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 LIMIT, CONTINUITY & DIFFERENTIABILITY

CONTINUITY 3. THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM

Suppose f (x) is continuous on an interval I, and a and b are any

1. DEFINITION
two points of I. Then if y0 is a number between f (a) and f (b),
A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x = a; where their exits a number c between a and b such that f (c) = y0.
a  domain of f (x), if

lim f x lim f x f a
x oa  x oa 

i.e., LHL = RHL = value of a function at x = a

or lim f x f a
x oa

1.1 Reasons of discontinuity

If f (x) is not continuous at x = a, we say that f (x) is

discontinuous at x = a.
There are following possibilities of discontinuity :

1. lim f x and lim f x exist but they are not

x oa  x oa
equal.
2. lim f x and lim f x exists and are equal but
x oa  x oa

not equal to f (a).

3. f (a) is not defined.
4. At least one of the limits does not exist. Geometrically, That a function f which is continuous in [a, b] possesses
the graph of the function will exhibit a break at the the following properties :
point of discontinuity. (i) If f (a) and f (b) possess opposite signs, then there
exists at least one solution of the equation
f (x) = 0 in the open interval (a, b).
(ii) If K is any real number between f (a) and f (b), then
there exists at least one solution of the equation f
(x) = K in the open interval (a, b).

4. CONTINUITY IN AN INTERVAL

The graph as shown is discontinuous at x = 1, 2 and 3. (a) A function f is said to be continuous in (a, b) if f is
continuous at each and every point  (a, b).
2. PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS (b) A function f is said to be continuous in a closed
interval [a, b] if :
Let f (x) and g (x) be continuous functions at x = a. Then,
(1) f is continuous in the open interval (a, b) and
1. c f (x) is continuous at x = a, where c is any constant.
2. f (x) ± g (x) is continuous at x = a. (2) f is right continuous at 'a' i.e. Limit
x oa
3. f (x). g (x) is continuous at x = a.
f (x) = f (a) = a finite quantity.
4. f (x)/g (x) is continuous at x = a, provided g(a) z 0.-
(3) f is left continuous at 'b'; i.e. Limit
5. If f (x) is continuous on [a, b] such that f (a) and f (b) x ob
are of opposite signs, then there exists at least one
f (x) = f (b) = a finite quantity.
solution of equation f (x) = 0 in the open interval (a, b).
 Study Materials
NCERT Solutions for Class 6 to 12 (Math & Science)
Revision Notes for Class 6 to 12 (Math & Science)
RD Sharma Solutions for Class 6 to 12 Mathematics
RS Aggarwal Solutions for Class 6, 7 & 10 Mathematics
Important Questions for Class 6 to 12 (Math & Science)
CBSE Sample Papers for Class 9, 10 & 12 (Math &
Science)
Important Formula for Class 6 to 12 Math
CBSE Syllabus for Class 6 to 12
Lakhmir Singh Solutions for Class 9 & 10
Previous Year Question Paper
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 LIMIT, CONTINUITY & DIFFERENTIABILITY

(b) Isolated Point Discontinuity :

5. A LIST OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
Where Limit f (x) exists & f (a) also exists but;
Function f (x) Interval in which x oa

f (x) is continuous
Limit z f (a).
1. constant c (–f, f) x oa
2. xn, n is an integer t0 (–f, f)
3. x–n, n is a positive integer (–f, f) – {0}
4. |x–a| (–f, f) x 2  16
E.g. f (x) = , x z 4 and f (4) = 9 has an isolated point
5. P (x) = a0xn + a1xn–1 +.....+ an (–f, f) x4
p (x)
6. , where p (x) and (–f, f)–{x ; q (x)=0} discontinuity at x = 4.
q (x)
q (x) are polynomial in x
ª 0 if x  I
7. sin x (–f, f) Similarly f (x) = [x] + [–x] = « has an isolated
8. cos x (–f, f) ¬ 1 if x  I
S
9. tan x (–f, f) – ­®(2n  1) : n  I ½¾ point discontinuity at all x  I.
¯ 2 ¿
10. cot x (–f, f)– {nS : n I}
11. sec x (–f, f) – {(2n + 1)
S/2 : nI}
12. cosec x (–f, f) – {nS : n I}
13. ex (–f, f)
14. logex (0, f)

6. TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES
Type-1 : (Removable type of discontinuities)
In case, Limit f (x) exists but is not equal to f (c) then the
x oc
function is said to have a removable discontnuity or
discontinuity of the first kind. In this case, we can redefine
Type-2 : (Non-Removable type of discontinuities)
the function such that Limit f (x) = f (c) and make it
xoc
continuous at x = c. Removable type of discontinuity can be In case, Limit f (x) does not exist, then it is not possible to
xoa
further classified as :
(a) Missing Point Discontinuity : make the function continuous by redefining it. Such
discontinuities are known as non-removable discontinuity
Where Limit f (x) exists finitely but f (a) is not defined.
x oa or discontinuity of the 2nd kind. Non-removable type of
2 discontinuity can be further classified as :
1 x 9x
E.g. f (x) = has a missing point discontinuity
1 x
at x = 1, and
sin x
f (x) = has a missing point discontinuity at x = 0.
x
 LIMIT, CONTINUITY & DIFFERENTIABILITY

(a) Finite Discontinuity :

1
E.g., f (x) = x – [x] at all integral x; f (x) = tan–1 at x = 0 and
x
(a) In case of dis-continuity of the second kind the non-
negative difference between the value of the RHL at
1
f (x) = 1
at x = 0 (note that f (0+) = 0 ; f (0–) = 1) x = a and LHL at x = a is called the jump of discontinuity. A
1  2x function having a finite number of jumps in a given interval
I is called a piece wise continuous or sectionally continuous
(b) Infinite Discontiunity : function in this interval.
(b) All Polynomials, Trigonometrical functions, exponential
1 1
E.g., f (x) = or g (x) = 2 at x = 4 ; f (x) = 2tanx and Logarithmic functions are continuous in their
x 4 x4
domains.
(c) If f (x) is continuous and g (x) is discontinuous at x = a
S cos x
at x = and f (x) = at x = 0. then the product function I (x) = f (x) . g (x) is not necessarily
2 x
be discontinuous at x = a. e.g.
(c) Oscillatory Discontinuity :
ª S
1 sin xz0
E.g., f (x) = sin at x = 0. f (x) = x and g (x) = « x
x «
¬ 0 x 0

In all these cases the value of f (a) of the function at x = a

(d) If f (x) and g (x) both are discontinuous at x = a then the
(point of discontinuity) may or may not exist but does
product function I (x) = f (x) . g (x) is not necessarily be
not exist. discontinuous at x = a . e.g.

ª 1 x t0
f (x) = –g (x) = «
¬ 1 x  0

(e) Point functions are to be treated as discontinuous eg.

f (x) = 1 x  x 1 is not continuous at x = 1.

(f) A continuous function whose domain is closed must have

a range also in closed interval.
(g) If f is continuous at x = a and g is continuous at
x = f (a) then the composite g [ f (x)] is continous at

x sin x
From the adjacent graph note that x = a E.g f (x) = and g (x) = |x| are continuous at x
x2 + 2
– f is continuous at x = –1
– f has isolated discontinuity at x = 1 x sin x
= 0, hence the composite (gof ) (x) = will also be
x2 + 2
– f has missing point discontinuity at x = 2
– f has non-removable (finite type) discontinity at the origin. continuous at x = 0.
LIMIT, CONTINUITY & DIFFERENTIABILITY

DIFFERENTIABILITY § f a–h  f a ·
Ÿ Left hand derivative Lim ¨ ¸
h o0
© h ¹
1. DEFINITION
= Slope of tangent at A (when approached from left) f c(a–).
Let f (x) be a real valued function defined on an open interval
Thus, f (x) is differentiable at x = c.
(a, b) where c  (a, b). Then f (x) is said to be differentiable or
derivable at x = c,
f  f c
œ lim exists finitely
oc c
f x  f c
iff, lim exists finitely..
x oc x c
f f c f f c
œ lim lim
This limit is called the derivative or differentiable coefficient oc c oc c
of the function f (x) at x = c, and is denoted by

d f ch  f c f ch  f c
f c c or f x . œ lim lim
dx x c ho0 h h o0 h

f x –f c f c–h – f c
Hence, lim lim is
x o c– x–c h o0 –h

called the left hand derivative of f (x) at x = c and

is denoted by f c (c–) or L f c (c).

f x – f c f c+h – f c
W hile, lim+ lim is
xoc x–c ho0 h

called the right hand derivative of f (x) at x = c

and is denoted by f c (c+) or R f c (c).
If f c (c–) z f c (c+), we say that f (x) is not differentiable
at x = c.

2. DIFFERENTIABILITY IN A SET

f ah  f a 1. A function f (x) defined on an open interval (a, b) is said to

x Slope of Right hand secant = as
h be differentiable or derivable in open interval (a, b), if it is
h o 0, P o A and secant (AP) o tangent at A differentiable at each point of (a, b).
2. A function f (x) defined on closed interval [a, b] is said to be
§ f ah  f a · differentiable or derivable. “If f is derivable in the open
Ÿ Right hand derivative Lim ¨ ¸
h o0 h
© ¹ interval (a, b) and also the end points a and b, then f is said
to be derivable in the closed interval [a, b]”.
= Slope of tangent at A (when approached from right)
f c(a+).
f f a f  f b
i.e., lim and lim , both exist.
f a–h  f a oa 
a ob 
b
x Slope of Left hand secant = as h
h
A function f is said to be a differentiable function if it is
o 0, Q o A and secant AQ o tangent at A differentiable at every point of its domain.
 LIMIT, CONTINUITY & DIFFERENTIABILITY

1. If f (x) and g (x) are derivable at x = a then the

Converse : The converse of the above theorem is not
functions f (x) + g (x), f (x) – g (x), f (x). g (x) will also
necessarily true i.e., a function may be continuous at a
be derivable at x = a and if g (a) z 0 then the function
point but may not be differentiable at that point.
f (x)/g(x) will also be derivable at
E.g., The function f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0 but it is
x = a.
not differentiable at x = 0, as shown in the figure.
2. If f (x) is differentiable at x = a and g (x) is not
differentiable at x = a, then the product function
F (x) = f (x). g (x) can still be differentiable at
x = a. E.g. f (x) = x and g (x) = |x|.
3. If f (x) and g (x) both are not differentiable at
x = a then the product function; F (x) = f (x). g (x)
can still be differentiable at x = a. E.g.,
f (x) = |x| and g (x) = |x|.

4. If f (x) and g (x) both are not differentiable at

x = a then the sum function F (x) = f (x) + g (x) may
be a differentiable function. E.g., f (x) = |x| and The figure shows that sharp edge at x = 0 hence, function
g (x) = – |x|. is not differentiable but continuous at x = 0.

5. If f (x) is derivable at x = a

Ÿ f c (x) is continuous at x = a.

ª 2 1
sin if z0
e.g. f (x) = «
«
¬ 0 if 0

3. RELATION B/W CONTINUITY &

DIFFERENNINBILINY

In the previous section we have discussed that if a function

is differentiable at a point, then it should be continuous at
that point and a discontinuous function cannot be
differentiable. This fact is proved in the following theorem.
Theorem : If a function is differentiable at a point, it is
necessarily continuous at that point. But the converse is
not necessarily true,
or f (x) is differentiable at x = c
Ÿ f (x) is continuous at x = c.
LIMIT, CONTINUITY & DIFFERENTIABILITY

(a) Let f c+ (a) = p & f c– (a) = q where p & q are finite then
:

(i) p = q Ÿ f is derivable at x = a

Ÿ f is continuous at x = a.

(ii) p z q Ÿ f is not derivable at x = a.

It is very important to note that f may be still continuous

at x = a.

In short, for a function f :

Differentiable Ÿ Continuous;

Not Differentiable Ÿ
 Not Continuous

(i.e., function may be continuous)

But,

Not Continuous Ÿ Not Differentiable.

(b) If a function f is not differentiable but is continuous at

x = a it geometrically implies a sharp corner at
x = a.

Theorem 2 : Let f and g be real functions such that fog is

defined if g is continuous at x = a and f is continuous at g
(a), show that fog is continuous at x = a.
 DIFFERENTIATION

DIFFERENTIATION

1. DEFINITION 2. DERIVATIVE OF STANDARD FUNCTION

(a) Let us consider a function y = f (x) defined in a certain interval.

d n
It has a definite value for each value of the independent (i) x n . x n 1 ; x  R, n  R, x ! 0
dx
variable x in this interval.
Now, the ratio of the increment of the function to the increment d x
(ii) e ex
dx
in the independent variable,
d x
'y f x  'x  f x (iii) a a x . ln a a ! 0
dx
'x 'x
d 1
(iv) ln x
'y dx x
Now, as ' x o 0, 'y o 0 and o finite quantity, then
'x
d 1
(v) loga x log a e
dy dx x
derivative f(x) exists and is denoted by y’ or f ’(x) or
dx
d
(vi) sin x cos x
f x  'x  f x dx
Thus, f ' x § 'y ·
lim ¨ ¸ lim
x o0 © 'x ¹ 'x o0 'x
d
(vii) cos x  sin x
(if it exits) dx

for the limit to exist, d

(viii) (tan x) sec2 x
dx
f xh  f x f xh  f x
lim lim
h o0 h h o0 h d
(ix) sec x sec x . tan x
dx
(Right Hand derivative) (Left Hand derivative)
d
(b) The derivative of a given function f at a point x = a of its (x) cosec x  cosec x . cot x
dx
domain is defined as :
d
f ah  f a (xi) cot x  cosec 2 x
Limit , provided the limit exists & is dx
h o0 h
denoted by f ’(a). d
(xii) constant 0
dx
Note that alternatively, we can define
d 1
f x f a (xiii) sin 1 x , –1<x<1
f' a Limit , provided the limit exists. dx 1  x2
xoa x a
d 1
This method is called first principle of finding the derivative
(xiv) cos 1 x , –1<x<1
of f(x). dx 1 x2
 DIFFERENTIATION

d 1 § du · § du ·
(xv) tan 1 x , xR  ¨ 3 ¸ u1 u 2 u 4 ... u n  ¨ 4 ¸ u1 u 2 u 3 u 5 ... u n
dx 1  x2 © dx ¹ © dx ¹

d 1 § du ·
(xvi) cot 1 x , xR  ...  ¨ n ¸ u1 u 2 u 3 ... u n 1
dx 1 x2 © dx ¹

d 1
(xvii) sec1 x , x !1 § du · § dv ·
v¨ ¸  u ¨ ¸
dx x x 2 1 d §u·
(iv) “Quotient Rule” © dx ¹ © dx ¹ where v z 0
¨ ¸
dx © v ¹ v2
d 1
(xviii) cosec1x , x !1 known as
dx x x2 1
(b) Chain Rule : If y = f (u), u = g(w), w = h (x)
(xix) Results : dy dy du dw
then . .
dx du dw dx
If the inverse functions f & g are defined by
y = f (x) & x = g (y). Then g (f (x)) = x. dy
or f ' u . g' . h' x
Ÿ g’ (f(x)) . f’ (x) = 1. dx

dy dy
This result can also be written as, if exists & z 0 , then
dx dx

dx § dy · dy dx dy § dx · ª dx º dy
fc u .
du
1/ ¨ ¸ or . 1 or 1/ ¨ ¸ « z 0 » In general if y = f (u) then .
dy © dx ¹ dx dy dx © dy ¹ ¬ dy ¼ dx dx

3. THEOREMS ON DERIVATIVES 4. METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION

4.1 Derivative by using Trigonometrical Substitution

If u and v are derivable functions of x, then,

d du dv Using trigonometrical transformations before differentiation

(i) Term by term differentiation : urv r
dx dx dx shorten the work considerably. Some important results are
given below :
d du
(ii) Multiplication by a constant Ku K , where K is 2 tan x
dx dx (i) sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x =
1  tan 2 x
any constant
1  tan 2 x
d dv
u v
du (ii) cos 2x = 2 cos2 x – 1 = 1 – 2 sin2 x
(iii) “Product Rule” u.v known as 1  tan 2 x
dx dx dx
In general, 2 tan x 1  cos 2x
(iii) tan 2x , tan 2 x
1  tan 2 x 1  cos 2x
(a) If u1, u2, u3, u4, ..., un are the functions of x, then
(iv) sin 3x = 3 sin x – 4 sin3 x
d (v) cos 3x = 4 cos3 x – 3 cos x
u1 . u 2 . u 3 . u 4 .... . u n
dx
3tan x  tan 3 x
(vi) tan 3x
§ du1 · § du 2 · 1  3tan 2 x
¨ ¸ u 2 u 3 u 4 ... u n  ¨ ¸ u1 u 3 u 4 ... u n
© dx ¹ © dx ¹
§S · 1  tan x
(vii) tan ¨  x ¸
© 4 ¹ 1  tan x
 DIFFERENTIATION

§S · 1  tan x 4.2 Logarithmic Differentiation

(viii) tan ¨  x ¸
©4 ¹ 1  tan x
To find the derivative of :
x x
(ix) 1 r sin x cos r sin f2 (x)
2 2 If y f1 x or y = f1 (x) . f2 (x) . f3 (x) ...

§ xry · f1 x . f 2 x . f3 x ...
(x) tan 1 x r tan 1 y tan 1 ¨ ¸ or y
© 1 B xy ¹ g1 x .g 2 x .g3 x ...

(xi) sin 1 x r sin 1 y sin 1 x 1  y 2 r y 1  x 2 then it is convenient to take the logarithm of the function
first and then differentiate. This is called derivative of the
logarithmic function.
1 1
(xii) cos x r cos y cos 1 xy B 1  x 2 1  y 2
Important Notes (Alternate methods)
(xiii) sin–1x + cos–1x = tan–1x + cot–1x = sec–1x + cosec–1x = S/2 g x
1. If y f x eg x ln f x
((variable)variable) {' x = eln x}
–1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1
(xiv) sin x = cosec (1/x) ; cos x = sec (1/x) ; tan x = cot (1/x)
dy ­ d d ½
? eg x ln f x
. ® g x . ln f x  ln f x . g x ¾
dx ¯ dx dx

Some standard substitutions : g x ­° f' x ½°

f x . ®g x .  ln f x . g ' x ¾
Expressions Substitutions ¯° f x °¿

2. If y = {f (x)}g (x)
a2  x2 x = a sin T or a cos T
dy
? Derivative of y treating f (x) as constant + Derivative of
dx
a2  x2 x = a tan Tor a cot T
y treating g(x) as constant

x2  a 2 x = a sec T or a cosec T g x d g x 1 d
f x .ln f x . g x g x f x . f x
dx dx

§ax· §ax · g x g x 1
¨ ¸ or ¨ ¸ x = a cos T or a cos 2T f x .ln f x . g ' x  g x . f x .f ' x
©ax¹ ©ax¹
4.3 Implict Differentiation : I (x, y) = 0
ax x  b or x = a cos T + b sin T
2 2

(i) In order to find dy/dx in the case of implicit function, we

§ax· §x · differentiate each term w.r.t. x, regarding y as a function of x
¨ ¸ or ¨ ¸ & then collect terms in dy/dx together on one side to finally
© xb¹ ©ax¹
find dy/dx.

x a x  b or (ii) In answers of dy/dx in the case of implicit function, both x &

x = a sec2 T – b tan2 T
y are present.
Alternate Method : If f (x, y) = 0
§ x a · §x ·
¨ ¸ or ¨ ¸
© xb¹ © x a ¹ § wf ·
¨ ¸
wx
© ¹
dy diff . of f w.r.t. x treating y as constant
then 
2ax  x 2
x = a (1 – cos T) dx § wf · diff . of f w.r.t. y treating x as constant
¨ ¸
© wy ¹
 DIFFERENTIATION

4.4 Parametric Differentiation 5. DERIVATIVE OF ORDER TWO & THREE

If y = f (t) & x = g(t) where t is a Parameter, then Let a function y = f (x) be defined on an open interval
(a, b). It’s derivative, if it exists on (a, b), is a certain function
dy dy / dt
...(1) f ’(x) [or (dy/dx) or y’] & is called the first derivative of y w.r.t.
dx dx / dt
x. If it happens that the first derivative has a derivative on
(a, b) then this derivative is called the second derivative of
y w.r.t. x & is denoted by f ”(x) or (d2y/dx2) or y”.

dy dy dt Similarly, the 3rd order derivative of y w.r.t. x, if it exists, is

1. .
dx dt dx
d3 y d § d2y ·
d2y d § dy · d § dy · dt § dy · defined by ¨ ¸ it is also denoted by f ”(x) or y”’.
2. ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸. ¨' in terms of t¸ dx dx © dx 2 ¹
dx 2 dx © dx ¹ dt © dx ¹ dx © dx ¹
Some Standard Results :
d§ f' t · 1
¨ ¸. {From (1)}
dt ¨© g ' t ¸¹ f ' t dn m m! mn
(i) ax  b .a n . ax  b , m t n.
dx n mn !
f cc t g c t  g cc t f c t
f' t
dn n
(ii) x n!
dx n
4.5 Derivative of a Function w.r.t. another Function

fc x dn
dy dy / dx (iii) e mx m n .e mx , m  R
Let y = f (x) ; z = g(x) then dz dz / dx gc x dx n

4.6 Derivative of Infinite Series dn § nS ·

(iv) sin ax  b a n sin ¨ ax  b  ¸ , n  N
dx n © 2 ¹
If taking out one or more than one terms from an infinite
series, it remains unchanged. Such that
dn § nS ·
(v) cos ax  b a n cos ¨ ax  b  ¸, n  N
dx n © 2 ¹
(A) If y f x  f x  f x  .......f

then y f x  y Ÿ (y2 – y) = f (x) d n ax

(vi) e sin bx  c r n .eax .sin bx  c  n I , n  N
dx n
dy
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get (2y – 1) = f ’(x)
dx
where r a 2  b 2 , I tan 1 b / a .
.......f
f x
f x
(B) If y f x then y = {f (x)}y Ÿ y = ey ln f (x)
d n ax
(vii) e .cos bx  c r n .eax .cos bx  c  n I , n  N
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get dx n

y1
dy y f x .f ' x y2 f ' x where r a 2  b 2 , I tan 1 b / a .
dx 1 f x
y
.A n f x f x 1 y A n f x
 DIFFERENTIATION

6. DIFFERENTIATION OF DETERMINANTS 7. L’ HOSPITAL’S RULE

f x g x h x If f (x) & g(x) are functions of x such that :

If F X A x m x n x ,
(i) lim f x 0 lim g x or lim f x f lim g x and
u x v x w x x oa xoa x oa x oa

where f, g, h, A, m, n, u, v, w are differentiable function of x then (ii) Both f (x) & g(x) are continuous at x = a and

f' x g' x h' x f x g x h x (iii) Both f (x) & g(x) are differentiable at x = a and
F' x A x m x n x  A' x m' x n x (iv) Both f ’(x) & g’(x) are continuous at x = a, Then
u x v x w x u x v x w x
f x f' x f" x
Limit Limit Limit & so on till
x oa g x x oa g' x x oa g" x
f x g x h x
 A x m x n x indeterminant form vanishes..
u' x v' x w' x

8. ANALYSIS & GRAPHS OF SOME USEFUL FUNCTION

ª S Sº
(i) y = sin–1 (sin x) x  R ; y  « , »
¬ 2 2¼

(ii) y = cos–1 (cos x) x  R ; y  0, S

­ S ½ § S S·
(iii) y = tan–1 (tan x) x  R  ®x : x 2n  1 , n  Z¾ ; y  ¨  , ¸
¯ 2 © 2 2¹
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