) me a bit
more time.
6. The man was sent to prison only because he refused to pay the fine, if she……………(pay)
the fine, she…………….(not/be) sent to prison.
7. I…………….(not/tell) him the news when I meet him tomorrow unless he…………..(ask(
me about it.
8. Fortunately the child was safe. He………………………(be/killed) if the
train………………..(not/stop) quickly.
 MEETING IX
THE DEGREE OF COMPARISON
THE DEGREE OF COMPARISON ADJECTIVES

There are three degrees of comparison adjectives:

Positive Degree:

…..as adjective as…..

…..not as/so adjective as…..

Example:
 Anita is as tall as Victor.
 This novel is not as interesting as that novel.
 This mango is not so sour as these grapes.

Comparative Degree:

a. …..adjective + er + than…..

Example:
 She is younger than my sister.
 The river is not shallower than that one.
 A car is faster than a bicycle.

RULES:
This type of comparative degree is used if:
 One-syllable adjectives: old, new, short, high, fast, slow, bright, etc.
 Two-syllable adjectives ending in: le, y, er, ow, some. For example: simple, gentle, lazy,
lovely, holy, clever, shallow, hollow, narrow, handsome, etc.

Note: the comparative degree of “handsome” can be either “handsomer” or “more handsome”.

b. …..more + adjective + than…..

Example:
 This traditional food is more excellent than junk food.
 Is fishing more pleasant than reading?
 A plane ticket is more expensive than a train ticket.

RULES:
This type of comparative degree is used if:
 Two syllable adjectives which do NOT end in: le, y, er, ow, some. For example: stupid,
tragic, tiring, wicked, common, useful, helpful, etc.
 Adjectives of three or more syllable: interesting, beautiful, expensive, rational, etc.
Superlative Degree:

a. …..adjective + est…..

Example:
 She is the youngest of all children.
 This river is not the shallowest in this village.
 Shinkanzen is the fastest of all trains.

RULES:
This type of superlative degree is used if:
 One-syllable adjectives: old, new, short, high, fast, slow, bright, etc.
 Two-syllable adjectives ending in: le, y, er, ow, some. For example: simple, gentle, lazy,
lovely, holy, clever, shallow, hollow, narrow, handsome, etc.

Note: the superlative degree of “handsome” can be either “handsomest” or “most handsome”.

b. …..the most + adjective…..

Example:
 This traditional food is the most excellent of all.
 Is fishing the most pleasant?
 A plane ticket is the most expensive of all.

RULES:
This type of comparative degree is used if:
 Two syllable adjectives which do NOT end in: le, y, er, ow, some. For example: stupid,
tragic, tiring, wicked, common, useful, helpful, etc.
 Adjectives of three or more syllable: interesting, beautiful, expensive, rational, etc.

Irregular Comparison
There are some adjectives which do not follow the rules mentioned above.
The adjectives are:

Positive Comparative Superlative

Good Better The best
Bad Worse The worst
Little Less The least
Many More The most (CN)
Much More The most (UCN)
Far Farther The farthest (distance)
Further The furthest (time, info)
Old Older The oldest (not family)
Elder The eldest (family)
 Late Later The latest
Latter The last

NOTE:
1. Parallel Increase

The comparative, the comparative

Semakin….., semakin…..
Example:
A : “Do you want to go now?”
B : “The sooner the better”
The older he is, the wiser he becomes.
The more expensive the seat is, the more enjoyable it will be.
The softer the seat is, the more the more enjoyable it will be.

2. Gradual Increase

Comparative and comparative

Semakin lama, semakin…..

Example:
The weather is getting hotter and hotter. = gradual increase
She becomes prettier and prettier.
She becomes more and more beautiful.
The children are less and less interested. = gradual decrease
Note:
We can express the similarities using the following examples in sentences:
Rita’s shoes are the same Dessy’s.
Rita’s shoes are like Dessy’s.
Rita’s shoes and Dessy’s shoes are alike.
Rita’s shoes and Dessy’s shoes are the same.
Rita’s shoes are as big as Dessy’s.
Rita’s shoes are the same size as Dessy’s.
Rita’s shoes are similar to Dessy’s.
Rita’s shoes are not different from Dessy’s.
Rita’s shoes and Dessy’s shoes are not different.

We can express a comparison of the same degree using:

Adjective Noun
As + adjective + as The same + noun + as
Far – near/close Distance
Heavy – light Weight
High – low Height
 Tall – short Height
Cheap – expensive Price
Fast/ – slow Speed
Long – short Length
Old – young Age
Deep – shallow Depth
Big – small Size
Round – square Shape
Triangle – rectangular Shape
Wide – narrow Width
Good – bad Quality
Thick – thin Thickness
Hard – soft Hardness

DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

1. Positive degree:

…..As adverb as…..

…..Not as adverb as…..
…..So adverb as…..

Example:
Nita sings as beautifully as Jennifer Lopez does.
He runs as fast as I do.
He cries as loudly as my brother.
2. Comparative and Superlative Degree
Most comparative and superlative degree of adverbs are formed with: more and the most.
Example:
 Quietly – more quietly – the most quietly
 Happily – more happily – the most happily
 That cat is walking more quietly than that dog.
 The boy is smiling the most happily of all children.

But a few adverbs have the comparative and superlative degree with –er and –est. Those adverbs
are the ones which have the same form as their corresponding adjectives.
Example:
 Fast – faster – the fastest
 High – higher – the highest
 Soon – sooner – the soonest
 Early – earlier – the earliest
 That sport car runs the fastest of all cars.
 Randy paid the rent earlier than usual.
EXCEPTION
Well – better – the best
Badly – worse – the worst
Little – less – the least
Much – more – the most
Often – more often – the most often

Exercise. Degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs

1. Atun is as (stupid) as her brother. She often behaves as (stupid) as he does.
2. He sings as (good) as you do. he is also as (good) as you are at dancing. He sings (good)
than I do.
3. The (many) friends you invite, the (merry) the party will be.
4. Can you show me the (near) post office?
5. I was the (tired) of all, so I went to bed (early).
6. He studies (lazy) than I do. He is the (lazy) in my family. I am a bit (diligent).
7. The novel is (bad) than that one. I think that one is the (interesting) of all.
8. The problem is (simple) than yours but mine is the (complicated) of all.
9. The (far) you give us information, the (fast) we can find him.
10. He is the (brave) of all. He faces everything the (brave).
 MEETING X
MODALS

A modal is an auxiliary verb which is followed by a bare/plain infinitive (an infinitive without
“to”).
The forms and meanings of Modals:
1. Can → ability → (be able to/ be capable of)
e.g. Nicole can swim fast.
Nicole is able to swim fast.
Nicole is capable of swimming fast.

2. May/can → permission → (be allowed to/ be permitted to/ have permission to)
e.g. You may/can wear my shirt if you want to.
You are allowed to wear my shirt if you want to
are permitted to
have permission to
may/can → possibility → (perhaps/ it is possible that)
e.g. He is absent. He may be sick.
He is absent. Perhaps / it is possible that he is sick

3. Might → permission = may

→ possibility → (it is possible that)
e.g. She might receive the letter tomorrow as I posted it two days ago.
It is possible that she will receive the letter tomorrow as I posted it two days ago.

4. Could → the past tense of ”can” → (was/were able to)

e.g. Last year they could only speak one foreign languages.
Last year they were able to speak only one foreign languages.
Could → polite request (for permission)
e.g. Could I pay by cheque?

5. Must → necessity / strong obligation → (have/has to)

e.g. You must come on time tomorrow.
You have to come on time tomorrow.
Must → conclusions / interference → I conclude
suppose
believe (that)
am sure
am certain
am positive
It is very probable (that)
e.g. Peter has a luxurious house in Spain, a villa in Beverly Hills , a cottage in Japan.
He must be very wealthy.
I conclude that he is very wealthy.
I am sure that
6. Will → future time → (be going to)
e.g. Our teacher will come to your house next week
Our teacher is going to come to your house next week

Will → promise / willingness

e.g. Will you help me finish the wall magazine? Alright, I will
Will → offer / request
e.g. Will you have another cup of coffee? → offer
Will you fetch me tonight? → request

7. Would → the past tense of “will”

e.g. Tania would go to London last week but she cancelled it.
Would → polite request
e.g. Would you mind opening the door?
Would → offer
e.g. Would you like to drink some milk?

8. Shall → future tense (I / We)

e.g. I shall go to Bali tomorrow.
Shall → offer (a help)
e.g. Shall I close the door for you?
Shall → asking for agreement
e.g. Shall we go now?
9. Should → the past tense of “shall”
e.g. He asked if he should clean it for us
Should → desirability → (ought to)
e.g. You should ask for permission if you want to leave the room.
ought to

10. Must not = mustn’t → it is used in a prohibition

e.g. Don’t do that.
You mustn’t do that.

11. Need and dare

a. As an ordinary verb → it is followed by to-inf (in +, -. ? )
b. As an auxiliary verb → it is followed by bare/plain inf (commonly in ( - ) and (?)
Need
e.g. ( + ) She needs to send an e-mail immediately.
↓
Ordinary verb
( - ) She doesn’t need to send an e-mail immediately.
↓
Ordinary verb
Or She need not (needn’t) send an e-mail immediately.
↓
Auxiliary verb
 ( ? ) Does she need to send an e-mail immediately.
↓
Ordinary verb
Dare
e.g. ( + ) He dares to claim.
↓
Ordinary verb
( - ) He doesn’t dare to claim.
↓
Ordinary verb
Or He dare not (daren’t) claim
↓
Auxiliary verb
( ? ) Does he dare to claim?
↓
Ordinary verb
Or Dare he claim?
↓
Auxiliary verb

EXERCISE
1. Tom and Rebecca give their daughter a lot of presents, They…………really love her.
2. We………………… go out to that new Korean restaurant tonight.
3. A : ………………… my friend sleep over ?
B : Yes, but he’ll have to get permission from his parents.
4. I………………. get here earlier because of the traffic jam on the freeway.
5. …………………I get prize if I stand first in the room?
6. The old man……………..recline in a corner and sleep most of the time.
7. We………………..go to the concert if the rain stops. We don’t know for sure.
8. The teacher said we………….read this book for our own pleasure as it is optional. But
we……………..read it if we don’t want to.
9. You…………..leave small objects lying around. Such objects…………….be swallowed by
children.
10. Take an umbrella. It……………rain later.
11. In the previous entrance test, the participants…………ask one another as there was no one
handling the test.
12. \The certificate of marriage should sign by the couple getting married or
it………………illegal.
13. The lady over there asked me whether she……………..take the flowers from my garden.
14. Mum says we…………watch TV after we’ve finished our homework.
15. You don’t……………pick me up at the station. I can get a taxi.
 MEETING XI
RELATIVE CLAUSES IN COMPLEX SENTENCE

Relative clause is a clause that modifies/qualifies a noun/pronoun/noun phrase in a complex

sentence. There are two types of relative clauses:
I. RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE
It distinguishes/restricts the noun it modifies from all members of the same noun. It is
introduced by ‘wh-words’ (who, whom, whose, which, where, when ) or that as the Relative
Pronouns. Restrictive clauses vary according to whether they are persons or things or
according to whether they are subject, object, or possessive case.

The forms are as follows:

Person Non Person
Subject Who/That Which/That
Object Whom/That Which/That
Possessive Whose - The…of which
- Of which the
- Whose
1. As a Subject
The girl is a new student. She is sitting over there.
→ The girl who/that is sitting over there is a new student.

The book is about science. It has a red cover.

→ The book which/that has a red cover is about science.

2. As an Object
The girl is a new student. I introduced her to Jeff.
→ The girl whom/that I introduced to Jeff is a new student.

The book belongs to Evan. I showed it to Alice.

→The book which/that I showed to Alice belongs to Evan.

Note: If the sentence has a preposition, we can put the preposition before whom or which
(but we can’t put a preposition before that)

I know the boy. Nadya is talking to him’

→ I know the boy to whom Nadya is talking.

The school has a lot of students. Frank goes to the school.

→ The school to which Frank goes has a lot of students.

3. As a Possessive
I know the girl. You borrowed her book last night
→ I know the girl whose book you borrowed last night.
Randy bought a comic. Its cover is blue.
→ Randy bought a novel of which the cover is blue
II. NON RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE
It does not restrict the meaning of the noun it modifies. It only gives further information
about the noun. So when the Restrictive clause is omitted, the sentence will still give complete
information. It is introduced by ‘wh-words” only and the ‘wh-words’ can’t be omitted. In
writing, the noun restrictive clause is always separated from the noun it modifies by a comma.

The forms of Non Restrictive Clause

Person Non Person
Subject Who Which
Object Whom Which
Possessive Whose - The…of which
- Of which the
- Whose

1. As a Subject
Mr.Raymond is our director. He comes from Atlanta.
→ Mr. Raymond, who comes from Atlanta, is our director.

Our school has a lot of students. Our school is a good school.

→ Our school, which has a lot of students, is a good school.

2. As an Object
I recognize Sandra. You lent her some money yesterday.
→ I recognize Sandra, whom you lent some money yesterday.

That book belongs to Peter. Lidya lent it to me.

→ That book, which Lidya lent to me, belongs to Peter.

3. As a Possessive
Alex is my friend. His father is sick now.
→ Alex, whose father is sick now, is my friend.

The eagle builds its nest on a tree. Its claws are very strong.
→ The eagle, of which the claws are very strong, builds its nest on a tree.

EXERCISE
Combine using defining (restrictive) adjective (relative) clauses!
1. I recognize the girl. She is sitting under the tree.
2. The man lives near my house. You talked to him yesterday.
3. I am watching the woman. Her dress has a pink colour.
4. The cat belongs to my neighbour. It has a long white tail.
5. Indonesia has many populations. Their behaviour is kind and polite.
Combine using non defining (non restrictive) adjective (restrictive) clauses!
1. My youngest brother often plays truant. Mr.Erick punished him last week.
2. This television set is very expensive. It has grey colour.
3. My watch doesn’t show the time very clearly. Its hands have been missing for some time
now.
4. I met the fruit pickers. Several of them were university students.
5. The Tower of London is a famous historic building. A lecture is to be given about the Tower
of London.

Fill in the blanks with Relative Pronouns!

1. The old man…………lives next door has just died.
2. The letter…………………envelope was torn slightly was for my sister.
3. He is not the boy……………we met at Megan’s birthday party last night.
4. The dictionary……………..Michelle is using right now belongs to me.
5. He remembers the day… …………the police caught him.
6. Mrs Jones, …………… husband is a scientist, lives here.
7. Orchids, ……………….. have air roots, are tropical flowers.
8. She is the lady…………………..I am living with now.
9. The girl…………………found the purse has gone away.
10. Rubber, ………………… is obtained from rubber tree, is used for making a lot of things.
 MEETING XII
PARAGRAPH

HOW TO WRITE A PARAGRAPH

The practice of writing paragraphs is essential to good writing. Paragraphs help to break up
large chunks of text and makes the content easier for readers to digest. They guide the reader
through your argument by focusing on one main idea or goal. However, knowing how to write a
good, well-structured paragraph can be little tricky.

I. Planning Your Paragraph

Pros and cons of social networking websites

Consider:
 The prompt
 The issues
 The audience

1. Decide what the main topic of the paragraph is going to be.

Before beginning writing a paragraph, it is important to have a clear idea of what the
paragraph is going to be about. This is because a paragraph is essentially a collection of
sentences that all relate to one central topic. Without a definite idea of what the main topic is,
your paragraph will lack focus and unity. In order to pin down the exact topic of a paragraph,
there are a number of questions:
 What is the prompt I have been given?
If writing a paragraph as a response or answer to a particular prompt, such as “a decision
to donate money to charity. Which charity do you choose and why?” or “Describe a
favourite day of the week”. Think carefully about the prompt and make sure directly
addressing it, rather than going off topic.
 What are the main ideas or issues that I need to address?
Think about the topic being asked or have decided to write about and consider what the
most relevant ideas or issues relating to that topic are. As paragraphs are usually
relatively short, it is important that you try to hit on all of the main ideas, without going
off topic.
 Who am I writing for?
Think about who the intended readership of this paragraph or paper is going to be. What
is their prior knowledge? Are they familiar with the topic at hand, or will it require a
number of explanatory sentences?
 If paragraphs are part of a larger essay, writing an essay outline can help you define the
major ideas or goals of each paragraph.
 2. Write down information and ideas relating to that topic

Pros and cons of social networking websites

Pros:
Large network of support
Great medium for introverts
Create stronger presence in the working world

Cons:
Cyber bullying
Suppress real life interaction
Sharing personal information and photographs

Once you have a clearer idea of what you want to address in your paragraph, you can
start organizing your thoughts by writing down your ideas on a notepad or word document.
There’s no need to write out full sentences just yet, just jot down some key words and phrases.
Once you see everything on paper, you may get a clearer idea of which points are essential to
include in your paragraph, and which points are superfluous.
 At this point, you may realize that there’s a gap in your knowledge and that it will be
necessary to look up some facts and figures to support your argument.
 It’s a good idea to do this research now, so you will have all the relevant information
easily at hand when it comes to the writing stage.

3. Figure out how you want to structure your paragraph.

Topic sentence

Supporting sentence

conclusion

All thoughts, ideas, facts and figures are laid out clearly, then start to think about how the
structure of the paragraph. Consider each of the points to address and try to arrange them in a
logical order – this will make your paragraph more coherent and easier to read.
 This new order may be chronological, may put the most important information first, or
may just make the paragraph easier and more interesting to read – it depends on the topic
and style of the paragraph you wish to write.
 After having decided where everything to go, rewrite your points according to this new
structure – this will help to make the writing process a lot faster and more
straightforward.
 II. Writing Your Paragraph

Pros and cons of social networking websites

Topic sentence:
The benefit of social networking websites have
the potential to outweigh the dangers of such
websites.

1. Write a topic sentence.

The first sentence of a paragraph needs to be the topic sentence. A topic sentence is an
introductory line that addresses what the main idea or thesis or the paragraph is going to be. It
should contain the most important and relevant point you wish to make regarding your topic,
thus summarizing the paragraph as a whole.
Don’t: use an obvious fact as the topic sentence.
Do: feel free to start with a vague idea if you feel stuck and improve it once you have finished
the paragraph.
 Every other sentence you write should support the topic sentence and provide further
detail and discussion of the issues or ideas it raises. If any sentence you write cannot be
directly related to the topic sentence, it should not be included in this particular
paragraph.
 More experienced writers can include their topic sentence at any point in the paragraph; it
doesn’t necessarily need to be the first line. However, writers who are new or less
comfortable with paragraph writing should stick with having the topic sentence first, as it
will help to guide you throughout the rest of the paragraph.
 Your topic sentence should not be too broad or too narrow. If the topic sentence is too
broad you will not be able to discuss its ideas adequately in your paragraph. If it’s too
narrow, you won’t have enough to discuss.

2. Fill in the supporting details.

Pros and cons of social networking websites

Supporting sentences:
While social networking does curb real life
interaction with one’s peers, it also provides shy,
introverted or socially awkward youth with a
new avenue of communication that often makes
it easier to connect and form relationships.

Once you have written and are happy with your topic sentence, you can start to fill in the
rest of paragraph. This is where the detailed, well-structured notes you wrote earlier will come in
handy. Make sure that the paragraph is coherent, which means that it is easy to read and
understand, that each sentence connects with the next and that everything flows nicely as a
whole. To achieve this, try to write clear, simple sentences that express exactly what you want to
say.
 Link each sentence with transition words which form a bridge between one sentence and
next. Transition words can help you compare and contrast, show sequence, show cause
and effect, highlight important idea to the next. Such transition words include
“furthermore”, “in fact”, “in addition to”. You can also use chronological transitions such
as “firstly”, “secondly”, and “thirdly”.
 The supporting sentences are the meat of your paragraph, so you should fill them with as
much evidence to support your topic sentence as possible. Depending on the topic, you
can use facts, figures, statistics and examples or you can use stories, anecdotes and
quotes. Anything goes as long as it is relevant.
 In terms of length, three to five sentences will usually be enough to cover your main
points and adequately support your topic sentence, but this will vary greatly depending on
the topic and the length of the paper you are writing. There is no set length for a
paragraph. It should be as long as it needs to be to adequately cover the main idea.

3. Writing a concluding sentence.

Pros and cons of social networking websites

Concluding sentence:
Even though there are a large number of risks and
downfalls associated with social networking, when the
tool is used correctly and the youth are instructed on
correct usage, it offers considerable positives.

Concluding sentence of your paragraph should tie everything together. A good

concluding sentence will reinforce the idea outlined in your topic sentence, but now it has all the
weight of the evidence or arguments contained in your supporting sentences behind it. after
reading the concluding sentence, the reader should have no doubt as to the accuracy or relevance
of the paragraph as a whole. Don’t disagree with your own evidence: Despite these comments,
the report was a failure. Do qualify the conclusion if it transitions to the next paragraph: these
quotes prove the report had major support, but this does not mean it led to major change.
 Don’t just reword the topic sentence. Your concluding sentence should acknowledge the
discussion that has come before it and remind your reader of the relevance of this
discussion.
 For example, in a paragraph dealing with the topic “Why is Canada a great place to live?”
The concluding sentence might look something like “From all the evidence provided
above, such as provisions, Canada’s fantastic health care provisions, its top-notch
education system and its clean, safe cities, we can conclude that Canada is indeed a great
place to live.
 4. Know when to move on to a new paragraph.

New paragraph that presents contrasting argument

(example):

Vegetarians argue that land is unnecessarily wasted by

feeding animals to be eaten as food.
……….
Opponents argue that land being used for grazing would
not be able to be used to create any other kind of food.

Sometimes it can be difficult to tell where one paragraph should end and another begin.
Luckily, there are a number of guidelines you can follow which can make the decision to move
on to a new paragraph an obvious one. The most basic guideline to follow is that every time you
start to discuss a new idea, you should move on to a new paragraph. Paragraphs should never
contain more than one central idea. If a given idea has multiple points or facets, then each
individual aspect of the idea should be given its own paragraph.
 A new paragraph is also used each time you are contrasting two points or presenting each
side of an argument. For example, if your topic is “should civil servants receive lower
salaries?” one paragraph would deal with the arguments supporting lower pay for civil
servants, while the other paragraph would provide arguments against it.
 Paragraphs make a piece of writing easier to comprehend and give readers a ‘break”
between new ideas in order to digest what they have just read. If you feel that the
paragraph you are writing is becoming too complex, or contains a series of complex
points, you may want to think about splitting it up into individual paragraphs.
 When writing a paper, the introduction and conclusion should always be given their own
paragraphs. The introductory paragraphs should define the aim of the paper and what it
hopes to achieve, while also giving a brief outline of the ideas and issues it will go on to
discuss. The concluding paragraph provides a summary of the information and arguments
contained in the paper and states in clear terms what the paper has shown and/or proven.
It may also introduce a new idea, one that opens the reader’s mind to the questions raised
by the paper.
 If you are writing fiction, you need to start a new paragraph in dialogue to show a new
speaker.

III. Reviewing Your Paragraph

1. Check your paragraph for spelling and grammar
Susan Sanders did not like the rain. whenever it rained, drak clouds would
cover the sky and block out the sun, making the entire day seem dull and
gray. If it rained on a chilly day, then the day seemed even cooler and more
miserable than before. Moreover, regardless of the temperature, rain
meant that Susan’s hair would get frizzy and messed up no matter how
much time she spent on it. Even a few raindrops were sufficient to undo an
entire morning’s worth of styling. As far as Susan was concerned, rain was
certainly not her friend.
 Once you have finished writing, it is essential that you re-read your paragraph two or
three times to check it for misspelled words and poor grammar. Spelling mistakes and bad
grammar can significantly impact the perceived quality of your paragraph, even if the ideas and
arguments it contains are of high quality. It is very easy to overlook small mistakes when
writing, so don’t skip this step, even if you are in a rush.
Ensure that each sentence has a subject and that all proper nouns are capitalized. Also make sure
that all of the subjects and verbs agree with each other and that you use the same tense across the
entire paragraph.
 Use a dictionary to double-check the spelling of words that you are unsure about, don’t
just assume that they are correct.
 Check your paragraph for the proper use marks such commas, colons, semicolons and
ellipses in the correct context.

2. Check your paragraph for coherency.

Maintain consistent point of view

Avoid “I think….” Or “I contend that….”
Stick to short, to-the-point sentences
Don’t use “thesaurus finds”

A sharp increase in cyber bullying is an unfortunate

result of social networking, but I think sites like
Facebook also give people the opportunity to build a
larger network of support.

Not only should the technical aspects of your writing be spot on, but you should try to
achieve clarity in your writing, as well as stylistic flow. You can do this by varying the length
and format of your sentences and by using transitional words and a varied vocabulary.
Don’t: use long words or “thesaurus finds” for their own sake.
Do: use well-known synonyms to vary your writing rather than repeat same word many times.
 The point of view of your writing should remain consistent throughout the paragraph, and
indeed, the entire paper. For example, if you are writing in the first person (e.g. “I believe
that…”) you should not switch to a passive voice (“it is believe that”) halfway through.
 However, you should also try to avoid beginning every sentence with “I think….” or “I
contend that….” Try to vary the format of your sentences, as this will make the paragraph
more interesting for the reader and help it to flow more naturally.
 For beginner writers, it s better to stick to short, to-the-point sentences which clearly
express your point. Long, rambling sentences can very quickly become incoherent or fall
victim to grammatical errors, so try to avoid them until you gain more experience as a
writer.
 3. Decide if your paragraph is complete

Introductory Paragraph of a Play Review:

Recently, I had the pleasure of seeing one of William

Shakespeare’s most beloved comedies, A Midsummer Night’s
Dream, performed beautifully at the Los Angeles Repertory
Theatre in downtown Los Angeles. At first glance, this
performance space looks more like an industrial warehouse
than an art house, but walking in you are transformed to the
magical land of Midsummer.

Once you have re-read the paragraph and fixed any grammatical or stylistic errors, you
should have one more glance over it to determine whether it is complete. Try to look at the
paragraph objectively and decide whether if sufficiently supports and develops your topic
sentence, or whether it needs a few more details or additional evidence to back up your claims.
Don’t: get bogged down in mirror edits before you have finished your essay.
Do: make sure your point is crystal clear before you move on.
 If you feel that the main claim of your topic sentence is sufficiently supported and well-
developed by the contents of the rest of your paragraph, then your paragraph is probably
complete. However, if any important aspect of the topic remains unexplored or
unexplained or if the paragraph is shorter than three sentences, it probably need a little
more work.
 On the other hand, you may decide that your paragraph is too long and contains
superfluous or tangential content. If this is the case, you should edit the paragraph so it
contains only the most relevant information.
 If you feel that all of the content is necessary to your point, but the paragraph is still too
long, you should think about breaking it up into several smaller, more specific
paragraphs.
 MEETING XIII
WRITING ESSAY

Writing an academic essay means fashioning a coherent set of ideas into an argument.
Because essays are essentially linear, they must present their ideas in the order that makes most
sense to a reader. Successfully structuring an essay means attending to a reader’s logic.
The focus of such essay predicts its structure. It dictates the information readers need to
know and the order in which they need to receive it. Thus, your essay’s structure is necessarily
unique to the main claim you are making. Although there are guidelines for constructing certain
classic essay types (comparative analysis), there are no set formula.
Though more advanced academic papers are a category all their own, the basic essay has
the following standardized, five paragraph structure:
Paragraph 1: Introduction
Paragraph 2: Body 1
Paragraph 3: Body 2
Paragraph 4: Body 3
Paragraph 5: Conclusion

Though it may seem formulaic, the idea behind this structure is to make it easier for the
reader to navigate the ideas put forth in an essay. If your essay has the same structure as every
other one, any reader should be able to quickly and easily find the information most relevant to
them.

The Introduction
The principle purpose of the introduction is to present your position (this is also known as
the “thesis” or “argument”) on the issue at hand but effective introductory paragraphs are so
much more than that. Before you even get to this thesis statement, for example, the essay should
begin with a “hook” that grabs the reader’s attention and makes them want to read on. Examples
of effective hooks include relevant quotations (“no man is an island”) or surprising statistics
(“three out of four doctors report that…..”).
Only then, with the reader’s attention “hooked”, should you move on to the thesis. The
thesis should be a clear, one-sentence explanation of your position that leaves no doubt in the
reader’s mind about which side you are on from the beginning of in the your essay.
Following the thesis, you should provide a mini-outline which previews the examples you will
use to support your thesis in the rest of the essay. Not only does this tell the reader what to
expect in the paragraphs to come but it also gives them a clearer understanding of what the essay
is about.
Finally, designing the last sentence in this way has the added benefit of seamlessly
moving the reader to the first paragraph of the body of the paper. In this way we can see that the
basic introduction does not need to be much more than three or four sentences in length. If yours
is much longer you might want to consider editing it down a bit.
Here is an introductory paragraph to an essay in response to the following question:
“Do we learn more from finding out that we have made mistakes or from our successful action?”

“No man is an island” and, as such, he is constantly shaped and influenced by his
experiences. People learn by doing and, accordingly, learn considerably more
 from their mistakes than their success. For proof of this, consider examples from
both science and everyday experience.

DO – Pay attention to Your Introductory Paragraph

Because this is the first paragraph of your essay it is your

opportunity to give the reader the best first impression
possible. The introductory paragraph not only gives the
reader an idea of what you will talk about but also shows
them how you will talk about it. Put a disproportionate
amount of effort into this – more than the 20% a simple
calculation would suggest – and you will be rewarded
accordingly.

DO NOT – Use Passive Voice or I/My

Active voice, wherein the subjects direct actions rather

than let the actions “happen to” them – “he scored a
97%” instead of “he was given a 97%” – is a much more
powerful and attention-grabbing way to write. At the
same time, unless it is a personal narrative, avoid personal
pronouns like I, My or Me. Try instead to be more general
and you will have your reader hooked.

The Body Paragraphs

The middle paragraphs of the essay are collectively known as the body of paragraphs
and, as alluded to above, the main purpose of a body paragraph is to spell out in detail the
examples that support your thesis.
For the first body paragraph you should use your strongest argument or most significant
example unless some other more obvious beginning point (as in the case of chronological
explanation) is required. The first sentence of this paragraph should be the topic sentence of the
paragraph that directly relates to the examples listed in the mini-outline of introductory
paragraph.
A one sentence body paragraph that simply cites the example of “George Washington” or
“LeBron James” is not enough, however. No, following this an effective essay will follow up on
this topic sentence by explaining to the reader, in detail, who or what an example is and, more
importantly, why that example is relevant.
Even the most famous examples need context. For example, George Washington’s life
was extremely complex – by using him as an example, do you intend to refer to his honesty,
bravery or maybe even his wooden teeth? The reader needs to know this and it is your job as the
writer to paint the appropriate picture for them. To do this, it is a good idea to provide the reader
with five or six relevant facts about the life (in general) or event (in particular) you believe most
clearly illustrates your point.
Having done that, you then need to explain exactly why this example proves your thesis.
The importance of this step cannot be understated (although it clearly can be underlined); this is,
after all, the whole reason you are providing the example in the first place. Seal the deal by
directly stating why this example is relevant.

Here is an example of a body paragraph to continue the essay begun above:

Take, by the way of example, Thomas Edison. The famed American inventor
rose to prominence in the late 19th century because of his successes, yes, but
even he felt that these successes were the result of his many failures. He did not
succeed in his work on one of his most famous inventions, the light bulb, on his
first try nor even on his hundred and first try. In fact, it took him more than
1,000 attempts to make the first incandescent bulb but, along the way, he learned
quite a deal. As he himself said, ”I did not fail a thousand times but instead
succeeded in finding a thousand ways it would not work.” Thus, Edison
demonstrated both in thought and action how instructive mistakes can be.

DO – Tie Things Together

The first sentence – the topic sentence – of your body

paragraphs needs to have a lot individual pieces to be truly
effective. Not only should it open with a transition that
signals the change from one idea to the next but also it
should (ideally) also have a common thread which ties all of
the body paragraphs together. For example, if you used
“first” in the first body paragraph then you should used
“secondly” in the second or “on the one hand” and “on the
other hand” accordingly.

DO NOT – Be Too General

Examples should be relevant to the thesis and so should the

explanatory details you provide for them. It can be hard to
summarize the full richness of a given example in just a few
lines so make them count. If you are trying to explain why
George Washington is a great example of a strong leader, for
instance, his childhood adventure with the cherry tree
(though interesting in another essay) should probably be
skipped over.
A Word on Transitions
You may have noticed that, though the above paragraph aligns pretty closely with the
provided outline, there is one large exception: the first few words. These words are example of a
transitional phrase – other include – “furthermore”, “moreover”, but also “by contrast” and “on
the other hand” – and are the hallmark of good writing.
Transitional phrases are useful for showing the reader where one section ends and
another begins. It may be helpful to see them as the written equivalent of the kinds of spoken
cues used in formal speeches that signal the end of one set of ideas and the beginning of another.
In essence, they lead the reader from one section of the paragraph of another.

To further illustrate this, consider the second body paragraph of our example essay:

In a similar way, we are all like Edison in our own way. Whenever we learn a
new skill – be it riding a bike, driving a car, or cooking a cake – we learn from
our mistakes. Few, if any, are ready to go from training wheels to a marathon in
a single day but these early experiences (these so-called mistakes) can help us
improve our performance over time. You cannot make a cake without breaking a
few eggs and, likewise, we learn by doing and doing inevitably means making
mistakes.

This example not only provides another example of an effective body paragraph but also
illustrates how transitional phrases can be used to distinguish between them.

The Conclusion
Although the conclusion paragraph comes at the end of your essay it should not be seen
as an afterthought. As the final paragraph is represents your last chance to make your case and,
as such, should follow an extremely rigid format.
One way to think of the conclusion is, paradoxically, as a second introduction because it
does in fact contain many of the same features. While it does not need to be too long – four well-
crafted sentence should be enough – it can make or break and essay.
Effective conclusions open with a concluding transition (“in conclusion”, “in the end”,
etc) and an allusion to the “hook” used in the introductory paragraph. After that you should
immediately provide a restatement of your thesis statement.
This should be the fourth or fifth time you have repeated your thesis so while you should
use a variety of word choice in the body paragraphs it is a acceptable idea to use some (but not
all) of the original language you used in the introduction. This echoing effect not only reinforces
your argument but also ties it nicely to the second key element of the conclusion: a brief (two or
three word is enough) review of the three main points from the body of the paper.
Having done all of that, the final element – and final sentence in your essay – should be a
“global statement” or “call to action” that gives the reader signals that the discussion has come to
an end.

In the end, then, one thing is clear: mistakes do far more to help us learn and
improve than successes. As example from both science and everyday experience
can attest, if we treat each mistake not as a misstep but as a learning experience
the possibilities for self-improvement are limitless.
DO – Be Powerful

The conclusion paragraph can be a difficult paragraph to write

effectively but, as it is your last chance to convince or otherwise
impress the reader, it is worth investing some time in. take this
opportunity to restate your thesis with confidence; if you
present your argument as “obvious” then the reader might just
do the same.

DO NOT – Copy the First Paragraph

Although you can reuse the same key words in the conclusion as
you did in the introduction, try not to copy whole phrases word
for word. Instead, try to use this last paragraph to really show
your skills as a writer by being as artful in your rephrasing as
possible