Haberman / Kling MTH 95

Section III: Rational Expressions, Equations, and Functions

Module 1: Introduction to Rational Functions

DEFINITION: A rational function is a ratio of polynomial functions. If p and q are

p ( x)
polynomial functions, then r ( x) = is a rational function. Since the
q( x)
denominator of a fraction can never equal zero, the domain of r is the
set { x x ∈ R and q ( x ) ≠ 0} .

EXAMPLES OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS:

x 2 + 4 x − 13
a. f ( x) =
x−3

The domain of f is { x x ∈ R and x ≠ 3} since when x = 3 the denominator is zero.

7 x5 − x 4 + 2 x 2 + 5 x − 6
b. g ( x) =
x2 + 5x + 6
To determine the domain of g we must find the values of x which make the
denominator zero. So we need to solve x 2 + 5 x + 6 = 0 .

x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
⇒ ( x + 2)( x + 3) = 0
⇒ x + 2 = 0 or x + 3 = 0
⇒ x = − 2 or x = −3
Thus, the domain of g is { x x ∈ R and x ≠ − 2 and x ≠ − 3} .

x
c. h( x) =
x +7
2

The domain of h is R (all real numbers) since the denominator can never equal zero.

12
d. k ( x) =
x
The domain of k is { x x ∈ R and x ≠ 0} .
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GRAPHS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Graphing rational functions is discussed in detail in College Algebra (MTH 111b/c). Here we
only wish to get an idea about what happens to the graph of a rational function as the x-values
get closer and closer to numbers that make the denominator of the function zero.

4
EXAMPLE: What happens to the graph of the function f ( x) = as x gets closer and
x−2
closer to 2 (in symbols: “ x → 2 ”).

SOLUTION:

4
Since 2 is not in the domain of f ( x) = (the domain of f is the set
x−2
{x x ∈ R and x ≠ 2} ), we cannot evaluate the function at x = 2 . So all we can do is get
an idea about what happens to the graph of f as x gets closer and closer to 2 (i.e.,
x → 2 ). We can use a table of function values to see what happens to the outputs as the
inputs get closer and closer to x = 2 .

Table 1 Table 2
4 4
x f ( x) = x f ( x) =
x−2 x−2
1.9 –40 2.1 40
1.99 –400 2.01 400
1.999 –4000 2.001 4000
1.9999 –40000 2.0001 40000

The values in these tables suggest that if you start from a number less than 2 and get
closer and closer to 2 (e.g., 1.9, 1.99, 1.999, …) then the outputs get smaller and smaller,
while if you start from a number larger than 2 and get closer and closer to 2 (e.g., 2.1, 2.01,
2.001, …) then the outputs get larger and larger. To describe this behavior people
sometimes say things like, “as x approaches 2 from less than 2, the outputs approach
negative infinity while as x approaches 2 from larger than 2 the outputs approach positive
infinity.” We can describe this behavior more technically as follows:

The function values in Table 1 suggest that as x gets closer and closer to 2 (but
remains less than 2) the outputs get smaller and smaller. To describe this behavior
mathematicians usually say, “As x approaches 2 from below, f (x ) decreases
−
without bound.” We can write this using symbols: “As x → 2 , f ( x ) → − ∞ .”

The function values in Table 2 suggest that as x gets closer and closer to 2 (but
remains greater than 2) the outputs get larger and larger. To describe this behavior
mathematicians usually say, “As x approaches 2 from above, f (x ) increases
without bound.” We can write this using symbols: “As x → 2 + , f ( x ) → ∞ .”
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4
In Figure 1, a graph of f ( x) = is given. The behavior of the graph supports the
x−2
analysis given above. The line x = 2 is called a vertical asymptote. The graph never
crosses the vertical asymptote, which is what we would expect since the function isn’t
defined when x = 2 !

4
Figure 1: Graph of f ( x) = .
x−2

x+4
EXAMPLE: Consider the function g ( x ) = . To determine the domain of g we
x −x−6
2

need to find out which x-values make the denominator of g zero.

x2 − x − 6 = 0
⇒ ( x − 3)( x + 2) = 0
⇒ x − 3 = 0 or x + 2 = 0
⇒ x = 3 or x = −2

Since 3 and –2 make the denominator of g zero, these values must be

excluded from the domain. Thus, the domain of g is the set
{ x x ∈ R and x ≠ 3 and x ≠ − 2} . The graph of g has two vertical
asymptotes: x = 3 and x = − 2 (see Figure 2).

x+4
Figure 2: Graph of g ( x) = .
x −x−6
2
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EVALUATING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

x 2 + 4 x − 13
EXAMPLE: If f ( x) = , evaluate the following.
x−3

a. f ( 2) b. f (0)

c. f (3) d. f (−4)

SOLUTIONS:

(2) 2 + 4(2) − 13
a. f (2) =
(2) − 3
4 + 8 − 13
=
−1
−1
=
−1
=1

(0) 2 + 4(0) − 13
b. f (0) =
( 0) − 3
0 + 0 − 13
=
0−3
−13
=
−3
13
=
3

c. Since 3 isn’t in the domain of f (i.e., when x = 3 the denominator is zero) we say,
“ f (3) is undefined.”

(−4) 2 + 4(−4) − 13
d. f (−4) =
(−4) − 3
16 − 16 − 13
=
−7
−13
=
−7
13
=
7
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Try these yourself and check your answers.

7 x5 − x 4 + 2 x 2 + 5 x − 6
If g ( x) = , evaluate the following:
x2 + 5x + 6

a. g (−1) b. g (0)

c. g (1) d. g (−2)

SOLUTIONS:

7(−1)5 − (−1) 4 + 2(−1) 2 + 5(−1) − 6

a. g ( −1) =
(−1) 2 + 5( −1) + 6
−7 − 1 + 2 − 5 − 6
=
1 −5 + 6
−17
=
2
17
=−
2

7(0)5 − (0) 4 + 2(0) 2 + 5(0) − 6

b. g (0) =
(0) 2 + 5(0) + 6
0 − 0 + 0 + 0 −6
=
0+0+6
−6
=
6
= −1

7(1)5 − (1) 4 + 2(1) 2 + 5(1) − 6

c. g (1) =
(1) 2 + 5(1) + 6
7 −1+ 2 + 5 − 6
=
1+ 5 + 6
7
=
12

d. Since the denominator of g is zero when x = − 2 , g (−2) is undefined.