ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am using this opportunity to express my gratitude to everyone who supported

me throughout this Aircraft Design Project II. I am thankful for their aspiring
guidance, invaluably constructive criticism and friendy advice during the project
work. I am sincerely grateful to them for sharing their truthful and illuminating views
on a number of issues related to the project.

I express my warm thanks to my friends, parents, faculties for their support

and guidance at this project work to complete it successfully with all sort of
necessities required.

I would also like to thank my project guide Mr.E.J.Benny Thompson(M.E)

(Assistant professor) , Mr.D.Barath Raj (M.E) (Assistant professor) and
Dr.V.K.Shanmuganathan (M.E, Ph.D) (Head of Aeronautical Department) who
provided me with the facilities being required and conductive conditions for this
project.

1
 ABBREVIATION
A.R. - Aspect Ratio
B - Wing Span (m)
C - Chord of the Airfoil (m)
C root - Chord at Root (m)
C tip - Chord at Tip (m)
C - Mean Aerodynamic Chord (m)
Cd - Drag Co-efficient
Cd,0 - Zero Lift Drag Co-efficient
Cp - Specific fuel consumption (lbs/hp/hr)
CL - Lift Co-efficient
D - Drag (N)
E - Oswald efficiency
L - Lift (N)
(L/D)loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter
(L/D)cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise
M - Mach number of aircraft
Mff - Mission fuel fraction
R - Range (km)
Re - Reynolds Number
S - Wing Area (m²)
Sref - Reference surface area
Swet - Wetted surface area
Sa - Approach distance (m)
Sf - Flare Distance (m)
Sfr - Free roll Distance (m)
Sg - Ground roll Distance (m)
T - Thrust (N)
Tcruise - Thrust at cruise (N)
Ttake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)
(T/W)loiter - Thrust-to-weight ratio at loiter
(T/W)cruise - Thrust-to-weight ratio at cruise
(T/W)take-off - Thrust-to-weight ratio at take-off
Vcruise - Velocity at cruise (m/s)
Vstall - Velocity at stall (m/s)
Wcrew - Crew weight (kg)
Wempty - Empty weight of aircraft (kg)
Wfuel - Weight of fuel (kg)
Wpayload - Payload of aircraft (kg)
W0 - Overall weight of aircraft (kg)
W/S - Wing loading (kg/m²)
ρ - Density of air (kg/m³)
µ - Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m²)
λ - Tapered ratio
R/C - Rate of Climb(m/s)

2
 ABSTRACT

Aircraft design project-2 is a continuation of Aircraft design project-1. As

mentioned in our earlier project, aviation is a means of transporation is of prime
importance to every country and with this in mind we have embarked on this project
of trying to design a 180 tonne bomber aircraft.In our aircraft design project-1, we
have performed a Rudimentary analysis.

Aircraft design project-2 deals with a more in depth study and analysis of aircraft
performance and structural characteristics.The flight envelop of our aircraft has also
been by constructing the V-N diagram then the combined gust load and V-N
diagram, schrenks curve, by load estimation on wing shear force and bending
moment diagram are also drawn and determined.

By determining the various loads on the aircraft the lift force of the aircraft can be
calculated and thus the shear force and the bending moment of the aircraft. By
knowing the bending moment and the shear force the structural stability of the
aircraft can be determined. The v-n diagram and gust load the structural stability and
the limits within the aircraft can be determined

3
 AIM OF THR PROJECT
The aim of this project is to continue the project from aircraft design project-
I and to further develop the project based on the structural stability and loads acting
on the wings and the various types of forces and moments acting on the aircraft.
In this projects the upcoming design level calculations and selections are made
and are listed below

Preliminary design of an aircraft wing – Shrenck‟s curve, structural load distribution, shear
force, bending moment and torque diagrams
Detailed design of an aircraft wing – Design of spars and stringers, bending stress and shear
flow calculations – buckling analysis of wing panels
Preliminary design of an aircraft fuselage – load distribution on an aircraft fuselage
Detailed design of an aircraft fuselage – design of bulkheads and longerons – bending stress
and shear flow calculations – buckling analysis of fuselage panels
Design of control surfaces - balancing and maneuvering loads on the tail plane and aileron,
rudder loads
Design of wing-root attachment
Landing gear design
Preparation of a detailed design report with CAD drawings

4
 INDEX
S.NO CONTENT PAGE NO.

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 V-N DIAGRAM 5

3 GUST LOAD DIAGRAM 9

4 COMBINED GUST & V-N DIAGRAM 12

5 SCHRENK'S CURVE 13

6 LOAD ESTIMATION ON WING 17

7 SFD & BMD CALCULATION 24

8 MATERIAL, SPAR, STRINGER SELECTION 27

9 DETAILED STRUCTURAL LAYOUT 31

10 FUSELAGE CONFIGURATION 34

11 LANDING GEAR & TAIL CONFIGURATION 36

12 3 VIEW DIAGRAM 40

13 CONCLUSION 42

14 BIBLIOGRAPHY 43

5
6
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
BOMBER AIRCRAFT
A bomber is a combat aircraft designed to attack ground and sea targets by dropping air-
to-ground weaponry, firing torpedoes or deploying air-launched cruise missiles.

CLASSIFICATION

(i)STRATEGIC
Strategic bombing is done by heavy bombers primarily designed for long-range bombing
missions against strategic targets such as supply bases, bridges, factories, shipyards, and cities
themselves, in order to diminish the enemy's ability to wage war by limiting access to resources
through crippling infrastructure or reducing industrial output. Current examples include the
strategic nuclear-armed strategic bombers: B-2 Spirit, B-52 Stratofortress, Tupolev Tu-
95 'Bear', Tupolev Tu-22M 'Backfire'; historically notable examples are the: Gotha G.IV, Avro
Lancaster, Heinkel He-111, Junkers Ju 88, Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, Consolidated B-24
Liberator, Boeing B-29 Superfortress, and Tupolev Tu-16 'Badger'.

(ii)TACTICAL
Tactical bombing, aimed at countering enemy military activity and in supporting offensive
operations, is typically assigned to smaller aircraft operating at shorter ranges, typically near the
troops on the ground or against enemy shipping. This role is filled by tactical bomber class, which
crosses and blurs with various other aircraft categories: light bombers, medium bombers, dive
bombers, interdictors, fighter-bombers, attack aircraft, multirole combat aircraft, and others.
Current examples: F-15E Strike Eagle, F/A-18 Hornet, Sukhoi Su-27, Xian JH-7, Dassault-
Breguet Mirage 2000, and the Panavia Tornado
Historical examples: Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik, Junkers Ju 87 Stuka, Republic P-47
Thunderbolt, Hawker Typhoon, McDonnell-Douglas F-4 Phantom II and Mikoyan MiG-27.

Our aircraft is strategic bomber according to the specifications calculated.

Total crew: 10 members
 Crew members (with all in ejection seats)
 Aircraft commander
 Pilot
 Radar navigator
 Navigator
 Electronic warfare officer
 Former gunner position
 Additional crew members: (with no ejection seats)
 Instructor pilot
 Instructor navigator
 Electronic warfare officer
 Instructor gunner
BOMBS USED
7
Dumb bombs – MK84 (Total -8, each of 925kg)
Guided bombs – BLU -3pineapple (Total -100, each of 0.8kg)
Browning machine gun with tripod (Total 58 kg)

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
Conceptual design includes assumptions of aircraft mission requirements, performance and
configuration needed for the company or customer We actually design the aircraft on the concept
basis with the help of referring many aircraft and taking some assumption values
For designing the Bomber aircraft, the following things are to be considered
 Mission Requirements
 Configuration
 Performance Characteristics

MISSION REQUIREMENTS
Below table results are from Aircraft Design Project 1
PARAMETERS VALUES
CREW 2 members
ROLE Strategic Bomber
ENDURANCE 7 hours
PAYLOAD 2040 Kg
TYPE OF PAYLOAD Dumb Bombs, Guided Bombs

CONFIGURATION
Below table results are from Aircraft Design Project 1
PARAMETERS SHAPES
WING Swept back wing, high wing
TAIL V-Tail
LANDING GEAR Tricycle Landing Gear
ENGINE Turbo Prop Engine
(Pratt & Whitney JT-3D)

PERFORMANCE
Below table results are from Aircraft Design Project 1
PARAMETERS VALUES
MAXIMUM SPEED 1250 Kmph
CRUISE SPEED 870 Kmph
SERVICE CEILING 14000 m
RATE OF CLIMB 23.75 m/s

SPECFICATION OF DESIGNED BOMBER AIRCRAFT

8
The calculated values of our desired Bomber aircraft as shown in tables above given
Below table results are from Aircraft Design Project 1
DESIGN POINT PARAMETERS VALUES
Overall Weight 33856.31 Kg
WEIGHT Empty Weight 18282.41 Kg
Fuel Weight 2609.38 Kg
Payload Weight 2040 Kg
Cruise Speed 870 Kmph
PERFORMANCE Maximum Speed 1250 Kmph
Range 4355 Km
Thrust Required 76 KN
Area 90.86 m2
Span 29.53 m
WING Tip Chord 0.904 m
Root Chord 2.513 m
Airfoil NACA 63(1)-415

Introduction to aircraft design project II

Aircraft design project II continuation of the aircraft design project I, in adpI the
rudimentary analysis of the bomber aircraft is done such as the weight estimation and fuel weight
validation and primary structures of the wing and the other preliminary designs are done on the
project.
aircraft design project II the structural design of the aircraft is carried out. The following
assessments are to be carried in adpII and are listed below

 Preliminary design of an aircraft wing – Shrenck‟s curve, structural load distribution, shear force,
bending moment and torque diagrams
 Detailed design of an aircraft wing – Design of spars and stringers, bending stress and shear flow
calculations – buckling analysis of wing panels
 Preliminary design of an aircraft fuselage – load distribution on an aircraft fuselage
 Detailed design of an aircraft fuselage – design of bulkheads and longerons – bending stress and
shear flow calculations – buckling analysis of fuselage panels
 Design of control surfaces - balancing and maneuvering loads on the tail plane and aileron, rudder
loads
 Design of wing-root attachment
 Landing gear design
 Preparation of a detailed design report with CAD drawings

The structural design of an airplane actually begins with the flight envelope or the V-n

9
diagram, which clearly limits the maximum load factors that the airplane can withstand at
any particular flight velocity. But, in normal practice the airplane might experience loads that
are much higher than the design loads. Some of the factors that lead to structural overload of
an airplane are high gust velocities, sudden movement of the controls, fatigue loads and in
some cases, bird strikes or lightening strikes. So, to add some inherent ability to withstand
these rare but large loads, a safety factor of 1.5 is provided during the structural design.
The two major members that need to be considered for the structural design of an
airplane are the wings and the fuselage. As far as the wing design is concerned, the most
significant load is the bending load. So, the primary load bearing component in the wing
structure is the spar (the front and the rear spars) whose cross section is an I- section. Apart
from the spar to take the bending loads, suitable stringers need to be provided to take the
shear loads acting on the wing.
Unlike the wing , which is subjected mainly to unsymmetrical bending load, the
fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical cross section as well
as symmetrical loading .The main load in the case of fuselage is only shear because the load
acting on the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural
design of both the wing and the fuselage begin with shear force and the bending moment
diagrams for the respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in each in each
of them is checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for the respective
member.

10
 CHAPTER 2
V-n DIAGRAM
INTRODUCTION
Flight regime of any aircraft includes all permissible combinations of speeds, altitudes,
weights, centers of gravity, and configurations. This regime is shaped by aerodynamics,
propulsion, structure, and dynamics of aircraft. The borders of this flight regime are called flight
envelope or maneuvering envelope. The safety of human onboard is guaranteed by aircraft
designer and manufacturer. Pilots are always trained and warned through flight instruction manual
not to fly out of flight envelope, since the aircraft is not stable, or not controllable or not structurally
strong enough outside the boundaries of flight envelope. A mishap or crash is expected, if an
aircraft is flown outside flight envelope.
The flight envelope has various types; each of which is usually the allowable variations of
one flight parameter versus another parameter. These envelopes are calculated and plotted by flight
mechanics engineers and employed by pilots and flight crews. For instance, the load masters of a
cargo aircraft must pay extra caution to the center of gravity location whenever they distribute
various loads on the aircraft. There are several crashes and mishaps that safety board's report
indicated that load master are responsible, since they deployed more loads than allowed, or
misplaced the load before take-off. Nose heavy and tail heavy are two flight concepts that pilots
are familiar and experienced with, and are trained to deal with them safely.
Pilots are using several graphs and charts in their flight operations. Four important
envelopes are as follows:
1. Diagram of variations of aircraft lift coefficient versus Mach number (CL – M)
2. Diagram of variations of airspeed versus altitude (V – h)
3. Diagram of variations of center of gravity versus aircraft weight (Xcg – W)
4. Diagram of variations of airspeed versus load factor (V – n)
One of the most important diagrams is referred to as flight envelope.
This envelope demonstrates the variations of airspeed versus load factor (V – n). In another
word, it depicts the aircraft limit load factor as a function of airspeed. One of the primary reasons
that this diagram is highly important is that, the maximum load factor; that is extracted from this
graph; is a reference number in aircraft structural design.
If the maximum load factor is under-calculated, the aircraft cannot withstand flight load
safely. For this reason, it is recommended to structural engineers to recalculate the V-n diagram
on their own as a safety factor.
In this section, details of the technique to plot the V- n diagram in introduced. A typical V-
n diagram for a GA aircraft is given below. This diagram is, in fact, a combination of two diagrams:
1. The V-n diagram without consideration of gust, 2. The V-n diagram on the effect of gust. In this
section, we first have another look on the load factor and then present new concepts on load factor.
Then the phenomena of gust and gust load are described. At the end of this section, the technique
to plot V – n diagram is completely described. This description is supported by a solved example.

11
LOAD FACTOR
The load to the aircraft on the ground is naturally produced by the gravity (i.e. 1 times g).
But, there are other sources of load to the aircraft during flight; one of which is the acceleration
load. This load is usually normalized through load factor (i.e. "n" time’s g). In another word,
aircraft load is expressed as a multiple of the standard acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81 m/sec2
= 32.17 ft/sec2).
𝑳
n=
𝑾

In some instances of flight such as turn and pull-up, the aircraft must generate a lift force
such that it is more than weight. For instance, load factor in a pull-up from equation 9.86 can be
re-written as:
𝒂
n= +1
𝒈
Where "a" is the centrifugal acceleration (V2/R). As this acceleration increases; i.e.
airspeed increases or radius of turn decreases; the load factor will increase too. For other flight
operations, similar expressions can be drawn. In some instances; especially for missiles; this load
factor may get as high as 30. As the table 2.2 illustrates, a low load factor fighter may end up
getting targeted by a high load factor missile.
Load factor for various types of aircraft:
S.NO AIRCRAFT TYPE MAXIMUM MAXIMUM
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
LOAD FACTOR LOAD FACTOR
1 Normal(non-acrobatic) 2.5-3.8 -1 to -1.5
2 Utility(semi-acrobatic) 4.4 -1.8
3 Acrobatic 6 -3
4 Homebuilt 5 -2
5 Transport 3-4 -1 to -2
6 Highly maneuverable 6.5-12 -3 to -6
7 Bomber 2-4 -1 to -2

12
V-n DIAGRAM WITHOUT GUST EFFECT
V-n diagram is an envelope that indicates the limits of load factor and speed for a safe
flight. It is usually composed of two curves plus few lines. The two curves on the left hand side
represent the aerodynamic limit on load factor imposed by stall (CLmax). The expression for the
top curve is extracted from stall equation in turn (i.e. equation 9.10) as follows:
(𝟐𝒏𝑾)
VS = √
(𝝆𝒔𝑪𝒍𝒎𝒂𝒙)
Where the value of 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 corresponds to that at point A. This speed sometimes is referred
to as maneuvering speed (VA), and is summarized as:
𝑽𝑨= √𝒏m𝒂𝒙𝑽𝒔
The point A is then called the maneuver point. At this point, both lift coefficient and load
factor are simultaneously at their highest possible values. The corner velocity is an interesting
velocity for fighter pilots. At speeds less than V*, it is not possible to structurally damage the
aircraft due to generation of load factor less than nmax. However, the bank angle is not high enough
for a tight turn. In contrast, at speeds greater than V*, maneuverability decreases, since the speed
is too high. Thus fighter pilots are recommended to select this speed for much of their maneuvering
missions. For majority of the cases; and according to the discussions presented in sections 2.3 and
2.4; this point simultaneously corresponds to the tightest turn and fastest turn of an aircraft. Typical
corner velocities of current advanced fighters are around 300 to 350 KEAS.
The right hand side of the V – n diagram, vertical line BC, is a high speed limit. This speed is
usually selected to be the dive speed. At flight speeds higher than this limit, the dynamic pressure
(q) is higher than the design value for the aircraft. At the speed above dive speed, destructive
phenomena such as flutter, aileron reversal, and wing divergence, may happen that leads structural
damage, or failure, or disintegration. This speed limit (dive speed) is a red-line speed for the
aircraft; it should never be exceeded. The dive speed (VD) is usually higher than aircraft maximum
speed (Vmax), and the aircraft maximum speed (Vmax) is often higher than aircraft cruising speed
(VC). From FAR Part 23, the following regulations have been directly copied:
 VD ≥ 1.4 VC (Normal Aircraft)
 VD ≥ 1.5 VC (Utility Aircraft)
 VD ≥ 1.55 VC (Acrobatic Aircraft)
For Bomber Aircraft:
npos = 2 to 4
nneg = -1 to -2
Dive Speed:
VD = 1.55 VC = 1.5 x 870 = 241.66 m/s (At F)
Stall Speed:
(2𝑛𝑊)
VS = √(𝜌𝑠𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥) (n=1)
(2×1×33856.3)
VS = √(1.225×90.86×0.4895)
VS = 110.4 m/s = VA
Top Curve:
𝐿 0.5𝜌𝑉²𝑆𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥
n=𝑊= {at B (n = 4) positive load factor}
𝑊
0.5𝑥1.225𝑥𝑉𝐵²𝑥317.87𝑥0.423
4= 187549.51𝑥9.81
VB = 220.8m/s

13
Bottom Curve:
𝐿 0.5𝜌𝑉²𝑆𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥
n=𝑊= {at J (n = -2) negative load factor}
𝑊
0.5𝑥1.225𝑥𝑉𝐽²𝑥317.87𝑥−0.423
-2 = 187549.51𝑥9.81
VJ = 156. 05m/s
(2𝑊𝑁𝑛𝑒𝑔)
VK = √(𝜌𝐶𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥)
𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒈 ≥ 𝟎.𝟒 𝒏𝒑𝒐𝒔 for normal and utility aircraft
𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒈 ≥ 𝟎.𝟓 𝒏𝒑𝒐𝒔 for acrobatic category aircraft
nneg = 0.4 npos = 1.6
CNmax = 1.1 CLmax = 0.4895
(2𝑥187549.51𝑥9.81𝑥1.6)
VK = √ (1.225𝑥0.4653𝑥317.87) = 139.566 m/s

Point N Velocity m/s

A 1 110.4
B 4 220.8
F 4 362.5(VD)
J -2 156. 05
K -1.6 139.566

V-n DIAGRAM
5
4
3
2
1
n

Series1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
-1
-2
-3
Velocity m/s

14
 CHAPTER 3
GUST LOAD DIAGRAM
DESCRIPTION
The atmosphere is a dynamic system that encompasses variety of phenomena. Some of
these phenomena include turbulence, gust, wind shear, jet stream, mountain wave and thermal
flow. In this section, we concentrate on only gust, since it is not predictable, but is happening
during most high altitude flights. When an aircraft experiences a gust, the immediate effect is an
increase or decrease in the angle of attack. The geometry of an upward gust. When an upward gust
with a velocity of Vg, hits under the nose of an aircraft with the velocity of V, the instantaneous
change (increase) in the angle of attack (∆𝛼), is determined through:
There are various models for gust prepared by various researchers. Here, we refer to FAR
for the gust modeling. According to FAR 232, a GA aircraft must be able to withstand gust with a
velocity of 50 ft/sec from sea level up to 20,000 ft. From 20,000 ft to 50,000 ft the gust velocity
decreases linearly to 25 ft/sec. an aircraft must safely fly at maneuver speed when encounters a
gust with the velocity of 66 ft/sec. The aircraft must carry gust load during dive speed, if the gust
speed is 25 ft/sec. These data are employed to plot the gust V-n diagram. FAR recommends using
the following equation for modeling the "gust induced load factor" as a function of gust speed:
𝐊𝐠𝐕𝐠𝐞𝐕𝐄𝐚𝛒𝐒
n=1± 𝟐𝐖
Where kg is a coefficient that is determined by the following expression:
𝟎.𝟖𝟖𝛍𝐠
𝑲𝒈 = 𝟓.𝟑𝟑 + 𝛍𝐠
And 𝜇𝑔 is called the aircraft mass ratio and is calculated through:
𝟐𝐦
𝝁𝒈 = 𝛒𝐂𝐚𝐒
where,
m=aircraft mass
Vge=aircraft gust equivalent speed
VE=aircraft equivalent speed
C=mean aerodynamic chord
a=is wing lift curve slope during gust encounter.
The gust V-n diagram is plotted using lines based on the above given equation for various
speeds (i.e. 25, 50, and 66 ft/sec). Then the intersections between these three lines respectively
with maneuver speed (VA), cruising speed (VC), and dive speed (VD) must be marked. The gust
V-n diagram is plotted for several altitudes to determine the highest load factor.

15
A typical gust V-n diagram
𝟐𝛑
𝑎= 𝟐
𝟏+
𝐀𝐑
For Bomber Aircraft:
AR = 9.75
m = 3451.2 Kg
C = 0.66 m
𝜌 = 1.225 Kg/m3
S = 90.86 m2
𝟐𝛑
a= 𝟐 = 5.214
𝟏+
𝟗.𝟕𝟓

2x3451.2
𝝁𝒈 =
1.225x0.66x5.214x90.86

𝝁𝒈 = 18. 02

Kg = 0.88x18.02 / (5.33 + 18. 02)

Kg = 0.679

0.679x20.13x110.4x5.214x1.225x90.86
n=1±
2x33856.31
n = 1 ± 1.2932
n = 2.318,-0.318
0.679x15.25x241.66x5.214x1.225x90.86
n=1±
2x33856.31

n = 3.18,-1.18 @ VC

16
 0.679x7.625x362.5x5.214x1.225x90.86
n=1±
2x33856.31

n = 2.64,-0.63 @ VD

VgE VgE VE N
(ft/s) (m/s) (m/s)
66 20.13 VS = 110.4 2.318,-0.318
50 15.25 VC = 241.66 3.18,-1.18
25 7.625 VD = 362.5 2.64,-0.64

GUST LOAD DIAGRAM

17
 CHAPTER 4
COMBINED GUST AND V-N DIAGRAM
CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE
The technique to plot the basic V-n diagram is introduced. The technique to plot the gust
load and V-n diagram is presented. This section is about combination technique of basic V-n
diagram with gust load diagram. Since the gust in the atmosphere is a true story, aircraft designers
must predict the gust load and add them to the aircraft regular load (maneuver load), to have a safe
and strong structure in flight operations. The maximum combined load factor is usually higher
than separate load factor in each diagram. A typical combined V-n diagram for an aircraft is
illustrated below. The V-n diagram is unique for each aircraft, and pilots and flight crew are
required to fly and operate inside this flight envelope. The following example demonstrates details
of the technique to plot the combined V-n diagram for a bomber aircraft.

combined gust load and v-n diagram

10
8
6
4
load factor

2
0
-2 0 100 200 300 400 500
-4
-6
-8
velocity (m/s)

Combined gust load and v-n diagram

18
 CHAPTER 5
SCHRENK’S CURVE
WING DESCRIPTION
Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length, angle of attack and
sweep along the span. Schrenk’s curve defines this lift distribution over the wing span of an
aircraft, also called simply as Lift Distribution Curve.
Schrenk’s Curve is given by
𝑦1+𝑦2
y= 2
Where
y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1
y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2
LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION
𝜌𝑣2𝐶𝐿𝐶root
Lroot =
2
241.66∗0.2426∗2.513∗0.4895
Lroot =
2
Lroot = 8843.2 N/m

Lift at tip

𝜌𝑣2𝐶𝐿𝐶tip
Lroot =
2

0.4262∗241.66∗241.66∗0.904∗0.4895
Lroot =
2

Lroot = 3181.18 N/m

Equation of linear lift distribution for starboard wing

𝑌1 = −𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑌1 = -383.47x + 8843.2

19
 linear variation of lift
70000
60000
50000
40000
Y1 (N)

30000
20000
10000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
WING SEMI SPAN (m)

LINEAR VARIATION OF LIFT ALONG THE SEMI WING SPAN

ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION:
Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required to overcome
weight
Considering an elliptic lift distribution we get

𝑳 𝑾
= =𝑨
𝟐 𝟐

𝝅𝒂𝒃𝟏
𝑨=
𝟒
Where b1- is Actual lift at root
And a- is wing semi span
Lift at tip
𝟐𝑾
𝒃𝟏 =
𝝅𝒂
𝟐∗𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟏𝟑𝟎.𝟒
𝒃𝟏 =
𝟐𝝅∗𝟏𝟒.𝟕𝟔

b1=7162.6
EQUATION OF ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION:
𝟐𝒃𝟏
𝒚𝟐 = √(𝟐𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 − 𝒙𝟐 )
𝒂
y2 = 970.54√(𝟑𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 − 𝒙𝟐 )

20
 elliptical distribution of lift
120000
100000

Y2 (N) 80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
WING SEMI SPAN (m)

ELLIPTICAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION

CONSTRUCTION OF SCHRENK’S CURVE:

Schrenk’s Curve is given by

𝒀𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐
𝒀=
𝟐

(−𝟑𝟖𝟑. 𝟒𝟕𝑿 + 𝟖𝟖𝟒𝟑. 𝟐) + (𝟗𝟕𝟎. 𝟓𝟒√(𝟐𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 − 𝒙𝟐 ) )

𝒀=
𝟐

Wing semi span Linear lift Elliptical lift 𝒀𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐

𝒀=
distribution distribution 𝟐
0 8843.2 14324.9 11584.5
1 8459.73 14292.0 11372.86
2 8076.26 14192.8 11134.53
3 7692.79 14025.8 10859.29
4 7309.32 13788.8 10549.6
5 6925.85 13477.9 10201.87
6 6542.38 13087.9 79815.14
7 6158.91 12611.4 9385.15
21
8 5775.44 12038.2 8905.15
9 5391.97 11353.6 8906.82
10 5008.5 10536.1 8372.78
11 4625.03 9551.31 7772.3
12 4241.56 8340.43 7088.165
13 3858. 09 6783.37 6099.26
14 3474.62 4536.69 5320.73
14.6 3244.538 0 4005.655

Load distribution on wing

16000 shrenks curve

14000

12000

10000

8000
lift

6000

4000

2000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
wing semi span

22
 CHAPTER VI
LOAD ESTIMATION ON WING
DESCRIPTION:
The solution methods which follow Euler’s beam bending theory (σ/y=M/I=E/R) use the
bending moment values to determine the stresses developed at a particular section of the beam
due to the combination of aerodynamic and structural loads in the transverse direction. Most
engineering solution methods for structural mechanics problems (both exact and approximate
methods) use the shear force and bending moment equations to determine the deflection and
slope at a particular section of the beam. Therefore, these equations are to be obtained as
analytical expressions in terms of span wise location. The bending moment produced here is
about the longitudinal (x) axis.

LOADS ACTING ON WING:

As both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard wing at first. There are
threeprimary loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction which can cause
considerableshear forces and bending moments on it. They are as follows:
 Lift force (given by Schrenk’s curve)
 Self-weight of the wing
 Weight of the power plant
 Weight of the fuel in the wing

23
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS DUE TO LOADS
ALONG TRANSVERSE DIRECTION AT CRUISE CONDITION:
Lift Force given by Schrenk’s Curve:
𝒀𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐
𝒀=
𝟐
LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION (TRAPEZIUM):
𝑌1 = -383.47x + 8843.2
ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION (QUARTER ELLIPSE):
y2 = 970.54√(𝟐𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 − 𝒙𝟐 )

y2 = 970.54√(𝟐𝟏𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 − 𝒙𝟐 )

24
 LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION

Elliptical lift distribution

120000

100000

80000
Y2 (N)

60000

40000

20000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
WING SEMI SPAN (m)

ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION

SELF-WEIGHT OF WING (𝒀𝟑)

Self-weight of the wing,
𝑾𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑵 𝒃
= 𝐅𝐰√ ∗
𝑾𝒐 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾
Where
N = 1.5*positive load factor(4)
b = wing span
W = wing loading
N = ultimate load factor
Fw = cantilever monoplane coefficient = 1
𝑾𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝟏. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟒 𝟐𝟗. 𝟓𝟑
= 𝟏√ ∗
𝑾𝒐 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟗𝟎
𝑾𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐
𝑾𝒐
W(wing) = 0.01732x33856.1
W(wing) = 586.70N
W(Portwing)= - 293.35 N (Acting Downwards)
W(Starboard)= 293.35 N (Acting Downwards)
Assuming parabolic weight distribution
𝒀𝟑 = 𝒌(𝒙 − 𝒂)𝟐
Y3=W(portwing)

25
 𝟐𝟐.𝟕𝟓

−𝟐𝟗𝟑. 𝟑𝟓 = 𝒌 ∫ (𝒙 − 𝟐𝟗. 𝟓𝟑)𝟐 𝒅𝒙

𝟎
K =-0.273
𝒀𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝟔)𝟐

WING SEMI SPAN 𝒀𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝟔)𝟐

0 4.29
2 3.483
4 2.937
6 2.391
8 1.845
10 1.299
12 0.253
14 0.2074
14.6 0

26
 WING SEMI SPAN (m)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
WEIGHT OF EMPTY WING (N)
-500

-1000

-1500

-2000

-2500

-3000
SELF WEIGHT OF WING

SELF WEIGHT OF WING

POWER PLANT WEIGHT:

The powerplant is located at a distance of 6m from the wing root and another pair of
powerplant is located at a distance of 12m from the root of the wing
Each pair of wing weighs about 38808.36N

FUEL WEIGHT:
This design has fuel in the wing so we have to consider the weight of the fuel in one the
wing.
𝑾(𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍)
𝐖(𝐟𝐮𝐞𝐥 𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐠) =
𝟐
W(fuel wing) = 3602.31N

27
 FUEL WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
-1000

-2000

-3000
FUEL WEIGHT (N)

-4000

-5000

-6000

-7000
SEMI WING SPAN(M)

FUEL WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION

LOAD DISTRIBUTION THROUGH THE WING

28
 WING LOADING DISTRIBUTION
20000

15000

10000

5000
LOAD

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

-5000

-10000 WING SEMI SPAN

Load distribution through the semi wing span

Loads simplified as point loads

Curve / component Area Curve / component Area Curve / component Area

enclosed / structural enclosed / structural enclosed / structural
Y1/2 25564.95 NM 5.903m
Y2/2 166061.07NM 6.413m
Y3/2 19.82 NM 7.32m
Fuel weight 5889.77 NM 5.314m
Power plant 1 38808.36 N 4m

29
 CHAPTER VII
REACTION FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT CALCULATIONS:
The wing is fixed at one end and free at other end.

Aircraft Wing as Cantilever beam

£v=
Then,
0 = - 9889235 – 38808 - 38808 – 416925 + 459504.5 + 919924.1 - £v
£v = 874998 N (downwards)
£Ma =
Then
0 = (9889.235 * 5.687) + (38808 * 6) + (38808 * 12) + (416925 * 9)
– (459504.5 * 9.58) – (9199241.1 * 9.65) + £Ma
£Ma = 8772235.5 NM (clockwise)

30
SHEAR FORCE:
Shear force at point A = 0
Shear force at point B = 19. 08 N
Shear force at point C = -16641.25 N
Shear force at point D = -191606.2 N
Shear force at point E = -188003.89 N
Shear force at point F = -180548.29 N

SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM

1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000
LOAD

600000
400000
200000
0
-200000 0 5 10 15 20 25
WING SEMI SPAN

SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM

31
 SHEAR FORCE
1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-200000

SHEAR FORCE ACTING THROUGH THE WING SPAN

BENDING MOMENT
Bending moment at A = 0
Bending moment at B = 0
Bending moment at C = -17.97 NM
Bending moment at D = 84663.4 NM
Bending moment at E = 197519.11 NM
Bending moment at F = 444556.224 NM

BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

200000

100000
BENDING MOMENT

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-100000

-200000

-300000

-400000

-500000
WING SEMI SPAN

BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

32
 BENDING MOMENT ON WING
200000

100000

0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-100000

-200000

-300000

-400000

-500000

BENDING MOMENT ACTING ON THE WING

CHAPTER VIII
MATERIAL SELECTION

DESCRIPTION:
Aircraft structures are basically unidirectional. This means that one dimension, the length,
is much larger than the others - width or height. For example, the span of the wing and tail spars
is much longer than their width and depth; the ribs have a much larger chord length than height
and/or width; a whole wing has a span that is larger than its chords or thickness; and the fuselage
is much longer than it is wide or high. Even a propeller has a diameter much larger than its blade
width and thickness, etc. For this simple reason, a designer chooses to use unidirectional material
when designing for an efficient strength to weight structure.
Unidirectional materials are basically composed of thin, relatively flexible, long fibers
which are very strong in tension (like a thread, a rope, a stranded steel wire cable, etc.). An aircraft
structure is also very close to a symmetrical structure. Those mean the up and down loads are
almost equal to each other. The tail loads may be down or up depending on the pilot raising or
dipping the nose of the aircraft by pulling or pushing the pitch control; the rudder may be deflected
to the right as well as to the left (side loads on the fuselage). The gusts hitting the wing may be
positive or negative, giving the up or down loads which the occupant experiences by being pushed
down in the seat or hanging in the belt.
Because of these factors, the designer has to use a structural material that can withstand
both tension and compression. Unidirectional fibers may be excellent in tension, but due to their
small cross section, they have very little inertia (we will explain inertia another time) and cannot
take much compression. They will escape the load by bucking away. As in the illustration, you
cannot load a string, or wire, or chain in compression.

33
 In order to make thin fibers strong in compression, they are "glued together" with some
kind of an "embedding". In this way we can take advantage of their tension strength and are no
longer penalized by their individual compressionweakness because, as a whole, they become
compression resistant as they help each other to not buckle away. The embedding is usually a
lighter, softer "resin" holding the fibers together and enabling them to take the required
compression loads. This is a very good structural material.

WOOD:
Historically, wood has been used as the first unidirectional structural raw material. They
gave to be tall and straight and their wood must be strong and light. The dark bands (late wood)
contain many fibers, whereas the light bands (early wood) contain much more "resin". Thus the
wider the dark bands, the stronger and heavier the wood. If the dark bands are very narrow and the
light bands quite wide, the wood is light but not very strong. To get the most efficient strength to
weight ratio for wood we need a definite numbers of bands per inch.

Some of our aircraft structures are two-dimensional (length and width are large with respect
to thickness). Plywood is often used for such structures. Several thin boards (foils) are glued
together so that the fibers of the various layers cross over at different angles (usually 90 degrees
today years back you could get them at 30 and 45 degrees as well). Plywood makes excellent

34
"shear webs" if the designer knows how to use plywood efficiently. (We will learn the basis of
stress analysis sometime later.)
Today good aircraft wood is very hard to come by. Instead of using one good board for our spars,
we have to use laminations because large pieces of wood are practically unavailable, and we no
longer can trust the wood quality. From an availability point of view, we simply need a substitute
for what nature has supplied us with until now.

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS:
So, since wood may not be as available as it was before, we look at another material which
is strong, light and easily available at a reasonable price (there's no point in discussing Titanium -
it's simply too expensive). Aluminum alloys are certainly one answer. We will discuss the
properties of those alloys which are used in light plane construction in more detail later. For the
time being we will look at Aluminum as a construction material.

EXTRUDED ALUMINIUM ALLOYS:

Due to the manufacturing process for Aluminum we get a unidirectional material quite a
bit stronger in the lengthwise direction than across. And even better, it is not only strong in tension
but also in compression. Comparing extrusions to wood, the tension and compression
characteristics are practically the same for aluminum alloys so that the linear stress analysis
applies. Wood, on the other hand, has a tensile strength about twice as great as its compression
strength; accordingly, special stress analysis methods must be used and a good understanding of
wood under stress is essential if stress concentrations are to be avoided!
Aluminium alloys, in thin sheets (.016 to .125 of an inch) provide an excellent two
dimensional material used extensively as shear webs - with or without stiffeners - and also as
tension/compression members when suitably formed (bent).It is worthwhile to remember that
aluminium is an artificial metal. There is no aluminium ore in nature. Aluminium is manufactured
by applying electric power to bauxite (aluminium oxide) to obtain the metal, which is then mixed
with various strength-giving additives. (In a later article, we will see which additives are used, and
why and how we can increase aluminum’s strength by cold work hardening or by tempering.) All
the commonly used aluminium alloys are available from the shelf of dealers. When requested with
the purchase, you can obtain a "mill test report" that guarantees the chemical and physical
properties as tested to accepted specifications.
As a rule of thumb, aluminium is three times heavier, but also three times stronger than
wood. Steel is again three times heavier and stronger than aluminium.

STEEL
The next material to be considered for aircraft structure will thus be steel, which has the
same weight-to-strength ratio of wood or aluminium.Apart from mild steel which is used for
brackets needing little strength, we are mainly using a chrome-molybdenum alloy called AISI
413ON or 4140. The common raw materials available are tubes and sheet metal. Steel, due to its
high density, is not used as shear webs like aluminium sheets or plywood. Where we would need,
say.100" plywood, a .032 inch aluminium sheet would be required, but only a .010 steel sheet
would be required, which is just too thin to handle with any hope of a nice finish. That is why a
steel fuselage uses tubes also as diagonals to carry the shear in compression or tension and the
whole structure is then covered with fabric (light weight) to give it the required aerodynamic shape

35
or desired look. It must be noted that this method involves two techniques: steel work and fabric
covering.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS:
The designer of composite aircraft simply uses fibers in the desired direction exactly where
and in the amount required. The fibers are embedded in resin to hold them in place and provide
the required support against buckling. Instead of plywood or sheet metal which allows single
curvature only, the composite designer uses cloth where the fibers are laid in two directions (the
woven thread and weft) also embedded in resin.
This has the advantage of freedom of shape in double curvature as required by optimum
aerodynamic shapes and for very appealing look (importance of aesthetics).
Today's fibers (glass, nylon, Kevlar, carbon, whiskers or single crystal fibers of various chemical
compositions) are very strong, thus the structure becomes very light. The drawback is very little
stiffness. The structure needs stiffening which is achieved either by the usual discreet stiffeners, -
or more elegantly with a sandwich structure: two layers of thin uni- or bi-directional fibers are held
apart by a lightweight core (foam or "honeycomb"). This allows the designer to achieve the
required inertia or stiffness.
From an engineering standpoint, this method is very attractive and supported by many
authorities because it allows new developments which are required in case of war. But this method
also has its drawbacks for homebuilding: A mold is needed, and very strict quality control is a
must for the right amount of fibers and resin and for good adhesion between both to prevent too
"dry" or "wet" a structure. Also the curing of the resin is quite sensitive to temperature, humidity
and pressure. Finally, the resins are active chemicals which will not only produce the well-known
allergies but also the chemicals that attack our body (especially the eyes and lungs) and they have
the unfortunate property of being cumulatively damaging and the result (in particular deterioration
of the eye) shows up only years after initial contact.
Another disadvantage of the resins is their limited shelf life, i.e., if the resin is not used
within the specified time lapse after manufacturing, the results may be unsatisfactory and unsafe.

HEAVY AIRCRAFT RAW MATERIALS:

MAGNESIUM: An expensive material. Castings are the only readily available forms. Special
precaution must be taken when machining magnesium because this metal burns when hot.
TITANIUM: A very expensive material. Very tough material and difficult to machine.
CARBON FIBERS: Still very expensive materials.
KEVLAR FIBERS: Very expensive and also critical to work with because it is hard to "soak" in
the resin.

The material used for our aircraft will be aluminum alloy named AL-Li 8090-T511 as the
base metal. The alloy is selected since the strength to weight ratio of the material is more when
compared to most of the material that is available for the manufacturing of the aircraft
Aluminum is also a very light material which will be useful for the performance of the
aircraft and also an efficient one.

36
 CHAPTER IX
DETAILED STRUCTURAL LAYOUTS
FUNCTION OF THE STRUCTURE:
The primary functions of an aircraft‟s structure can be basically broken down into the
following:
 To transmit and resist applied loads.
 To provide and maintain aerodynamic shape.
 To protect its crew, passenger, payload, systems, etc.
For the vast majority of aircraft, this leads to use of a semi-monocoque design (i.e. a thin,
stressed outer shell with additional stiffening members) for the wing, fuselage & empennage.
These notes will discuss the structural layout possibilities for each of these main areas, i.e. wing,
fuselage & empennage.

WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT:

Specific Roles of Wing (Main wing) Structure:
The specified structural roles of the wing (or main plane) are:
To transmit:
 wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam
 Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriage, etc., to the main beam.
 Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil, control surfaces & flaps to the main beam.
 To react against:
 Landing loads at attachment points
 Loads from pylons/stores
 Wing drag and thrust loads

37
  To provide:
 Fuel tank age space
 Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aero-elastic requirements.
 To fulfill these specific roles, a wing layout will conventionally compromise:
 Span wise members (known as spars or booms)
 Chord wise members(ribs)
 A covering skin
 Stringers

Structural Components Of Wing

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF WING STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

The structural functions of each of these types of members may be considered
independently as:

SPARS FUNCTION:
Form the main span wise beam.
Transmit bending and torsional loads.
Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension loads.
Webs - resist shear and torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin.
Flanges - resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.

SKIN FUNCTION:
To form impermeable aerodynamics surface.
Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers.
Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
React axial bending loads (with stringers).

STRINGERS FUNCTION:
Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections.
React axial bending loads.
RIBS FUNCTION:
Maintain the aerodynamic shape.
Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads.
Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress around any
discontinuities.

38
 Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end restraint.
Increase the skin panel buckling strength.
SPARS SELECTION:
These usually comprise thin aluminium alloy webs and flanges, sometimes with separate
vertical stiffeners riveted on to the webs.
Types of spars are
In the case of a two or three spar box beam layout, the front spar should be located as far
forward as possible to maximize the wing box size, though this is subject to there being:
Adequate wing depth for reacting vertical shear loads.
Adequate nose space for LE devices, de-icing equipment, etc.
This generally results in the front spar being located at 12% to 18% of the chord length.
For a single spar D-nose layout, the spar will usually located at the maximum thickness position
of the aerofoil section (typically between 30% & 40% along the chord length).
For the standard box beam layout, the rear spar will be located as for aft as possible, once
again to maximize the wing box size, but positioning will be limited by various space requirements
for flaps, control surfaces, spoilers etc. This usually results in a location somewhere between about
55%and 70% of the chord length. If any intermediate spars are used, they would tend to be spaced
uniformly unless there are specific pick-up point requirements.

The spar selected for the aircraft is standard box beam layout type since it uses limited
space and provide maximum strength.
Usage of this type of spar will ensure that the spars are spaced uniformly and has specific
pick up points
Since it uses minimum space for its fitting additional space can be used for the storage
purpose of fuel in it.

39
 CHAPTER X
FUSELAGE STRUCTURE:
The fundamental purpose of the fuselage structure is to provide an envelope to support
the payload, crew, equipment, systems and (possibly) the power-plant. Furthermore, it must react
against the in-flight maneuver, pressurization and gust loads; also the landing gear and possibly
any power-plant loads. It must be also be able to transmit control and trimming loads from the
stability and control surfaces throughout the rest of the structure.
Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an important
structural member/component. It is the connecting member to all load producing components
such as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc. and thus redistributes the load. It also
serves the purpose of housing or accommodating practically all equipment, accessories and
systems in addition to carrying the payload. Because of large amount of equipment inside the
fuselage, it is necessary to provide sufficient number of cutouts in the fuselage for access and
inspection purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage design being more
complicated, less precise and often less efficient in design.
As a common member to which other components are attached, thereby transmitting the
loads, fuselage can be considered as a long hollow beam. The reactions produced by the wing,
tail or landing gear may be considered as concentrated loads at the respective attachment points.
The balancing reactions are provided by the inertia forces contributed by the weight of the fuselage
structure and the various components inside the fuselage. These reaction forces are distributed all
along the length of the fuselage, though need not be uniformly. Unlike the wing, which is subjected
to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due to its
symmetrical cross-section and symmetrical loading.
The main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the wing
is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of both wing and
fuselage begin with shear force and bending moment diagrams for the respective members. The
maximum bending stress produced in each of them is checked to be less than the yield stress of

40
the material chosen for the respective member.

FUSELAGE LAYOUT CONCEPTS:

There are two main categories of layout concept in common use;
Mass boom and longeron layout
Semi-monocoque layout

MASS BOOM & LONGERON LAYOUT

This is fundamentally very similar to the mass-boom wing-box concept discussed in
previous section. It is used when the overall structural loading is relatively low or when there are
extensive cut-outs in the shell. The concept comprises four or more continuous heavy booms
(longeron), reacting against any direct stresses caused by applied vertical and lateral bending loads.
Frames or solid section.

SEMI-MONOCOQUE LAYOUT
The semi-monocoque is the most often used construction for modern, high-performance
aircraft. Semi-monocoqueliterally means half a single shell. Here, internal braces as well as the
skin itself carry the stress. The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads, frames,
and formers. The heavier vertical members are located at intervals to allow for concentrated loads.
These members are also found at points where fittings are used to attach other units.
Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across several
points of support. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as
stringers. Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons. The stringers are smaller
and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins.
They have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of skin.
The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers. The bulkheads and formers hold the
stringers. All of these join together to form a rigid fuselage framework. Stringers and longerons
prevent tension and compression stresses from bending the fuselage. The skin is attached to the
longerons, bulkheads, and other structural members and carries part of the load.

From the above listed the semi-monocoque type of fuselage structure seems to be the most
appropriate type for our bomber aircraft because of its high performance and structural stability.
Due to the presence of the heavier members which allows to carry extra load it is exactly
suitable to carry bombs and other payloads and light in weight and along with the stringers the
skin carry loads which is one of the major advantage of the design.

41
 CHAPTER XI
LANDING GEAR SELECTION
In aviation, the undercarriage or landing gear is the structure (usually wheels) that supports
an aircraft and allows it to move across the surface of the earth when it is not in flying. So, more
importance is to be given as it carries the entire load on the ground.

OVERVIEW
The design and positioning of the landing gear are determined by the unique characteristics
associated with each aircraft, i.e., geometry, weight, and mission requirements. Given the weight
and cg range of the aircraft, suitable configurations are identified and reviewed to determine how
well they match the airframe structure, flotation, and operational requirements.
The essential features, e.g., the number and size of tires and wheels, brakes, and shock
absorption mechanism, must be selected in accordance with industry and federal standards
discussed in the following chapters before an aircraft design progresses past the concept
formulation phase, after which it is often very difficult and expensive to change the design.
Three examples of significant changes made after the initial design include the DC-10-30, which
added the third main gear to the fuselage, the Airbus A340, where the main gear center bogie
increased from two to four wheels in the -400 series, and the Airbus A-300, where the wheels were
spread further apart on the bogie to meet LaGuardia Airport flotation limits for US operators.
The purpose of Landing Gears is to move the aircraft on ground. After take-off the landing
gear is retracted, before landing it is extended and locked into position.
Liebherr provides system architecture for gear actuation control, steering control, wheel
and brake integration and position and status control, as well as system integration, series
production and of course product support.

42
 Liebherr acquired knowledge and experience based on the realization of different landing gear
programs. The integration of various technologies and use of new material for individual landing
gear concepts lead to competitive products:

 Landing Gear Systems

 Nose Landing Gear Subsystem

 Main Landing Gear Subsystem

 Brake and Brake Control Subsystem

 Research and Development Technology

TYPES OF GEAR ARRANGEMENTS

Wheeled undercarriage comes in two types: conventional or tail dragger undercarriage,
where there are two main wheels towards the front of the aircraft and a single, much smaller, wheel
or skid at rear; tricycle undercarriage where there are two main wheels under the wings and a third
smaller wheel in the nose. Most modern aircraft have tricycle undercarriage. Sometimes a small
tail wheel or skid is added to aircraft with tricycle undercarriage arrangements.

RETRACTABLE GEAR
To decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings and/or fuselage with
wheel flush against or concealed behind doors, this is called retractable gear. It was in late 1920s
and 1930s that such retractable landing gear became common. This type of gear arrangement
increased the performance of aircraft by reducing the drag.

LARGE AIRCRAFT
As the size of aircraft grows larger, they employ more wheels to with the increasing weight.
The airbus A340-500/-600 has an additional four wheel undercarriage bogie on the fuselage
centerline. The Boeing 747 has five sets of wheels, a nose-wheel and four sets of four wheel bogies.
A set is located under each wing, and two inner sets located in the fuselage, a little rearward of
outer bogies.

MAIN FUNCTIONS
• Carry aircraft max gross weight to take off runway
• Withstand braking during aborted take off
• Retract into compact landing gear bay
43
 • Damp touchdown at maximum weight.

STEERING
The steering mechanism used on the ground with wheeled landing gear varies by aircraft,
but there are several types of steering.

 rudder steering
 direct steering
 tiller steering

Configuration Selection
The nose wheel tricycle undercarriage has long been the preferred configuration for
passenger transports. It leads to a nearly level fuselage and consequently the cabin floor when the
aircraft is on the ground. The most attractive feature of this type of undercarriages is the improved
stability during braking and ground maneuvers. Under normal landing attitude, the relative
location of the main assembly to the aircraft cg produces a nose-down pitching moment upon
touchdown.
This moment helps to reduce the angle of attack of the aircraft and thus the lift generated
by the wing. In addition, the braking forces, which act behind the aircraft cg, have a stabilizing
effect and thus enable the pilot to make full use of the brakes. These factors all contribute to a
shorter landing field length requirement.
The primary drawback of the nose wheel tricycle configuration is the restriction placed
upon the location where the main landing gear can be attached. With the steady increase in the
aircraft takeoff weight, the number of main assembly struts has grown from two to four to
accommodate the number of tires required to distribute the weight over a greater area.

Landing Gear Disposition:

The positioning of the landing gear is based primarily on stability considerations during
taxiing, liftoff and touchdown, i.e., the aircraft should be in no danger of turning over on its side
once it is on the ground.
Compliance with this requirement can be determined by examining the takeoff/landing
performance characteristics and the relationships between the locations of the landing gear and the
aircraft cg.

Stability at Touchdown and During Taxiing

Static stability of an aircraft at touchdown and during taxiing can be determined by
examining the location of the applied forces and the triangle formed by connecting the attachment
locations of the nose and main assemblies.
Whenever the resultant of air and mass forces intersects the ground at a point outside this
triangle, the ground will not be able to exert a reaction force which prevents the aircraft from
falling over. As a result, the aircraft will cant over about the side of the triangle that is closest to
the resultant force/ground intersect.

44
Braking and Steering Qualities
The nose assembly is located as far forward as possible to maximize the flotation and
stability characteristics of the aircraft. However, a proper balance in terms of load distribution
between the nose and main assembly must be maintained.
When the load on the nose wheel is less than about eight percent of the maximum takeoff
weight (MTOW), controllability on the ground will become marginal, particularly in cross-wind
21 conditions. This value also allows for fuselage length increase with aircraft growth. On the
other hand, when the static load on the nose wheel exceeds about 15 percent of the MTOW, braking
quality will suffer, the dynamic braking load on the nose assembly may become excessive, and a
greater effort may be required for steering.

Ground Operation Characteristics:

Besides ground stability and controllability considerations, the high costs associated with
airside infrastructure improvements, e.g., runway and taxiway extensions and pavement
reinforcements, have made airfield compatibility issues one of the primary considerations in the
design of the landing gear. In particular, the aircraft must be able to maneuver within a pre-defined
space as it taxies between the runway and passenger terminal. For large aircraft, this requirement
effectively places an upper limit on the dimension of the wheelbase and track.

LANDING GEAR TYPES

During landing and take-off, the undercarriage supports the total weight of the airplane.
Undercarriage is of three types

• Bicycle type
• Tricycle type
• Tricycle tail wheel type

From the above list of landing gear types, the tricycle type is chosen which is the most suitable
configuration for the current design .

45
 CHAPTER XII
THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

46
47
THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

ISOMETRIC VIEW

48
 CHAPTER XIII
CONCLUSION

The structural design of the bomber aircraft which is a continuation of the aerodynamic
design part carried out last semester is completed satisfactorily. The aeroplane has gone through
many design modifications since its early conceptual designs expected, among these was a growth
in weight. To ensure continued growth in payload and the reduced cost of cargo operations,
improvements in methods, equipment and terminal facilities will be required in order to reduce
cargo handling costs and aircraft ground time and to provide improved service for the shippers.
We have enough hard work for this design project. A design never gets completed in a flutter sense
but it is one step further towards ideal system. But during the design of this aircraft, we learnt a lot
about aeronautics and its implications when applied to an aircraft design.

49
 CHAPTER XIV
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. 1 .Raymer D.P, Aircraft Design - a Conceptual Approach, AIAA educational series second
edition 1992.
2. T.H.G.Megson, Aircraft Structures for engineering students,4th Edition Elsevier Ltd USA
2007.
3. Anderson John D, Aircraft design and performance by Anderson, 3rd Edition, Tata Mc
Graw-Hill, New York, 2010.
4. Google, Wikipedia, etc.

50